UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE • FOREST SERVICE • FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY • MADISON, WIS

SELECTED OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOOD INDUSTRIES DEVELOPMENT IN WEST VIRGINIA THROUGH THE APPLICATION

In Cooperation with the University of Wisconsin

OF FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY RESEARCH

October 1963

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TABLE O F CONTENTS

Page

SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Objectives of This Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Method of Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 General Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 West Virginia and Her Wood Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 The Forest Products Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY RESEARCH PARTICU-LARLY SUITED FOR USE IN WEST VIRGINIA . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Characteristics of Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Timber Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Sawmilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Equipment for the Wood Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Protecting Logs and Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Drying Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Adhesives and Their Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Products and Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Improved Serviceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Wood Use in Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

- - - - - -

SELECTED OPPORTUNITLES FOR WOOD INDUSTRIES DEVELOPMENT

IN WEST VIRGINIA THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF

FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY RESEARCH1

By HOWARD PHILLIP BERTHY, 2 Research Associate

Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service U.S. Department of Agriculture

SUMMARY

This study reviews the research of the Forest Products

Laboratory, selects information relating to hardwood utilization,

and presents a guide for use by individuals and groups concerned with

developing a stronger wood utilization program in West Virginia.

INTRODUCTION

Research provides the means for changing potentialities into

realities; without research, man' s labor only maintains the "status

quo. " These thoughts are basic to this report which is concerned with

research of the Forest Products Laboratory and the use of this research

in developing the wood utilization program in West Virginia.

1 This report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE (Cooperative Extension Administra-tion) at the University of Wisconsin 1963.

2 West Virginia State Extension Forestry Specialist on leave for the

academic year 1962-1963.

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Objectives of This Study

The objectives of this study were to review the research program

and accomplishments of the Forest Products Laboratory, to select

information relating to products, processes, and practices that offer

promise for use in hardwood timber areas such as West Virginia, and

to prepare a guide for use by Extension Foresters, Rural Area Develop-

ment Agents, and others concerned with developing new wood using

industries or with expanding or modifying existing industries. The

working objectives of this study were: (1) to identify research items--

products, processes, and practices, which appear to offer opportunities

for developing the wood utilization program in West Virginia; (2) to

itemize for these selected items pertinent printed material available

from the Laboratory; and (3) to relate this research information to the

wood utilization program in West Virginia.

Scope

The information in this report was limited to that research of the

Forest Products Laboratory which appeared to be particularly suited

for use in building a stronger, more efficient, more diversified wood

industry in West Virginia. This information was selected on the basis of

interviews with more than 40 key research and administrative staff

members of the Laboratory, a survey of approximately 2,000 research

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papers currently available from the Laboratory, and the author's

knowledge of the timber resources and the wood utilization program

in West Virginia derived from 10 years of experience as Extension

Forester in that State.

Method of Procedure

Although interviews were conducted with personnel in all five

technical divisions of the Laboratory and the reports of all were

considered, it was soon apparent that the work of the divisions of

Wood Quality Research and Solid Wood Products Research would be

of most direct application to West Virginia and would require the most

attention. One-hour seminars were conducted with the personnel of

these divisions. The seminars dealt with West Virginia's wood

resource, major factors influencing its utilization, and the objectives

of this study. At the conclusion of each seminar those attending were

provided with a supply of "interview outlines'' to be used to organize

information relating to products, processes, and practices for

consideration during subsequent interviews. Personnel not attending

seminars were provided with "interview outlines" and pertinent

information prior to scheduled interviews.

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The interview outline contained 14 questions related to various

characteristics of research items falling within the specific areas

of experience and interest of the interviewers. These questions

dealt with such things as major features of this research, its suit-

ability or limitations for use in West Virginia, suggestions for its

implementation, and recommendations of special literature for further

study and for inclusion in this report. One question dealt with speci-

fications, costs, and sources of basic equipment, machinery, and

materials required for making use of the research. The answers to

this question were predominantly of a general nature and did not deal

with costs or sources of supply. Since the research of the Laboratory

is not designed for economic investigations of products, practices,

and processes, a question dealing with initial costs, operational costs,

and returns revealed little significant information for this report.

Interviews were conducted with four divisions chiefs, 15 project

leaders, and 24 other key research workers. Owing to the diverse

training, experience, and responsibilities of the wood technologists,

chemists, physicists, mathematicians, engineers, and others inter-

viewed, as well as the great variety of subject matter considered in this

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study, an overall evaluation of the responses to interview questions

has proven impractical. These interviews provided the author with an

understanding and appreciation of the Laboratory and its research,

a detailed background of specific items of pertinent research and a

guide to further investigation. The interviews were not unlike a

series of excellent classroom lectures which because of the expertise

of the lecturer give meaning and purpose to the student's efforts. When

all interviews were completed and duplication was eliminated, a total

of 36 research items remained for consideration in this report.

During the period that these interviews were conducted, a study

was also made of printed material currently available from the

Laboratory. From this supply of more than 2,000 Research Reports,

Technical Notes and reprints from trade and professional magazines,

440 separate pieces were selected for closer examination. From these

was selected a final list of 164 reports, notes, and reprints pertaining

directly to the 36 research items referred to above and containing a

minimum of duplication. This printed material is included in the

"Recommended References" contained in this report.

Guided by information obtained from interviews and selected

reading, an effort was made to develop an outline which was logical

and sequential in direction and was all-inclusive of subject matter,

yet contained a minimum of duplication. A two-hour conference with

key Laboratory staff members, including the four assistants to the

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*

director and five division chiefs, was devoted to an examination of the

outline which was developed. Following minor changes, this outline

was approved by this group and was used as a basis for writing this

report.

General Situation

Although West Virginia has maintained a prominent national position

as a hardwood producing State, the structure of the wood using industry

has changed very little in the past 50 years. Sawmills convert logs to

lumber and export the lumber for further manufacturing in other States.

In 1913 only 22 percent of the State's lumber received further processing

in West Virginia. This figure has changed very little over the years,

whereas lumber production has steadily decreased from about 1.5 billion

board feet in 1913 to less than 300 million board feet in 1961.1* In this

respect the wood industry of West Virginia has not been able to maintain

the "status quo." Today the State realizes only a small portion of the

potential income which its forests offer. Recent estimates indicate

that employment in the wood industry could be increased threefold, or

raised to more than 24,000 workers. These estimates also reflect a

potential of increasing annual lumber production to more than one billion

board feet and increasing the annual value of forest products from $100

million to more than $500 million.2 * Underlined numbers refer to Bibliography on page 113.

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Research in wood technology and wood utilization, and the application

of this research in developing a stronger, more diversified, more effi-

cient wood industry is a key for unlocking this storehouse of woodland

wealth. The need for research to develop improved or new wood

products and manufacturing techniques is vital if wood is to meet the

constant challenges of competitive materials such as metals and plastics.

Furthermore, the wood industry does not need to wait for research to

be carried out. The Forest Products Laboratory and other research

centers have made great strides in keeping the science of wood utilization

up-to-date in these rapidly changing times. Much of this research, which

could lead to more efficient and profitable utilization has not been accepted

and put to work by industry.

West Virginia and Her Wood Industry

West Virginia is a mountainous State lying entirely within the

Appalachian region. Generally speaking, high-quality hardwood forests

cover more than two-thirds of the State's 15 million acres. This includes

9,859,400 acres of commercial forest land of which 90 percent is in

private ownership. Public ownership consists of 895,000 acres in the

Monongahela and George Washington National Forests and more than

80,000 acres in State forests. Reserved from commercial forest use

is approximately 41,000 acres in State parks. Approximately 33 percent

of the total commercial forest land is in farm holdings, 3 percent is

owned by forest industries, and 54 percent is in other holdings.

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Hardwoods cover about 89 percent of the commercial forest land.

The remaining 11 percent is in softwoods. The hardwoods are pre-

dominantly red, chestnut and white oak, yellow-poplar, sugar maple,

beech, and yellow birch. Black walnut and black cherry are also

available in good supply. Major softwood species are white pine, red

spruce, and shortleaf, pitch, and Virginia pine. 3

The best estimates of the State' s sawtimber (11" D. b. h. and over

for hardwoods, 9" and over for softwoods) place the volume between

18 and 20 billion board feet with growth of sawtimber and pole timber

exceeding drain. Even though the present cut is concentrated on the

more desirable species and on the best trees, these estimates indicate

that the quality of West Virginia' s timber is improving and that it is

4definitely better than that of neighboring hardwood States. Through

programs of proper management, harvesting, and protection the

growth rate of West Virginia's forests could be increased from 75 to

225 board feet per acre per year and the quality of the timber could be

improved appreciably.

Primary Wood Using Industries:

Sawmills produce, in the form of lumber, 75 percent of the cubic

foot volume of all products manufactured by the primary wood using

industry in West Virginia. This production is marketed in the form

of rough lumber, mine material, and crossties. Other primary proc-

essors produce charcoal, rustic fence, pulpwood, and cooperage.

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Pulpwood represents approximately 6.5 percent of the total primary

products even though there is no pulp plant in the State. Of these

primary wood products, 66 percent of the lumber and 90 percent of

the other products are sold to out-of-state markets.

Of the more than 800 operating sawmills in the State, 66 percent

are classified as small (0-999 MBF per year), 26 percent are classified

as medium (1,000-3,999 MBF per year), and 8 percent are classified

as large (over 4,000 MBF per year). From the standpoint of total

raw material utilized in production, small mills used 18 percent, medium

mills used 33 percent, and large mills used 49 percent. Here then is

a situation where less than 10 percent of all mills utilize almost

5 one-half of the wood raw material in production.

In reading the following paragraph the reader is urged to keep in

mind that less than 10 percent of the State's lumber production is

softwoods. Most of West Virginia' s lumber is sold in rough condition,

60 percent of the softwood and less than 10 percent of the hardwood

lumber is sold in dressed condition. Although more than 75 percent

of the State's hardwood lumber is marketed after seasoning, less than

10 percent is kiln dried. The same condition holds true for softwoods

except that even a smaller amount of the lumber is kiln dried. Less

than 20 percent of the hardwood lumber is marketed without grading

and 80 percent of the lumber is graded according to standard lumber

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grades. West Virginia lumber is exported to eighteen States with

75 percent of the total export going to North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsyl-

6vania, and Virginia.

Secondary Wood Using Industries:

West Virginia has approximately 40 secondary wood using industries

that upgrade lumber and other wood products into finished wood products.

These companies purchase rough lumber from sawmill operators and

manufacture furniture, flooring, molding, dimension, and pallets. In

addition to the above, some large sawmills have integrated their

operations to combine secondary processing with primary processing.

This trend is increasing as mills become permanently located, larger,

and better equipped.

West Virginia' s wood industries, primary and secondary, offer

great promise for an economic revival in the State. This can be

accomplished by developing a more diversified industry, equipped to

produce economically new and improved high-quality wood products

which can compete with the wood products of other areas and with

competitive materials. Research is basic to this type of development.

When put to work it can lead to more efficient manufacturing processes,

improved products, and new products. The Forest Products Laboratory,

after 50 years of wood utilization research, can contribute immeasurably

toward making West Virginia' s potential forest wealth a reality.

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The Forest Products Laboratory

Located in Madison, Wisconsin, the Forest Products Laboratory

is unique in that it was the first laboratory of its kind and after 50

years it continues to be a world center for investigations dealing with

wood, wood products, and factors affecting the use of wood. Dr. Edward

G. Locke, Director of the Laboratory, has described it as "the only

nationwide federal wood products laboratory in the country... combining

the talents of a broad range of scientists from chemists and physicists

through engineers, botanists, and mathematicians." It is a unit of the

Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture.

Since its beginning, on the campus of the University of Wisconsin

in 1910, the Laboratory's original staff of 45 has increased almost

tenfold. Today the staff consists of more than 400 people; one-third

are scientists, and two-thirds administrative, operational, and clerical *

workers (2).

The main building, completed in 1932, and additional special struc-

tures constructed adjacent the main building, are literally filled to over-

flowing with offices, laboratories, shops, and equipment necessary to

carry out the work of the five technical divisions--Wood Quality Research,

Solid Wood Products Research, Wood Engineering Research, Wood Fiber

Products Research, and Wood Chemistry Research. These five technical.

divisions are supported in their work by the Division of Laboratory

Management. * Underlined numbers in parenthesis refer to Recommended References

listed at the end of sections to which they pertain.

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Through its program of basic and practical research the Laboratory

endeavors to improve wood processing techniques, increase wood

serviceability, develop improved products, bring forth new wood uses,

and in general explore wood to discover its hidden secrets. Although

there is a close relationship among all the technical divisions of the

Laboratory, each division has major areas of research with which it

is concerned. A brief description of the major work of each research

division follows:

Wood Quality Research: Obviously this division is concerned with

the quality of wood. What are its characteristics, its best uses, and its

limitations? How do properties vary between species and within species ?

What effects do these properties have on the utilization of wood? This

division is also concerned with relationships between wood quality and

the structure of wood and how the structural characteristics of wood

are affected by environmental conditions and silvicultural treatments.

Technicians in wood quallity work with such things as quality in standing

trees, log and tree grading, sawmill improvement, and dimensional

stability of wood. The wood identification service, which the Laboratory

makes available to the wood industry and to the general public, is a

unit of this division. This unique service processes about 3,000 sam-

ples each year. In rendering this identification service, wood technolo-

gists maintain a wood collection which includes 20,000 samples of

4,000 different species.

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Solid Wood Products Research: The work of this division is directed

toward the production, improved service, and appearance of products

in which wood retains its identity. This research deals with products

ranging from round wood and rough lumber to plywood and particle

board. It deals with wood moisture relationships, lumber drying, wood

preservatives, water repellents, fire retardants, glues, glued products,

and wood finishes. It is also involved in research with improved

milling equipment, the machining of wood, and the utilization of residues.

Wood Engineering Research: By devising engineering evaluation

techniques for wood and wood-based materials this division seeks to

develop knowledge relating to wood's mechanical and physical properties

and to its reactions under varying conditions of use and environment.

Wood engineering evaluates such products as particle board, prestressed

plywood panels, and laminated structural members for strength properties

under varying conditions. An extensive program of design and construc-

tion features of housing, packaging, and heavy structures continues to

improve wood and wood products for these uses.

Wood Fiber Products Research: Research into the reduction of

wood to fiber and the processes necessary for the conversion of these

fibers to paper, fiberboard, container board, and other fiber products

is the responsibility of this division. In addition to fundamental research

dealing with fiber structure and bonding, applied research is required

for processes which will utilize hardwoods and for developing improved

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and new paper products. One major area of emphasis is that of

bringing about a more complete and effective utilization of available

fiber in wood.

Wood Chemistry Research: In addition to the obvious concern for

the manufacturing of pulp and paper, synthetic fibers, and plastics,

this division is concerned with chemistry as it relates to wood in any

dorm or process. Specifically, this division strives to extend our

knowledge of the nature and behavior of wood, improving its utility

in natural or modified forms and extending its usefulness as a source

of industrial chemicals. These chemists are constantly seeking means

of developing from wood, lignin, and bark new economic uses.

Cooperation:

A cooperative relationship has existed between the Forest Products

Laboratory and the University of Wisconsin since the Laboratory was

established in 1910. This situation has provided for collaboration

between the Laboratory and the University on scientific matters and

has permitted an interchange of research facilities for staff and graduate

students.

Nationwide wood utilization research has been greatly facilitated

through the relationship that exists between the Laboratory and the ten

regional Forest Service Experiment Stations which are located through-

out the nation. These stations make use of Laboratory research and

look to the Laboratory for guidance in utilization technology. Station

specialists cooperate on regional research projects, advise the Laboratory

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of regional research needs, and otherwise provide liaison services

between the regions and the Laboratory. Station personnel also conduct

research studies pertinent to their regional situation.

The Forest Products Laboratory works closely with other Federal

government agencies having problems related to wood utilization.

Examples of this cooperation would include packaging research for the

Defense Department, the review and analysis of wood utilization project

proposals for the Area Redevelopment Administration, and consultation

with the Federal Housing Administration on specifications for building

materials. Frequently Laboratory technicians are requested by other

government agencies to prepare handbooks on special subjects related

to wood utilization. Naturally, other branches of the Department of

Agriculture draw upon the technical resources of the Laboratory.

The scientists of the Laboratory stand ready to consult with indi-

viduals or with groups having wood utilization problems. When necessary

and practical, these technicians will make forest or mill visits to assist

with utilization problems. Many of the Laboratory research projects

are conducted in cooperation with private industry (1).

In addition to cooperation with the University of Wisconsin, the

Forest Products Laboratory provides grants of funds to graduate

students in those colleges or universities having facilities necessary to

conduct wood utilization research.

Laboratory personnel work closely with national trade, industrial,

and scientific groups by presenting technical papers before meetings

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and by serving as consultants in program development. Each year a

large number of these groups hold conferences at the Laboratory where

conference facilities are made available and technical personnel assist

with the programs.

Public Information Service:

The Forest Products Laboratory utilizes several methods of

disseminating research findings to the interested public. These are

by direct contact through conferences, talks, tours, and demonstrations,

by correspondence and by distribution of publications.

Talks and conferences have previously been mentioned under the

various forms of cooperation. However, it should be pointed out that

in an average year about 3,600 consulting visitors from 50 States and

about 400 visitors from foreign countries bring their wood problems

to the Laboratory for assistance. Individuals with general interest in

the Laboratory and its work, such as tourists and educational groups,

swell the number of visitors by 8,000 to 10,000 each year by participating

in the regular conducted tours.

Publications issued by the Forest Products Laboratory vary from

semipopular writings and practical reports to highly technical publications

designed to provide specific research findings to a limited readership.

Publications issued prior to January 1, 1963, were designated as Research

Reports and as Technical Notes. Research Reports are designed to report

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research findings to individuals directly interested in details of studies.

There are approximately 2,000 of these reports available from the

Laboratory. Technical Notes, some 200 of which are currently available,

are brief descriptions of research applying to the solution of some

specific wood utilization problem. Effective January 1, 1963, these

publications have been redesignated. Research Papers now replace

Research Reports and Research Notes replace Technical Notes (2).

Recommended References

(1) Cooperative Service in Forest Products Research, Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture. 1963.

(2) FPL 1962: Annual Report of the Forest Products Laboratory. Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture. 1963.

(3) The United States Forest Products Laboratory, by F. J. Champion.

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FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY RESEARCH PARTICULARLY

SUITED FOR USE IN WEST VIRGINIA

Introduction

For more than 50 years the Forest Products Laboratory has been

conducting scientific and technical investigations of wood, wood products,

and of problems relating to their use. Some of this work has been con-

cerned with wood in general and relates to wood utilization throughout

the world. Other work has been related to specific species or conditions

of wood use resulting in findings which have significance only in specific

regions of the country. Examples of this would be research conducted

on problems relating to Douglas-fir, southern pine, or hardwoods.

Many research projects are of a practical nature; providing informa-

tion that can be taken into the field and directly applied to the task of

building "jet age" wood utilization programs. Other research is of a

fundamental nature, not normally applicable to the immediate solution

of wood industry's current problems but essential as a basis for future

research and development.

As indicated previously, research results have been comprehen-

sively reported and the information is available from the Laboratory

in the form of Research Reports and Technical Notes. Depending upon

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the nature of the subject and the purpose of the report, these findings

are dealt with in either highly technical form, which reflects the infor-

mation in great depth and detail, or in a more or less popular form,

which gives a detailed but practical coverage of the subject.

For the purpose of this paper the selected research has been

divided into ten major sections. These are: characteristics of wood,

timber harvesting, sawmilling, wood working equipment, protecting

logs and lumber, drying wood, adhesives and their use, products and

processes, improving serviceability, and wood use in construction.

This arrangement was developed to provide a logical, sequential

approach and to eliminate as far as possible, any duplication. Each

section contains (1) a description of the selected research, (2) a state-

ment relating this selected research to the wood utilization program

in West Virginia, and (3) a list of significant publications which

provide further information on the subject.

Unless otherwise indicated, all publications are available from

the Forest Products Laboratory. Such literature includes Research

Reports, Technical Notes, and reprints of articles prepared by the

Laboratory personnel for trade and scientific journals. In addition,

some handbooks prepared by Laboratory technicians but published

by the U. S. D. A. or other government agencies have been recom-

mended. The source of such literature is indicated in each list.

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Characteristics of Wood

Everyone is familiar with wood--what it is, where it comes from,

and what its uses are. Or are they? If they are concerned with the

wood industry, they should be familiar with the different species that

grow and are utilized in their area, understand how these species differ

in anatomical and physical characteristics, and how these characteristics

influence the ultimate use of that wood.

Today it is not enough to be able to tell a softwood from a hardwood

or an oak from an elm. Nor can the quality of wood be judged simply

on the presence or absence of visible defects such as knots or decay.

The wood industry is becoming more and more concerned with the

complex inner characteristics of wood, such as wood density, proportion

of summerwood, fibril angle, and the relationship that these have with

such quality factors as processing characteristics, mechanical strength,

hardness, and shock resistance (4), (7), (18).

An excellent example of the importance of these nonvisible wood

characteristics is shown in the use of wood density. Wood density,

expressed in terms of weight in pounds per cubic foot or as specific

gravity, serves as a direct measure of the amount of wood substance

in a cord of pulp wood, a piece of lumber, or a pole. It is also a

measure of the strength properties of wood since there is a definite

relationship between the two. This can best be illustrated by

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contrasting two West Virginia hardwoods - -Amierican basswood (Tilia

americana), which is light (specific gravity 0.32), moderately weak,

moderately limber, soft and has a low shock resistance, with white oak

(Quercus alba), which is hard (specific gravity 0.60), strong to very

strong, stiff, hard, and has high shock resistance. Thus, wood density

is a simple, practical index of the general suitability of wood for many

of its important uses (12).

Although invisible, this important characteristic of wood can

be measured by a very practical method developed at the Laboratory.

It is as folllows:

1. Cut a piece of wood from the board to be tested, about

1 by 1 by 12 inches in dimension, the 12-inch dimension being

along the grain.

2. Dry the piece for about 48 hours at from 212° to 221° F.

This will remove practically all of the moisture.

3. Dress the piece so that the cross section is rectangular

and uniform throughout the length and trim it to exactly 10 inches

in length. Mark off and number the length in inches.

4. Place the piece carefully in a tall glass container of water

so that it floats in an upright position. Note the water line to which

it sinks, quickly removing the piece and marking. The water line

indicates the specific gravity of the piece on the basis of oven-dry

weight and oven-dry volume.

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The submerged portion of the piece, expressed as a decimal

fraction of the total length, is numerically equal to the specific gravity

of the specimen. The determination of this value enables the wood

user to then determine other characteristics such as strength. Working

knowledge of technology such as this makes it possible to put wood to

its best use (8).

If the wood industry of West Virginia is to retain its position as

one of the top hardwood producing States in the Nation and is to compete

successfully with wood and wood products from other areas as well as

with other materials, such as metal and plastics, it must establish and

maintain the highest possible standards for production of wood and wood

products. At the same time it must seek out new and improved uses

of wood. In order to do this, individuals concerned with management

and operation in the wood industry must have an understanding of the

characteristics of wood.

Recommended References

Publications :

(4) The Application of Silviculture in Controlling the Specific Gravity of Wood, by Benson H. Paul. U.S. Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin No. 1288, July 1963.

(5) Breeding for High Quality Wood, by Harold L. Mitchell. FPL Report No. 2050, February 1956.

(6) Inside Wood--A Short Trip into the Interior for the Layman, by F. J. Champion. FPL Report No. 1995, reviewed and reaffirmed May 1960.

FPL-016 -22-

(7) Machining and Related Characteristics of United States Hardwoods, by E. M. Davis. USDA Technical Bulletin No. 1267, August 1962. (For sale by superintendent of Documents, Wash. , D. C. 20250. Price 35 cents.)

(8) Methods of Determining Specific Gravity of Wood. FPL Technical Note No. B-14, Revised October 1956.

(9) Second Growth Is Good, by Benson H. Paul. FPL Report No. 2083, May 1957.

(10) Some Books About Wood. FPL Report No. 399, revised October 1961.

(1 1) Some Common Fallacies About Wood. FPL Report No. 1167, March 1959.

(12) Standard Terms for Describing Wood, by L. J. Markwardt and G. E. Heck. FPL Report No. 1169, revised by J. A. Liska and J. T. Draw, July 1961.

(13) The Structure of Wood. USFS Research Note No. FPL-04, March 1963.

(14) Wood--ASimple Explanation of What It Is and How We Use It, by F. J. Champion. FPL Report No. 1972, reviewed and reaffirmed April 1960.

(15) Wood--Colorsand Kinds. USDA Agricultural Handbook No. 101, October 1956. (For sale by Superintendent of Documents, Wash., D.C. 20250. Price 50 cents.)

(16) WoodHandbock. No. 72, 1955. D. C. 20250. Price $2.00.)

Forest Service, U. S. D. A. Agriculture Handbook (For sale by Superintendent of Documents, Wash. ,

(17) Wood Identification at the Forest Products Laboratory, by B. F. Kukachka. FPL Report No. 2232, October 1961.

Reprints:

(18) "Properties, Selection, and Suitability of Woods for Woodworking," by Donald G. Coleman. Reprint from Industrial Arts and Vocational Education Magazine, Dec. 1940, Jan. 1941, and Feb. 1941. Reviewed and reaffirmed 1960.

FPL-016 -23-

Timber Harvesting

As previously indicated, the success of the wood industry depends

in part on its efficiency in converting wood raw material to its highest

ultimate use. This efficiency is not limited to the sawmill, the dimension

plant, or the furniture factory. Efficient use of wood starts in the

forest. If wood is to be grown, processed, and marketed as a competitive

material, foresters, landowners, loggers, and lumbermen must recog-

nize wood quality in standing timber (19). This timber must then be har-

vested in a manner which will assure maximum yield of quality and

quantity for the most desirable end products.

Heretofore, the appraisal of wood quality has not been generally

considered desirable or even practical until after the tree was converted

to logs and the logs were converted to lumber. Then the lumber was

graded. This is too late since by this time a great deal of the potential

value can be lost through faulty harvesting, processing, or marketing.

A hardwood log grading system developed by the Forest Products

Laboratory in cooperation with various Regional Forest Service

Experiment Stations was based upon a correlation of log characteristics

with lumber grade yields of approximately 11,000 logs sawn on 28 saw-

mills in the northern, central, and southern hardwood regions.

FPL-016 -24-

This system has three grades: Log Grade 1 (the best), Log Grade 2,

and Log Grade 3. These grades are based upon such factors as the

position of the log in the tree (butts or uppers), diameter (minimum),

length (minimum), the number and length of clear cuttings on the three

best faces, sweep and crook deduction, and cull deduction. Although

at first glance this appears to be a complex system, it is largely

dependent upon close scrutiny of the characteristics of the log and

practice. Brief instructions on the use of these grades are available

This system provides a basis for determining log values and a dollar

and cents evaluation of the forest crop which can be fair to the buyer

and seller alike. When combined with quality controlled log bucking (24),

loggers can obtain maximum value from standing timber and forest

landowners can realize a fair price for their quality trees without the

lumberman being forced to pay high prices for low-grade timber in order

to purchase quality. This would greatly reduce the element of chance

involved in marketing the forest crop and make this operation more

profitable for everyone involved.

The ability to grade logs would be a powerful marketing tool in

the hands of West Virginia farmers who traditionally sell their timber

by the boundary and rarely receive true value for their farm woodlot

crop.

FPL-016 -25-

The great range of quality in West Virginia hardwoods makes the

use of this information of vital importance to the industry. High-grade

timber, such as red oak, white oak, and yellow-poplar, as well as

black walnut, black cherry, and hard maple, are often marketed

without consideration for quality and are all too often put to uses which

could be equally well met by trees of less value.

Recommended References

Publications :

(19) A Concept of Intrinsic Wood Quality, and Nondestructive Methods for Determining Quality in Standing Timber, by Harold L. Mitchell. FPL Report No. 2233, October 1961.

(20) Detection of Figured Wood in Standing Trees, by Maxon Y. Pillow. FPL Report No. 2034, May 1955.

(21) Hardwood Log Grades for Standard Lumber and How To Apply Them. FPL Report No. 1737-A, reviewed and reaffirmed 1961.

(22) Hardwood Log Grades for Standard Lumber--Proposed Methods and Results. by A. C. Wollin and C. L. Vaughan. FPL Report No. 1737, reviewed and reaffirmed October 1959.

(23) Log Defects in Southern Hardwoods. USDA Handbook No. 4, June 1950. (For sale by Superintendent of Documents, Wash., D. C. 20250. Price 25 cents.)

Reprints:

(24) "Quality Controlled Log Bucking," by E. W. Fobes. Reprint from Forest Products Journal, February 1960.

FPL-016 -26-

Sawmilling

The problem of obtaining high-quality hardwood saw logs becomes

increasingly difficult each year. The supply of high-quality timber has

decreased substantially for the past half century and the mill operator

is faced with increased competition from veneer log buyers. To make

matters worse, secondary wood processors have increased their grade

specifications for the lumber that they purchase from the sawmills.

To meet these problems the sawmill operator must endeavor to

obtain maximum lumber quality yields from his saw logs. His mill

must be properly constructed and equipped to produce square, accu-

rately sawn lumber and the equipment must be properly adjusted and

maintained (29), (30). The sawyer must know how to obtain maximum

quality yield from the logs, and the edger and trimmer operators must

know how to get maximum quality yield from the boards.

If all equipment is not properly adjusted, all saws not properly

sharpened and powered (26); and if the sawyer, edgerman, or trimmer

man do not know how to cut for grade, then regardless of the quality

of logs, the production of grade quality lumber must be left to chance.

In face of this need, the Forest Products Laboratory has set forth

as a guide for sawmill men some basic points relative to developing

the best standard grades of lumber from hardwood logs. It deals

with such things as proper log placement on the saw carriage, log

FPL-016 -27-

turning to avoid grade loss, sawing problem logs, and increasing

grade and scale through proper edging and trimming (27). Closely

related to this work is an evaluation of six sawing methods dealing

with the position of defects on sawing faces and taper set out. This

study indicates that when sawing faces are placed so that major defects

come to the edge of sawing faces, higher quality lumber is produced

than when major defects are placed in the centers of faces or when

defect placement is ignored (25).

West Virginia, even after more than 60 years of hardwood lumber

production, is capable of producing some of the finest hardwood lumber

in the Nation. If this situation is to be capitalized upon, it is essential

that the State's sawmills should be operated for maximum lumber quality

production. Timber quality does not assure lumber quality--this comes

in part from sawmill "know how."

Recommended References

Publications :

(25) Effect of Defect Placement and Taper Setout on Lumber Grade Yields When Sawing Hardwood Logs, by F. B. Malcolm. FPL Report No. 2221, May 1961.

(26) Feed-Speed Relationships for Gutting Tools, by L. H. Reineke. FPL Report No. 2184, April 1960.

(27) A Simplified Procedure for Developing Grade Lumber from Hardwood Logs, by F. B. Malcolm. FPL Report No. 2056, June 1956.

FPL-016 -28-

(28) Small Sawmill Improvement. FPL Report No. 899 (Series).

(29) Small Sawmill Operator's Manual, by C. J. Telford. USDA Handbook No. 27, 1952. (For sale by Superintendent of Documents, Wash., D.C. 20250. Price 65 cents.)

(30) Small Sawmills, A Pocket Guide, by C. J. Telford. USDA Handbook No. 70, 1954. (For sale by Superintenident of Documents, Wash. , D. C. 20250. Price 15 cents .)

(31) Volume Loss from Inaccurate Sawing, by L. H. Reineke. FPL Report No. 2174, December 1959.

Equipment for the Wood Industry

Equipment for the wood industry varies as much in type, size,

and capacity as does the wood raw material used or the ultimate uses

for the wood. A great variety of head saws, edger saws, trimmer

saws, sanders, shapers, routers, and other specialized wood working

equipment makes the selection of the most suitable equipment a difficult

task.

In the sawmill, this selection will normally be made on the basis

of the size of the timbers and the desired mill. capacity. Sawmills vary

greatly in size, design, and accessory equipment. However, all are

similar in that their basic equipment is a head saw--band, circle, or

gang--for reducing logs to lumber and some means of edging and

trimming the lumber. Planing mills, which may or may not be in-

tegrated with a sawmill, require resaws, rip saws, cross-cut saws,

FPL-016 -29-

and planers. The size and type of this equipment normally depends

upon the desired capacity. Industrial woodworking plants need highly

specialized equipment which can efficiently produce wood products of

the desired shape, size, and finish to meet market demands for quantity

and quality.

A Laboratory survey of equipment for use in the sawmill, the

planing mill, or the industrial plant provides an excellent description

of different types of specialized equipment by indicating such important

factors as power requirements, saw sizes, and feed rates. Such in-

formation must certainly be considered before new equipment is

purchased for working; with wood (35).

Once the proper woodworking equipment has been selected there

are three basic requirements for good machine performance: (1) A

machine in good mechanical condition with cutting tools reasonably

sharp, (2) a machine properly adjusted and operated, and (3) wood

properly seasoned and selected to meet the needs of the job (36).

West Virginia's primary wood industry has moved rapidly in recent

years to put new and improved equipment into use; however, this job

is far from finished. Many small mills because of their portable nature

have, by necessity, done their edging on the head saw and marketed

untrimmed lumber. This practice is diminishing as these mills are

becoming more or less permanently located and are obtaining equipment

FPL-016 -30-

established, great

that will assure

necessary to do the job. As new industrial plants are

care must be exercised in selecting proper equipment

the manufacture of quality wood products.

Recommended References

Publications :

(32) Advances in Sawing from Forest to Shop, by L. H. Reineke. FPL Report No. 2100, January 1958.

(33) Debarkers Used in the South and East, by R. H. P. Miller, FPL Report No. 2038, reviewed and reaffirmed February 1962.

(34) Wood Chipping Equipment and Materials Handling, by E. W. Fobes. FPL Report No. 2160, October 1959.

(35) Woodworking Machines, by E. M. Davis. FPL Report No. 1706, reviewed and reaffirmed June 1959.

Reprints:

(36) "Three 'Musts' for Good Machining, " by E. M. Davis. Reprint from Wood-Worker, March 1959.

Protecting Logs and Lumber

The wood industry must constantly strive to maintain the quality

of its product. This is not merely a job of proper harvesting and

manufacturing. Care must be exercised between the forest and the

sawmill and between the sawmill and the consumer or the secondary

processor. Without proper precautions, logs and lumber are subject

FPL-016 -31-

to end checks or splitting and from stain and decay resulting in waste

and degrade.

Logs stored in the woods or log yards for long periods of time

must be protected from degrade. There are two practical methods of

accomplishing this: (1) With chemical sprays and end coatings, and

(2) immersion in water or with water sprays.

Log pond storage generally provides adequate protection;

however, it is not always practical and the cost of handling logs in and

out of the pond may run as high as $25 per thousand board feet. An

excellent alternative is subjecting logs to a spray which keeps the

logs wet, especially in spring and summer months. Laboratory re-

search studies clearly show that chemical and fungus stains and decay

can be readily controlled in hardwood by subjecting the logs to continuous

and complete spraying during warm weather. Fog or mist sprays are

suggested since air movement will carry the moisture into the log

stack (38) (43). This would appear to be well suited for small mills

without ponds or mills that have a limited water supply as often occurs

in West Virginia.

Where end checking or splitting is a problem, such as with

logs; piles, poles, and posts; timbers and ties; yard lumber; dimension

and specialty items, such as gunstock blanks; and kiln samples; end

coatings are effective. There are two general types of end coatings--

FPL-016 -32-

hot and cold. Among the hot coatings are paraffin, rosin and lampblack,

coal tar pitches, and asphalt. Paraffin is limited to use for air

seasoning. Rosin and lampblack are suitable for kiln temperatures

up to 150° F., and pitches and asphalt can be used at any ordinary

kiln temperature. Cold coatings include pigments and oil pastes,

filled-varnish coatings, and aluminum paints. These can be applied

at ordinary temperatures but require time to dry to become effective (37).

To combat fungus and insect attacks on freshly cut lumber, the

surest control is to kiln dry it promptly. An alternative is the appli-

cation of toxic chemicals to all surfaces by means of dipping or

spraying. One of the most common protective solutions is pentachloro-

phenol in oil. When special protection against insects is desired,

benzene hexachloride can be added. The cost of chemicals for this

protection should range between 15 and 30 cents per thousand board

feet of 1 and 2 inch lumber (41).

The proper treatment of West Virginia's hardwood logs and

lumber for the elimination of degrade and waste from fungus decay and

stain and from end checking and splitting is essential. Fortunately, re-

cognized treatments are effective on hardwoods and can be economically

incorporated as a normal and necessary step in manufacturing lumber.

FPL-016 -33-

Recommended Ref erences

Publications :

(37) Coatings for the Prevention of End Checks in Logs and Lumber, by John M. McMillen. FPL Report No. 1435, reviewed and reaffirmed 1961.

(38) Control of Decay and Sap Stain in Logs and Green Lumber, by Theodore C. Sclieffer. FPL Report No. 2107, April 1958.

(39) List of Manufacturers and Dealers for Log and Lumber End Coatings. FPL Report No. 1954, revised March 1941.

(40) Mineral Stain in Hard Maples and Other Hardwoods, by T. C. Scheffer. FPL Report No. 1981, reviewed and reaffirmed 1940.

(41) Protecting Bulk Piled Green Lumber from Fungi by Dip Treatment, by Theodore C. Scheffer and John T. Drow. FPL Report No. 2201, October 1960.

Reprints:

(42) "A Gray Non-Fungus Seasoning Discoloration of Certain Red Oaks, " by Joe W. Clark:. Reprint from Southern Lumberman, December 15, 1956.

(43) "Water Sprays Protect Hardwood Logs from Stain and Decay," by Paul H. Lane and T. C. Scheffer. Reprint from Forest Products Journal, June 1960.

Drying Wood

An understanding of the relationships between moisture movement

in wood and wood shrinking and swelling, induced drying stresses, and

the prevention of degrade in drying is essential in the wood industry.

How wood is seasoned prior to processing and the manner in which it

FPL-016 -34-

is handled during processing determines to a large extent the degree

of satisfactory service that will be obtained from the wood in use.

Knowledge of how wood changes dimension as it absorbs or loses

moisture is important to anyone who uses wood. This shrinking and

swelling is minimized by uniformly drying the wood to the proper

moisture content before it is manufactured or otherwise put to use.

Use conditions determine the proper moisture content. Once in use,

the wood must be protected from any radical moisture changes which

will allow it to absorb or to lose moisture (44).

Well-seasoned lumber has many advantages. Removal of moisture

reduces weight and, thereby, shipping and handling costs. Proper

drying limits shrinking and swelling under all but extreme conditions

of use. Cutting and machining are more effective and efficient; paints,

varnishes, and other finishes are easier to apply and maintain, decay

hazards are eliminated, and other harmful effects of uncontrolled

drying are largely eliminated.

There are two generally accepted methods of drying lumber. They

are: air drying, in which lumber is stacked in uniform piles, exposed to

the drying effects of the elements but protected from direct exposure

to sunlight and precipitation; and kiln drying, in which lumber is

uniformly piled in a heated chamber where the temperature, humidity,

and air flow can be controlled.

FPL-016 -35-

In view of the great wealth of information available from the Forest

Products Laboratory on this subject, this section has been divided into

three parts. They are air drying, kiln drying, and storage and handling.

Recommended Ref erences

Publications:

(44) Moisture Content of Wood in Use, by E. C. Peck. FPL Report No. 1655, reviewed and reaffirmed September 1961.

(45) Shrinking and Swelling of Wood in Use. FPL Report No. 736, reviewed and reaffirmed August 1957.

(46) Stresses in Wood During Drying, by J. M. McMillen. FPL Report No. 1652, revised December 1958.

Air Drying:

Although the wood industry constantly increases its facilities for

kiln drying lumber, air drying continues to play an important role.

Air drying is dependent upon the temperature and relative humidity of

the outdoor air, precipitation, and the circulation of air in the lumber

stacks. The length of time required for air drying will vary from

region to region, from season to season, and the manner in which the

drying yard is laid out and the lumber is stacked. In most parts of

the country lumber can be air dried to a moisture content of 12 to 15

percent; this is lower in arid regions and higher in humid regions.

Lumber that might become thoroughly air dried in 30-60 days in the

FPL-016 -36-

active drying season might require an additional six months if an

air dry condition is not attained within the active drying season.

Generally speaking, hardwood lumber is air dried before it is put in

the dry kiln. This is done to reduce kiln costs (47).

One question frequently asked in West Virginia is how can

round wood be treated so that it will retain its bark when it dries.

A Forest Products Laboratory report indicates that round wood,

such as logs, tree limbs, or slices of round wood can be protected

from excessive cracking, stain, decay, insect attack, and loss of bark

by treating them in a solution of fuel oil, pentachlorophenol and benzene

hexachloride. This process would be of particular interest to individuals

building log cabins, constructing rustic furniture, or manufacturing

novelties (48).

Recommended References

Publications :

(47) Air Drying of Lumber, by E. C. Peck, FPL Report No. 1657, reviewed and reaffirmed 1961.

(48) Drying and Protection of Wood Items in Original Round Form, by E. C. Peck. FPL Report No. 1187, reviewed and reaffirmed January 1958.

(49) A Method of Seasoning Small Quantities of Lumber, by E. F. Rasmussen. FPL Report No. 1608, reviewed and reaffirmed August 1958.

FPL-016 -37-

Kiln Drying:

The modern dry kiln represents the only practical means now in

wide use for rapid, high-volume seasoning of lumber to conditions

essential for maximum serviceability in housing, farm structures,

furniture, vehicles, ships and boats, sporting goods, and many other

wood products. Such a kiln can, in a few days or weeks, transform

green lumber into a dry stable industrial commodity.

There are two types of dry kilns, compartment and progressive.

They consist of one or more chambers in which air can be circulated

around the wood being dried, and in which the temperature and relative

humidity of this air can be controlled. Kiln construction and operation

can vary greatly. Kilns may be constructed of bricks, concrete,

asbestos-cement board, and sheet metal. They may vary in source

of heat, type of ventilation, and system of air circulation. They may

be small hand loaded, manually controlled kilns or they may be large,

truck loaded automatically controlled units (50). Regardless of

differences, if properly constructed and operated they should dry most

any lumber or other wood product to any specific moisture content

between 3 and 15 percent in a reasonably short period of time, without

appreciable seasoning degrade.

There are several advantages of kiln drying over air drying.

They are: greater reduction in weight, closer control of moisture

content to a desirable level, reduction of drying time, the killing of

FPL-016 -38-

injurious fungi and insects, and, in most cases, less degrade in

drying (51).

A recent innovation in lumber drying has been the development of

a solar dryer which makes use of solar energy and is capable of re-

ducing moisture content to less than 20 percent, in approximately half

the time required for air drying. The availability of solar energy

directly affects the efficiency of this unit which seems to offer some

promise to the sunny south (54).

Although it does not deal with kiln drying in its truest sense, a

Forest Products Laboratory system of drying lumber with a common

conventional-type agricultural crop dryer merits consideration here.

This process has successfully reduced the moitsture content of

green 4/4 basswood to less than 7 percent in approximately 14 days

at a cost of $25 per thousand board feet. This lumber was stress free

and was acceptable for cabinets and other interior wood work.

A 6,800 board foot charge of 4/4 mixed species--soft maple, ash,

and elm, with an average moisture content of 27 percent was uniformly

dried in about four days. Tested with an electric moisture meter, the

moisture content for the three species were, ash 12 percent, elm

9 percent, and maple 8 percent.

In addition to the crop dryer this process requires the construction

of a large funnel shaped framework covered with boards and sealed with

roofing paper. Although the operational cost of drying wood in this

FPL-016 -39-

manner is slightly more than the cost per 1,000 board feet on a com-

mercial operation, it does provide a means of rapid, safe drying

lumber for farmers and small mill operators who cannot afford a more

expensive conventional dry kiln and to whom custom drying facilities,

also expensive, are not always available (53).

Recommended References

Publications :

(50) Dry Kiln Building Materials and Construction, by L. V. Teesdale. FPL Report No. 1646, reviewed and reaffirmed February 1962.

(51) Dry Kiln Operator's Manual, by E. F. Rasmussen. Agricultural Handbook No. 1138, 1961. (For sale by Superintendent of Documents, Wash., D. C. 20250. Price $1.00.)

(52) List of Dry Kiln Companies, Engineers, and Consultants in the United States. FPL Report No. 1031, revised November 1961.

(53) A Small Lumber Drying Unit Employing a Portable Crop Drier for Heat and Circulation, by K. E. Kimball and O. W. Torgeson. FPL Report No. 1799, reviewed and reaffirmed October 1959.

Reprints:

(54) "Drying 4/4 Red Oak by Solar Heat, " by E. C. Peck. Reprint from Forest Products Journal, March 1962.

Storage and Handling of Lumber:

Faulty storage and handling of lumber can bring about serious

degrade in otherwise well manufactured lumber. Lumber should be

stored in a manner which will maintain it at, or bring it to, a moisture

FPL-016 -40-

content suited for its end use without degrade, and handled in an

economical manner without damage.

The proper storage and handling of lumber can be easily effected

by adopting certain practices. Lumber is often stored outdoors if shed

or warehouse facilities are not available. Outdoor storage is quite

satisfactory for some items such as lumber to be used for less exact

uses, provided some precautions are taken. The storage yard must

be well located on high, level land that is well drained. It must be

laid out in a manner to assure effective drying and to permit efficient

handling. Pile foundations must be strong and must raise the base of

the pile off the ground. Lumber must be carefully piled, stickered, and

covered with a roof.

An open storage shed is somewhat like a drying yard with a roof.

It may be open on all sides or it may be open on only one side. Closed

sheds are used primarily to store well seasoned lumber, plywood, and

other materials destined for high grade uses. Heated shed storage is the

best means of keeping kiln dried lumber at the desired moisture control.

Adequate protection of lumber in storage will help prevent damage

by fungi and insects as well as changes in moisture content that could

make the lumber unsuitable for its intended use. Properly used mechanical

equipment, such as a fork-lift truck, can increase ease and economy of

lumber handling. Poor storage largely offsets the benefits of proper

FPL-016 -41-

seasoning, because the wood may absorb moisture to an undesirable

extent before it is used. The fullest efficiency and satisfaction from

the use of wood is largely dependent upon its moisture content at time

of processing or installation (55) (56).

Recommended References

Publications :

(55) Some Effects of Storage on Seasoned Lumber, by E. F. Rasmussen. FPL Report No. 1071, reviewed and reaffirmed December 1959.

(56) Storage and Handling of Lumber, by E. C. Peck. FPL Report No. 1919, reviewed and reaffirmed 1960.

Although most of West Virginia's hardwood lumber is dried to

some extent, less than 10 percent is kiln dried. The development of

improved air drying yards, and the construction of more dry kilns

combined with modern and efficient methods of lumber handling and

storage, can constitute a major step forward in making West Virginia's

lumber a prime industrial commodity for use within the State.

Adhesives and Their Use

Until about three decades ago, the most popular concept of glue

and its uses was that it could be used to hold pieces of wood together

to manufacture solid wood products such as furniture. With the excep-

tion of a limited amount of plywood manufacturing, this was true.

FPL-016 -42-

However, since the early 1930’s glues and their uses have changed

radically with the development of phenol-resin, urea-resin, melamine-

resin, resorcinol-resin, and polyvinyl-resin glues. Today, these glues,

with some of the old standbys, are helping to bring about a revolution in

the wood industry. They are making it possible to decrease mill waste

and to utilize increasing amounts of low-grade lumber in the manufacture

of such things as laminated structural members and long, wide boards

from short, narrow ones. New adhesives are enabling us to manufacture

new products such as particle board and to improve standard products

such as plywood. New adhesives make possible the combination of wood

with metals and plastics as well as with paper and particle board. Thus,

the competitive position of wood is advanced. Other glued products

which are opening new avenues for wood use include paper and paper-

plastic overlays on low-grade lumber and the fabrication of prefabricated

building components (66).

The quality of glue bonds is dependent on (1) selecting the proper

adhesive to meet the demands of the expected use (61), (63), (64);

(2) conditioning the wood to a uniform moisture content at a level

suitable for the conditions of service; (3) preparing matching surfaces

that are smooth and well fitted mechanically; (4) spreading an adequate

amount of well-mixed glue over the faying surfaces; (5) adjusting the

interval between spreading and pressing to suit the characteristics of

the glue; (6) applying an adequate and uniform gluing pressure;

FPL-016 -43-

(7) maintaining the gluing pressure long enough to permit the glue

to set; and (8) in some cases, conditioning before further work is

done on the item (1). These important techniques apply to the gluing

process regardless of the size of the item being glued (57).

Adhesives offer opportunities for the development of new wood

products in West Virginia and assure a more efficient utilization of

wood resources. The Forest Products Laboratory's reports on

adhesives research can show the way toward improved gluing in

industry, on the farm, and in the home. Since modern glues, processes,

and techniques vary as widely as do the products made by gluing, it is

essential for the woodworker to have up-to-date information on the

selection and use of glues.

Recommended References

Publications :

(57) Adhesives and Their Application to Fabrication of Farm Structures, by Don Brouse. FPL Report No. 2178, February 1960.

(58) Adhesives, Their Use and Performance in Structural Lumber Products, by M. L. Selbo. FPL Report No. 2199, September 1960.

(59) Hand Operated Glue Spreaders. FPL Technical Note No. 255, February 1952.

(60) How to Make a Laminated Diving Board. FPL Technical Note No. 244, August 1958.

(61) How to Select a Wood Working Glue. FPL Technical Note No. 256, October 1962.

FPL-016 -44-

(62) Summary of Information on Gluing of Treated Wood, by M. L. Selbo. FPL Report No. 1789, revised April 1959.

(63) Synthetic Resin Glues for Wood. FPL Technical Note No. 258, July 1958.

(64) Woodworking Glues of Natural Origin. FPL Technical Note No, 257, reaffirmed 1960.

Reprints :

(65) "Adhesives. . . Their Future in the Wood Industry, " by Richard Blomquist and H. O. Fleischer. Reprint from Forest Products Journal, December 1960.

(66) "Progress in Glues and Gluing Processes, by Richard Blomquist. Reprint from Forest Products Journal, February 1962.

Products and Processes

The fundamental purpose for which the Forest Products Laboratory

exists is to provide knowledge needed to make more effective use of

our timber resource. One line of approach toward the fulfillment of

this purpose is developing new uses for wood and improving existing

ones. The Laboratory' s success in this endeavor is highlighted in

this section which deals with specific products and processes meriting

consideration for use in West Virginia. Some of the information con-

sidered here is related to wood uses already in existence in the State;

whereas, other information will open up entirely new avenues of

approach to increased utilization of West Virginia' s timber resource.

FPL-016 -45-

Veneer and Plywood:

Since veneer and plywood manufacturing are usually integrated

from log to end product they are considered as a single process in

this report.

Veneer manufacturing is the process of cutting thin sheets of wood

on a lathe, slicer, or saw to thicknesses ranging from 1/40 to 5/16 inch.

For special purposes, veneer is cut as thick as 3/8 inch and as thin as

1/110 inch or even less. More than half of the Nation's veneer output

is from red gum and Douglas-fir. Approximately one-fifth of the

Nation's production is from eastern hardwoods. The hardwood veneer

industry is generally divided into (1) face veneers, (2) commercial

veneers (cross bonds, backs, cores, and concealed furniture parts),

and (3) container veneers (69). Generally speaking, sliced veneer is

more expensive than rotary-cut veneer. The principal slicing woods

are mahogany, walnut, and oak. Major uses for hardwood veneers

include furniture and plywood manufacturing.

Plywood is a composite wood product manufactured by bonding

thin sheets of wood (veneers), together with adhesives. The quality of

the plywood is dependent upon the species and grade of veneer and the

type of adhesive used. Plywood manufacturing is naturally very closely

related to veneer manufacturing and often the two are integrated.

FPL-016 -46-

Plywood, which ranges in thickness from 1/100 inch to 1/4 inch,

is manufactured by bonding an odd number of veneer layers together.

The two outside layers are faces. The center layer is the core. Cross-

band layers are bonded, in pairs of equal thickness, one on each side

of the core. Adjacent layers have the wood grain at right angles to one

another. Simply stated, the manufacturing process includes preparing

veneer layers, application of adhesives, pressing, drying, and finishing.

However, do not be led astray by this over simplification of the process.

It requires specialized equipment, knowledge, and technique. The two

most common types of plywood are of all-veneer construction and

lumber-core construction (68).

Among the many uses for hardwood plywood are furniture, flush

doors, store fixtures, wall paneling, cabinets, and musical instru-

ments. Its beauty of wood grain, smoothness of finish, and dura-

bility contribute to its popularity.

The veneer and plywood industry has several characteristics

that indicate that it is well suited for West Virginia. It is extremely

resource based and, therefore, would be attracted by West Virginia' s

timber resources. It does not require a highly skilled labor force.

FPL-016 -47-

Recommended References

Publications :

(67) Heating Rates for Logs, Bolts, and Flitches to be Cut into Veneer, by H. O. Fleischer. FPL Report No. 2149, June 1959.

(68) Manufacture and General Characteristics of Flat Plywood. FPL Report No. 543, revised April 1961.

(69) The Manufacture of Veneer, FPL Report No. 285, revised June 1962.

(70) Partial List of Manufacturers of Specialized Equipment for the Veneer and :Plywood Industry. FPL Report No. TP-18, February 1956.

(71) Some Useful References on Veneer and Plywood. FPL Report NO. TP-22.

Reprints :

(72) "Our Changing Veneer and Plywood Industry," by H. O. Fleischer. Reprint from Forest Products Journal, February 1956.

Slicewood:

Visualize the advantages of a system of log breakdown which will

eliminate the sawdust problem and produce a product which needs little

or no planing and can be dried in 8 to 10 hours. This is the promise

that Forest Products Llaboratory researchers see in Slicewood, a 1/2-

inch-thick board that they have produced experimentally on a standard

face veneer slicer. Slicewood suggests many new wood products. The

Laboratory has made three specific uses of it to date, laminated stock,

FPL-016 -48-

woven lumber fences, and bin pallets. Laminated beams made from

red oak Slicewood have proven fully as strong as control beams made of

sawn boards. Red oak bin pallets are still giving excellent service

after 2-1/2 years of use in transporting 1,300-pound loads of potatoes

(73). Commercial use of this research awaits the development of a

heavy-duty Slicewood machine and the development of an economically

suitable means of drying Slicewood. Exploratory research has been

very encouraging.

West Virginia's wood industry will do well to keep an eye on the

development of the Slicewood process. In addition to advantages

already cited, 1/2-inch cuttings of three major West Virginia species,

red oak, white oak, and yellow-poplar, were satisfactorily made. This

process offers a new approach to the reduction of the mill residue problem.

Recommended References

Reprints:

(73) "Slicewood. . . A Promising New Wood Product, " by J. F. Lutz, H. H. Haskell, and R. McAlister. Reprint from Forest Products Journal, May 1962.

Wood Floors:

Wooden floors have long been a traditional part of the American

way of life as well as an excellent market for some of the Nation's

low-grade lumber. The increased use of concrete slabs in home

FPL-016 -49-

construction and the development of competitive flooring materials

that are serviceable on concrete slabs have, in recent years, reduced

the consumption of wood for flooring. To meet this situation, techni-

cians at the Laboratory have worked to develop wood flooring which

can be economically laid on concrete slabs. The result has been

three unique types of flooring. The first is manufactured from low-grade

boards or mill residues by using splines to join narrow pieces of wood

together in blocks which can then be laid as parquet. Veneer-lumber

flooring might be called two-ply flooring in that this is a combination

dense hardwood veneer, 1/8 inch thick, glued to a 5/8-inch-thick lumber

backing. The wood grain of the veneer is at right angles to that of the

backing. This flooring called "Flex-floor" can be manufactured in

plank or block form which is tongued and grooved on all edges. These

two types of flooring can be glued directly to the concrete subfloor or

laid on a conventional subfloor (75) (76). The third type of flooring is

unique in its simplicity. It consists of oak, hickory, or some other

hardwood veneer, sliced or rotary cut to 1/10- to 1/8-inch thickness.

It can be in the form of either conventional squares or long strips which

give the appearance of standard hardwood flooring. The veneer is dried

under restraint in hot-platen presses which gives it improved dimen-

sional stability. The flooring is then prefinished and laid directly to

the concrete subfloor with a rubber mastic (77). These new approaches

offer high volume outlets for low-grade or little used hardwoods.

FPL-016 -50-

In addition to developing new hardwood flooring materials, the

Forest Products Laboratory has focused its attention on improved

seasoning and other means of making wood more dimensionally stable

and on improved methods of installation, finishing, and maintenance.

A report on this research should be a valuable aid to producers and

users of wood flooring (74).

Whereas the production of hardwood flooring is not new in West

Virginia, new processes and new products can help regain lost markets

for the State's hardwoods.

Re cornmended References

Publications :

(74) Wood Floors for Dwellings. USDA Handbook No. 204, September 1961. (For sale by Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Wash., D. C. 20250. Price 50 cents.)

Reprints :

(75) "Bonding Wood Veneer Flooring to Concrete Subfloors, " by H. W. Eickner. Reprint from Veneers and Plywood, September 1959.

(7 6) "New Veneer-Lumber Flooring Developed for Concrete Slabs, " by D. A. Zischke. Reprint from Southern Lumberman, December 1955.

(77) "Veneer Flooring, " by Bruce G. Heebink. Reprint from Forest Products Journal, September 1952.

FPL-016 -51-

Particle Board:

Produced commercially in the United States since the late 1940' s

particle board was developed to diversify and improve service of wood

products and to increase utilization of forest and mill residues.

Particle board is formed by bonding together with synthetic resin

adhesive wood residues such as chips, flakes, and shavings. The

particles are mixed with adhesives and formed in pans or similar

equipment. They are then compressed into panels and cured in hot

presses.

This product is uniformly light in color and has a surface that

is hard and resists damage. It can be made in panels as thick as

1 inch and as large as 4 by 12 feet. It takes paint and stain finishes

well and can be glued and worked by methods and equipment used in

woodworking (83).

The annual capacity of a particle board plant can range between

1.5 and 50 million square feet of 3/4-inch board. A minimum sized

plant, about 35 tons per day, will cost approximately $850,000 including

equipment, buildings, and installation, but exclusive of land.

Relatively speaking, particle board plants do not offer a high rate

of employment. Although 60 to 70 percent of the workers in such a

plant are semiskilled, good technology is essential for the proper

production of particle board. Necessary skills include mechanical

and chemical engineering, wood technology, and statistics.

FPL-016 -52-

Uses for particle board include core stock for wood furniture,

sheathing, subflooring, counter tops, and hardwood panel core stock.

As this product is improved, it will find uses as roof decking,

partitions, and siding. Current Forest Products Laboratory research

is pointed toward molded particle board which has practically unlimited

possibilities.

At first glance, particle board presents a golden opportunity for

the development of a new wood industry in West Virginia. However,

keep in mind that the best particle board is manufactured from low

density woods. In hardwoods this would be species such as aspen and

basswood, which are present in relatively short supply. Optimistically,

advances in technology may soon develop to the point that hardwoods

will be a more acceptable raw material for particle board. If this

should develop, West Virginia would be a logical place in which to

expand the particle board industry.

Recommended References

Publications :

(78) Board Materials from Wood Residues. FPL Report No. 1666-21 revised 1961.

(79) Machining Tests for Particle Board, Some Factors Involved, by E. M. Davis. FPL Report No. 2072, September 1957.

(80) Partial List of Consultants, Manufacturers, and Suppliers of Equip-ment for Particle Board. FPL Report No. TP-58, October 1956.

FPE-016 -53-

(81) Partial List of References on Particle Board and Related Subjects. FPL Report TP-57, January 30, 1957.

(82) Partial List of Resin-Bonded Wood Particle Board Plants in the United States, 'Producing Board or Under Construction. FPL Report No. PE-129, revised January 1961.

(83) Particle Board. FPL Report No. TP-86, February 1959.

Reprints:

(84) "Use Development for Particle Board, "f

by Wayne C. Lewis. Reprint from Forest Products Journal, February 1958.

Structural Fiberboard.:

The great variety of structural fiberboards make it impossible to

devote much time to specific processes. In general, a fiberboard is

a sheet material manufactured of refined or partially refined vegetable

fiber, normally wood fiber. Along with bonding agents, a large number

of additives are used to increase strength, resistance to moisture, fire,

or decay, or to improve some other property. Most of these boards,

which range in density from 2 to about 90 pounds per cubic foot, are

manufactured by an adaption of a papermaking process.

The wood raw material is reduced to a pulp and formed into a mat

from a water slurry on the screen of a paper machine. The wet mat

is then dried in a continuous dryer or simultaneously compressed and

dried into a compact sheet. Binding agents and other special additives

are introduced into the manufacturing process while the slurry is in

FPL-016 -54-

the refining or storage stages. Final manufacturing includes trimming

This highlyto length and width and fabricating special edges (88).

automated process requires high capital investiments, ranging between

$1,000,000 and $10,000,000, and must maintain a large production

rate to be economical.

Structural fiberboards, from low to high density, might be

classified as semirigid insulation board, rigid insulation board,

intermediate-density board, hardboard, and special densified hardboard

(88). Probably the most common of these is the hardboard which has

practically become a household word with the advent of the "do-it-

yourself " craze.

Originally, because of the close relationship to pulp and paper

manufacturing, the major raw material for structural fiberboards was

the softwoods. This situation has changed until now more hardwoods are

Among the hardwoods are medium to low densityused than softwoods.

species such as aspen, basswood, paper birch, sweetgum, black gum,

and yellow-poplar. Red oak, a high density species, is also used, and

there is a trend toward the use of more high density hardwood species.

Laboratory research indicates that sheathing-grade insulating board

and class A hardboard can be manufactured from beech, birch, and

hard and soft maple (85).

The increasing interest in the use of hardwoods for structural

fiberboard manufacturing would make West Virginia an ideal location

FPL-016 -55-

for such a plant. The fact that it is possible to utilize such a large

number of species makes it particularly desirable. However, it

should be pointed out that water is an important factor since some

processes require as much as 10,000 gallons per ton of production.

This could be a limiting factor in some localities in the State.

Recommended References

Publications :

(85) Insulating Board and Hardboard from Four Common Hardwoods of Northeastern Farm Woodlots, by S. L. Schwartz. FPL Report No. 1931, reviewed and reaffirmed June 1960.

(86) Processes, Plants, and Production Capacities for Hardboard Manu-facture in the United States. FPL Report No. PP-87, January 5, 1955.

(87) Structural Fiberboard Machinery Manufacturers. FPL Report No. PP-51, March 25, 1957.

Reprints :

(88) "Insulating Board:, Hardboard, and Other Structural Fiberboards, " by W. C. Lewis and S. L. Schwartz. Reprint from The College Textbook of Pulp and Paper Manufacture, Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry, 1959.

Pulp and Paper:

The magnitude of the pulp and paper industry and the complexity

of the scientific process of paper manufacturing make a brief statement

on this subject next to impossible. The major point of importance is

that the pulp and paper industry has, in recent years, greatly increased

its utilization of hardwoods.

FPL-016 -56-

Research has developed processes that can be used to utilize

heavy hardwoods for many kinds of paper. The intended end product

determines the process to be used. Corrugating medium, the beginning

material for fiberboard boxes, can be made entirely from hardwood

pulp by the high yield processes developed at the Forest Products

Laboratory, such as the neutral sulfite semichemical process or the

newer cold soda process. In both of these, the wood is softened and

fiberized by chemical action; the final fiberization is achieved

mechanically. Though hardwood fibers are shorter than softwood

fibers, and thus make paper that is not quite so strong, yields by these

processes are very high. Advantages are obvious. Not only is stream

pollution reduced because less wood chemicals are dissolved, but wood

utilization is increased. An advantage to the industry is that although

cordwood prices for hardwoods and softwoods are about the same, a

cord of heavy hardwood, because of its density, contains more wood

fiber, and thus has a higher yield per cord.

Hardwoods can and are being pulped by the kraft process, also.

This is a chemical process which results in lower yields but produces

stronger paper.

Pulp mill construction costs vary widely depending upon the

process used and the desired production capacity. The cost of a

neutral sulfite semichemical pulp mill or a mill using the cold soda

FPL-016 -57-

process will range from $40,000 to $50,000 per ton of daily pro-

duction. The probable cost of a kraft pulp mill will range from $70,000

to $100,000 or more per ton per day. The smallest economic size for

the first two processes is about 50 tons per day. The minimum daily

capacity for the kraft process is around 200 tons per day. Labor re-

quirements for these processes vary from three to five man hours per

ton of production. Wood requirements for pulp production range from

0.9 to 2.4 cords per ton of pulp depending upon the kind of wood and the

kind of pulp. Fresh water requirements range from less than 1,000 to

about 88,500 gallons per ton of pulp (90) (94).

The forests of West Virginia can certainly support pulp mills since

they are now providing cordwood and chips to at least three mills which

are not located in the State. Limiting factors in locating an interested

company would be industrial sites and water --to be more specific, large

enough industrial sites with water available in quantity and quality.

Recommended References

Publications :

($9) Facilities for Pulp and Paper Research at the Forest Products Laboratory, by G. H. Chidester. FPL Report No. 1499, revised July 1960.

(90) Investment and Operation Data on Semichemical Pulping Plants. FPL Report No. PP-100, March 1957.

FPL-016 -58-

(91) List of Consulting Engineers--Specialists in Pulp and Paper, FPL Report No. PP-52, August 1957.

(92) Partial List of References on Pulp and Paper. FPL Report No. 564, revised May 1959.

(93) Pollution of Streams from Pulp and Paper Mills, by E. R. Schafer. FPL Report No. 1207. Reviewed and reaffirmed 1962.

(94) Pulp Manufacturing Information. FPL Report No. WFPR 89, Revised July 1962.

(95) Use of Hardwoods in the Manufacture of Newsprint, by G. H. Chidester. FPL Report No. 2027, reviewed and reaffirmed August 1961.

Charcoal:

From colonial times to the present, the production of charcoal

has been an important wood using enterprise. It has had its ups and

downs during this period. Today, largely due to the increased popularity

of charcoal as a domestic fuel, the charcoal market is stronger than it

has been since 1935 when 328,000 tons were produced in the United

States (97). This new demand has exceeded industry’s recent con-

sumption of charcoal and breathed new life into a faltering industry.

This demand also gave new hope to the wood industry. Here was a

profit-making means of disposing of mill waste. Many charcoal

operations started and many failed. However, charcoal production is

now playing an important role in wood utilization. Its production has

evolved from a hit-or-miss basis in earthen mounds to a highly

specialized technical process using a variety of kilns or retorts.

FPL-016 -59-

Charcoal is produced by burning wood under controlled conditions

which make it possible to severly limit the amount of oxygen available

for combustion. Wood is carbonized by heating it in ovens or retorts,

in chambers with various gases, or in kilns with limited and controlled

amounts of air. This process drives out gases and a watery tar

mixture, leaving charcoal.

Kilns range in size from 1/2-cord metal kilns to 100-cord brick

or reinforced concrete kilns. The most common kilns are built of

masonry blocks with 2- to 10-cord capacity which normally costs

$100 to $200 per cord of capacity.

Charcoal yields are affected by variables within the kiln charge such

as the type of wood raw material and wood density, and by the coaling

conditions employed. A series of 31 runs in a 7-cord masonry block

kiln produced average yields ranging from 670 pounds per cord for

light hardwoods to 920 pounds per cord for hickory. Good-quality

charcoal is obtainable at kiln temperatures of 850° to 950° F. The

proper control of these temperatures is vital for efficient charcoal

production. A comprehensive Forest Products Laboratory report

on charcoal productian describes in detail the use of an inexpensive

direct current microammeter and thermocouples to measure kiln

temperatures during coaling so that desired temperatures can be

maintained by controlling drafts (97).

FPL-016 -60-

Major considerations for profitable charcoal production are in-

expensive raw materials s efficient handling of wood and charcoal,

knowledge about kiln operation, and a businesslike approach to

marketing.

At the very best, there is a narrow margin of profit in this

business and any inefficiency or mismanagement can turn a profit

to a loss.

Marketing lump charcoal is a difficult proposition in the face of

a strong market preference for briquettes. However, many small

operators are successful in this. Others prefer to sell their lump

charcoal to briquetting plants. In 1961 the average price paid in the

United States for charcoal for briquetting was $35.50 per ton.

Briquetting requires highly specialized equipment which costs

from $150,000 to $200,000 for a one ton per hour plant. The further

cost for an additional one ton of briquettes per hour is about $80,000.

Labor requirements for a plant of this size should be about eight men

per shift. Estimates are that the cost of producing briquettes, over

and above the cost of charcoal, is from $20.00 to $25,00 per ton (97).

The production of hardwood charcoal comes close to being the

universal use far mill residues and offers an excellent opportunity

for the wood industry in West Virginia. High density hardwoods, such

as hickory, oak, and maple, make high-grade charcoal that demands a

FPL-016 -61-

premium price. This enterprise should not be undertaken without a

good understanding of the technical information available from the

Laboratory and a determination to develop a businesslike approach to

production and marketing. Charcoal production must not be considered

a sideline that merits only part-time attention.

Recommended References

Publications :

(96) Charcoal and Charcoal Briquette Production in the United States, 1961. Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture. February 1963.

(97) Charcoal Production, Marketing and Use. FPL Report No. 2213, July 1961.

Glued, Laminated Structural Members:

Glued laminated structural members are construction timbers,

glued up from smaller wood pieces, either in straight or curved form,

with the grain of all laminations essentially parallel to the length of the

member. The laminations may be of any thickness or length, of narrow

pieces glued edge to edge to make wide ones, of different species, or

of species bent to a curved form during gluing--all of which afford

infinite choice in design, subject only to economic factors involved in

production and use.

Although the Forest Products Laboratory has long been active in

research on gluing wood and as early as 1934 used glued laminated

FPL-016 -62-

structural members in constructing a building at the Laboratory, it

has only been within the past two decades that glued laminated structural

members have become widely used by architects and engineers in

design and construction.

Recently constructed churches, schools, and auditoriums as well

as farm buildings, highway bridges, and boat keels attest to the fact

that a new wood industry has been born. Advances in glues and

related technology have increased the number of uses for laminated

products.

Fabrication of laminated members demands great care in selection

of lumber. Douglas-fir is the most commonly used species, but for the

specialized use requirements of boat building white oak is used for keels.

Other hardwoods can be laminated if they meet the strength requirement

of the product. Production of glued laminated structural members

requires a high degree of technical knowledge of such areas as lumber

quality, lumber drying, woodworking, gluing, and engineering (99).

The forty or so plants currently producing glued laminated structural

members in the United States rely heavily upon engineering and other

technical "know-how'' to meet the specific structural needs of each

architect and construction engineer using their products. A specialist

at the Laboratory has prophesied that in the "not too distant future an

architect can use a table to determine strengths" and order the specific

beam he needs from a structural warehouse.

FPL-016 -63-

Although West Virginia's hardwoods are not ideally suited for the

fabrication of large laminated structural members, there appears to

be an opportunity to develop the production of small attractive hardwood

members for use in construction of homes, small shops, and stores.

The development of Slicewood would be a major step in making the produc-

tion of such a product practical.

Recommended References

Publications :

(98) Effect of Mixed Flat and Vertical Grain in Laminated White Oak Beams, by M. L. Selbo. FPL Report No. 1718, reviewed and reaffirmed January 1960.

(99) Fabrication and Design of Glued Laminated Wood Structural. Members, by A. D. Freas and M. L. Selbo. Technical Bulletin No. 1069, February 1954. U. S. Department of Agriculture. (For sale by Superintendent of Documents, Wash., D.C. 20250. Price 60 cents.)

(100) Strength Test of Spliced Studs, by E. C. O. Erickson. FPL Report No. 1275, revised June 1959.

Wood Pallets:

Mechanized handling brought into being a brand new product--

the wood pallet. With the wood pallet came that much sought after

market for lower grades of lumber, short logs, and slabs. Pallets

are generally simple in design and require little in the way of skilled

labor or special machinery for manufacturing. Essentially, a pallet

FPL-016 -64-

is a platform which serves as a base for goods being stored or

transported, and which is constructed so that the tines of a fork-lift

truck can be run under the load to lift it for moving. The quality of

lumber used depends largely on the use the customer has for the pallet,

Naturally the pallet must live up to the customer' s expectations. There

is no standard size pallet and dimensions range from less than 2 feet

to over 6 feet. The two most common dimensions are 40 and 48 inches.

In general, there are three classifications of pallets; expendable,

general purpose, and special purpose. Pallet manufacturing is a highly

competitive enterprise, but there is a steady market for good pallets

from reliable producers (102).

The production of a pallet to meet the specific needs of a customer

is not simply a matter of selecting a few deck boards and nailing them

to a number of stringers. Recognizing this, the Forest Products

Laboratory issued a report devised to aid manufacturers in producing

improved pallets specifically designed for known weights of commodities

on the basis of the physical characteristics of the lumber and the

strength properties of the particular species of wood used. An outstanding

bonus feature of this report is a three-piece circular calculator printed

on heavy cardboard which can be assembled easily and used to compute

the thickness needed for deck boards when the had is known or the load-

carrying capacity of the pallets when the thickness of deck boards is

known(103).

FPL-016 -65-

The increasing use of agricultural and industrial bin pallets

offers an opportunity to expand the wood pallet industry. A Laboratory

report presents 15 designs of bin pallets for handling agricultural

products (101).

Pallet manufacturing offers West Virginia producers of high-grade

hardwood products an outlet for their low-grade material. They can either

diversify their own operations by installing a pallet plant with their saw-

mill or sell lumber to it pallet manufacturer. The competitive nature

of pallet production must be kept in mind, and the producer should

attempt to build his business around designing assistance, pallet repair

service, and reliable delivery, as well as with a quality product.

Recommended References

Publications :

(101) Bin Pallets for Agricultural Products, by T. B. Heebink. FPL Report No. 2115, June 1958.

(102) Hardwood Pallet Manufacturing, by T. B. Heebink and E. W. Fobes. FPL Report No. 2132, December 1958.

(103) Load Carrying Capacity of Deck Boards for General-Purpose Pallets, by T. B. Heebink. FPL Report No. 2153, August 1959.

(1 04) Performance Comparison of Slender and Standard Grooved Pallet Nails, by T. B. Heebink. FPL Report No. 2238, January 1962.

(105) Suitability of Short Lumber for Pallets. FPL Report No. 2062, August 1956.

FPL-016 -66-

Overlaid Lumber :

Good products can be made out of poor boards by investing about

five cents a board foot. Thus, by investing no more than $50 a thousand

board feet common grades of lumber can be converted into beveled

siding of excellent quality. This miracle is accomplished by gluing

overlays of resin-impregnated kraft paper to the surface of low-grade

lumber. This covers defects, restrains shrinking and swelling some-

what, and provides a surface for painting. Tested in use on highway

signs in Texas, house siding in Alabama, Illinois, and Wisconsin, and

on stadium bleacher seats in Wisconsin and South Dakota, these over-

lays have performed extremely well (108).

Because the overlay stabilizes the lumber, it is usually applied

to two sides of a board. If applied to one side only, it normally tends

to warp with changes in moisture content. To meet this problem,

vulcanized fiber and parchmentized paper have been tried and found

suitable for such use. These overlays shrink and swell at approximately

the same rate as the lumber. Therefore, in use the lumber may change

dimensions, but will nevertheless remain flat. Today the most common

overlay in use is the decorative plastic laminate made of paper and

phenolic resin. It is used in restaurant tabletops and kitchen countertops.

Anyway that the service life of West Virginia's wood products can be

improved or extended certainly merits investigation. Lower grades

FPL-016 -67-

of yellow-poplar and other less dense hardwoods might well be diverted

to high-grade markets through the production of overlaid lumber.

Recommended References

Publications :

(106) Partial List of Resin-Paper Materials. FPL Report No. PP-50, September 1960.

Reprints:

(107) "Paper and Wood--A New Team, " by J. A. Hall. Reprint from The Paper Industry, February 1954.

(108) "Paper Overlaid Lumber, " by Bruce G. Heebink. Reprint from Forest Products Journal, April 1961.

(109) "Paper Overlaid Planks Provide Smooth, Durable Stadium Seats, " by Bruce G. Heebink. Reprint from Southern Lumberman, December 15, 1955.

Miscellaneous Small Wood Industries:

There are a number of small wood using enterprises which,

although their total national consumption of wood is insignificant when

compared to that of plywood or paper, merit consideration in this

report if for no other reason than that their presence might bring to

light a new idea for wood utilization.

Wood slat snow fence can be manufactured as a primary product direct

from logs or bolts, or as a by-product of sawmilling. Snow fence consists

of wood lath or slats generally 1/2 inch thick, 1-1/2 inches wide, and

FPL-016 -68-

48 inches long, spaced about 2 inches apart and woven with wire

into sections 50 to 100 feet in length. Most commonly used hardwood

species include oak, birch, and maple. White pine is considered a

prime species for this use. Equipment required for producing slats

includes a power unit of about 50 horse power, a headsaw, a gang

ripsaw, and a push table-type trimsaw. This entire layout, including

a shelter for the machinery and operators should cost under $3,500.

Weaving equipment with a capacity of about 600 linear feet of fencing per

hour should cost about $1,000. A plant of this type could provide

employment for 10 to 15 people.

The market for this product is increasing. New fencing is

constantly needed for new highways and replacement of old fence de-

mands a considerable volume. Other purposes for which this type of

fence is used include: temporary silos, temporary grain bins, shade

screens for nurseries, temporary retaining walls, and fencing for

athletic fields, playgrounds, vegetable and flower gardens, and small

animal pens (115).

Excelsior is used as a packaging material, low priced upholstery,

animal bedding, toy stuffing, a filtering material, and to manufacture

light weight building boards. Two West Virginia species, aspen and

basswood, are used to produce excelsior. Other light density species

have been used. The average excelsior machine will cut from 800 to

FPL-016 -69-

1,200 pounds of excelsior per eight hour day. One cord of wood will

yield 1,800 to 2,000 pounds of excelsior. Prewar costs of a 20 machine

plant with a daily capacity of 12 tons was approximately $10,000.

Naturally, current costs are considerably higher than this (110).

There is always a demand for speciality items and the production

of these is normally left to small wood industries. By speciality items

are meant products of somewhat restricted rather than universal use,

involving nonstandard designing and styling or new forms to appeal to

the individual consumer interest. Such products include: interior

hardwood screens, ornamental fence, and outdoor furniture. Success

with this type of enterprise depends upon originality of design, craftsman-

ship in production, and the use of quality materials (113).

Recommended References

Publications:

(110) Excelsior Manufacture. FPL Report No. 1711, reviewed and reaffirmed October 1961.

(111) Nonplastic Molded Pulp Products. FPL Report No. 1964, revised March 1960.

(112) Papier Mache. F'PL Report No. 1965, reviewed and reaffirmed September 1961.

(113) Small Wood Industry--Home Markets, by C. V. Sweet. FPL Report No. 1968, reviewed and reaffirmed 1959.

(114) Wood Seats for Stadiums. FPL Report No. 1006, March 1958. (115) Wood Slat Snow Fence. FPL Report No. 1085, reviewed and

reaffirmed 1960.

FPL-016 -70-

Utilization of Mill Residues:

The nemesis of the wood industry is the slab pile ox the incinerator

which constantly consumes wood raw material without any profit being

realized and often at a sizable annual cost to the mill operator. In some

areas, residues are diverted to such uses as charcoal production, fuel-

wood, pulp chips, and animal bedding.

The use of dry sawdust and shavings as animal bedding, particularly

for dairy farms, offers an excellent means of utilizing mill residues.

This material offers a double value--as a bedding and as a soil condi-

tioner. Absorbency, bulk, and chemical composition of wood combine

to make this material valuable when used to improve the physical

condition of the soil. This is especially true when it has first been

used as an animal bedding. Although wood itself contains no appreciable

fertilizer chemicals, wood particles used as bedding can absorb liquid

manure, which contains 90 percent of the total nitrogen in the manure.

By adding 50 pounds of superphosphate per ton of used bedding, prior to

spreading it upon the field, the nitrogen in the liquid manure is

"fixed" in a form that does not evaporate. Many secondary wood-

working plants using dried lumber would only need to install equipment

to collect and package their residue to convert waste to profit (118).

Previous reference has been made to the use of mill residues in

the production of such solid wood products as pallets and fencing.

FPL-016 -71-

Some other products that might be considered are: cribs, bins,

feeders, stakes, handles, dowels, bed slats, drawer sides, and

small rough dimension. Efficient production methods; are generally

considered the key to the successful operation of this type of enter-

prise. It involves placing machinery and equipment in proper

relation to each other to eliminate unnecessary lifting, carrying,

and back tracking of materials (116).

Recommended References

Publications :

(1 16) Fabrication of Wood Products at Small Sawmills and Woodworking Plants. FPL Report No. 1666-8, reviewed and reaffirmed 1960.

(117) Sawdust Floor Sweeping Compounds. FPL Report No. 1666-14, reviewed and reaffirmed 1962.

(118) Uses for Sawdust and Shavings. FPL Report No. 1666-1, revised 1961.

(119) Uses for Slabs, Edgings,, and Trimmings. FPL Report No. 1666-2, reviewed and reaffirmed 1960.

(120) Wood Fuel Preparation. FPL Report No. 1666-19, revised 1960.

Furniture :

Fine furniture is one of the highest uses that can be made of high-

grade hardwood lumber. Furniture manufacturing is that part of the

wood industry that combines the talents of the artist with the abilities

FPL-016 -72-

of the technologist. The artist must visualize and design fine furniture,

but it is the technologist with his background and experience of lumber

selection, drying, gluing, and machining who produces high-grade

furniture from good designs. A furniture factory may be a large

national organization employing hundreds of workers, or it may be a

small local woodworking shop employing only two or three people.

Regardless of its size, the quality of its products depends upon the

woodworkers' knowledge of wood and how to process it.

A contribution the Forest Products Laboratory has made to

furniture manufacturing technology is the show-through comparator

for comparing, evaluating, and if necessary, recording by camera the

surface imperfections in furniture-type panels having particle board

cores. An oversimplified description of this apparatus would be that

it consists of a slide projector, a 35-millimeter slide of a master grid,

a translucent screen, the panel to be tested, and, when desired, a

camera. Using the slide of the master grid the projector is focused

on the surface to be examined. The image of the grid is reflected

from the surface of the test panel back to the translucent screen which

is located beside the projector and parallel to the surface of the test

panel. The image of the grid should cover a 9-inch by 9-inch area

of the test panel. Reading the shadowy image on the translucent screen

has been compared to reading X-rays in that one must train himself to

FPL-016 -73-

look for distorted lines which indicate specific types of imperfections

in the hidden particle board core. Such an apparatus would be simple

to arrange and would be effective in improving quality control in a

furniture plant using such panels (121).

The abundance of prime furniture woods such as walnut, cherry,

and maple could contribute substantially to West Virginia's economy

if they were not exported for further processing in other States, but

were used to produce West Virginia made furniture for the large

eastern markets which are so convenient. West Virginia is well suited

as a location for the production of the increasingly popular modern

furniture which uses wood in combination with other materials such as

iron and glass since both of these materials are available locally.

Recommended References

Publications :

(121) Forest Products Laboratory Show-Through Comparator for Furniture Panels. FPL Technical Note No. 263, August 1960.

(122) Methods of Controlling Humidity in Wood Working Plants, by M. E. Dunlap. FPL Report No. 1612, reviewed and reaffirmed August 1958.

(123) Moisture Content of Wood as Related to Finishing of Furniture, by F. L. Browne. FPL Report No. 1722, reviewed and reaffirmed November 1959.

(124) Seasoning Dimeinsion Stock. FPL Report No. 1242, reviewed and reaffirmed September 1961.

FPL-016 -74-

(125) Significance of Tension Wood in Furniture Cuttings of Red Oak, by L. E. Lassen and G. A. Cooper. FPL Report No. 2193, July 1960.

(126) Veneered and Solid Furniture. FPL Technical Note No. 197, reissued 1960.

Improve d Serviceability

Wood and wood products do not always have the built-in service-

ability they need to accomplish satisfactorily their intended use. For

instance, the heartwood of such species as black locust and Osage-

orange is highly resistant to decay but cottonwood and aspen have a

low resistance. Therefore, black locust or Osage-orange should be

used to build a permanent fence. If such highly resistant species

are unavailable and low resistant species, such as cottonwood or

aspen must be used, it is necessary to treat the posts with wood pre-

servatives to make them resistant to decay and thus improve their

serviceability. An untreated post of a low resistant species would

rot within a comparative few years and be unable to perform the job

it was intended for. The wood industry cannot afford to have dissatisfied

customers. This means that it is imperative to provide wood naturally

suited to do the job that needs to be done, or to provide a less decay

resistant species that has been treated to improve its serviceability.

Wood service can be improved by treating with wood preservatives,

water repellents, fire retardants, and by painting. Treatments that

increase the dimensional stability of wood also improve its serviceability.

FPL-016 -75-

Wood Preservatives:

Wood can be protected from decay fungi and insects through the

application of selected chemicals. The effectiveness of this treatment

depends upon the chemical preservative used, the type of treatment

used, the condition of the wood--is it dry or green--and the treatability

of the wood. The degree of effectiveness is closely related to the depth

the preservative is able to penetrate into the wood.

There are two general types of preservatives: oils, such as

creosote and pentachlorophenol, and water-borne salts. Wood pre-

serving methods are also of two general types: (1) Pressure pro-

cesses, in which the wood is impregnated in closed vessels under

pressure considerably above atmospheric pressure; and (2) nonpres-

sure processes, which vary widely as to procedures and equipment

used. The specific type of treatment will depend upon the use to be

made of the wood after treatment. Some of the most common non-

pressure treatments are double diffusion (127), cold-soak (134),

tire tube (133), and steeping (129). Wood service can be extended as

much as five times normal life through the proper use of good

preservatives. It should be pointed out that preservatives can also

be used to extend life of wood already in service.

Developed by the Forest Products Laboratory, the double-diffusion

process is one of the newest methods of applying a preservative

FPL-016 -76-

treatment to wood. This process consists of soaking peeled, green

wood first in one chemical solution and then in a second solution.

These two chemicals diffuse into the wet wood and react with each

other to form a compound that is poisonous to termites and decay-

causing fungi. The compound that is formed by these two solutions is

practically insoluble in water and,therefore, does not leach to any

extent. Fence posts are treated by soaking them as soon as possible

after they are cut and peeled. They are submerged for three days

in a solutionof sodium fluoride and then in a copper sulfate solution

for another three days. It is adviseable to rinse the posts off with

clear water so that they can be handled safely without gloves. Posts

can be used immediately but it is better to close-pile them for several

weeks to permit the chemicals to become more evenly distributed

throughout the posts. Although equipment for this process can consist

of special tanks, pumps, and hoists excellent treatment can be

achieved by standing posts butt down in 55-gallon drums containing

the solutions (127).

Field tests of this process indicate that there has only been 5 percent

failure in treated posts which were installed in Mississippi in 1940.

West Virginia's supply of decay-resistant species is rapidly di-

minishing. In the twenties chestnut blight started and now has virtually

eliminated the American chestnut. Second-growth black locust normally

FPL-016 -77-

has a high proportion of sapwood that is low in resistance to decay.

Osage-orange is available only in small widely scattered stands, and

West Virginia black walnut is normally too valuable for use as a decay-

resistant wood product. Less resistant species must be treated.

It is apparent, then, that West Virginia must make use of wood

preservatives for good wood service. An example of how wood

preservatives can help existing industries might be illustrated by

citing the rustic fence manufacturers who have been relying on "dead

chestnut" for their raw material. Theirs is a premium product, but

good chestnut rails are getting more difficult to locate. Through the

"double diffusion" treatment of green oaks, sycamore, or other less

resistant species, a first-rate replacement can be utilized.

Recommended Reference s

Publications :

(127) How to Treat Fence Posts by Double Diffusion, by R. H. Baechler. FPL Report No. 1955, revised July 1961.

(128) Making Log Cabins Endure. FPL Report No. 982, revised June 1960.

(129) Preservation of Timber by the Steeping Process. FPL Report No. 621, reviewed and reaffirmed November 1959.

(130) Preservative Treatment of Window Sash and Other Millwork, by F. L. Browne. FPL Report No. 919, reviewed and reaffirmed February 1958.

(131) The Preservative Treatment of Wood for Farm Use, by J. O. Blew, Jr. FPL Report No. 2098, reviewed and reaffirmed 1960.

FPL-016 -78-

(132) Preservatives for Wood Pallets, by J. O. Blew, Jr. FPL Report No. 2166, October 1959.

(133) Tire Tube Method of Fence Post Treatment. FPL Report No, 1158, revised May 1962.

(134) Treating Wood by the Cold Soaking Method, by J. Oscar Blew, FPL Report No. 1445, reprinted October 1963.

(135) What Can Be Expected from Treated Wood in Highway Construction, by J. O. Blew, Jr. FPL Report No. 2235, November 1961.

Fire -Retardants :

A fire-retardant is a chemical that limits flaming performance.

Its purpose in the treatment of wood is to make wood fire resistant--

that is, to give wood the ability to resist penetration by fire.

There are two general methods for accomplishing this. One con-

sists of impregnating dry wood with a solution of water-borne chemicals.

The effectiveness of this treatment is measured in terms of depth of

penetration and the amount of chemicals deposited in the wood. The

other method is to coat the wood surface with paint containing fire-

retardant chemicals which froth and swell at fire temperatures and

insulate the wood from the fire. One benefit these treatments give

is a reduction in the flammability of the wood so that it will contribute

little fuel to the fire.

With all costs, such as handling, chemicals, equipment, and redrying,

an impregnation treatment is likely to cost between $70 and $80 per

thousand board feet over the price paid for the untreated wood. The

FPL-016 -79-

cost of a suitable fire-retardant coating is usually less than that

of impregnating the wood. Impregnation, however, is generally

considered the most eff'ective (137).

For new wood construction and for the repair of existing

structures with new parts, pressure impregnation offers the

best possibility of obtaining lasting fire-retarding effects. The fire-

retarding effect of impregnation treatments is closely related to the

quantity of chemical injected into the wood as well as to the chemical

used. For a high degree of effectiveness, five to six pounds of

This is approximatelychemicals per cubic foot of wood are required.

400 to 500 pounds per thousand board feet. Among the most commonly

used chemicals are monoammonium phosphate, diammonium phosphate,

ammonium sulfate, sodium tetraborate (borax), boric acid, and zinc

chloride.

Many coating materials partially protect wood against fire. The

amount of protection provided by a fire-retardant is related to the

amount and thoroughness of application, and to the severity of the

fire exposure. Fire-retardant coatings are of varying composition

The most commonly used fire-retardant chemicalsand properties.

are ammonium phosphate, borax, or sodium silicate. Newly developed

synthetic materials are also used (139).

Fire is a universal problem so fire-retardants hold no special

significance for the West Virginia wood industry. However, anything

FPL-016 -80-

that the industry can do to make their products more resistant to this

hazard will be adding to the serviceability of those products. The

planing mill operator, the lumber wholesaler, and the lumber

retailer can contribute to wood service regarding fire-retardants by

treating mill work and other wood that goes into construction and by

encouraging its use.

Recommended References

Publications :

136) Experiments in Fireproofing Wood - Fifth Progress Report, by T. R. Truax, C. A. Harrison, and R. H. Baechler. FPL Report No. 1118, reviewed and reaffirmed November 1956.

(137) Fire-retardant Treatments for Wood. FPL Report No. 2081, April 1957.

(138) Ignition and Charring Temperatures of Wood. FPL Report No. 1464, slightly revised January 1958.

(139) The Performance of Wood in Fire, by H. O. Fleischer. FPL Report No. 2202, November 1960.

Water-Repellents :

A water-repellent is a thin liquid that gives wood the ability to shed

liquid water. It can do this because of the waxlike material that it

contains. Water-repellents fight decay and stain by denying the decay

and stain fungi the moisture they need to live. They reduce water

damage to the wood, such as the excessive swelling and shrinking that

FPL-016 -81-

leads to checking and cracking. They also protect paint applied to the

wood from blistering, cracking, and peeling.

Water-repellents should be applied to all wood having an outside

exposure. Particular care should be taken to treat areas having

end grain and joints. Other places that should be treated include the

butt and lap joints in beveled siding, edges and end joints of vertical

siding, corner joints in windows and doors. The bottoms of doors

particularly need treatment and are often overlooked (140). An

effective treatment of new wood and of wood in use can be accomplished

with a brush. However, the most effective treatment can be performed

by dipping the wood in a water-repellent solution. Water-repellents

are available on the market under a great variety of trade names. It

is not the custom of the industry to disclose the composition of their

proprietary products. Some ingredients which might be found in such

products are raw linseed oil, paraffin wax, pentachlorophenol, and

mineral spirits.

Lumber retailers and wholesalers in West Virginia could add to the

serviceability of their siding, and exterior millwork, such as doors,

windows, and moldings, by making a treating service available to their

customers.

FPL-016 -82-

Recommended References

Publications:

(140) Water-Repellent Preservatives Reduce Rain-Caused Paint Blistering on Wood Siding, by L. V. Teesdale. FPL Report No. 1990, reviewed and reaffirmed September 1959.

(141) Water Repellents Improve Performance of Drop Siding, by L. O. Anderson. USFS Research Paper FPL 4, May 1963.

Dimensional Stability:

The desired product of dimensional stabilization is to produce a

piece of wood that will not shrink, swell, or warp. The real problem

is one of wood-moisture relationship. Wood that dries out during dry

winter weather will gain moisture and swell during a humid summer.

Processes to restrict or prevent this natural shrinking and swelling

are, generally speaking, too expensive to use on most wood products

but in the case of high value wood products, such as bowls, carvings,

and gun stocks, there is a practical process. Green wood is soaked

in a solution of polyethylene glycol-1000 (PEG) dissolved in water.

This solution bulks the spaces between the fibers within the cell walls

so that when the wood dries the fibers cannot pull together and the wood

remains in its original position. The completeness of stabilization

depends upon how much of the chemical is absorbed and deposited in

the cell walls. Carvings, bowls, and disks for novelty items should

be rough cut before soaking (143).

FPL-016 -83-

More specifically, PEG treatment consists of soaking green wood

items in a 30 percent (by weight) water solution of polyethylene glycol-

1000 for about six weeks at a temperature of 70° F. or above.

Treating time can be reduced to about two weeks by elevating the

temperature of the treating solution to from 140° to 160° F. and by

increasing the concentration to 50 percent (144).

Treated items can be air dried in from two to three months,

depending on the drying conditions. In a carefully controlled dry

kiln the drying time can be reduced to about one week. When properly

dried, PEG treated items can be carved or turned. Once dried and

finished PEG treated wood items will resist dimensional changes.

Satisfactory results have been obtained by treating walnut, soft maple,

American elm, red oak, black cherry, and yellow-poplar.

PEG is not the only process for improved dimensional stability.

Two commercial processes developed by the Laboratory are "impreg"--

resin impregnated wood, and "compreg"--compressed resin-treated

wood. PEG is given special consideration in this report because the

nature of this treatment makes it reasonably available to everyone

and requires no specialized equipment (142).

Craft centers, encouraging the mountain craft of "whittlin," should

encourage the use of PEG and as the furniture industry grows in West

Virginia this process should prove valuable in manufacturing fine

furniture.

FPL-016 -84-

Recommended References

Publications:

(142) Modified Woods, by R. M. Seborg, Harold Tarkow, and A. J. Stamm. FPL Report No. 2192, revised November 1962.

(143) Notes on the Treatment of Wood With Polyethylene Glycol. USFS Research Note, FPL-06, March 1963.

(144) Stabilized Wood Gunstocks in Marine Corps Marksmanship Competition, by Major Robert E. Dawson, Major Edward G. Usher, Jr. , and Harold L. Mitchell. FPL Report No. 2245, April 1962.

Reprints :

(145) "New Horizons in Bowl Turning, " by George H. Englerth and Harold L. Mitchell. Reprint from Forest Products Journal, February 1963.

(146) "Protect Imported Carvings With PEG," by Harold L. Mitchell and Eugene W. Fobes. Reprint from Forest Products Journal, October 1962.

(147) "Seasoning Green-Wood Carvings with Polyethylene Glycol-1000, " by Harold L. Mitchell and E. S. Iversen. Reprint from Forest Products Journal, January 1961.

Exterior Wood Finishes :

Exterior woodwork, such as siding, that remains reasonably dry

except for surface wetting by rain, does not decay; but if left unprotected

it will weather. In general, there are two types of finishes--the pene-

trating finishes and the surface finishes. Drying oil, sealer, or wax

FPL-016 -85-

finishes, with or without stain, and without forming an appreciable

surface coating are penetrating finishes. Surface coating forms a

continuous skin over the wood.

There are five factors which significantly affect the serviceability

of exterior paints on wood: (1) the kind and quality of wood painted,

(2) the design and use of the building to ensure that the wood will re-

main dry enough to hold paint, (3) the composition and quality of the

paint, (4) the technique of application and the program of maintenance,

and (5) the severity of the climatic conditions of the exposure.

Surface coating exterior paints contain pigments such as white lead,

titanium dioxide and zinc oxide, and nonvolatile vehicles such as linseed

oil. Originally house paints were designed and recommendations for

their use were based on the standard of three-coat initial painting. This

remains a good standard to follow in maintaining modern homes which

require surface coatings. Repainting, at least one coat, should be done

every two to four years. If repainting is not performed before previous

paints wear away, check, blister and split, two coats might be required.

The Forest Products Laboratory has developed a penetrating

natural finish which greatly enhances wood service by bringing out the

natural beauty of the wood. Intended for use on house siding, it is quite

effective for use on other outside woodwork. In addition to imparting an

attractive finish, it produces a certain amount of water repellency. It

is easy to apply in a single coat and requires refinishing only every 3 to

5 years.

FPL-016 -86-

The formula for mixing slightly less than 5 gallons of FPL

natural finish of light redwood color includes 1 pound of paraffin wax,

2 ounces of zinc stearate, 1 gallon of turpentine or paint thinner,

1/2 gallon of pentachlorophenol concentrate (10 - 1), 3 gallons of boiled

linseed oil, and 2 pints of burnt sienna in oil (Fed. Spec. TT-P-381,

color 3B). Colors can be changed by adding varying amounts of burnt

sienna, raw umber, and Indian red iron oxide. The paraffin and zinc

stearate are heated in a double boiler, mixed and poured into a 5-

gallon bucket containing turpentine or paint thinner. This mixture is

stirred vigorously and allowed to cool to room temperature. Penta-

chlorophenol and linseed oil are added; then the colors-in-oil are

stirred in a little at a time, until the mixture is uniform. One gallon

of FPL natural finish will cover 200 to 250 square feet of rough wood

surface (148).

FPL natural finish should be of interest to every West Virginia

home owner. The commercial production of FPL natural finish offers

an opportunity for a wood related business enterprise. This finish is

excellent for modern dwellings and summer cottages that are being

constructed with rough finished hardwood siding.

FPL-016 -87-

Recommended References

Publications :

(148) Forest Products :Laboratory Natural Finish. FPL Report No. 2096, revised May 1961.

(149) Paint Peeling, Causes and Cures, by Don F. Laughnan. FPL Report No. TP-70, November 1958.

(150) The Two-Coat System of House Painting, by F. L. Browne. FPL Report No. 1259, revised September 1958.

(151) Wood Properties That Affect Paint Performance, by F. L. Browne. FPL Report No. 1053, reviewed and reaffirmed June 1958.

Other Wood Finishes :

The selection of the proper paint or other wood finish to do a

specific job of protecting wood or enhancing its appearance is a difficult

task. Some furniture needs a finish that will bring out the grain pattern

and will make the wood resistant to stains. Other pieces of furniture

need bright colored enamel to hide scars of past use. Hardwood floors

require a transparent finish to show the grain and a hard tough finish

to protect it from mechanical wear. These are but a few of the versatile

jobs demanded of wood finishes. A working knowledge of paints and

painting is an excellent way of improving wood's serviceability.

FPL-016 -88-

Recommended References

Publications :

(152) Bleaching Wood, by Leslie E. Downs. FPL Report No. 1705, reviewed and reaffirmed April 1961.

(1 53) Some Books and Pamphlets on Finishing Wood and Furniture, FPL Technical Note No. 195, December 1961.

Wood Use in Construction

In many respects this section of this report is a composite of

all the rest, since it is devoted to the use of wood as a construction

mate rial.

Wood, because of its characteristics, is a unique material for

construction. Among its most important characteristics are its

strength, weight, workability, paintability, ability to hold fastenings,

insulating properties, and stability, To this list should also be added

beauty.

Part of wood's great versatility as a building material comes from

the fact that different species of wood possess these properties in

varying degrees. The particular combination of characteristics that

a given species possesses determines, to a large extent, what part this

species plays in construction.

Wood materials utilized in construction today vary in form from

solid wood siding and structural timbers to particle board and sandwich

FPL-016 -89-

panel. Research has improved wood' s ability to perform conventional

jobs and has developed new tasks for it to perform.

From pole barns to prefab houses, wood engineering research has

changed wood's role in construction. Laminated beams and pre-

stressed panels have opened the way for new architecture. New paints,

new glues, new fasteners, new combinations of wood, and new

combinations of wood with other materials have had an impact on

construction on the farm, in industry, and in the home.

Because of increased costs of labor and material for the construction

of conventional types of homes and the interest of elements of the

industry to meet the demands of the people for homes priced within their

ability to pay, factory fabrication of homes has expanded rapidly. The

National Bureau of Standards defines a prefabricated home as a home

"having floors, walls, ceiling, or roof composed of sections, or panels,

of varying sizes which have been fabricated prior to erection on the

building foundation. This is in contrast to the conventionally built home

which is constructed piece by piece on the site'' (156). The practices of

using precut joists, studs, and other framing members or ready-built

doors, windows, and staircases do not constitute prefabrication. The

main aim of prefabrication has been to put the intricate, difficult tasks

of house construction in the factory where they can be performed quickly

and economically on a mass production basis.

FPL-016 -90-

The Forest Products Laboratory was granted United States

patents in 1939 for prefabrication construction methods involving

certain features of the stressed-cover principal. The basic feature

of the stressed-cover type of prefabricated-house construction consists

of two facings, one glued to one side and the other glued to the other

side of an inner structural framework to form what is virtually a box

girder. A variation of this construction is the "sandwich" panel, in

which a continuous core rather than stringers is used. A more recent

innovation of the "sandwich" panel has been the development by the

Laboratory of paper-honeycomb cores for the use in structural panels.

These panels are strong, stiff, light, economical of raw materials,

and can be manufactured by processes that lend themselves to mass

production (157).

The stressed-cover principle is based upon the engineering concept

that all material in a structure should contribute directly to its strength.

In conventional construction, a structural frame carries the exterior

and interior wall coverings, floors, and ceilings largely as a dead weight.

The stressed-covered principle thus gives opportunity to design more

closely and with greater economy (158).

Homes, farm buildings and other structures always require a large

amount of wood products, however, flooring and paneling are the two

main uses for hardwoods in construction. West Virginia wood industries

FPL-016 -91-

must seek new means of using hardwoods in construction. Stressed-

cover sandwich panels can be of many materials, including hardwoods.

This is but one way that hardwoods can be used in construction.

Recommended References

Publications:

(154) Built-up Beams for Light Frame and Pole Construction, by D. V. Doyle. FPL Report No, 2230, January 1962.

(155) Manual on Wood Construction for Prefabricated Houses. Housing and Home Finance Agency. (For sale by Superintendent of Documents, Wash. , D. C. 20250, Price $1.50.)

(156) Nailing Dense Hardwoods. FPL Technical Note No. 247, October 1961.

(157) Paper-Honeycomb Cores for Structural Sandwich Panels, by Robert J. Seidle. FPL Report No. 1918, reviewed and reaffirmed 1962.

(158) Prefabricated House System Developed by the Forest Products Laboratory, by R. F. Luxford. FPL Report No. 1165, reviewed and reaffirmed October 1958.

(159) Remedial Measures for Building Condensation Difficulties, by L. V. Teesdale. FPL Report No, 1710, reviewed and reaffirmed August 1962.

(160) Research in Wind,-Resistant Farm Building Construction, by D. V. Doyle. FPL Report No. 1930, reviewed and reaffirmed July 1959.

(161) Segmented Rafters for Gothic-Roofed Farm Buildings, by D. V. Doyle. FPL Technical Note No. 261, December 1958.

(162) Simplified Principles for Structural Grading of Timber, by L. J. Markwardt and L. W. Wood. FPL Report No. 2112, March 1958.

FPL-016 -92-

(163) Wood Frame House Construction, by L. O. Anderson and O. C. Heyer. USDA Agricultural Handbook No. 73, February 1955. (For sale by Superintendent of Documents, Wash., D.C. 20250. Price 65 cents.)

(164) Wood Siding for Buildings, by F. A. Strenge. FPL Report No. 1929, reviewed and reaffirmed 1960.

Availability of Recommended References

Except when otherwise indicated all literature cited in this report is

currently available from the Forest Products Laboratory and may be

obtained by writing to the Director, Forest Products Laboratory,

Madison, Wisconsin 53705.

Literature cited in this report was specifically selected because

of its subject matter. These are but a few of the available publications.

Lists of publications relating to many subject areas are also available

on request.

Special References

Attention has previously been called to the fact that among the

"recommended references'' there are several handbooks and technical

bulletins which, although they were prepared by Forest Products

Laboratory technicians, are not distributed from the Laboratory.

These are valuable basic sources of information relating to wood

and its uses. Each of these handbooks has been cited only once in

this report; however, some of them contain information pertinent

FPL-016 -93-

to several or all sections of this chapter and should be emphasized.

The handbooks are Wood Handbook, Saw Mill Operator's Manual, Dry

Kiln Operator's Manual, Wood--Colors and Kinds, and Wood Frame

House Construction. The technical bulletins include Machining and

Related Characteristics of United States Hardwoods, The Application

of Silviculture in Controlling the Specific Gravity of Wood, and Fabrica-

tion and Design of Glued Laminated Wood Structural Members. The

above are publications of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The

Manual on Wood Construction for Prefabricated Houses was prepared

for the Housing and Home Finance Agency.

FPL-016 -94-

IMPLICATIONS AND R E COMMENDATIONS

Introduction

The wood utilization research of the Forest Products Laboratory

highlighted in this report can contribute in three ways to the growth

of the wood industry in West Virginia. These are (1) as a source of

ideas for developing new industries, (2) as a basis for organizing

and conducting educational programs, and (3) as a guide for planning

future utilization research programs, Each of these is vital to the

growth of the industry. Research is the source of ideas for developing

industries. Education is essential if the merits of the research are

to be recognized and if the full potential of the research is to be realized

when it is put to work. The role of education is to advance the findings

of research and to seek constantly new ways of effecting desirable

changes. Future research must be based on what is now known and on

the needs of the industry. The following pages are devoted to implica-

tions for development, education, and future research programs brought

to light by this study.

FPL-016 -95-

Development

Technology from the Laboratory provides strong support to organiza-

tions and individuals endeavoring to bring forth new wood using industries

or to modernize existing operations. This research provides ideas for

developing new approaches to utilization of the hardwood resource of West

Virginia. A few of these opportunities are as follows:

Hardwood Veneer Flooring:

This is a new material offering opportunities for wood to regain

its now dwindling flooring market. Stretch-dried veneer is a flexible

but stable material for use as flooring. Its special advantage is that it

can be used directly on cement or plywood subfloors. This same process

of cutting and drying holds promise for new products for use as paneling

and ceiling materials. Research is now underway at the Laboratory to

develop a continuous dryer for producing this material.

Slicewood:

This process is not yet ready for commercial use but the industry

should stand ready to take advantage of the Laboratory's research as soon

as a practical, efficient slicer and a drying process become a reality.

A myriad of new hardwood products from built-up lumber to fancy

fencing will be possible at that time.

FPL-016 -96-

Glued Wood Turnings:

Everything from bowling pins to table legs can be made from

West Virginia' s hardwoods. Production of bowling pins by drying,

gluing, and turning hard maple blocks can be a profitable business.

The investment required will depend on the volume and whether the

product is a finished pin or has only been rough turned. Proper

production requires knowledge of seasoning hard maple, glue-

laminating hardwoodss machining woods, and the ability to select high-

quality wood for this specialty product. Equipment required includes

a sawmill, a dry kiln, surfacing machines, gluing equipment, and

automatic lathes.

Novelties:

By combining West Virginia's prime hardwood species, such

as walnut, maple, and cherry, with the polyethylene glycol-1000

treatment, craftsmen can produce greatly improved turnings and

carvings. Efficient gang carving machines, capable of duplicating

hand carved items in volume are commercially available. The

tourist trade of West Virginia provides a ready market for such

quality products.

Snow Fence:

The production of slats from mill waste and round bolts, and

their use in producing snow fence offers an opportunity to utilize

FPL-016 -97-

some of West Virginia's low-grade hardwoods. Such an enterprise fits

in well with many forest management plans by providing a use for

small timber, thinnings of good quality, and inferior logs. Modifica-

tion of the conventional snow fence could conceivably increase the

use of such fence on farms, around homes, and in recreational areas.

FPL Natural Finish:

The manufacture of Forest Products Laboratory natural finish

for use on house siding, ornamental fences, and lawn furniture

offers an opportunity to develop a small wood related enterprise,

This semitransparent oil-base stain effectively retains much of the

natural beauty of wood siding exposed to the weather. Among the

advantages of this finish are good color retention, good durability,

and low cost of initial application and maintenance. Indications are

that it should last approximately three years and should simply wear

away, thus presenting a very easy surface to refinish. This finish is

not considered satisfactory for interior use, or use on floors or

exterior millwork.

Overlaid Wood Siding:

Wood has lost a substantial part of the house siding market to

aluminum and plastics. This happened mainly because wood became

too expensive and required repainting every second or third year.

FPL-016 -98-

West Virginia could overcome both of these objections by manu-

facturing overlaid wood siding which is produced by bonding a resin-

impregnated kraft paper or vulcanized fiber to the surfaces of low-

grade hardwood lumber. This could provide an excellent means of

utilizing medium and low density hardwoods, which grow abundantly

in West Virginia.

This product has many advantages over substitutes. It greatly

reduces maintenance costs. In use for more than 15 years in Wisconsin,

this siding has required repainting only once. It also retains the in-

sulation, acoustical, and electrical properties of wood.

When this product is manufactured with impregnated paper, both

sides of the board must be covered to give balance and prevent warping

or cupping. When produced with a vulcanized fiber, which has comparable

shrinking and swelling properties to wood, a 5/4 board can be completely

covered and then resawn into two pieces of overlaid beveled siding.

The process has been developed, if not perfected. West Virginia

has the wood raw material. West Virginia could lead the field in

producing overlaid wood siding.

Wood Preservation:

The use of the double-diffusion treatment of green lumber or

round logs offers an opportunity for improving wood serviceability,

and thus increasing wood value. Wherever there is a need for

FPL-016 -99-

durable wood there is is need for treating facilities. Equipment

costs range from about $40 for the farm treatment of fence posts to

several thousands of dollars for commercial operations. This process

consists of soaking green wood products in two separate salt solutions.

When these water-soluble salts meet in the wood they react and form

an insoluble precipitate that is toxic to decay fungi and insects. The

paintability of wood treated by this process is a real asset.

Custom Dry Kilns:

Although not a new industry, this enterprise offers opportunities

for expanding the State's wood industry. Dry kilns can be developed

as a part of an on-going sawmill, manufacturing plant, or

concentration yard. Proper kiln operation requires good technology

on kiln operation and lumber handling. Cost of kiln construction

is approximately $1.00 per foot of kiln capacity.

Large Wood Industries :

The production of plywood, hardboard, particle board, and pulp

and paper offers excellent opportunities for increased wood utilization

in West Virginia and the State possesses an abuncance of suitable wood

raw material. These processes require high volume for economic

production.

FPL-016 -100-

Individuals and groups concerned with development of the wood

industry at West Virginia can make best use of this report when they:

1. Become fully familiar with the details of' this report, determine

which of its research items offer promise for industrial expansion or

improvement, and request pertinent recommended references from

the Forest Products Laboratory.

2. Consult with available wood utilization specialists - -State,

Federal, Extension, and private. Explore benefits, limitations, costs,

and markets.

3. Employ competent, experienced technical personnel to super-

vise and implement the proposed expansion or modernization.

4. Are prepared to adopt recommendations involving new capital

investments.

Education

The growth of the wood industry in West Virginia depends largely

upon how rapidly forestry interests become aware of new research in

wood utilization and are able to adapt it to their purposes. Wood indus-

try's leadership must be well informed on modern production practices,

manufacturing processes, and new products if it is to guide successfully

the industry to the realization of its full potential. Equally important is

the need for a reservoir of labor with skills and knowledge necessary

for working with wood.

FPL-016 -101-

The technology available from the Laboratory can be of value to

the individual such as the farmer, homeowner, sawmill operator, or

the manager of an industrial plant. It can also be used by organizations

and agencies such as the West Virginia Sawmill Operators Association

or the Cooperative Extension Service in planning and carrying out

their educational programs.

Individuals can use the information and services of the Laboratory

to gain general knowledge of wood technology or to find the solution to

their specific wood use problems. A farmer can obtain information

on how to grade logs, dry lumber, treat poles and posts with wood

preservatives, or how to erect a pole barn. A homeowner can find

answers to problems dealing with house painting, protecting wood in

use, selecting and installing wood flooring, or how to build a house.

A sawmill operator can learn about log grading, protecting logs in

storage, operation and maintenance of the mill, and increasing quality

yield from the mill. The industrial plant manager can learn the

technology of drying, storing, and handling lumber, the machining

characteristics of wood, or the selection and use of adhesives.

In many cases the individual may be able to effect the solution of

his utilization problem by reading this report, obtaining the pertinent

literature from the Laboratory, studying this literature, and by

putting the newly acquired knowledge to work. In other cases, additional

FPL-016 -102-

assistance may be required. This may be obtained by writing to the

Forest Products Laboratory or by contacting the Extension Wood

Utilization Specialist, West Virginia University.

Special interest groups, such as the West Virginia Sawmill

Operators Association, can make use of the information in this report

to plan educational programs for regular conferences and for special

meetings such as sawmill clinics, log grading workshops, and lumber

drying schools.

The following suggestions can aid organizations in putting this

information to its best use:

1. Principal officers and members of the organization's program

planning committee should become thoroughly familiar with this report,

making special note of areas particularly related to the needs and

interests of their membership.

2. Confer with wood utilization specialists, such as the Extension

Wood Utilization Specialist, West Virginia University, concerning

methods for using Laboratory research information and the means

for obtaining supplemental information and assistance from other sources,

3. Plan the educational program well in advance to assure the

presence of qualified resource personnel and to provide time to obtain

pertinent resource material and training aids.

Expansion of the wood industry in West Virginia increases the

demand for more and more skill and knowledge on the part of workers

FPL-016 -103-

in occupations once rated as unskilled or semiskilled; and for more

workers with specialized abilities for new occupations which have

developed through changes in technology.

Vocational education, with the goal of fitting persons for useful

employment by relating training to specific occupational goals, can

contribute immeasurably to the solution of these needs in two ways:

(1) Providing learning experiences that will prepare high school youth

for useful employment in the wood industry, and (2) providing learning

experiences for adults seeking new skills or desiring to upgrade their

competence in their present occupations.

To be effective, this training program must be based upon the

interests and capabilities of the trainees and upon the immediate or

known future needs of the wood industry. This latter criteria is

difficult to meet due to the nature of the State's wood industry. In

general it is not concentrated in any one geographic area, it requires

a diversity of work, and it must have semi- or highly-skilled craftsmen

for a large portion of its labor force. This necessitates the detailed

presentation of a variety of different subjects to meet local or area

needs.

The following steps are suggested for the use of this report in

planning and executing vocational programs in wood utilization training:

1. Individuals responsible for planning the educational program

on the State or area level should become familiar with this report.

FPL-016 -104-

2. Advice and assistance should be obtained from outside the

organization. Two groups that should be involved in the planning

process are specialists who can draw upon their own experience, such

as the Extension Wood Utilization Specialist, and can recommend other

sources of information to supplement this report, and wood industries

representatives, who can speak with authority on the industry' s

requirements for trained employees.

3. Making use of the above resource consultants, a long-range

program should be developed, taking in consideration the educational

needs of the industry, the resources available for meeting these needs,

and the methods that will be used to meet these needs.

4. Regular teachers selected to be involved in the program, as

well as instructors employed for special educational projects, should

receive the training necessary to assure their competence in conducting

and coordinating an educational program to meet the special local or

area needs of the wood industry. Resource material for training and

for future use can be selected from this report and obtained from the

Forest Products Laboratory. Additional assistance can be obtained

from wood utilization specialists who can recommend supplemental

teaching materials and aids, and can serve as resource consultants

in the teaching process.

These recommendations are directed toward all four programs

of the West Virginia Division of Vocational Education concerned with

FPL-016 -105-

wood utilization training: ( 1) The Vocational Agricultural program in

many of the State's high schools, (2) the area vocational program

which exists in most of the State's counties, (3) the statewide craft

program, and (4) the vocational program for retraining adults which,

as a part of the Area Redevelopment Act, is directed toward retraining

7adults for occupations needed by new and expanding industries.

The role of the West Virginia Cooperative Extension Service is

that of providing organizational and educational leadership in the

development and use of the resources of the State. The responsibility

of the Extension Wood Utilization Specialist in performing this role

is to provide educational and technical assistance to federal, state,

and local agencies or organizations concerned with the wood utilization

program. One approach to this task is to familiarize the leadership

of these relevant groups with wood utilization research conducted by

the various federal, state, and private research centers across the

nation, to assist these leaders in evaluating this research in terms of

the needs of the wood industry, and to promote the use of selected

research in expanding and modernizing the wood utilization program

in the State. The Forest Products Laboratory research considered

in this report represents a large segment of the Nation's hardwood

research and this report can be used to familiarize these leaders with

the Laboratory's research.

FPL-016 -106-

Many uses that the Extension specialist can make of this report

have been previously implied in this chapter. Other specific uses

that can be made of this report in carrying out Extension's responsi-

bilities in the wood utilization program are:

1. As a basic source of information for use in developing the

overall Extension wood utilization program.

2. As a basis for planning and conducting wood utilization training

courses for Area Extension Foresters, Rural Area Development Agents,

and other key individuals involved in the Extension wood utilization

program.

3. As a convenient aid in interpreting the Forest Products Laboratory

and its wood research to individuals seeking information and assistance

with wood utilization problems.

In general this report provides a means of introducing the Forest

Products Laboratory and its research program to educators, development

agents, industrialists and others concerned with advancing the position

of the wood industries in West Virginia.

Future Research

Through research the Forest Products Laboratory has amassed

a great store of technology applicable in varying degrees to wood

utilization in all regions of the Nation. This study revealed that

FPL-016 -107-

a significant body of this research was related to the growth and

utilization of hardwoods. It also revealed the existence of a great

need for more emphasis on hardwood research.

One of the most readily apparent needs was for information

dealing with economics. This was particularly true in regards to

economic factors relating to manufacturing, such as initial costs of

processes, costs of production, and returns from manufacturing. It

should be recognized at this point that the nature of the Laboratory' s

research program limits the possibilities for such investigations. It

would seem that a unit for economics studies for the Laboratory would

facilitate the application of the Laboratory' s research.

This study brought to light some specific areas of research which

were inadequate or lacking, and which, in the opinion of the author,

merit consideration for inclusion in future fundamental and applied

research programs of the Laboratory and other research centers

concerned with hardwood utilization.

In as much as this study was focused upon that research of the

Forest Products Laboratory which can be put to immediate use in

developing the wood industry of West Virginia little attention was

given to the Laboratory's program of fundamental research. However,

it should be pointed out that in order for future programs of applied

research to meet future needs it is imparative that there should be a

FPL-016 -108-

strong program of fundamental or basic research to explore such

things as the reasons wood acts as it does under varying degrees

of temperature, moisture, and stress; or to gain knowledge of the

chemistry and physics of wood which can ultimattely lead to new and

undreamed of uses of wood and wood products. One area of funda-

mental research that could open new vistas of wood utilization in

West Virginia is the exploration of means of modifying dense hardwoods,

which occur in oversupply in the State, making them easier to handle,

machine, and to otherwise utilize.

In the face of existing needs for economic development in most of

the hardwood regions and the promise that the wood industry offers

these regions, there is a real need for practical information that can

be taken into the field and applied directly to the task of developing

stronger, more efficient, more profitable wood industries. Some

examples of applied research that is needed if West Virginia is to

realize the full potential of her forest resource are:

1. Increased technology in the use of hardwoods as a raw

material for the production of particle board.

2. Increased technology to permit greater utilization of hardwoods

in manufacturing pulp and paper.

3. Improved machining processes, special fastenings, and gluing

technology that can lead to increased use of hardwoods in building

construction.

FPL-016 -109-

4. Improved gluing and engineering technology necessary for

the production of glued laminated structural timbers and arches

from hardwoods.

5. New finishes fox hardwood furniture, millwork, and specialty

items.

6. Improved processes for manufacturing and using traditional

hardwood products such as paneling.

7. Engineering technology necessary for stress grading of

hardwood lumber.

8, New approaches to lumber drying that will reduce the drying

time and degrade of hardwood lumber.

9. Improved processing equipment capable of rapid conversion of

logs to primary and secondary products with a minimum of waste.

10. Increased technology in wood quality that will provide a stronger

basis for more accurate tree and log grading.

11. More information on the veneering characteristics of northern

hardwoods.

12. Increased information on the relationships between wood quality

and genetics and silviculture that can eventually lead to increased

growth of high-quality wood raw material.

13. In general, the development of new hardwood products that will

take advantage of the unique characteristics of the great variety of hard-

wood species.

FPL-016 -110-

In developing future programs of fundamental and applied

research there are three factors that should be considered: (1) The

research program must be based upon the recognized needs of the

wood using industry. (2) All research centers should be familiar

with past research from all sources in order to build future programs

upon this research. (3) All research centers should closely coordinate

their programs in order to avoid duplication of efforts. This is

particularly true of hardwood research because of the limited

facilities devoted to this work.

The wood industry in general and the hardwood industry in particular

cannot let research findings go unused if the industry is to make the

technological advances necessary to compete for modern markets.

The industry cannot simply hold its position on the basis of traditional

wood uses. Management must adapt new technology in producing new

products, personnel must be trained to use modern technology in

producing new products, and future research programs must be directed

toward new horizons beyond traditional wood uses.

FPL-016 -111-

Conclusion

On the basis of this study it was concluded that, although the major

research efforts of the Forest Products Laboratory were directed

towards utilization of southern pines and western firs, there is a

significant body of technical information available from the Laboratory

on hardwood utilization and related subjects. It was further concluded

that, if this technology could through the efforts of educational and

development groups be brought to bear upon the utilization problems

of West Virginia, it could help in the development of a stronger,

more efficient, more diversified wood industry which could in turn

help alleviate the State' s current unfavorable economic condition.

FPL-016 -112-

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Reid, W. H., "Wood Industries of West Virginia. " Proceedings--West Virginia's First Forestry Forum. Sponsors: West Virginia Chapter, Allegheny Section Society of American Foresters and College of Agriculture, Forestry, and Home Economics, We st Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, January 30-31, 1961.

2. Division of Forestry and The Center for Resource Development, A Proposal for Complete Wood Technology Research Facilities at West Virginia University. West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, July, 1962.

3. American Forest Products Industries, Inc. , West Virginia Forest Facts, 1957-58. Washington, D. C. 1958.

4. Marquis, Ralph W., "Utilization and Marketing of West Virginia Hardwoods." P. 75. Proceedings of the Governor' s Conference on Wood Utilization. Sponsored by the Governor' s Advisory Committee on Wood Utilization. Charleston, West Virginia. November 30 through December 2, 1961.

5. Reid, W, H. and Christensen, W. W., Primary Wood Industries of West Virginia. Bulletin 461. West Virginia University Agricultural. Experiment Station, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia. June, 1961.

6. Christensen, Wallace W. et al. , Marketing of Lumber Produced by Sawmills in the Northeast-Phase I, Bulletin 478. West Virginia University Agricultural Experiment Station, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia June, 1962.

7. Edwards, Homer, "Training Youths and Adults for Employment in Wood Using Industries." P. 35. Proceedings of the Governor' s Conference on Wood Utilization. Sponsored by the Governor's Advisory Committee on Wood Utilization Charleston, West Virginia. November 30 through December 2, 1961.

FPL-016 -113-

SUBJECT LISTS OF PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY

The following are obtainable free on request from the Director, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin 53705.

List of publications on Box and Crate Construction and Packaging Data

List of publications on Chemistry of Wood and Derived Products

List of publications on Fire Protection

List of publications on Fungus and Insect Defects in Forest Products

List of publications on Glue, Glued Products, and Veneer

List of publications on Growth, Structure, and Identification of Wood

List of publications on Logging, Milling, and Utiliza-tion of Timber Products

Partial list of publications for

List of publications on Mechanical Properties and Structural Uses of Wood and Wood Products

List of publications on Pulp and Paper

List of publications on Seasoning of Wood

List of publications on Structural Sandwich, Plastic Laminates, and Wood-Base Aircraft Components

List of publications on Thermal Properties of Wood

List of publications on Wood Finishing

List of publications on Wood Preservation

Partial list of publications for Furniture Manufacturers, Woodworkers, and Teachers

Architects, Builders, Engineers, of Woodshop Practice and Retail Lumbermen

Note: Since Forest Products Laboratory publications are so varied in subject no single list is issued. Instead a list is made for each Laboratory division. Twice a year, December 31 and June 30, a list is made showing new reports for the previous 6 months. This is the only item sent regularly to the Laboratory's mailing list. Anyone who has asked for and received the proper subject lists and who has had his name placed on the mailing list can keep up to date on Forest Products Lab-oratory publications. Each subject list carries descriptions of all other subject lists.