sejarah arsitektur komputer
TRANSCRIPT
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Sejarah Arsitektur Komputer
Eri Prasetyohttp://staffsite.gunadarma.ac.id/eri
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Abakus, 3000 BC (?)
1642, add & sub, Blaise Pascal
1822Charles Babbage
Mechanical devices
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• Based on Relays– Konrad Zuse (1910-1995)
Electromechanical Machines
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Z1 / 1938,Z3 / 1941:mesin pemrograman Pertama di dunia
Z3 dan Z4 dapat dilihat di musium jerman , Padeborn
The Zuse Z3 & Z4
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• First Generation– No mechanical components anymore– Vacuum Tubes
• Principle– Basic: Triode– Controllable flow within
diode by a fence– On / Off
• 1946: ENIAC machine– Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer
Electronic Computers
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Lee de Forest menemukan tabung elektronik
gate anodakatoda
Filamen pemanas
Filamen memanaskan katoda yang menyebarkan electrons : termo emission
Polarisasi gate menarik elektron
6,3v
Elektronika Tabung
1906
Lee de Forest
Penguatan signal
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Elektronika tabung
Masalah Utama :Tegangan besarMudah panas
Ukuran komponen ≈300 V
≈50 VGrille
Plaque
Cathode
6,3v
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Audio Amplifier
Radio Pemancar
Aplikasi Pertama
Radio penerima
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Makan tempat
Luas 1500 m2
30 tonnes
Jumlah 17000 tabung
Daya 140 KW
5000 penambahan setiap detik
1945 Mesin hitung tabung I bernama (ENIAC) Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer
Mesin Hitung tabung Pertama
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Semi konduktor ????1874
K. F. Braun
Braun peletak dasar semi-conducteur
besi
selenium
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1940 Schottky menemukan contact métal/semi-conducteur.
W. Schottky
1942 Produksi pertama dioda dengan bahan germanium berhasil untuk teknologi micromave dan radar
Ge
Pointe métallique
Masih digunakan sampai sekarang untuk HF
Dioda Pertama
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Group dari Shockley mempunyai ide membuat dua dioda dari bahan yang sama (germanium).
Base
Emetor Collector
1947
Transistor bipolar
W. Schockley
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Fenomena nama baru transistor = transfer + resistor
Transistor bipolar (2)
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Sebuah awal fabrikasi (sangat berjasa )
InIn
Ge
Type n Type p
Base
Emetteur CollecteurKesulitan utama :
Reproduksi,ketebalan.
Transistor bipolar (3)
Temuan hasil penelitian lebih lanjut untuk bahan(Silikon atau Germanium).
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Si amorphe
Purification Tirage
Si polycristallin Si monocristallin
Bell Labs memperkenalkan metode untuk merealisasiakn printing Silikon monocristallin dengan kemurnian 99,7%.
1952
Pemakaian pertama Silikon sebagai pengganti germanium1954
Transistor bipolar silikon
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processeur 4-8 bits, cycle mémoire : 5 micro detik.
Seymour Cray menciptakan CDC 1604, komputer pertama secara komersial
1957
Komputer transistor pertama
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1958 Jack Kilby dari Texas Instruments menciptakan rangkaian terpadu pertama dengan 5 komponen pasif.
Penemuan rangkaian terpadu ( IC)
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R.N. Noyce
1960 Lab. Fairchild semiconductor menyempurnakan dengan teknik planar
Rangkaian terpadu pertama dengan teknik planar
Kemajuan Transistor
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Di dalam transistor Planar, semua koneksi ada di permukaan dan pada sisi yang sama.
BaseEmetteur Collecteur
N
NP
Daya tarik transistors planar
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Atalla dan Kahng dari Fairchild semiconductor peletak dasar transistor pertama MOS
Penemuan Transistor MOS
Source gate Drain
1960
Hofstein & Heiman dari RCA membuat pertama IC dengan transistors MOS (8 paires de NMOS)
1963
1.5 m
m
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Le MOS est parfaitement symétrique et on appelle SOURCE (d'électrons) le coté le plus négatif
Structure MOS
Au début (1962) la grille était en Aluminium d'où le nom MOS: Métal/Oxyde/Semiconducteur
Substrat à la masse (à Vdd pour les PMos) P
N+ N+
Grille
Source Drain
Isolant
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Conditions normales de fonctionnement :
P
Fonctionnement d’un NMOS
N+ N+
Isolant
Vgs > 0 et Vds > 0
Vgs > 0 Vds > 0GrilleSource Drain
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Accumulation de charges positives sur la grille
P
Fonctionnement d’un NMOS
N+ N+
Isolant
Vgs > 0 Vds > 0GrilleSource Drain
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Création d’un champ électrique E sur la capacité MOS
P
Fonctionnement d’un NMOS
N+ N+
Isolant
Vgs > 0 Vds > 0GrilleSource Drain
E
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Trous majoritaires du substrat repoussés
P
Fonctionnement d’un NMOS
N+ N+
Isolant
Vgs > 0 Vds > 0GrilleSource Drain
E
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Electrons minoritaires du substrat attirés vers la grille
P
Fonctionnement d’un NMOS
N+ N+
Isolant
Vgs > 0 Vds > 0GrilleSource Drain
E
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Création d’un canal de type N sous l’isolant (couche d’inversion)
P
Fonctionnement d’un NMOS
N+ N+
Isolant
Vgs > 0 Vds > 0GrilleSource Drain
EId
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Caractéristiques
Caractéristiques similaires à celle d’un transistor JFET
Vds (V)
Id (mA)Vgs = 8 V La valeur de Vgs > 0 influence
directement la densité de porteurs minoritaires attirés sous la capacité MOS
Vgs = 6 V
Vgs = 2 V
La valeur de Vds > 0 influencedirectement la valeur du champ Eet donc de la saturation de Id
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Cas du MOS à appauvrissement
Pour Vgs = 0, existence du canal N entre la source et le drain
Vds (V)
Id (mA)Vgs = 4 V
L’existence du canal garantit une conduction du transistor pour des valeurs négatives et positives de Vgs
Vgs = 2 VVgs = 0 VVgs = -2 VVgs = -4 V
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Caractéristiques
Caractéristiques similaires à celle d’un transistor JFET
Vds (V)
Id (mA)Vgs = 8 V
Vgs = 6 V
Vgs = 2 V
3 zones de fonctionnement : Zone ohmique, Pincement, Saturation.
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kelebihan :
Tempat ringkas
Syst
ème
élec
tron
ique
Circuitélectronique
Composant:Circuit intégré
Mengapa terpadu ?
Hemat energi
modular
Lebih Aman
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ORGANIZATION
• Pertanyaan :
• Bagimana bentuk mesin komputasinya ?
• Bagaimana mengontrolnya ?
• Original Work ( 1946 )
• Burks, Goldstine, von Neumann:Mulai diskusi untuk merancang logika instrumen komputasi elektronik
• Hasil :
• von Neumann Architecture
• Arsitektur yang sangat dominan – bahkan sampai sekarang
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• Dikembangkan 1952 oleh von Neumann– Mesin pertama berbasiskan prinsip
rancangannya– Institute for Advanced Studies computer
The IAS machine
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• General purpose machine– Independent of applications– Flexible & Programmable
• 4 main units– Control unit (Instruction counter)– Arithmetic unit (Accumulator)– Input/Output unit (Connection to the outside)– Main memory
• Interconnected by simple buses
The von Neumann architecture
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ArithmeticUnit
ControlUnit
Input/OutputUnit
E.g. Storage
Instructions / Program
MainMemory
Addresses
AC IRSR
PC
Von Neumann – Overview
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• System structure is application independent– Fully programmable
• Programs and Data are stored in the same memory– Main Memory– Can be manipulated by the machine
• Main memory is divided into cells– Equal size– Consecutively numbered (addresses)
Von Neumann – Details (1)
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• Program is composed of a sequence of instructions– Read one after the other from main memory
• Program execution can be altered– Conditional or unconditional jumps– Change the current execution– Done by loading new value into PC register
Von Neumann – Details (2)
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• Usage of binary numbers– Just two values allowed per digit: 0/1– Easy to implement: voltage yes or no
Von Neumann – Details (3)
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• Still the dominant architecture in current systems– Used in all popular systems / chips
• Only minor modifications– Control und Arithmetic unit combined
Result: CPU (Central Processing Unit)– New memory paths between memory and I/O
Direct Memory Access (DMA)• Additions to the concept
– Multiple arithmetic units / Multiple CPUs– Parallel processing
Von Neumann – Today
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• Vacuum tubes replaced– Transistors– Smaller, more power efficient– DEC PDP-1, IBM 7094– Still large machines
• Next step: Integrated Circuits– Many transistors packed on one die– High density & reliability, low power– IBM 360 family & first Intel chips
• Many subsequent improvements
Technology Development
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• Layered design– Base: Silicon– Light sensitive layers– Projection of masks– Erase parts using acid
IBM
Manufacturing
Clean room fabrication Any particle can cause
errors Special fabs required Rising costs
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• Main trend: smaller and faster– Trend still continues today– Processor speeds now over 3 GHz, but problems
arise…
10 ns100 MHzVery large scale integration
1978-5
100 ns10 MHzLarge scale integration
1972-19774
1 µs1 MHzSmall and medium integrated circuits
1965-19713
5 µs200 KHzTransistor1958-19642
25 µs40 KHzVacuum tube1946-19571
Time/OpsSpeedTechnologyDatesGen.
Comparison of Technologies
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• 2001: 30th Anniversary!• 4-Bit, 8-Bit Processors
– Intel 4004 (~1971)– Intel 8008
• 16-Bit Processors– Texas Instruments TMS 9900 (~1977)– Intel 8086– Zilog Z8000– Motorola MC68000– National Semiconductor NS16016
(~1978-1980)
Microprocessor History
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- 2300 Transistors, 108 Khz
http://www.intel4004.com
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Intel 4004
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Intel 4004 – First MicrocomputerINTEL 4004 – First Microcomputer
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INTEL 4004 – First Microcomputer
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•16/32-bit Processors(external 16-bit Bus, internal 32 Bit Structure)
• Motorola MC68010• National Semiconductor NS16032
• Additional Functionality on the Chip•Direct Memory Access (DMA) (Intel 80186)• Virtual memory management
(MC68010, Intel 80286)• Optional Coprocessor (Intel 8086/80286,
NS16032)• Extended Address Space
Microprocessor History
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• 32-bit Processors– CISC Processors
• Motorola MC680x0 • Intel i386 / i486 / Pentium • National Semiconductor NS32x32 • Concept of a Processor Family• Binary Compatibility• Compatible with 16 Bit Processors
– RISC Processors• Advanced Micro Devices Am29000 (~1987)• Sun Microsystems SPARC• MIPS technologies MIPS R2000 / MIPS R3000
Microprocessor History
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Pentium 4 ( 55 Juta transistors )
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• 64/32-bit Processors– SUN Microsystems SuperSPARC– Motorola 88110– IBM, Motorola PowerPC 601 (MPC601)
• “Modern” Processors– 64-bit Structure– Internal Parallelism
• Instruction pipelining• Arithmetic Pipelining
– Instruction and Data Caches– Advanced Memory and Peripheral Connections
Microprocessor History
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ITANIUM ( 25.4 JUTA TRANSISTORS )
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AMD Opteron (100 Million Transistors)
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ITANIUM 2 ( 221 JUTA TRANSISTOR )
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PowerManagement/Frequency
Boost(Foxton)
1MB L2I1MB L2I
Dual-core
2x12MB L3 2x12MB L3 cachescaches
with with PellstonPellston
2 Way2 WayMulti-threadingMulti-threading
ArbiterArbiter
90nm90nm
1.7 Billion 1.7 Billion TransistorsTransistors
Key Processor Features Intel’s first dual-core
processor Intel’s first processor
with >1 billion transistors 24 MB L3 cache Multi-threading Compatible with existing
Itanium 2-based systems
Targeting H2’2005
System Bus
Core
L3 Cache
Core
L3 Cache
System Bus
Core
L3 Cache
Core
L3 Cache
Core 1 Core 2
Multiple cores, Multiple threads Multiple cores, Multiple threads and L3 Cache on ONE dieand L3 Cache on ONE die
First Implementation of Key Features: Montecito
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(From: http://www.intel.com)
Number of transistors doubles every 2.3 years(acceleration over the last 4 years: 1.5 years)
42 M transistors
2.25 K transistors
Increase: ~20K
Trends in transistor count
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420000002000Pentium 4240000001999Pentium-III
75000001997Pentium-II31000001993Pentium1180000198980486
275000198580386120000198280286
2900019788086500019748080250019728008225019714004
# of transistorsYearModel
Technological Development
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• Published in „Electronics“ in 1965– Revised in 1975
• Why does this work? (Dr. R. Isaac, IBM)– 50 % Lithography– 25 % Device and Circuit Innovation– 25 % Chip size reduction
• How long does this continue?– Problem 1: Power density– Problem 2: The Lithography Wall
Moore‘s Law (2)
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• Can we compensate for loss or gain more– Architectural improvements– Massively Parallel Systems
• Example 1: ASCI Program in USA– Fastest machines in the world– Both military and research use– Capabilities grow faster than Moore‘s law
• Example 2: Hitachi RS 8000 @ LRZ/TUM– Innovative node design– Large number of individual processors
Breaking Moore‘s law
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IBM Blue Gene / L, LLNL, 128k processors
Massively Parallel Systems
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High Performance Clusters
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• What applications can take use of this?– Long running
• Very often: Numerical simulations– High computational
demands– Often solving of special
physical equations (PDEs)
• Some other codes from imaging/business
• Climate Modeling
• Fluid Turbulences
• Pollution Disturbation
• Ocean Circulation
• Combustion Systems
• Semiconductor Modeling
• Vision and Cognition
Applications: Grand Challenges