scientific creativity, logic, and chance: the integration of product, person, and process research...
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Scientific Creativity, Logic, and Chance:
The Integration of Product, Person, and Process Research Traditions
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Introduction
The Metasciences– History of Science– Philosophy of Science– Sociology of Science– Psychology of Science
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The Two Psychologies of Science Experimental
– The Process of Scientific Discovery– Creativity as Logical Problem Solving
Correlational– The Person of the Creative Scientist– Creativity as Personal Attribute
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Potential Integration?
Third Point of Attack The Product Behavioral rather than Experimental or
Psychometric in vivo rather than in vitro (Dunbar)
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Creative Products
Scientific Careers: – Publications
Scientific Communities: – Multiples
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Publications
Individual Variation Longitudinal Change
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Individual Variation
Skewed Cross-sectional Distribution
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PsychologyChemistryInfantile ParalysisGeologyGerontology/Geriatrics
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Individual Variation
Skewed Cross-sectional Distribution– Lotka’s Law
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Individual Variation
Skewed Cross-sectional Distribution– Lotka’s Law– Price’s Law
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Individual Variation
Skewed Cross-sectional Distribution– Lotka’s Law– Price’s Law
Quantity-Quality Relation
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Individual Variation
Skewed Cross-sectional Distribution– Lotka’s Law– Price’s Law
Quantity-Quality Relation– Mass Producers and Perfectionists?
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Individual Variation
Skewed Cross-sectional Distribution– Lotka’s Law– Price’s Law
Quantity-Quality Relation– Mass Producers and Perfectionists?– No … the Equal-Odds Rule– Continuum Connecting the Silent and the
Prolific
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Longitudinal Change
Randomness of Career-Wise Output– No “runs”– Poisson Distribution
Quantity-Quality Relation– Random Fluctuation Around Quality Ratio
Baseline– Hence, the Equal-Odds Rule
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Multiples
Distribution of Multiple Grades
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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Multiple Grade
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MertonOgburn and Thomas
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Multiples
Distribution of Multiple Grades Temporal Separation of Multiple
Discoveries
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Multiples
Distribution of Multiple Grades Temporal Separation of Multiple
Discoveries Individual Variation in Multiple
Participation
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Multiples
Distribution of Multiple Grades Temporal Separation of Multiple
Discoveries Individual Variation in Multiple
Participation Degree of Multiple Identity
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Combinatorial Processes
Definitions Assumptions Implications Elaboration Objections
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Definitions
Individual Domain Field
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Assumptions
Individual Samples from Domain Ideas
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Assumptions
Individual Samples from Domain Ideas Within-Field Variation in Sample Size
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Assumptions
Individual Samples from Domain Ideas Within-Field Variation in Sample Size Quasi-Random Combination of Ideas
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Henri Poincaré (1921):Ideas rose in crowds; I felt them collideuntil pairs interlocked, so to speak,making a stable combination.
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[These ideas are like] the hooked atomsof Epicurus [that collide] like themolecules of gas in the kinematic theoryof gases [so that] their mutual impactsmay produce new combinations.
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Assumptions
Individual Samples from Domain Ideas Within-Field Variation in Sample Size Quasi-Random Combination of Ideas Variation in Quality of Combinations
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Assumptions
Individual Samples from Domain Ideas Within-Field Variation in Sample Size Quasi-Random Combination of Ideas Variation in Quality of Combinations Variation in Size of Fields
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Assumptions
Individual Samples from Domain Ideas Within-Field Variation in Sample Size Quasi-Random Combination of Ideas Variation in Quality of Combinations Variation in Size of Fields Communication of Ideational
Combinations
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Implications
Research Publications– Cross-sectional Variation– Longitudinal Change
Multiple Discoveries– Multiple Grades
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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Multiple Grade
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Implications
Research Publications– Cross-sectional Variation– Longitudinal Change
Multiple Discoveries– Multiple Grades– Temporal Separation
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Implications
Research Publications– Cross-sectional Variation– Longitudinal Change
Multiple Discoveries– Multiple Grades– Temporal Separation– Multiples Participation
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Implications
Research Publications– Cross-sectional Variation– Longitudinal Change
Multiple Discoveries– Multiple Grades– Temporal Separation– Multiples Participation– Multiple Identity
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Elaboration
Aggregated Data on Career Output– Aggregated Across Time Units– Aggregated Across Scientists
Cognitive Combinatorial Model– Longitudinal Submodel– Individual-Differences Submodel– Integrated Model
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0 20 40 60Career Age
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2030405060708090Chronological Age
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High Creative Late Bloomers Low Creative Late Bloomers
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Objections
Alternative Explanations?– Multiplicative Models?– Cumulative Advantage?
Explanatory Limitations?– Too Abstract?– Yes, so ...
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Scientific Activity
Individuals: Research Programs Fields: Peer Review Domains: Disciplinary Zeitgeist
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Individuals: Research Programs
The Features of High-Impact Programs Repercussions of those Features
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The Features of High-Impact Programs Multiple Projects Network of Enterprises (Gruber) Variability in Nature of Projects
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Projects Vary According to ...
Research Topic Degree of Risk Intrinsic Importance Programmatic Relevance Amount of Progress Type of Research Current Degree of Effort
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For example:
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Chronology of Darwin’s Work on Evolution1837 He opens notebook on the
“transmutation of species.”1842 He produces a pencil sketch of his
theory1844 He enlarges the sketch1854 Begins collating notes for Origins1856 Begins writing in earnest1859 He publishes Origin of Species
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Meanwhile ...1837-46 He studies the geology of South America1837-42 He studies coral formation1838-44 He studies volcanic islands and mountain chains1838-42 He studies geological formations in Scotland and Wales1837-45 He prepares the volumes reporting the zoological findings of
the Beagle voyage (5 volumes on fossil mammals,mammals, birds, fish, and reptiles)
1847-54 He publishes extensive monographs on both fossil andmodern cirripedes
1837-58 He publishes miscellaneous papers, notes, and reviews ontopics as diverse as earthworms, mold, glacial action, erraticboulders, volcanic rocks, a rock seen on an iceberg, dustfalling on ships in the Atlantic, the effects of salt water onseeds, seed vitality, the role of bees in the fertilization ofPapilionaceous flowers, Waterhouse’s Natural History of theMammalia, and on Rhea americana, Sagitta, Planaria, andArthrobalanus
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Repercussions of those Features
Crosstalk Priming Effects Serendipitous Events Stochastic Ideational Output
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Poincaré:
I turned my attention to the study of some arithmeticalquestions apparently without much success and withouta suspicion of any connection with my precedingresearches. Disgusted with my failure, I went to spend afew days at the seaside, and thought of something else.One morning, walking on the bluff, the idea came to me... that the arithmetic transformations of indeterminateternary quadratic forms were identical with those ofnon-Euclidean geometry.
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Fields: Peer Review
Individuals as Members of Fields– Correspondence– Professional Meetings– Readings– Manuscript and Proposal Reviews
Hence Arises the Peer Review Paradox
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Peer Review Paradox
Exposure to Explicit Standards for – Submitted Manuscripts– Grant Proposals
Internalization of Those Standards Improvement with Practice Inconsistency with Equal-Odds Rule
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Resolution of Paradox
Low Reliability Low Predictive Validity Low Inferential Capacity
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In fact, if anything, exposure to peerreview, both as referee and as author,should render scientific activity all themore probabilistic!
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Domains: Disciplinary Zeitgeist
Two Forms of Zeitgeist– Sociocultural (e.g., communication
systems)– Disciplinary (i.e., the ideational content of
the domain at a particular point in time) Yet Neither Can Ensure Deterministic
Inevitability
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Two Implications
Creative Ideas the Joint Product of– The Size of the Field– The Richness of the Domain
Variation in Individual Output Increases with Size of Field
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Creative Scientists
Premise: Dispositional Characteristics and Developmental Experiences Should Correspond with the Hypothesized Combinatorial Process
However: Domain Contrasts in Degree of Constraint Imposed on Creativity– Scientific versus Artistic Creativity– Revolutionary versus Normal Science
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Creative Scientists
Hence, NSC > RSC > AC Regarding Degree of Constraint
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Creative Scientists
Hence, NSC > RSC > AC Regarding Degree of Constraint
With Corresponding Expectations Regarding Disposition and Development
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Disposition
Intellectual Capacity– Intelligence Sufficient for Domain Mastery– Associative Richness for Combinatorial
Capacity
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Ernst Mach:[Although a scientist must have] a powerfullydeveloped mechanical memory, which recallsvividly and faithfully old situations ... more isrequired for the development of inventions.More extensive chains of images arenecessary here, the excitation by mutualcontact of widely different trains of ideas, amore powerful, more manifold, and richerconnection of the contents of memory, a morepowerful and impressionable psychical life,heightened by use. ... [F]rom the teeming,swelling host of fancies which a free and high-flown imagination calls forth, suddenly thatparticular form arises to the light whichharmonises perfectly with the ruling idea,mood, or design.
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0 5 10 15 20 25Probable Order of Association
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Steep Hierarchy
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Disposition
Intellectual Capacity– Intelligence Sufficient for Domain Mastery– Associative Richness for Combinatorial
Capacity Personal Qualities
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Disposition
Intellectual Capacity– Intelligence Sufficient for Domain Mastery– Associative Richness for Combinatorial
Capacity Personal Qualities
– Openness to Experience
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Disposition
Intellectual Capacity– Intelligence Sufficient for Domain Mastery– Associative Richness for Combinatorial
Capacity Personal Qualities
– Openness to Experience– Psychopathology
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Development
Home Environment– Shared Effects– Nonshared Effects
Education and Training– Scholastic Performance– Level of Formal Education– Mentoring
Sociocultural Context
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MORE CONSTRAINT CREATIVITY MORE CHANCE
DEVELOPMENT
more conventional, Home environment more unconventional,stable, homogeneous unstable, heterogeneous
more likely firstborn Birth order more likely laterborn
superior grades, Education and training inferior grades,more formal training, less formal training,less likely marginal more likely marginal
few, Mentors and role models numerous,homogeneous heterogeneous
politically stable, Sociocultural zeitgeist politically unstable,culturally uniform culturally diverse
DISPOSITON
more constrained, Thought processes more unconstrained,predictable, logical, unpredictable, illogical,
conscious, deliberate intuitive, involuntary
more restricted, Openness to experience more unrestricted,fewer interests, many diverse interests,serendipity rare serendipity common
lower incidence rate, Psychopathology higher incidence rate,
less severe symptoms more severe symptoms
DOMAIN
Scientific Artistic
Paradigmatic Non-paradigmatic FormalExpressive
Normal Revolutionary
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Scientific Discovery
Logical Processes: – The Newell-Simon Paradigm – Limitations of the Paradigm
Chance Processes– Insight Problems– Creative Production– Computer Problem Solving– Group Creativity
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Conclusion: Scientific Creativity The Three Alternative Perspectives:
– Experimental Studies of the Discovery Process
– Psychometric Studies of Creative Scientists
– Behavioral Studies of Actual Creative Behavior in Science
Can Be Successfully Integrated Using a Combinatorial Model
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The importance of the proposedintegration may be illustrated byelaborating upon the expression “not tosee the forest for the trees.”
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The person- and process-orientedpsychologists are comparable to scientistswho investigate singular trees.
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The person-oriented psychologists arebotanists who focus on how trees vary ina diversity of morphological traits, suchas how firs differ from pines with respectto leaves, cones, branches, bark, trunk,and roots.
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The process-oriented psychologists areplant physiologists who analyze trees interms of basic mechanisms, such as therole of osmotic and capillary processes inthe extraction and conveyance of waterand nutrients, the genetic processesbehind reproduction, and thephotosynthetic processes by which treessupport their metabolism.
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Although both botanists and plantphysiologists provide us with everythingwe may want to know about individualtrees, they cannot provide the wholepicture.
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After all, a significant characteristic ofmost trees is that they tend to be part ofecological systems, especially forests, withdistinct properties that cannot be reducedto either botany or plant physiology.These attributes include the distributionof different tree species relative togeography, rainfall, temperature, soil,flora and fauna, and other conditions.
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By the same token, product-orientedpsychologists scrutinize how discoveriesare distributed across individual scientists(as affected by the characteristics ofresearch programs and peer review) andscientific communities (as affected by theattributes of the domain and disciplinarycommunication).
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As a consequence, they are studying theforest, not the trees.
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Yet if you compile everything that thebotanist, plant physiologist, and ecologistcan tell you about their respectivefindings, you obtain a completeknowledge of trees, both as singularplants and as the collectives known asforests.
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In the same way, the in vivo behavioralinquiries into scientific careers andcommunities must be integrated with invitro studies from the two disciplines ofpsychology, one concentrating on theperson who creates and the other on theprocess of creation.
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To do less will only leave psychology witha fragmentary and misleading perspectiveon scientific creativity.