Scientific RevolutionScientific Revolution1616thth-17-17thth Centuries Centuries

Revolution in Science and Revolution in Science and Philosophy Philosophy

Ancients on whom Medieval Ancients on whom Medieval Renaissance Science was Renaissance Science was

BasedBased

AristotleAristotle

Astronomy:Astronomy: GeocentricGeocentric Crystal spheresCrystal spheres All circular (perfect)All circular (perfect)

PhysicsPhysics Body in motion as long as whatever moves it Body in motion as long as whatever moves it

in contact with itin contact with it Straight line motion on earth; circular motion Straight line motion on earth; circular motion

in heavenin heaven

ChemistryChemistry 4 elements: earth/water/fire/air4 elements: earth/water/fire/air 55thth essence perfect, indestructible, never essence perfect, indestructible, never

changingchanging

GalenGalen

BackgroundBackground Roman physician 200 ADRoman physician 200 AD Used Aristotle’s theories in anatomy and medicineUsed Aristotle’s theories in anatomy and medicine Three books on human anatomy from observationThree books on human anatomy from observation

Physician to gladiators and cut up and experimented on Physician to gladiators and cut up and experimented on apes (lead to mistakes)apes (lead to mistakes)

Circulation wrong: blood from one chamber of the heart to Circulation wrong: blood from one chamber of the heart to another seeped through invisible pores in the dividing walls; another seeped through invisible pores in the dividing walls; venous and arterial systems closed, do not crossvenous and arterial systems closed, do not cross

Medical theories Medical theories (based on Aristotle; 300-600 AD)(based on Aristotle; 300-600 AD)

4 elements in people: blood, 4 elements in people: blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow phlegm, black bile, yellow bilebile

disease=imbalance in disease=imbalance in elements; out of balance elements; out of balance =dominant humor determines =dominant humor determines personality personality CholericCholeric (ego/blood), (ego/blood), sanguine sanguine (nervous system/astral body),(nervous system/astral body), phlegmatic phlegmatic (etheric or life (etheric or life body), and body), and melancholicmelancholic (physical body). (physical body).

The ancient doctrine of the Four Humors, The ancient doctrine of the Four Humors, as illustrated in this medieval as illustrated in this medieval manuscript was to tie them to four manuscript was to tie them to four basic temperaments (above, basic temperaments (above, clockwise): phlegmatic, sanguine clockwise): phlegmatic, sanguine melancholic and choleric.melancholic and choleric.

Burton'sBurton's Anatomy of Melancholy(1) Anatomy of Melancholy(1) published in 1621:published in 1621: ““BloodBlood, a hot, sweet, tempered, red humour, , a hot, sweet, tempered, red humour,

prepared in the meseraic veins, and made of the most temperate parts of prepared in the meseraic veins, and made of the most temperate parts of the chylus (chyle) in the liver, the chylus (chyle) in the liver,

whose office it is to nourish the whole body, to give it strength and whose office it is to nourish the whole body, to give it strength and colour, being dispersed through every part of it. colour, being dispersed through every part of it.

And from it spirits are first begotten in the heart, which afterwards in the And from it spirits are first begotten in the heart, which afterwards in the arteries are communicated to the other parts. arteries are communicated to the other parts.

"Pituita, "Pituita, or phlegm is a cold and moist humour, or phlegm is a cold and moist humour, begtotten of the colder parts of the chylus (or white juice coming out of begtotten of the colder parts of the chylus (or white juice coming out of

the meat digested in the stomach) in the liver.the meat digested in the stomach) in the liver. His office is to nourish and moisten the members of the body.His office is to nourish and moisten the members of the body.

"Choler "Choler is hot and dry, is hot and dry, begotten of the hotter parts of the chylus, and gathered to the gall. begotten of the hotter parts of the chylus, and gathered to the gall. It helps the natural heat and senses.It helps the natural heat and senses.

"Melancholy,"Melancholy, cold and dry, thick, black and sour, cold and dry, thick, black and sour, begotten of the more feculent part of nourishment, and purged from the begotten of the more feculent part of nourishment, and purged from the

spleen, spleen, is a bridle to the other two humours, blood and choler, preserving them is a bridle to the other two humours, blood and choler, preserving them

in the blood, and nourishing the bones.in the blood, and nourishing the bones. "An exact balance of the four primary humours makes the justly constituted "An exact balance of the four primary humours makes the justly constituted

man, and allows for the undisturbed production of the concoctions or man, and allows for the undisturbed production of the concoctions or processes of digestion and assimilation.”processes of digestion and assimilation.”

Medieval “Science”Medieval “Science”

Two bases fore knowledge: Bible and the Two bases fore knowledge: Bible and the ancients (Aristotle, Galen, etc.)ancients (Aristotle, Galen, etc.)

Science follows scriptures, especially Old Science follows scriptures, especially Old Testament (5Testament (5thth-16-16thth Centuries) Centuries)

Scholasticism linked classical thinkers Scholasticism linked classical thinkers (Aristotle) to Christian faith(Aristotle) to Christian faith

Ptolemaic UniversePtolemaic Universe

Ptolemy observed the planets and Ptolemy observed the planets and concluded from his observationsconcluded from his observations

Base of his science = Aristotle, stillBase of his science = Aristotle, still Problem of retrograde movementProblem of retrograde movement

Because the earth moves around the Because the earth moves around the sunsun, , planets’ observed motion goes backward in planets’ observed motion goes backward in relation to earth, relation to earth, notnot parallel with earth parallel with earth

Ptolemy explained seemingly backward Ptolemy explained seemingly backward movement by epicycles (circles on top of movement by epicycles (circles on top of circles)circles)

EpicyclesEpicycles

Development of Scientific Development of Scientific MethodMethod

Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Francis Bacon (1561-1626) “godfather of science”“godfather of science”

Background Background courtier, Chancellor of Englandcourtier, Chancellor of England Court intrigues—convicted on charges of corruptionCourt intrigues—convicted on charges of corruption NOT a scientist (failed to add math to the mix)NOT a scientist (failed to add math to the mix) Provided reasoning, theoretical basis for scienceProvided reasoning, theoretical basis for science

Inductive method—particular to generalInductive method—particular to general science=cause/effect explanationsscience=cause/effect explanations Observation and experimentation gives data; on basis Observation and experimentation gives data; on basis

of data, conclusions=knowledgeof data, conclusions=knowledge Empiricism –the consequent knowledge based Empiricism –the consequent knowledge based

on observation and experienceon observation and experience

Bacon‘s worksBacon‘s works New AtlantisNew Atlantis

Truth = Truth = usefuluseful knowledge; truth should knowledge; truth should be applicable to reality, be applicable to reality, not just theory not just theory

Utopia = when through Utopia = when through knowledge, command knowledge, command nature to create a nature to create a perfect societyperfect society

Nouvum organumNouvum organum New way to knowledge New way to knowledge

useful to mankinduseful to mankind

Descartes 1596-1650Descartes 1596-1650 French French

philosopher, philosopher, mathematicianmathematician

Rational Rational structure of structure of world; world; confidence in confidence in math to math to describe that describe that structurestructure

ContributionsContributions Deductive Method definedDeductive Method defined

General truths , reason from them to apply to specific casesGeneral truths , reason from them to apply to specific cases General truths come from assumptions about matter, axioms, General truths come from assumptions about matter, axioms,

other deductions, geometric like truthsother deductions, geometric like truths ““I think, therefore I am”I think, therefore I am”

NotNot truth from tradition and scriptures, but from own intellect truth from tradition and scriptures, but from own intellect Not Not from senses: deceiving; from thoughtfrom senses: deceiving; from thought

Cartesian dualismCartesian dualism God created two essential realities: spiritual and physicalGod created two essential realities: spiritual and physical Everything in the physical realm = mechanical; principles of Everything in the physical realm = mechanical; principles of

being applied inevitably; one needs to reason to discover thembeing applied inevitably; one needs to reason to discover them WorksWorks

Discourse on MethodDiscourse on Method

Advances in MathAdvances in Math

DescartesDescartes Cartesian graphing and coordinatesCartesian graphing and coordinates Analytical geometryAnalytical geometry

Napier (Scot)Napier (Scot) 1614 invented logarithms1614 invented logarithms

Newton/Leibniz invented calculusNewton/Leibniz invented calculus Huyghens (Dutch)Huyghens (Dutch)

Calculated the force necessary to keep a Calculated the force necessary to keep a planet in orbitplanet in orbit

Advances in Biology and ChemistryAdvances in Biology and Chemistry Vesalius (Flemish)Vesalius (Flemish)

1543 1543 On the Fabric of the Human BodyOn the Fabric of the Human Body challenged Galen. ie blood flowing from one challenged Galen. ie blood flowing from one

chamber to another in heartchamber to another in heart Harvey (British: 1578-1657) Harvey (British: 1578-1657)

demonstrated that the heart was a pumpdemonstrated that the heart was a pump Showed that blood circulated through the bodyShowed that blood circulated through the body

Leewenhoek (Dutch--Leewenhoek (Dutch-- Used the new microscope to see blood corpuscles, Used the new microscope to see blood corpuscles,

sperm, bacteriasperm, bacteria Published drawings; noone took bacteria seriously Published drawings; noone took bacteria seriously

as cause of disease, thoughas cause of disease, though

More (advancements in chemistry)More (advancements in chemistry) Boyle (1627)Boyle (1627)

Law on pressure of gassesLaw on pressure of gasses God’s choices in creating the universe were God’s choices in creating the universe were

unrestrained= unexplainable choicesunrestrained= unexplainable choices Can experiment and experience to discover those Can experiment and experience to discover those

choices, apply choices, apply Later, experiences on atmosphere lead him to belief Later, experiences on atmosphere lead him to belief

in mechanistic universe (explainable by laws)in mechanistic universe (explainable by laws) Lavoisier(1743-1794)Lavoisier(1743-1794)

Father of modern chemistryFather of modern chemistry Law of conservation of matter—cannot be created Law of conservation of matter—cannot be created

or destroyedor destroyed

Advancements in Advancements in PhysicsPhysics

Galileo (1564-1642)Galileo (1564-1642)

Law of InertiaLaw of Inertia Objects travel in line until moved upon by Objects travel in line until moved upon by

outside forceoutside force

Famous experiment about falling objectsFamous experiment about falling objects Bodies falling to the ground hit at the same Bodies falling to the ground hit at the same

time with allowance for air resistance (size time with allowance for air resistance (size determines) = 32 mile/second/seconddetermines) = 32 mile/second/second

Advances in AstronomyAdvances in Astronomy New view of the worldNew view of the world New view of the heavensNew view of the heavens New view of manNew view of man March toward secularization of societyMarch toward secularization of society All made possible by invention of the telescope All made possible by invention of the telescope

in 1608: in 1608: No one knows who invented: 3 rival claimants in the No one knows who invented: 3 rival claimants in the

Netherlands;Netherlands; refracting lenses to make light bendrefracting lenses to make light bend Newton 1668: reflecting telescope with mirror gives Newton 1668: reflecting telescope with mirror gives

sharper imagesharper image

Copernicus 1473-1543Copernicus 1473-1543 Background: b. Prussia Background: b. Prussia

(now Poland) (now Poland) Educated to be church Educated to be church

officialofficial Studied classics, math, Studied classics, math,

law, medicine + law, medicine + Doctorate of canon law Doctorate of canon law U. of Ferrarra—canon of U. of Ferrarra—canon of cathedralcathedral

Back to Prussia to be Back to Prussia to be uncle’s uncle’s physician/secretary/legal physician/secretary/legal advisoradvisor

Developed the idea of the Developed the idea of the heliocentric heliocentric universeuniverse Bothered by Ptolemaic Bothered by Ptolemaic

epicyclesepicycles

““On the Revolutions of the On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres”Heavenly Spheres” Published just before his Published just before his

death because he knew death because he knew what would happenwhat would happen

ResistanceResistance Placed on index of Placed on index of

prohibited booksprohibited books Calvin– “who will venture to Calvin– “who will venture to

place the authority of place the authority of Copernicus above that of Copernicus above that of the Holy Spirit?”the Holy Spirit?”

Biblical: Psalm 93 (“Thou Biblical: Psalm 93 (“Thou hast fixed the earth, hast fixed the earth, immovable and firm….”) immovable and firm….”) and Joshua (commands and Joshua (commands sunsun, not earth, to stand , not earth, to stand still)still)

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) DanishDanish Brahe nightly observed and Brahe nightly observed and

records the path of the planets records the path of the planets for 20 yearsfor 20 years Concluded Ptolemaic epicycles Concluded Ptolemaic epicycles

incorrectincorrect Believed planets revolved around Believed planets revolved around

the sun; sun and moon revolved the sun; sun and moon revolved around the eartharound the earth

Gave records to friend/student Gave records to friend/student KeplerKepler

Noted forNoted for Precise measurements of Precise measurements of

planetary positionsplanetary positions Reconsideration of Copernicus Reconsideration of Copernicus

circular orbitscircular orbits

Brahe’s UniverseBrahe’s Universe

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

GermanGerman Geometric universeGeometric universe

Used Brahe calculations to prove elliptical orbits with Used Brahe calculations to prove elliptical orbits with sun as focussun as focus

Three Laws of Planetary MotionThree Laws of Planetary Motion Planets orbit in elliptical motionPlanets orbit in elliptical motion Speed of a planet slows in proportion to distance from Speed of a planet slows in proportion to distance from

the sun (not same rate of speed all the way through the sun (not same rate of speed all the way through its orbit)its orbit)

Square of time taken by any 2 planets in revolutions Square of time taken by any 2 planets in revolutions around the sun is in the same ratio as the cube of around the sun is in the same ratio as the cube of their average distances from the suntheir average distances from the sun

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) BackgroundBackground

Italian son of musician and noble wife; Italian son of musician and noble wife; monastic school and U. of Pisa: monastic school and U. of Pisa: medicine, math, and natural science—medicine, math, and natural science—prof of mathprof of math

Arrogant/sarcastic/argumenttiveArrogant/sarcastic/argumenttive

Founder of modern experimental Founder of modern experimental sciencescience Patrons=MedicisPatrons=Medicis Friend of Pope Urban VIII; supported Friend of Pope Urban VIII; supported

by Jesuits; attacked by Dominicansby Jesuits; attacked by Dominicans

Improves telescope and makes Improves telescope and makes discoveriesdiscoveries Moon—not perfect surface, but Moon—not perfect surface, but

craters and mountainscraters and mountains Stars: bright stars closer to earth than Stars: bright stars closer to earth than

dim stars; 500 new stars; Milky dim stars; 500 new stars; Milky way=starsway=stars

Supports heliocentric Supports heliocentric theory of Copernicustheory of Copernicus Jupiter 4 moons, not Jupiter 4 moons, not

encased in crystal orb encased in crystal orb (evidence for (evidence for Copernican theories—Copernican theories—trouble with the trouble with the Inquisition because no Inquisition because no longer 7 major heavenly longer 7 major heavenly orbs –sun, moon, 5 orbs –sun, moon, 5 planets; 7 mystic planets; 7 mystic number)number)

Demonstrated newly Demonstrated newly visible bright star visible bright star (supernova) outside (supernova) outside system of planets—system of planets—NOT Aristotelian view of NOT Aristotelian view of spheres; change in the spheres; change in the heavensheavens

Published “Dialogue on Two Chief Published “Dialogue on Two Chief Systems of the World” about his Systems of the World” about his discoveries, proof of Copernicus discoveries, proof of Copernicus heliocentrismheliocentrism Published privately--Copernicus system Published privately--Copernicus system

probably correct, Cadinal Bellarmini probably correct, Cadinal Bellarmini (becomes Pope Urban VIII) warned him (becomes Pope Urban VIII) warned him not to hold Copernican theory as realitynot to hold Copernican theory as reality

Refuses to back down; puts pope’s Refuses to back down; puts pope’s view (one half of dialogue) in mouth of view (one half of dialogue) in mouth of “Simplicio,” Simpleton“Simplicio,” Simpleton

ConsequencesConsequences Placed on interdicted list; brought before Placed on interdicted list; brought before

Inquisition and tried for heresy; Inquisition and tried for heresy; threatened with rack and strappadothreatened with rack and strappado

Under this pressure, signs recantation; Under this pressure, signs recantation; supposedly, as he is leaving, under his supposedly, as he is leaving, under his breath, “But it still moves.” (the earth)breath, “But it still moves.” (the earth)

House arrest for the remainder of his House arrest for the remainder of his life: “I who enlarged the universe life: “I who enlarged the universe 100,000 times have now shrunk to the 100,000 times have now shrunk to the space of my own body”space of my own body”

““God is the author of two great books—the God is the author of two great books—the book of scripture and the book of nature. book of scripture and the book of nature. These cannot be in conflict; so any These cannot be in conflict; so any apparent contradictions come from fallible apparent contradictions come from fallible human interpretations…Scripture is a book human interpretations…Scripture is a book about how to go to heaven; not a book about how to go to heaven; not a book about how heaven goes.”about how heaven goes.”

““I do not feel obliged to believe that the I do not feel obliged to believe that the same God who has endowed us with same God who has endowed us with

sense, reason, and intellect has intended sense, reason, and intellect has intended us to forgo their use.”us to forgo their use.”

- Galileo Galilei- Galileo Galilei

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Background: EnglandBackground: England

Father died before born; Father died before born; premature premature

Cambridge U studied Cambridge U studied classical mathclassical math

Plague closed U; home Plague closed U; home and wrote basis of most and wrote basis of most work (ages 22-24)work (ages 22-24)

Mathematician firstMathematician first Binomial theoremBinomial theorem Differential calculusDifferential calculus

Controversy: Liebniz Controversy: Liebniz claimed HE invented it.claimed HE invented it.

PhysicsPhysics Nature of light: experimented with prism and Nature of light: experimented with prism and

light: white light = all colors, only refracted, light: white light = all colors, only refracted, bent by prism/atmospherebent by prism/atmosphere

Gravity (Galileo—all moves in straight line Gravity (Galileo—all moves in straight line unless force applied; had to explain why unless force applied; had to explain why planets do not fly off in straight line)planets do not fly off in straight line)

Laws of MotionLaws of Motion Pendulums Pendulums

AstronomyAstronomy Heaven and earth in one grand system with gravity Heaven and earth in one grand system with gravity

and other laws operatingand other laws operating

Published Published Principia MathematicaPrincipia Mathematica (Math. (Math. Principles of Natural Philosophy)Principles of Natural Philosophy) Because understand gravity, man can use reason to Because understand gravity, man can use reason to

understand and predict tidesunderstand and predict tides Aided in navigation, cartography, artillery trajectory Aided in navigation, cartography, artillery trajectory

Universe operates on “natural law”; immutable, Universe operates on “natural law”; immutable, inviolable, discoverable through reasoninviolable, discoverable through reason

Extensive religious Extensive religious writingswritings

““If I have seen further, it is If I have seen further, it is by standing on the by standing on the shoulders of giants”shoulders of giants” But arrogant enough to fly But arrogant enough to fly

into a rage when criticizedinto a rage when criticized Used position in Royal Used position in Royal

Society to “investigate” Society to “investigate” controversy over who controversy over who invented calculus.invented calculus.

Pope: “Nature and Pope: “Nature and nature’s laws lay hid in nature’s laws lay hid in night./God said, ‘Let night./God said, ‘Let Newton be,’ and all was Newton be,’ and all was light.”light.”

Progress of this revolution in Progress of this revolution in thoughtthought

Merging science and technologyMerging science and technology Technology previously independent of scienceTechnology previously independent of science

Use of mathematicsUse of mathematics Use of experimentation and inductive Use of experimentation and inductive

reasoningreasoning Science separated from philosophyScience separated from philosophy

Basic ancient truths were questionedBasic ancient truths were questioned Focus on physics, not ethics and metaphysicsFocus on physics, not ethics and metaphysics

History viewed as progressiveHistory viewed as progressive

Impact of Scientific RevolutionImpact of Scientific Revolution

Natural LawNatural Law Maintains order in the universeMaintains order in the universe Rules the universeRules the universe Laws absoluteLaws absolute Man, through reasoning and intellect, can Man, through reasoning and intellect, can

discover these lawsdiscover these laws

Rise of SkepticismRise of Skepticism

Man (Earth) no longer center of universeMan (Earth) no longer center of universe Gap between Christianity and scienceGap between Christianity and science In world operating on fixed laws of nature, In world operating on fixed laws of nature,

what role left for God in world? what role left for God in world? Mechanical view of UniverseMechanical view of Universe

With belief that true knowledge in a With belief that true knowledge in a particular area is uncertain + church view particular area is uncertain + church view of universe proven wrong—doubt of of universe proven wrong—doubt of religionreligion

"The rise of the scientific spirit was a notable "The rise of the scientific spirit was a notable feature of the Renaissance [and, especially, just feature of the Renaissance [and, especially, just afterwards]: men no longer accepted without afterwards]: men no longer accepted without question the opinions of the ancients about the question the opinions of the ancients about the universe and the laws governing the natural universe and the laws governing the natural world; dogma was subjected to experiment, and world; dogma was subjected to experiment, and when it failed to survive the test it was rejected when it failed to survive the test it was rejected and new theories were formulated. Thus science and new theories were formulated. Thus science in the modern sense was born, and rapid in the modern sense was born, and rapid progress was made in mathematics, physics, progress was made in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology. But the immediate chemistry, and biology. But the immediate consequences for technology were confined to a consequences for technology were confined to a few specialized fields; in the main, technological few specialized fields; in the main, technological progress still depended upon the use of empirical progress still depended upon the use of empirical methods by practical men. On the whole, up to methods by practical men. On the whole, up to 1750 science probably gained more from 1750 science probably gained more from technology than vice versa."technology than vice versa."

– – T.K. Derry and T. I. Williams, T.K. Derry and T. I. Williams, A Short History of TechnologyA Short History of Technology

Montaigne (1553-1592)Montaigne (1553-1592)

French essayistFrench essayist Best known skepticBest known skeptic

““What do I know? Nothing.”What do I know? Nothing.” How do you know what you know, and how How do you know what you know, and how

do you know you know it?do you know you know it?

New sense of EvidenceNew sense of Evidence

Heresay and rumor no longer considered Heresay and rumor no longer considered fact in law courts (1650)fact in law courts (1650)

Decline in prosecutions for witchcraftDecline in prosecutions for witchcraft Opens doors for 18Opens doors for 18thth Century Century deism: deism:

belief in God (“first cause” of universe), but belief in God (“first cause” of universe), but not a god that interferes with human not a god that interferes with human affairs; no miracles, just other natural lawsaffairs; no miracles, just other natural laws

Overview:Overview:

ScientistScientist ContributionsContributions

CopernicusCopernicus Challenged a basic theoryChallenged a basic theory

GalileoGalileo Linked experiments and mathLinked experiments and math

Bacon Bacon Scientific MethodScientific Method

Descartes Descartes Theoretical ScienceTheoretical Science

Newton Newton Applied laws to the universeApplied laws to the universe

Lavoisier Lavoisier Quantification of experimentsQuantification of experiments