s e c o n d e d i t i o nSydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaideand associated companies around the worldGreg RickardIsabella Brown Nici BurgerWarrick ClarkeJanette EllisFaye JefferyCaroline JeffriesKarin JohnstoneDale LovedayGeoff PhillipsPeter RobersonKerry WhalleyAcknowledgementsvSeries featuresviHow to use this bookviiiSyllabus correlationxVerbsxiContentsCHAPTER 1CHAPTER 2CHAPTER 3CHAPTER 4Forensics1The periodic table34Chemical change66Sense and control102Unit 1.1Forensics and identification2Unit 1.2Is it real?12Unit 1.3 Evidence20Science focus: Investigating the death of Azaria Chamberlain31Chapter review33Unit 2.1Atoms and elements35Unit 2.2 Structure of the periodic table41Unit 2.3 Using the periodic table47Unit 2.4 Families of elements56Science focus: Development of the periodic table62Chapter review64Unit 3.1 Chemical reactions67Unit 3.2Combination, combustion and decomposition74Unit 3.3Precipitation reactions80Unit 3.4Acids and bases88Chapter review100Unit 4.1 Sight103Unit 4.2 Hearing112Unit 4.3 Smell, taste and touch117Unit 4.4 Responding124Unit 4.5 Nervous control129Science focus: Understanding memory139Unit 4.6 Chemical control142Chapter review149iiiivCHAPTER 5CHAPTER 9CHAPTER 6CHAPTER 7CHAPTER 8Reproduction152Earths fragile crust280Sci Q Busters332Index336Ecosystems185Light216The universe250Unit 5.1 Types of reproduction153Unit 5.2 Human reproductive systems161Unit 5.3 Human reproduction168Unit 5.4 Reproductive health174Chapter review183Unit 9.1 Plate tectonics281Unit 9.2 At the edges289Unit 9.3 Earthquakes297Unit 9.4 Volcanoes308Unit 9.5 Landscaping the crust314Unit 9.6 Geological time322Chapter review330Unit 6.1 Energy for life186Unit 6.2 Recycling in nature192Unit 6.3 Human impact on ecosystems200Science focus: The right balancea human problem210Chapter review215Unit 7.1 Bending light217Unit 7.2 Focusing devices: Lenses and curved mirrors226Unit 7.3 Colour239Chapter review248Unit 8.1 The expanding universe251Unit 8.2 The Big Bang256Unit 8.3 The life of a star261Unit 8.4 Are we alone?266Unit 8.5 Using space270Science focus: Long-distance space travel276Chapter review279vAcknowledgementsThe publishers wish to thank the following for their contributions and who kindly gave permission to reproduce copyright material in this book:Alamy Limited: pp. 74, 119, 123, 187 (kookaburra), 201b, 202, 280, 317.ANT Photo Library Pty Ltd: p. 201tl.Australian Associated Press Pty Ltd: pp. 3br, 12l, 15, 133l, 145, 205l, 206, 210br.Australian Associated Press Pty Ltd: pp. 213 (logger, trafc), 299, 308r.Corbis Australia Pty Ltd: pp. iv (volcano), 6r, 27, 62l, 75t, 76b, 81b, 117t, 187 (snake), 205r, 210l, 210tr, 211tl, 213br, 213tr, 239t, 258bl, 262br, 263r, 268t, 290r, 311, 316l, 323c, 324l.Dorling Kindersley: pp. 103, 318, 323b.Getty Images Australia Pty Ltd: pp. 23c, 24, 133br, 151, 152, 155l, 157tl, 161br, 163b, 169br, 180t, 186, 239b, 310, 316r.iStockphoto: pp. iii (soft drink), 47, 68t, 76l, 105bl, 106l, 106r, 107, 114, 161t, 171, 179, 180b, 185, 187 (moth), 190, 192tl, 213 (farm), 326r, 330.John Fairfax Publications: pp. 32, 203.Jupiter Images: pp. 22l, 57c, 57t, 256.Lennart Nilsson / Albert Bonniers Forlag: p. 163t.Lochman Transparencies: p. 192b.NASA: pp. 251t, 258br, 258t, 261t, 262bl, 262t, 267br, 267t, 272, 273; ESA: pp. iv (galaxy), 259t; JPL: p. 271; Marshall Space Flight Center: p. 258c.National Library of Australia: pp. 3tl, 211l.Nationwide News Pty Ltd: pp. 26, 31, 274t.NOAA: p. 291.Paramount Television / The Kobal Collection: p. 278b.Pearson Australia/Penelope Naidoo: p. 168t; Gordon Aird: p. 217b; Natalie Book: p. 217t.Photodisc: pp. 68c, 69tr, 124tr, 139t, 140l, 200, 201tr, 226.Photolibrary Pty Ltd: pp. iii (ngerprint scan, periodic table, rods and cones), iv (buttery wing, tulip), 1, 2, 3tr, 4, 5tl, 5tr, 6l, 7b, 7t, 13, 14b, 19, 20b, 20t, 21, 22r, 23b, 23t, 34, 35, 37, 41, 49, 56r, 57b, 58, 59, 62r, 63, 66, 67t, 69b, 69tl, 70, 75b, 80, 81t, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93r, 102, 105tl, 108, 109, 117b, 118, 120, 124b, 125, 129, 130, 131t, 132, 133tr, 139b, 142, 143b, 143t, 144, 146, 153, 154br, 154cl, 154cr, 155r, 157bl, 157r, 160, 161bl, 162, 168b, 169bc, 169bl, 169t, 176, 178, 187 (frog), 193, 216, 219r, 220, 231, 233, 241l, 242, 250, 252, 257, 259b, 261b, 263l, 266b, 267bl, 268b, 270b, 270t, 276, 277, 278t, 281l, 281r, 290l, 292, 297, 303, 303, 308l, 315, 322, 324r.Picture Media Pty Ltd: p. 195.Public Library of Science, Journal of Biology / William M. Gray: p. 148; Charles Fisher: p. 188.Reserve Bank of Australia: pp. 14t, 18.Royal Victorian Eye & Ear Hospital: p. 95.Shutterstock: pp. iii (buttery), iv (optical bres), 12r, 56l, 67b, 68b, 84, 92, 93l, 105br, 105c, 112, 124tl, 131b, 134, 140r, 154bl, 154tl, 174, 187 (lantana), 192tr, 196, 204, 213 (city, fox), 219l, 229, 241r, 289, 309, 313, 314, 326l, 332, 333, 334, 335.The Picture Desk/The Kobal Collection: p. 266t.Tourism Queensland: p. 323t.US Navy/Ensign John Gay: p. 251b.US National Archives and Records Administration: p. 302.Cover: Getty Images Australia Pty Ltd, NASA, Shutterstock.Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. The publisher would welcome any information from people who believe they own copyright to material in this book.NEWCONTENTNEWCONTENTviThe homework book has a fresh new design and layout and provides the following features:A syllabus correlation grid links each worksheet to the NSW Science Syllabus.Updated worksheets cover consolidation, extension and revision activities with explicit use of syllabus verbs so that students can begin to practise answering questions as required in later years.Questions are clearly graded within each worksheet, allowing students to movefrom lower-order questions to higher-order questions.A crossword for every chapter spans across a double-page spread so students can easily read the clues and instructions. Sci-words are listed for each chapter in an easy-to-follow tabulated layout.The student book consists of chapters with the following features:A science context at the beginning of each chapter encourages students to make meaning of science in terms of their everyday experiences.Science Clip boxes contain quirky and fascinating science facts and provide opportunity for further exploration by students.Unit and chapter review questions are structured around Blooms Taxonomy of Cognitive Processes. Questions incorporate the key verbs, so that students can begin to practise answering questions as required in later years.Investigating sections incorporate ICT and research skills. These tasks are designed to push students to apply the knowledge and skills they have developed within the chapter.Practical activities are placed at the end of each unit to allow teachers to choose when and how to incorporate the practical work.Science Focus spreads use a contextual approach to focus on the outcomes of the prescribed focus area. Student activities on these pages allow for further investigation into the material covered.Each student book includes an interactive student CD containing:an electronic version of the student book a link to Pearson Places for extensive online content. The Science Focus Second Edition series has been designed for the revised NSW Science Syllabus, Stages 4 and 5. This fresh and engaging series is based on the essential and additional content. Series featuresScience Focus Second EditionStudent books with student CDHomework booksThe LiveText DVD is designed for use with an interactive whiteboard or data projector. It consists of an electronic version of the student book with component links, some of which are unique to LiveText. The features include one-touch zoom and annotation tools that allow teachers to customise lessons for students.LiveText DVDiseNEWNEWviiThe innovative teacher edition contains a wealth of support material and allows a teacher to approach the teaching and learning of science with condence. Teacher editions are available for each student book in the series. Teacher editions include the following features:pages from the student book with wrap-around teacher notes covering the learning focus, outcomes and a pre-quiz for every chapter openingapproximately 10 different learning strategies per unit in addition to the activities provided in each unit of the student bookassessment ideas answers to student book questions practical activity support including a safety spot, common mistakes, possible results and suggested answers to practical activity questionsTeacher Resource boxes highlighting additional resources available, such as worksheets, online activities and practical activities.Each Science Focus Second Edition Teacher Edition CD includes: student book answers homework book answers chapter tests and answerscurriculum gridsteaching program for each chapterstudent risk assessmentslab technician risk assessments safety notes lab technician checklist and recipes. Teacher editions (including teacher edition CD and student CD)For more information on the Science Focus Second Edition series, visit the Bookstore atwww.pearsonplaces.com.auwww.pearsonplaces.com.auPearson Places is the online destination that is constantly evolving to give you the most up-to-date educational content on the web. Visit Pearson Places to access educational content, download lesson material, use rich media and connect with students, educators and professionals around Australia. Pearson Reader More than an eBook, Pearson Reader provides unique online student books that allow teachers and students to harness the collective intelligence of all who participate. Search for a unit of work and contribute by adding links and sharing resources.Student Lounge One location for student support materialinteractives, animations, revision questions and more!Teacher Lounge One location for teacher support materialcurriculum grids, chapter tests and more!NEWPearson PlacesngScience is a fascinating, informative and enjoyable subject. Science encourages us to ask questions and helps us understand why things happen in our daily lives, on planet Earth and beyond. Scientific knowledge is constantly evolving and challenges us to think about the world in which we live. Science shows us what we knew, what we now know and helps us make informed decisions for our future.Science Focus 3 Second Edition has been designed for the revised NSW Science Syllabus. It includes material that addresses the learning outcomes in the domains of knowledge, understanding and skills. Each chapter addresses at least one prescribed focus area in detail. The content is presented through many varied contexts to engage students in seeing the relationship between science and their everyday lives.The student book consists of nine chapters with the following features:Chapter openerThe key prescribed focus area addressed within the chapter is clearly emphasised.The learning outcomes relevant to the chapter are clearly listed.A clear distinction between essential and additional outcomes is presented in student-friendly language.UnitsContext The context section appears at the beginning of each unit to encourage students to make meaning of science in terms of their everyday experiences. Unit contentThe unit includes illustrations, photos and content to keep students engaged and challenged as they learn about science. A homework book icon appears within the unit indicating a related worksheet from the supporting homework book. Unit questionsA set of questions related to the unit are structured around Blooms Taxonomy of Cognitive Processes. The questions move from straightforward, lower-order remembering, understanding and applying questions, through to more complex, higher-order evaluating, analysing and creating questions. Questions incorporate a variety of verbs, including the syllabus verbs. All verbs have been bolded so students can begin to practise answering questions as required in examinations in later years.InvestigatingThe investigating activities can be set for further exploration and assignment work. These activities may also include a variety of structured tasks that fall under the headings of reviewing ande- xploring.Practical activitiesPractical activities are placed at the end of each unit, allowing teachers to choose when and how to best incorporate practical work into the teaching and learning. A practical activity icon will appear throughout the unit to signal suggested times for practical work. Within some practical activities a safety box appears that lists very important safety information. Some practical activities are design your own (DYO) tasks and others may be conducted using a data logger. Icons are inserted to indicate these options.WorksheetPrescribed focus areaEssentialsThe nature and practice of science4Sense and controlAdditional key outcomes5.2, 5.8.4humans have live senses.The develoment ol new technolouieshas allowed humans to correct dilliculties in hearinu and seeinu.Your senses are coordinated bv thenervous svstem.Your senses are triuuered bvsecialised cells.This stimulus will olten triuuera resonse.hormones can also be released as aresult ol a reaction to a stimulus.hervous imulses are much uuicker than hormones.Billerent hormones triuuer dillerent resonses.Billerent hormones are released bvdillerent endocrine ulands.Prac 1p. 110Prac 2p. 111103transmitted locused colour imaues ol severalobjects located dillerent distances awav tovour brain and with virtuallv no ellort!The eves rovide what manv would reuard as the most imortant ol all our senses-siuht. Take a look around vou now. l vour eves are workinu normallv, thev justcontextSight Unit 4.1The eyeThe structure of the eye allows it to limit or maximise the amount of light entering it, focus the light to form an image and then transmit the image to the brain.These primary functions arecarried out by:s THE iris and pupil: these closedown to limit light when it is bright and dilate (open up) to maximise the light entering theeye in the darks THE cornea and lens: these bend the rays of light entering the eye so that the light focuses on the retinas THEretina: this is where the image should form. Specialised cells in the retina then transmit theimage to the brain.The rest of the eye is there basically to keep it in shape(vitreous humour, aqueous humour and sclerotic layer), to stop stray light from entering or reflecting around the eye (the choroid) and to change the shape of thelens to allow it to focus (suspensory ligaments and ciliary muscles).Fishy focusingMost animals locus bvusinu the ciliarvmuscles to chanue theshae ol the lens.Fish, however, locusimaues bv movinu each lens backwardsand lorwards, just likea camera.ScienceClipFig 4.1.1 The amount ol liuht enterinu the eve is controlled bv thecoloured iris which oens and closes the uil.irisretinaoptic nervelensdiaphragmfilmshutterconvex lensFig 4.1.2 The eve locuses imaues in the retina. Althouuh the imaue is usidedown, the brain rocesses it so that we erceive it the correct wav u. Theoeration ol the eve acts verv much like an oldlashioned lilmloaded camera.1134.3 QUESTIONSUnit4 . 3Remembering1State the meanings of the terms taxonomy and taxonomist.2List these groups from the one that contains the greatest number of organisms to the group that contains the least:family, species, phylum, kingdom, genus, order, class.3State which of the groups in Question 2 has the most detailed description of the organisms in it.4Organisms are grouped into five kingdoms. List them.5State the structural feature that splits animals into two phyla.6State the two major groups into which plants are classified.Understanding7Explain how you know a terrier and a poodle belong to thesame species.8Explain how you know that a horse and a donkey are different species.9Describe how the unique scientific name for every living thing is created. 10A subphylum represents a group smaller than a phylum but bigger than a class. Use this information to explain what you think a subclass represents.Applying 11The scientific name of the Tasmanian devil is Sarcophilusharrisii. Identify its:agenusbspecies. 12Identify important characteristics shared by all animals in thegenus Felis (the cat family).Analysing 13Four native plants found in the Blue Mountains are Banksiaericifolia, Eucalytpus punctata, Acacia floribunda and Banksiamarginata. Analyse this information to:aState the number of species this represents.bName the plants that are in the same genus.cPredict if botanists could ever cross any of these plants to make new seedlings.Creating 14 A mnemonic is a silly sentence that helps remind you of something. You could, for example, remember the order in which organisms are classified (kingdomphylumclassorderfamilygenusspecies) by, instead, remembering Kind people can often find green shoes! Create your own mnemonic to represent the order of classification from kingdom to species.15The complete classification of a human is:Kingdom: AnimalPhylum: Chordata (vertebrate)Class: Mammalia (mammal)Order: Primata (primates)Family: Hominidae (hominids)Genus and species: Homo sapiensUse this and information from the text to construct a tablethat shows the similarities between a human with a dog and the differences between them. 16 You have just discovered a new species! You must now report your findings to the AS4NT (The Australian Society for Naming Things).aOutline the characteristics of your new organism. Becreative!bConstruct a diagram or model of your new species.cClassify your organism by placing it in a kingdom.dFurther classify your organism by giving it a name using the binomial naming system.272The solar system 8.4 INVESTIGATING8 4 8 4 8 4INVESTI INVESTIGAT GATInvestigate your available resources (e.g. textbook, encyclopaedias, Internet etc.) to:1 Find out what or who each planet was named after.Construct a booklet that summarises this information, including pictures of each planet and the person or object theplanet was named after.L2 Find out what the given statement means.Money spent on space exploration would be better spent on things like medical research and aid programs.Organise a class debate on this issue.Le-xploringTo find out more about the solar system, a list of web destinationscan be found on Science Focus 1 second edition Student Lounge. There, you will also find a link to a website that allows you to construct a model of a space probe, such as the Cassini spacecraft that was sent to explore Saturn. 19Much of the information we know about the outer planetscame from the Voyager 1 and 2 missions. Use the information in the table to construct a scaled timeline for each mission.Date Mission What happened?20 August 1977 Voyager 2 Launches5 September 1977 Voyager 1 Launches5 March 1979 Voyager 1 Flies by Jupiter9 July 1979 Voyager 2 Flies by Jupiter12 November 1980 Voyager 1 Flies by Saturn25 August 1981 Voyager 2 Flies by Saturn24 January 1986 Voyager 2 Flies by Uranus25 August 1989 Voyager 2 Flies by Neptune1998 Voyager 1 Most distant human-made object2002 and beyond Voyager 1 & 2 Exploring past PlutoN pastaFig 4.1.15 Start off your key like this.Unit4 . 1101Making a pasta keyAimTo construct a key to classify pasta.EquipmentA sample of at least five different kinds of uncooked pasta (e.g. spiral pasta, tubes, shells, bows, spaghetti etc.) in a beaker or cup.Method1Pour the contents of the beaker onto your bench.2As a group, decide on the characteristics (e.g. shape, size etc.) you will use to classify your sample of pasta.3In your workbook, construct a dichotomous key to classifyyour pasta. 4 When you get to the point where you are at a particular type, draw the pasta or paste a sample of it in that place on your key.5 Gather all the pasta together again and decide on a new set of characteristics by which to reclassify your pasta. Once again, construct a dichotomous key.Questions1 Identify the main feature of a dichotomous key.2 Look at the keys designed by other groups. State whether they used the same characteristics that you did.3 Evaluate the different keys you constructed. Which do you think was better? Why?Constructing keysAimTo construct different types of keys to classify collected objects.!SafetySome plants (e.g. oleander and rhus) are known to cause allergic reactions in some people.EquipmentA collection of at least ten of one of the following: s LEAVES COLLECTEDFROMDIFFERENTTREES ANDSHRUBS AROUNDTHEschool s PIECES OFCOMMONLABORATORY GLASSWARE ANDEQUIPMENT s OBJECTS FROMAPENCIL CASEMethod1 As a group, decide on the characteristics you will use to classify your ten objects.2 Group the objects according to the characteristics you chose.3 Construct a dichotomous key and a tabular key that would allow others to classify your ten objects in exactly the sameway as you did.Questions1 Outline some practical advantages of classifying different EQUIPMENTUSEDINTHE LABORATORY2 Compare the dichotomous keys you constructed with your tabular keys. Which was easiest to construct? Suggest why.4.1 PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES12????DYOThe eves rovide what manvas the most imortant ol allsiuht. Take a look around voeves are workinu normallv,contextitof d the rays of lightht focuses on the rmage should form.na then transmit theFishy focusinMost animals lousinu the ciliarmuscles to chashae ol the lenFish, however,imaues bv moveach lens backwand lorwards, ja camera.e Science Sc Sci Sc Sci cie ieenc nce ceCClip Clip CClip CCli Cllip pp ip4HE EYES PROVIDE WHAT MAS THE MOST IMPORTANT OFSIGHT 4AKE A LOOK AROUNDEYES ARE WORKING NORMALLcontextSUnit 4.11 State the meanings of the terms taxonomy and taxonomist. t2 List these groups from the one that contains the greatestms to the group that contains the least:m, genus, order, class.2 has the most detailed them.o phyla.ed.anksiad Banksiaents.ame genus.d ever cross any of these plants to edlings.14 A mnemonic issomething. You which organismorderfamilyKind people canmnemonic to rekingdom to spec15 The complete clKingdom: AnimaPhylum: ChordaClass: MammaliOrder: Primata (Family: HominidGenus and specUse this and infthat shows the sthe differences b6 You have just diyour findings toNaming Things)a Outline the ccreative!b Construct a dc Classify yourd Further classthe binomial4.3 QUESTIONSRemembering1 State the meanings of the terms taxonomy and taxonomist.2 List these groups from the one that contains the greatest number of organisms to the group that contains the least:family, species, phylum, kingdom, genus, order, class.3 State which of the groups in Question 2 has the most detaildescription of the organisms in it.4 Organisms are grouped into five kingdoms. List them.5 State the structural feature that splits animals into two phyla6 State the two major groups into which plants are classified.UnderstandingATINGGGG ATING NGGG ATINNGafter.mation,n or object theetter spent oneeeeeeeeeTo find oucan be found oThere, you will also construct a model of a spacthat was sent to explore Saturn.uter planetsthe information each mission.Missionr 2r 1r 1r 2r 1r 2r 2r 2r 1r 1 & 2N 8.4 INVESTIGATING8888 4444INVE INVE INVESTIG STIG STIGATIN ATIN ATINGGGInvestigate your available resources (e.g. textbook, encyclopaedias, Internet etc.) to:1Find out what or who each planet was named after.Construct a booklet that summarises this information, including pictures of each planet and the person or object theplanet was named after.L2 Find out what the given statement means.Money spent on space exploration would be better spent onthings like medical research and aid programs.Organise a class debate on this issue.L2002 and beyond Voyager 1 & 2en you get to the pointhe pasta or paste a ur all the pasta togetheristics by which tuct a dichotomousns nsfy the main featureat the keys designedused the same charauate the different keynk was better? Why?Constructi C t ti Constructi Constructing k ng keys ng keys g keysAim MethodVIT VITTIE TIE IES ES ES T VIT VITTTIE IES ES VI222222t ed to g y yConstructing keysAimTo construct different types of keys to classify collect!SafetySome plants (e.g. oleander and rhus) arecause allergic reactions in some people.EquipmentA collection of at least ten of one of the following: s LEAVES COLLECTEDFROMDIFFERENTTREES AND SHRUBSschool2viiiHow to use this bookScience Focus 3 Second EditionChapter reviewChapter review questions follow the last unit of each chapter. These questions are structured around Blooms Taxonomy of Cognitive Processes and cover the chapter learning outcomes in a variety of question styles to allow students the opportunity to consolidate new knowledge and skills.Other features or iconsScience Fact File boxes contain essential science facts relevant to the topic. Science Clip features contain quirky information related to the topic that students will nd interesting. Career Prole boxes appear throughout the book, covering information about specic careers in science. Case study boxes cover an in depth exploration of a single case or topic.Science Focus spreads appear throughout the book. These are special features on various aspects of science including history, the impact of science on society and the environment and current research and development. The features allow students to explore science in further detail through a range of student activities.Literacy and numeracy icons appear throughout to indicate an emphasis on literacy or numeracy. N LGo to icons direct students to a unit within the same stage of the NSW curriculum. This unit reference allows students to revisit or extend knowledge.Go to Aboriginal ag icons denote material that is included to cover Indigenous perspectives in science.Pearson Places icons direct students to the Science Focus 3 Second Edition Student Lounge on Pearson Places. The Student Lounge contains animations, video clips, web destinations, drag-and-drop interactives and revision questions.Sci Q Busters appears after Chapter 9 and provides answers to student questions. Students are able to email questions that come up during class time to the Q Busters team at SciQBusters@pearson.com.auThe Science Focus 3 Second Edition packageDont forget the other Science Focus 3 Second Edition components that will help engage and excite students in science:Science Focus 3 Second Edition Homework BookScience Focus 3 Second Edition Teacher Edition, with CD Science Focus 3 Second Edition Pearson ReaderScience Focus 3 Second Edition LiveText What do I do?It is currently recommended that bluebottle stings aresoaked for about 20 minutes in hot water (say under a hot shower or in a bath). The traditionalvinegar solution does littlesince the bluebottle injectsa chemical irritant that isneither acid nor base.ScienceClip123Unit4 . 4WormsThere are three different phyla of wormsroundworms, flatworms, and segmented worms.RoundwormsRoundworms have long cylindrical bodies that are in one piece without segments. They have a digestive tubewith a mouth and anus. Some roundworms areparasitic, living off (and weakening) other livinganimals. Others live free in water or damp soil. Examples of roundworms are threadworms, hookworms and the parasitic roundworms found in the intestines of humans, dogs, pigs and horses.FlatwormsFlatworms are similar to roundworms in that they also can be parasitic or free. They differ in that they haveflat bodies instead of round ones. If they have adigestive system, it has only one opening, which acts as both mouth and anus. Flukes and tapeworms areexamples of flatworms.Segmented wormsAlso known as annelids, segmented worms can befound both on land and in water. They have well-developed body systems and bodies with multiplesegments. Examples are leeches and earthworms.PolypsPolyps are cnidarians that attach themselves to something like a rock. Corals and anemones areexamples of polyps.MedusasMedusas are cnidarians that can swim about freely. Jellyfish are medusas. Many are harmless, whereas some, like the box jellyfish, can kill. The stinging cells of others, such as bluebottles, inject a mix of chemicals that leave painful, raised red welts wherever they touch the skin.opening actsas both mouthand anushooks anchor theworm to theinternal wall of the gutPrac 2p. xFig 4.4.18 Coral polyps are living things called cnidarians.Fig 4.4.19 Jellyfish aremedusas, a type of cnidarian.Fig 4.4.20 An image obtained by a scanning electron microscope (SEM) of the head of a dogs parasitic tapeworm.Fig 4.4.21 The segments are clear on the body of this leech. Some leeches are used in medicine to suck out blood from clots and to encourage blood flow into newly attached limbsafter microsurgery.Worksheet 4.3 ClassifyingWhat do I do?It is currently recommendedthat bluebottle stings arence SScience Sc Sccie cien enc nce nceClip Clip CCli lipppPolypsPolyps are cnidarians that attsomething like a rock. Corals examples of polyps.nidarians that medusas. Many arellyfish, can killas bluebottles, inpainful, raised red wolyps are livingng th What do I do?It is currently recommended that bluebottle stings are soaked for about 20 minutes in hot water (say under a hot shower or ScienceClip MarsMass 0.107 times that of EarthMoons Two (Phobosdiameter 23 km, Deimosdiameter 10 km)Diameter 6794 km ( = 0.53 Earthsdiameter)SurfaceSoft red soil containing iron oxide(rust), giving the planet its red appearance. Cratered regions, largevolcanoes, a large canyon andpossible dried-up water channels. Polar caps of frozen carbon dioxideand water.Atmosphere Very thin, mainly carbon dioxideGravity 0.376 times that on EarthSurfacetemperature 120 C to 25 CPeriod of rotation (day) 1.03 Earth daysTilt of axis 25.2Distance from Sun 1.52 AU (228 million km)Time to orbit Sun (year) 687 Earth daysScale model (Sun = 300 mm)Diameter 1.4 mmDistance from Sun 49.1 mScienceFact File266The asteroid beltThe asteroid belt is made up of thousands of small rocky metallic bodies and dust in orbit around the Sun. The largest asteroid is Ceres, having a diameter of about 1000 kilometres. Researchers have found several near-Earth asteroids, but none are predicted to crash into Earth in the near or distant future.The solar systemFig 8.4.7 Mars showing red earth and polar caps.Fig 8.4.8 The Mars Phoenix mission. The landing system on Phoenixallows the spacecraft to touch down within 10 kilometres of itstargeted landing area.Fig 8.4.9 Thousands of asteroids lie in a belt between Mars and Jupiter. One is Ida, an asteroid big enough to have a gravitationalfield that has trapped its own orbiting moon, Dactyl.GeologistCareerProfilePalaeontologistCareerProfile299Unit9 . 3Geologists study the composition and structure of theEarth. This allows them to locate materials and minerals.Geologists work in laboratories and in the field, usually as part of a team. Fieldwork can involve spending time in remote deserts, or in tropical or Antarctic areas.Geologists can be involved in:s ADVISING ONSUITABLE LOCATIONSFORTUNNELSANDBRIDGESs EXAMINING ROCKSAMPLESUSING ELECTRONMICROSCOPESs STUDYING THE NATURE ANDEFFECTSOFNATURALEVENTSLIKEweathering, erosion, earthquakes and volcanoess TAKING ROCK SAMPLESFORANALYSISs FINDING THE AGE OFROCKSANDFOSSILSA good geologist will be able to:s WORK ASA TEAMMEMBERORALONEs KEEPACCURATE RECORDSANDPREPARE REPORTSs WORKSAFELY INA NUMBEROFDIFFERENTENVIRONMENTSFig 9.3.15 Geologists studying sedimentary rock layers in the field.!PALAEONTOLOGISTEXAMINES CLASSIFIESANDDESCRIBESanimal and plant fossils found in sedimentary rocks.This helps us understand the history of life on Earth.Palaeontologists can be involved in:s LOCATING SITESWHERE FOSSILSMAY BE FOUNDs CAREFULLY DIGGING FOSSILSOUTOFTHE ROCKSINWHICHthey are founds PREPARING FOSSILSFORDISPLAY ORSTORAGEs DATING FOSSILSTOWORKOUTTHEIRAGEs USING INFORMATIONABOUTFOSSILSTOSTUDY OTHERTHINGSSUCHASOILEXPLORATIONORTHE HISTORY OFLIFE ONTHEEarth.A good palaeontologist will:s BE ABLE TOWORKSAFELY ASA TEAMMEMBERORALONEs BE ABLE TOWORKVERY CAREFULLY ANDPATIENTLYASITCANtake years to remove fossils from rockss HAVE A GOODEYE FORDETAILs LOVE FOSSILSFig 9.3.14 One of the jobs of a palaeontologist is to inspect fossilsand ancient skeletons, such as this fossilised dinosaur skull.Case study15computer system becamevital evidence as the date of every file he modified was recorded. The files for manyof the deaths showed that they were modified on theday the patients died, uncovering many morelikely murders.Shipman was convicted and given 15 life sentences, but he committed suicide in custody, leaving manyquestions unanswered. Themotives for his crimes remain a mystery.Unit 1 . 2>>British GP, Dr Harold Shipman killed an estimated 236 of his patients between 1974 and 1998. His visits to sick, elderly people were often followed by a worseningof their ailment and then what seemed to be an unsuspicious death. Dr Shipman would return and writeout the death certificate and alter the records to say that the person was so sick that they were close to death. Very few suspected that the doctor was actually givinghis patients a lethal injection.However, in 1986 he killed a healthy elderly lady and fabricated a poorly worded last will and testament that made him the sole beneficiary. The police investigated the forged will and then exhumed (dug up) her body. They also exhumed the bodies of Shipmans other patients. Traces of morphine were found in each of themthe probable cause of their deaths. Shipmans The medicine manFig 1.2.8 Dr Harold Shipmankilled at least 236 patients. A poorly forged will led to hiscapture.1.2QUESTIONSRemembering1List five documents that a criminal might try to falsify.2State what indicated that the Hitler diaries were fake.3State what can be used to determine which typewriter wasused for a ransom note. 4List the advantage(s) of Australian banknotes being printedon plastic.5List the features that usually give away fake banknotes.Understanding6 Investigators generally ignore the slant and spacing of lettersin a handwritten document. Explain why.7 Describe how a computer printer can be identified froma fake letter.8 Explain how inks can be identified using:afluorescencebchromatography9 Describe the following:aintaglio printingbmicroprintingca water markPlastic moneyAustralia was the first to use the plastic banknotea $10 commemorative note introduced in January 1988 to coincide with the Australian Bicentenary. Plastic banknotes are more durable than paper ones, lasting four to five times longer. A paper $5 note had an average life of about six months, a plastic one lasts more than three years. Note Printing Australia (NPA) is owned by the ReserveBank of Australia and prints all Australian banknotes. It has alsoproduced plastic banknotes for Thailand, Indonesia, Papua NewGuinea, Kuwait, Western Samoa, Singapore, Brunei, Sri Lanka andNew Zealand. NPA also sells plastic blank notes to government printers in other countries so that they can print their own money.Old and worn-out Australian plastic money is recycled into plasticobjects such as plumbing fittings and compost bins.ScienceClip107 Reindeers!The Laps are the indigenous people of Scandinavia. Reindeer are important to them and so they have morethan 107 different categories for them! Their nativeSaami language classifies them according to their age, condition, body shape and the shape of their antlers!ScienceClipPenis worms!Science Focus 1 presentsnine main classes of animals,but there are other obscureanimals with their own specialised classes. Sponges, for example, have their own class (ponifera), whereasstarfish belong to another class called echinoderms.Another small class is called priapulida, otherwise known as penis worms!ScienceClip114 115Likewise, shellfish and crustaceans (maypal) have at least ten categories. These are determined by how theyattach to rocks, how they move about and whether theylive amongst rocks or on a reef. Four distinct subgroups are:gundapuy attached to reefs or rockswarranggulpuy move over the outer surface of rockslirrapuy move around the edges of rocksdjinawapuy attached beneath rocks orinside coral.Carl LinnaeusIn 1735, the Swedish naturalist Carolus (Carl) Linnaeus (17071778) proposed a systematic way of groupingand naming living things. He classified all living things as either animal or plant. He then further divided all animals into six classes: Mammalia (mammals), Aves (birds), Amphibia (amphibians and reptiles), Pisces (fish), Insecta (insects) and Vermes (all the other invertebrates). In recognition of his pioneering work, Linnaeus was made a noble in 1761. From then on,he was known as Carl von Linne.Prescribed Focus Area:The history of scienceOn each continent, indigenous peoples established their own keys to classify the living things around them. Many early keys were based on whether the animals or plants were useful as a food source, a source of fur or natural fibres that could be woven or whether they werepart of their spirituality.Animals, for example, were sometimes classified as wild or domesticated. Other classification keys werebased on whether the animal lived on the land or in thesea. The term fish, for example, used to refer to anything swimming or anything that lived in the sea.Even today, creatures such as jellyfish, shellfish, crayfish and starfish include fish in their names, despite them now being classified as creatures other than fish.Indigenous Australian classificationAborigines traditionally classify animals according to their usefulness, where they live or how they were used. Penguins and emus, for example, are placed in the samecategory as kangaroosboth are ground-dwellingsources of meat and so they are grouped together. Other birds are placed in the flying food source category. In some instances, an animal has no Aboriginal namebecause it was not used for anything. Some Aboriginal tribes in northern Australia name plants according totheir uses or their locations, such as a swamp. In thesetribes, fish (guya) are also classified according to wherethey live. This gives five categories:garrwarpuy living near the surfacengopuy living near the bottommayangbuy living in riversraypinbuy living in freshwatergundapuy living among rocks and reefs.Grouping living thingsScienceFocusScientists still argue over how many kingdoms there should be. Some claim that the protists should not have their own kingdom and that, instead, theyshould be split amongst the animal, plant and fungi kingdoms. Recent research suggests that the monerakingdom could also be split to form two new kingdoms. Although theargument continues, most accept that there are five basic kingdoms (animal, plant, fungi, protists and monera).Scientists also argue about howmany phyla and classes there are. There is no hard-and-fast definition for a phylum and so scientists also argue about its definition, too, sometimes merging the idea of class and phyla together. For thesereasons, there may be up to 89 different classes.Many students of Linnaeus went on to explore the world for new plants and animals. One, Daniel Solander, accompanied Captain James Cook on his first journey (on which he discovered the east coast of Australia in 1770). He and Joseph Banks brought back to Europe thefirst ever collection of Australian plants. Botany Bay(originally called Stingray Bay, then Botanist Bay) in Sydney was also named by them.Although some changes were made by the French zoologist Georges Cuvier in the early 1800s, the basicsystem as developed by Linnaeus is still used today.Arguments in scienceLinnaeus and Cuvier proposed their kingdoms andclasses based on the information they had available at the time. The development of the microscope, however, revealed characteristics of organisms that had never been seen before, particularly in plants and microorganisms such as bacteria. With this newinformation, new kingdoms were needed and others could be re-organised.Fig 4.3.7 While on a scientific expedition to the far north of Finland in 1732, Linnaeus nearly fell into an icycrevasse. He saved himself from near-death and went on to discover 100 new plant species on this expedition.Fig 4.3.8 Although there is no evidencefor unicorns (white horses with singlelong, spiralled horns growing from their foreheads), unicorn-like horns are found on narwhals (rare arctic mammals that resemble dolphins) and some seahorses.Monstrous humans!Linnaeus originally left room in his kingdomsfor mythical animalssuch mermaids, satyrs,unicorns and monstrous humans.Room was left for Homo ferus (humanswho walked on all fourslike dogs) and Homo caudatus (humans who had a tail)!ScienceClipFig 4.3.9 Until Linnaeus, common dandelions were known as naked ladies, mares fart, hounds piss, open arse, bum-towel and pissabed. Using his binomial system, they became Taraxacum officinale.Unit4 . 3SSSSSSSSSSSSi SSSSSSiiiii QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ Si QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ SSci Sc Sci Si Sci Sc Sci SSci Sc SSSc Sc cc Sci Sci i Sci Sc Sci Sci Sci Sci Sc Sccc Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sc Sc Sci ci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sc c Sc Sci Sci Sc Sci Sci Sci c Sci c Sci Sc Sci ci Sci Sc cccc Si Q QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQ Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bu Bu Bus Bus Bus Bus Bu Bus Bus Bus BBus BBBBus Bus Bus Bu Bu Bu BBu Bu Bus Bu Bu Bu Bus Bus Buu Buus Bus Bu Bu B ter ter ter ter ter ter ter ter ter ter ter ter ter ter ter ter ter ter ter te terssssssssssssssssss Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci Sci QQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQ Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Buster ter ter ter ter ter ter ter ter ter ter ter ter ter tersssssssssssssss Sc Sc Sc cc Sc Sc Sc Sc Sc Sc Sc Sc Sc Sc c Sc Sc Sc c Sc Sc cccc Sc Sc c Sc c Sc c Sc Sc ccc ssss QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ sssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss us us uuuus us uuuus us us us uuus uuuus uuuuuus uus uus us uuuuuuuuus cccccccc Sc Sc cccc Sc Sc Sc Sc cc Sc Sc Sc ccccccc Sc cccccccccccccccc Sc Sc cccccc Sc c Sc cccccccccccc Sc cccc Sc Sc Sc ccc Sc Sc Sc ccc Sc c Sc ccccccccccccc SSSSSc SSSSSSSc Sc SSSSc SSSc SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSc SSSc SSSSSc SSSSSc SSSSSSSc SSSSc SSSSSc SSSSSSSSc Sc Sc SSSSSSSSci cii ci ci ci ci ci ci cici ci ciiBBBu Bu BBBBBBu Bu BBu BBBBu BBBBBu BBu Bu Bu BBu Bu Bu BBBBBBu SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB ii ciii ci cii ci ci ci ci ci ciiii SSc SSc Sc Sc Sc Sc Sc Sc Sc SSSc SSc Sc SSc Sc Sc Sc Sc Sc Sc Sc SSSc SSc Sci Sci cci ci ci c Sc ci ci cccc Sci Sci cci ci ci c Sc ci ci cccc Sci Sci Sci ci ci ci Sc Sc ci Sci ccci cc Sci Sci Sci ci ci ci Sc Sc ci Sci ccci ccci ciii ci cii ci cici ciii ci cii ci ciii ci ci cii ci ci ciiii ci ci cii ci ci ciiii QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu BBBu Bu Bu Bu Bu BBBu Bu BBu BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBus Bus uuus us Buus us uuuus us Bus us uuus us uus us uuuus us us us us us ussss ussss us uss us us us us ussss ussss us uss rrrrrrrrrrrssssssssssss rrrrrrrrrrsssssssssssssss eeee te ee te te eeeeee te eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee te ee te te te eeeee te eeeeeeeeeeeee tttte ttte te te te tte ttttte te te te te te te te te te te ttte te t rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrsss rrrrrrrrrrrrrsssssssssssssssssssssssssssss eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee ssste te tte te tte te te te tte te te te ssste te tte te tte te te te tte te te te te te te te e te eeeeee te ee te te te te e te eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeerr errrr errrrrrrssssssssss err errrr errrrrrrssssssssss rrrrrrrrrrrrsssssssssssssss rrrrrrrrrrrrsssssssssssssssPic of full moon?326REPLYREPLYREPLYChalk talk The big Moon Hot versus cold Ask Sci Q Busters teamChalk talkThe big MoonHot versus coldCereal soundsStormy weatherus i Q Bu ci ci Q BBus Q ci Q 327Hi Rachel,Many, theories have been put forward, and many, experiments have been conducted. The findingssuggest thats its only an optical illusion.To prove this for yourself, hold a ruler at armslength and measure the Moon as it rises. Make anote of this measurement, and then wait a whileDear Q Busters,The other night when we had a full moon it looked enormous just as it rose, but then got smaller later in thenight. How can this be? I thought the Moon was the same distance away from the Earth all of the time!From RachelHi Isabella,If a piece of chalk is held incorrectly, it first sticksto the blackboard and then suddenly crumbles. Thechalk then slips and vibrates, causing the loud squeal. As the vibrations die down and the chalkdust falls out of the way, friction between the chalkand the board increases until the chalk sticks onceagain and the cycle is repeated.The frequencies of the squealing chalk depend on the following things:s WHERE THE CHALK IS HELDBY THE FINGERSs ATWHATANGLE ITIS HELDs HOW TIGHTLY THE PIECE OFCHALK IS HELDs THE LENGTHOFTHE PIECE OFCHALKFor example, if the chalk is held just above theblackboard contact point and at right angles to it, the frequencies are higher than if the chalk is held at a 45 angle. In the first case, vibrations aregenerated along the length of the chalk. In thesecond case, the chalk vibrates by bending.Thats one theory anyway. There is another, which is based on impurities in the chalk stick. Thesesmall hard bits of grit scratch against theblackboard much like your fingernails would.And what about the solution? Well, you can askyour teacher to try these:s 3NAPTHE CHALK INTWO4HIS SHOULDDOUBLE THEfrequency of the sound and therefore should not be heard.s 0USHDOWNHEAVIERONTOTHE BLACKBOARD This should rub the grit off quickly and thelesson should be squeak free.s 5SE THE WHITEBOARDOr maybe you could experiment yourself, and then pass on theresults to your teacher.Happy chalking!The Q Busters TeamHi Alexandra,This would seem to be completely wrong by what you have been taught so far in Science. Thisphenomenon, where hot water appears to freezefaster than cold water, actually has a special name. Its called the Mpemba effect. It is named after theTanzanian high school student, Erasto Mpemba, who,in 1963, discovered it when experimenting at school.There is still great debate out there over whether this is fact or fiction, but here are the two main theories at present.1.Evaporation. As you know, when hot water isplaced in an open container it begins to coolwith steam coming off. This will reduce theamount of water in the container. With lesswater to freeze, the process can take less time.2.Dissolved gases. When you are boiling water, Alexandra, you know that its boiling becauseyou can see the bubbles rising and popping on the surface. Well, this is removing most of thedissolved gases in the water. The gases actuallyreduce waters ability to conduct heat. Therefore, with less dissolved gas in the water, it can cool faster.But we still dont know for certain.Happy freezing!The Q Busters TeamHi Q Busters,I was at school yesterday when there was a loud squeal coming from the chalk as the teacher wrote onthe blackboard. What causes this? Can you suggest anything I can pass on to our teacher so shedoesnt do it again? Its driving the whole class mad!Best wishes, IsabellaDear Q BustersSomeone at school said she heard on the TV that hot water freezes faster that cold water.This cant be true, can it? Please help as I am now confused about freezing water.Regards, AlexandraInsert pic?Chalk talkHot versus coldThe big Moonuntil the Moon is higher in the sky. Measure it again, compare your measurements, and youllfind its more or less the same size no matter where it happens to be in the sky.One theory suggests that the mind judges thesize of an object based on its surroundings. With a low Moon the trees and houses near you appear smaller against the moon which, in turn, makes it appear bigger than it really is.Another way to prove it is to look at the lowMoon though a rolled-up piece of paper. Thiswill block out the surroundings and the illusionshould vanish.Happy moon gazing!The Q Busters Team135Remembering1 List three examples of each of the following:aorganismsbvertebratescinvertebratesdendothermseectothermsfangiospermsgconifershfungiiprotists.2 State:athe five main classes of vertebratesbthe three main orders of mammalscthe four main classes of invertebratesdthe five main orders of arthropodsethe five main classes of vascular plants.Understanding3 Explain why scientists classify things.4 Cells were unknown before the invention of the microscope. Explain why.5 Clarify the meanings of the following terms:arespirationbexcretioncstimulusdresponseetaxonomyfspeciesgvertebratehexoskeletoniheterotroph.6 Plants and animals both use cellular respiration for energy. Explain why only plants can undergo photosynthesis.Applying7 Until recently, it was thought that dinosaurs were reptiles.aIf this was correct, list the kind of features you would expect dinosaurs to have.b Recent research has indicated that many (if not all) dinosaurs were warm blooded and that birds may haveevolved from them. Use this information to classify dinosaurs, placing them in the correct animal kingdom.c Identify a feature of birds that resembles a feature of thoselong-extinct dinosaurs.8 Identify whether the following questions are dichotomous:a Does the animal have a backbone?b What colour is your T-shirt?c Did you feed the dog?d What type of animal is that?9 You watch somebody run across a field being chased by ahungry lion. Identify which characteristics of life are shown by:a the personb the lion. 10 Identify whether the following pairs of animals belong to thesame species:a a Lebanese man and a Chinese womanb a tiger and a gorillac a greyhound and a poodled a lizard and a crocodilee a donkey and a horse. 11 You are standing by a campfire, listening to the rustle of thepossums in the bushes, the crackle of the fire and the laughter of your friends. Identify whether all of the things mentioned in this sentence are alive. Do any of the non-living things showany of the characteristics of life? Explain. 12 Electronic music storage systems such as iTunes classify themusic they contain in a number of different ways (e.g. byartist).a Identify some of the other ways in which they classify themusic.b Explain the advantages of using different keys to classifythe same music.Analysing 13 Classify the following as angiosperm, conifer, fern or bryophyte:a pineb tree fernc apple treed liverwort.CHAPTER REVIEWUUKEEP ACCURATE RECORDS AND PREPAREWORK SAFELY IN A NUMBER OF DIFFERENT ENVPalaeontologistsLOCATING SITESCAREFULLY DIGthey are fouPREPARINGDATING FOUSING INSUCH AEarth.A gooBE ABBE ABtake yHAVE ALOVE FOPalaeCareerProfile!PALAEONTOLOGISTEXAMINESCLASSIFIESANDanimal and plant fossils found in sedimenThis helps us understand the history of lifBritish GP, Dr Harold Shipman killed an estimated 23of his patients between 1974 and 1998. His visits tosick, elderly people were often followed by a worseningf their ailment and then what seemed to be anious death. Dr Shipman would return and wricertificate and alter the records to say thsick that they were close to death.at the doctor was actually givingction.a healthy elderly lady and st will and testament that The police investigatedd (dug up) her body.Shipmans other und in each of aths. Shipmans OONNNNS NS SS OONNNNS SSa criminal might try to falsify.hat the Hitler diaries were fake.be used to determine which typewriter wasansom note. the advantage(s) of Australian banknotes being printedon plastic.5 List the features that usually give away fake banknotes.plastic banknotein January 1988 tc banknotes are mimes longer. A papnths, a plastic one laralia (NPA) is ownedCase studyBritish GP, Dr Harold Shipman killed an estof his patients between 1974 and 1998. His sick, elderly people were often followed by aof their ailment and then what seemed to beunsuspicious death. Dr Shipman would returout the death certificate and alter the recordthe person was so sick that they were close tV f d h h dThe mRemembering1 List three examples of each of the following: for energy.Explai o photosynthesis.Applying Applying plying ying Appl Ap7 Until recently, it was thought that dinosaurs were reptiles.a If this was correct, list the kind of features you wouldexpect dinosaurs to have.b Recent research has indicated thdinosaurs were warm blooded aevolved from them. Use this infodinosaurs, placing them in the cc Identify a feature of birds that relong-extinct dinosaurs.8 Identify whether the following quesa Does the animal have a backbone?What colour is your T-shirt?you feed the dog?type of animal is that?somebody run across adentify which characterhe following pairsn and a Chinese wrilland a poodlecrocodilea horse.ng by a campfire, listhe bushes, the cracklends. Identify whether alnce are alive. Do any of thehe characteristics of life? Exronic music storage systems susic they contain in a number of artist).a Identify some of the other waysmusic.b Explain the advantages of using dthe same music.Ana Analysing13 Classify the following as angiosperbryophyte:a pineb tree fernRemembering1 List three examples of each of the following:a organismsb vertebratesc invertebratesd endothermse ectothermsfangiospermsg conifersh fungiiprotists.2 State:a the five main classes of vertebratesb the three main orders of mammalsth f i l f i t b tCHAPTER REVIEWixSurface( ), g g pappearance. Cratered regions, largevolcanoes, a large canyon andpossiblAtmoGrds of small ound the Sunameter of aboutseveral near-crash into syste stem on etres res of itsbelt between Mars ando have a gravitational, Dactyl. MarsMass 0.107 times thMoonsTwo (PhobosDeimosdiamDiameter6794 km ( = 0diameter)ScienceFact Filex1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9ForensicsThe periodic tableChemical changeSense and controlReproduction Ecosystems LightThe universeEarths fragile crustOutcomes 5.15.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.65.7 5.8 5.9 5.105.115.125.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26 5.27 Note: indicates the key Prescribed Focus Area covered in each chapter.Chapters may also include information on other Prescribed Focus Areas.Stage 5Syllabus CorrelationScience Focus 3chapterVerbs Science Focus Second Edition uses the following verbs in the chapter questions under the headings of Blooms Taxonomy of Cognitive Processes. The verbs in black are the key verbs that have been developed to help provide a common language and consistent meaning in the Higher School Certificate documents. All other verbs listed below feature throughout the book and are provided here for additional support to teachers and students.Remembering Listwrite down phrases only without further explanationNamepresent remembered ideas, facts or experiencesPresentprovide information for considerationRecallpresent remembered ideas, facts or experiencesRecordstore information and observations for laterSpecifystate in detailStateprovide information without further explanationUnderstandingAccount account for: state reasons for, report on. Give an account of: narrate a series of events or transactions Calculate ascertain/determine from given facts, gures or information (simply repeating calculations that are set out in the text)Clarify make clear or plain Dene state meaning and identify essential qualities Describe provide characteristics and features Discuss identify issues and provide points for and/or against Explain relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things evident; provide why and/or how Extract choose relevant and/or appropriate details Gathercollect items from different sourcesModifychange in form or amount in some wayOutline sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of Predict suggest what may happen based on available information ProduceprovideProposeput forward for consideration or actionRecount retell a series of events Summariseexpress, concisely, the relevant details ApplyingApply use, utilise, employ in a particular situationCalculate ascertain/determine from given facts, gures or information Demonstrateshow by example Examine inquire into Identify recognise and name Useemploy for some purposeAnalysingAnalyse identify components and the relationship between them; draw out and relate implicationsCalculate ascertain/determine from given facts, gures or information (requiring more manipulation than simply applying the maths) Classify arrange or include in classes/categories Compare show how things are similar or different Contrast show how things are different or opposite Critically (analyse/evaluate)add a degree or level of accuracy/depth, knowledge and understanding, logic, questioning, reection and quality to (analyse/evaluate) Discussidentify issues and provide points for and/or againstDistinguish recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from; to note differences between Interpret draw meaning from Researchinvestigate through literature or practical investigationEvaluatingAppreciate make a judgement about the value of Assess make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size Critically (analyse/evaluate) add a degree or level of accuracy/depth, knowledge and understanding, logic, questioning, reection and quality to (analyse/evaluate) Deduce draw conclusions Drawdraw conclusions, deduceEvaluate make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of Extrapolate infer from what is known Investigateplan, inquire into and draw conclusionsJustify support an argument or conclusion Propose put forward (for example a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion) for consideration or action Recommendprovide reasons in favour Selectchoose one or more items, features, objectsCreating Construct make; build; put together items or arguments Designprovide steps for an experiment or procedureInvestigate plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about Synthesise put together various elements to make a whole xi1Prescribed focus areaEssentials Applications and uses of scienceForensicsAdditional Key outcomes5.3, 5.12, 5.15, 5.16, 5.17 Developments in science impact on society and how it works. Evidence can be used to support different viewpoints. Observations and measurements must be accurately made and recorded. A range of data collection strategies can be used. Information from a number of sources needs to be collated. Information must be distinguished as relevant or irrelevant. Technological developments have extended the ability of scientists to monitor and collect information about events in the world.2Pathologists are medical doctors who have specialised in the study of disease and injury and the damage these do to organs and tissues. Forensic pathologists perform autopsies. In an autopsy, a dead body is dissected to find signs of damage that may point to the likely time and cause of death.Forensics also uses the expertise of specialists in many fields such as information technology, medicine, dentistry and psychology (the study of how people behave and why).Forensic methods of identificationForensic methods of identification assist in identifying dead bodies and people who are living but are avoiding justice.Most of the time these methods are not needed. People usually carry some form of photo-identification in their pocket, wallet or purse. This identification is readily available to police if they die, commit a crime or are a witness to a crime. Family, neighbours, co-workers, schoolmates and personal web pages such as Facebook provide another way of identifying someone. Identity is usually easy to establish.Sometimes, however, none of this information is available. Dead people are often difficult to identify, especially if they are just bones. The identity of a living person can also be hard to determine: criminals often change their name to establish a new identity and to hide past crimes. Before the invention of photographs, they could simply move to a new location, change their name and start a new life. The chance of being recognised was slim. If caught for a new crime, then the probability of being charged for others was very low. This was especially so in large and populous cities. Forensic methods of identification can be used in such cases. Forensic scienceForensic science is scientific knowledge that can be used by the legal system. A crime scene will contain multiple pieces of evidence and forensic science is used to analyse it. Forensic science helps to answer questions such as when a death occurred and why, how fast a car was travelling on impact, what the blood alcohol concentration of the driver was at the time and the type of white powder found in a suitcase by Customs.Forensic scientistsForensic scientists help investigators to collect scientific evidence. Crime scene units are made up of police who are specially trained to collect, bag and label all types of evidence at a serious crime such as a homicide (murder or manslaughter). Regular police members also collect and bag evidence in less serious crimes.Society has a framework of laws based on the rights, responsibilities and the safety of its citizens. Theft, assault, murder and forgery (the faking of documents or money) are all crimes that carry penaltiesfrom monetary fines and community service orders to prison terms and, in some countries, execution. Forensic scientists collect and analyse evidence that can be used to find the person who committed a crime and later bring them to justice. Forensic evidence can also be used to prove their innocence.contextForensics and identificationUnit 1.1Fig 1.1.1 Who is it and how and when did they die? Forensics attempts to find out all this information and more.3Unit 1 . 1Identikit and composite drawingsThroughout history, drawings of wanted criminals have been used as a tool of identification on wanted posters for suspected criminals like bushrangers in Australia and outlaws in what was known as the wild west of the USA. Initially, artists produced these images. Another system called Identikit became popular after 1959 when it was used to successfully identify an assassin, Guy Trebert, in Paris. Identikit uses re-drawn facial features that can be slotted together without the need of an artist.Today, computerised methods involving thousands of images are used to generate a composite drawing in minutes. Some produce three-dimensional images. Identikit and computer composites have limited effectiveness, however, as it is difficult for a witness to get all the features correct. Only about two per cent of these images result in a positive identification. Prac 1p. 9Fig 1.1.2 Wanted posters and newspapers were once the only ways of spreading information to the public about criminals. This 1879 poster is calling for information about the assassin Ned Kelly.Facial recognitionThe face is one of the best indicators of someones identity. This is why photographs appear on drivers licences and passports.Photographic identificationPhotography was invented in 1854. From the 1870s it was used in conjunction with anthropometry (the proportions of the body) to identify suspects. In the early 1900s, photography began to be used as a reliable way of recording, identifying and proving identity.Photographs are difficult to classify and police may need to sift through hundreds of photographs to determine the identity of someone in custody. A witness to a crime will also find it difficult to identify a suspect. Looking at so many photographs can also alter their memory. New information interferes with old memories, making a positive identification improbable. This is called retroactive interference.Fig 1.1.3 The computerised Identikit system was developed to speed up the production of composite images.Fig 1.1.4 This computerised Identikit photo of an Italian mafia boss helped police catch him in 2005. It shows a remarkable similarity with the real man.Identification Mexico-styleIn 2004, the Minister for Police, the Justice Minister and other important law makers in Mexico had microchips surgically implanted. These chips identified them and allowed only them to gain computer access to sensitive information on criminal activity. Dogs and cats commonly have microchips inserted under their neck skin allowing them to be identified if lost.ScienceClip4Forensics and identicationThe Bertillon systemAlphonse Bertillon was a French anthropologist and chief of criminal identification for the Paris police. About 1870 he devised the first scientific method of criminal identification. His identification system was called anthropometry or the Bertillon system. It involved measuring and recording the dimensions of a series of bony body parts and was based on the assumption that no two people would ever look exactly alike or have exactly the same measurements. It was widely used from about 1882 to 1905, however, there were cases of mistaken identity including one when a man was sent to jail for a crime committed by his twin brother. It was eventually superseded by fingerprinting.FingerprintsFingerprints are found on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet of all primates (apes, monkeys and humans). They help us grip things, acting in a similar way to the tread patterns on shoes and car tyres. Each fingerprint consists of ridges and valleys that form a distinct pattern. The ridges form beneath the outer layers of skin and will grow back in exactly the same pattern if removed. It wasnt until 1892 that scientists and police started to agree that they could serve another purposeto positively identify people.After collecting and analysing thousands of fingerprints, English scientist and statistician Sir Francis Galton and the head of London police Sir Edward Richard Henry concluded that no two fingerprints were exactly alike. Henry then invented a system of collecting and classifying fingerprints using ink on cards with letter codes for each fingerprint type. These could be indexed and searched. This enabled police to:collect the fingerprints of existing criminals in jail and index themmatch a person with their collection, even if they had changed their name and appearancematch a fingerprint collected at a crime scene with one in their collectionBiometric facial recognitionSpecialised computer systems and software can recognise a face by matching it to one stored in a database. The position of points formed by the eyes, chin, nose, ears and other facial features are measured and compared with thousands of profiles. The process takes only a few milliseconds and so facial recognition can be used to screen people for access to secure areas. It is likely that this technology will be used in the near future at airports and major train stations to help recognise known terrorists.However, the rate of false positives (the computer detecting a match when there is none) and false negatives (missing a match) is still quite high. Slight changes in the angle and in the quality of the image make it difficult to get consistent results. There is also a privacy issue: do people want government and corporations to be able to track their movements through biometric facial recognition every time they enter a building?Identification using the bodyEach person has features that identify their body. Different methods have been developed to measure these features and use them as a method of identification.Australias firstIn 1903, all prisoners in NSW were fingerprinted for the first time. Their 6000 prints started Australias first fingerprint collection.ScienceClipFig 1.1.5 Biometric cameras scan a face and computer software measures the position of certain points on the face. These can then be compared with profiles on the computer database.Arches look like an arched bridge.Whorls contain circular/oval or yin-yang patterns.Composites are rare and are a mixture of the other three types.Loops have ridges that enter and leave from the same side like a loop of string. Loops can begin and end on the left or the right side of the finger.5Unit 1 . 1computer allowing instantaneous comparison of millions of fingerprint records. Although computers can find probable fingerprint matches, the final analysis and match must be made by trained fingerprint specialists. Even so, errors can be made.As well as their forensic use, fingerprint scans are now widely used as a password that restricts access to computers and buildings and to sign in and out of work. As a result of the terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001, visitors entering or leaving the USA via its international airports must have their fingerprints scanned.Types of fingerprintsFingerprints come in four types: loops, whorls, arches and composites.use the fingerprint from a corpse to help identify it. Fingerprints also allowed people who could not write to sign their name with a thumbprint instead.Fingerprint scansOver time, so many fingerprints were collected that it became very slow to search through them manually. Each law enforcement agency had its own fingerprint collection which also made it difficult to compare a print with those in the collections stored in other cities, states or countries.Computers now provide a faster system of storing, searching, matching and identifying prints. At first, existing fingerprint cards were scanned. Today, whole-hand prints and fingerprints are scanned directly into a Prac 2p. 10Fig 1.1.6 Fingerprints are regularly taken from suspects to compare with those collected from a crime scene.Fig 1.1.7 An Automatic Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) uses infra-red (IR) light to scan a persons fingerprint. In Scotland, banks are trialling ATMs which use fingerprints for identification instead of a PIN.Fig 1.1.8 The four basic fingerprint types: loops, whorls, arches and compositesWorksheet 1.1 Fingerprints6Iris and retina identificationAlthough initially a device of science fiction or spy films, a persons identity can be determined by scanning their eyes. Computerised devices scan either the iris pattern or the pattern of blood vessels in the retina. The chances of incorrect identification are very low because:two scans are taken, one of each eyea glass eye cannot be forged. A glass eye never moves, whereas a real iris moves constantlyan iris is far more detailed than a fingerprint, with 266 identifiable featuresthe iris never changes, even with age, and is therefore a good long-term identifier.Retina scans are more difficult to obtain than iris scans but they are more accurate. Retina scans are currently used to gain access to high-security facilities containing nuclear weapons.Although potentially useful in criminal investigations, iris and retina scans are very difficult to obtain from uncooperative suspects.any microscopic sample left by them. This sample might be a few cells of skin, hair, sperm or even dandruff. Evidence obtained through DNA profiling can be used in a court of law to prove identity.Use of DNA samplesDNA samples can be useful to an investigation, even if they do not match any samples in the police database. DNA can be used to determine whether the sample came from a male or a female and will be kept in the database until a match is found. In the future, it may be possible to tell more about a person from their DNA, such as their probable height, weight or even what they may look like.While DNA is not always recovered from a crime scene, in some cases a definite sample can be collected. A rapist, for example, can leave behind a sample of semen. A negative match can prove the innocence of a suspect; a positive match can be used to prove guilt. The development of DNA profiling has forced a review of many cases where people have been imprisoned. Thousands of falsely imprisoned people have been proven innocent through new DNA evidence and have been released. In the USA for example, the Innocence Project, largely managed by volunteer law students, has used DNA profiling and other evidence to support the release of those jailed for crimes it appears they did not commit. This has called into question much of the legal system, including the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.Fig 1.1.9 Computer scans convert markings in the iris into a coded series of black and white patches. These special contact lenses show irises as the computer program sees them.LeftoversWherever you go you leave a little of yourself behind. DNA matching has different success rates depending on the sample. For example, the success rates for blood are 90 per cent, saliva on a cigarette butt 67 per cent, fallen hair 25 per cent, and sweat on a weapon handle 17 per cent.ScienceClipFig 1.1.10 The blood on this knife will contain the DNA of the victim. Sweat and oils on its handle will contain the DNA of the attacker. There are also fingerprints in the blood which will provide further evidence.Forensics and identicationScience Focus 4 Unit 4.1 Go to Genetic identificationDNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a chemical that is present in every cell of your body. The structure of DNA provides the cell with a set of coded instructions on how the cell can build all the materials that make a human. Almost every person has their own unique DNA. The only exceptions are children from identical multiple births, such as identical twins who have identical DNA.DNA profilingDNA profiling is a set of tests that measure the DNA code. DNA profiling is an extremely sensitive and powerful technique because it can identify a person from 7Unit 1 . 1of the person. Sex and age can be determined by careful examination of the pelvis, skull and other key bones. This data can then be entered into a missing persons database which will hopefully result in a match, or a set of matches. Dental and hospital records, photographs and other materials can then be collected to help positively identify the person. Additional information can come from the remains of clothing, buttons, buckles or other objects which might still be around the skeleton. These provide an invaluable aid to determining both the identity of the person and the year or decade in which they died.Prac 4p. 11When DNA gets it wrongErrors in judgment and contamination of equipment and DNA samples occasionally do occur. In 2000, a toddler named Jaydyn Leskie disappeared in Moe, Victoria. His body was found in a dam later that year. DNA was analysed but it came from a person that police knew had nothing to do with the investigation. Despite all precautions, the innocent DNA had ended up in the forensic testing laboratory and had somehow found its way into the sample. It may have come from a visitor to the laboratory. Science Focus 4 Unit 3.3 Go to Identifying a bodyCorpses are often degraded to the point where they are difficult to identify. Degradation occurs very quickly in fires and explosions which can happen in a plane crash or bomb blast. Sometimes it occurs more slowly. This could be because a body has been hidden before being discovered, when someone gets lost and dies in the bush or after a natural disaster such as a tsunami.Sometimes there is nothing left of the body except a skeleton or perhaps a few bones. Fingerprints are no longer present and DNA may have deteriorated to the extent that it is no longer reliable as a method of identification. This is when the forensic odontology (dental measurements) and anthropometry (body measurements) are used.Worksheet 1.2 Time of deathKnown bodies Sometimes police are reasonably sure of the identity of a body. A body recovered from a house fire, for example, probably belongs to someone who lived there. X-rays of the body will show previous bone injuries and any pins which have been used to stabilise and strengthen serious breaks. Comparison can then be made with the hospital records of who they think it is. Usually X-rays of the teeth are also taken and compared with dental records. These X-rays can be used to confirm identity and make sure that the remains are returned to the family for burial or cremation.Mystery bodiesSometimes the identity of a corpse or skeleton is a complete mystery. Much information, however, can be gathered through careful examination by a forensic anthropologist.Measurement of key bones such as the femur (the main bone of the leg) can be used to find out the height Prac 3p. 11Fig 1.1.11 Fillings and dental work can be compared with existing dental records, helping to determine a persons identity. This 18-year-old has fillings (seen in this X-ray as bright areas) and impacted wisdom teeth.Fig 1.1.12 Measuring the skull can help to determine a victims age, sex and other characteristics.81.1QUESTIONSRemembering1State the job of:aa forensic scientistba crime scene unitca forensic pathologist2List the identification you normally carry around with you.3List the advantages and disadvantages of the following methods of identification:aphotographsbIdentikitcbiometric facial recognition4List the advantages and disadvantages of:athe Bertillon systembfingerprintsciris and retina scans5List what checks are made when a body is found whose likely identity is already known.6List the measurements and details that need to be taken of a body whose identity is a mystery.Understanding7Summarise the different methods of identification presented in this unit by constructing a table. For your columns use these headings: method, how it is used, effectiveness of method and comments about the method.8Explain why it was much easier in the past than it is today for a criminal to simply disappear.9List the types of animals that have fingerprints and explain what they help these animals do. 10Explain what DNA is and where in the body it is found. 11Explain how a negative DNA match is sometimes very useful. 12Teeth impressions left on a victim often cannot be used to positively identify the culprit. Explain why.Applying 13A person is shown dusting for fingerprints in the photo on page 1.aIdentify whether the person is likely to be a forensic scientist, a member of a crime scene unit, a pathologist or a forensic pathologist.bPropose a likely reason why the person is wearing rubber gloves.Evaluating 14At the start of the Pyjama Girl Murder Case, victim Linda Agostini was not identified because of subtle differences between the teeth of the body and her dental records.aDescribe how your teeth can be different to the records kept at your dentist.bDescribe other changes that might happen to your teeth over time.cPropose a reason why X-rays were not used to analyse the skull and teeth of the body. The case occurred in 1934. 15Assess whether this delay in identification could happen today. Explain your answer. 16Propose at least five likely reasons why identification of the bodies of the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami was so difficult.Forensics and identicationThe Pyjama Girl Murder CaseCasestudyIn 1934, a burnt and mutilated female body dressed in pyjamas was found in a ditch beside the road near Albury NSW. Everything matched missing woman, Linda Agostini. Her husband did not recognise the body, however, and there were subtle differences between her dental records and the bodys teeth.The body was stored in a formalin bath and after 10 years a previously undetected porcelain tooth filling fell out. Another detailed dental examination proved it was Linda. Her husband, Antonio, then confessed to murder. He was convicted of manslaughter because of confusing presentation of evidence by the prosecutors and served less than four years.9Unit 1 . 1awhat happened the night Peter Falconio disappearedbthe key forensic evidence presented in the court casecother evidence presented in the casedwhy some doubted Joanne Lees story of murder and kidnap.Present your work in one of the following ways by creating:La labelled timeline showing relevant eventsan oral, written or videotaped interview with Joanne Lees an interview with one of the jurors at Murdochs trial a videotaped segment or script for a TV show like CSI a series of articles for the front pages of a newspaper. Peter FalconioWhile driving in the Northern Territory in 2001, British tourists Peter Falconio and Joanne Lees were stopped by a man. Peter Falconio got out of the car. Lees heard what she thought was a shot and never saw Falconio again. She was kidnapped, then escaped, hid and later flagged down a passing truck. Although Falconios body was never found, Bradley John Murdoch was found guilty in 2005 of his murder. Investigate your available resources (for example, textbooks, encyclopaedias, internet) to find out the following:1.1INVESTIGATING1.1PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES1 Make your own IdentikitAimTo construct a basic Identikit and use it to create images of different peopleEquipmentdigital cameracomputerprinter and optional camera tripodA4 paperscissors or Stanley knifesticky tape or glueMethod1Set up the camera (preferably on a tripod) in a bright spot, about one to two metres away from a plain background.2Get someone to stand facing the camera and zoom in so that their face takes up most of the picture.3Take a test photo and adjust the lighting or camera settings until you are obtaining consistently good quality photos.4Use sticky tape to mark the position on the ground of their feet.5Take individual photos of everyone in the class, making sure that they are standing in exactly the same position marked by the sticky tape.6Print out all the photos in black and white and at A4 size. 17Propose a likely reason why teeth are sometimes the only things that remain of a skeleton after a long time. 18Propose a reason why the final identification of fingerprints is always done by a person and not a computer. 19TV shows like CSI have their characters collecting evidence, testing it back at the laboratory, carrying out autopsies and interviewing witnesses and suspects. In reality, different people carry out each role. Propose reasons why:aTV shows like this one have characters carrying out multiple tasksbit is better for a criminal investigation if different people carry out different tasks 20A blind experiment is one where the samples are all encrypted so that the scientist does not know which is which. Propose a reason why this might be especially important in forensic science.>>10Name Thumbprint Forefinger printMeJasmineFig 1.1.14Questions1State how many loops, arches and whorls you collected.2Identify the most common type of fingerprint in the class.3Identify which is the least common.4State whether there are any people whose fingerprints are hard to distinguish.5Discuss how you could tell them apart.2FingerprintsAimTo take the fingerprints of classmates and identify if they are loops, whorls or archesEquipmentblank paperinkpadMethod1In your workbook, construct a table similar to the one shown here. You will enter fingerprints in this table, so leave plenty of room for them.2Practise making rolled prints with the inkpad and blank piece of paper. This involves rolling your thumb and forefinger from one side to the other on the paper to make the print. Do not use too much or too little ink, and only roll once. Rolling back and forward will smudge the print.3Collect a clear thumbprint and a clear forefinger print of the right hand of as many members of the class as you can. If smudged, collect another one.4Paste the page into your workbook for later reference.5Identify what type of prints they have and write it next to each print. Use the code LL (left loop) RL (right loop) W (whorl) A (arch).Forensics and identication7Photocopy all the photos so that every four to six students have a complete set.8Cut each photo into sections as shown in Figure 1.1.13.9Use features from different people to construct different and imaginary faces. 10When you have a face that works, stick it onto a fresh sheet of A4 paper.Questions1Assess how realistic the constructed faces are.2Assess whether you had enough different features to make a wide range of faces.3Identify parts of the Identikit faces that do not join up.4Propose how a computer could be used to fix this problem.Fig 1.1.1311Unit 1 . 13Count how many teeth are displayed in the impression.4Use a string and ruler to measure the curving length of the impression.5Note and mark any irregularities in the impression, such as large gaps or missing teeth.6Use a mirror to compare any irregularities in the impression with those in the mouth.7Compare your tracing with those of your neighbours. Tracing paper will help.Questions1State whether you have the same number of teeth markings as in the impression.2Propose reasons why the number may be different.3State whether the curved lengths of each students impressions were the same.4Explain how they might be different.5Teeth impressions can be found on bodies in murders and sexual assaults. Identify what a forensic investigator might look for in the impression.6Identify the types of fluids that an investigator might take from such a teeth impression. Why would they take them?3 Collecting teeth impressionsAimTo make teeth impressions and analyse them for features that may be used for identificationEquipmentjelly lollies such as jelly frogs or snakes (one per student)grey-lead pencilstringruleraccess to a mirrortracing paper (optional)Method1Carefully bite into the jelly lolly or snake. If possible, bite right through it. In doing so:bite the lolly so that the fullest set of teeth impressions are formed. If using a snake, you may need to bend the snake and push it into the teeth instead of biting through ittake only one bitedo not tear the lolly.2Remove the lolly and trace the teeth impressions made in it into your workbook.4 Forensic anthropometryThe length of many bones can be used to determine the height of a skeletonAimTo measure the length of the femur and determine if it can be accurately used for identificationEquipmentstringmetre ruler or tape measurepencil and calculatortape measure or metre ruleraccess to a model human skeletonMethod1Check the location of the femur on the skeleton, taking particular notice where the bone begins and ends.2Pair up with a partner and measure the length (in centimetres) of each persons femur, either using the string and ruler or the tape measure.3Use the following formula to calculate your estimated height and that of your partner, based on these bone lengths:male: height (in cm) q 69.089 e 2.238 i femur lengthfemale: height (in cm) q 61.412 e 2.317 i femur length4Measure your actual height using the metre ruler or tape measure.5Repeat the measurement and calculation, but this time use the skeleton.Questions1State whether your calculated heights were close to the actual heights of the people you tested.2Propose reasons for any differences.12contextForged documents such as licences, passports, bank documents, cash and bonds are commonly used to commit fraud and to embezzle large amounts of money. Forensic examiners analyse the handwriting, typesetting, paper and inks used in a document to establish its origin and whether it is authentic.Is it real?Unit 1.2This gives them a set of differences that occur naturally in the persons writing. The slant of letters, their spacing and style are easy to disguise, and so they pay more attention to the formation of certain letters such as E.Typewriter matchingHandwriting is easily traced and so criminals often used a typewriter to produce ransom notes, fake documents, extortion demands and death threats. Typewriters, however, could still be traced. The shape or font of the letters formed by a typewriter could easily be tracked to particular typewriter brands and models. This was enough to remove any suspects who had different typewriters.When the typewriter brand matched, microscopic examination of an individual typewriter could reveal Analysis of writing and printHandwriting analysisHandwriting analysis tries to identify who wrote or signed a particular document. The investigation might involve someone forging the signature on a cheque or perhaps trying to disguise their own handwriting when scribbling out a ransom note.Like most skills, a persons handwriting is learnt and practised and takes years to develop. It alters little over time. The capital letter E, for example, can be written in many different ways depending on where the pen starts and finishes, and where it is lifted off the paper.Document examiners typically spend many hours analysing other documents known to be written by a person before they examine the questioned document. Fig 1.2.1 In 2007, a man tried to open a bank account with this fake $1 million US banknote. Unfortunately for him, there has never been a US banknote for this amount.Fig 1.2.2 These are some of the many ways of writing the letter E.Fig 1.2.3 An old-fashioned typewriter. Imperfections in the typewriters metal letters showed up in any document typed on that machine. The Hitler diariesThe Hitler diaries were sold for $8.2 million in 1983 ($15.5 million if sold today). Although the handwriting matched a previous sample of Hitlers, the paper on which it was written was of later, post-war origin. The material had been clearly copied from Hitlers speeches and other historians documents and included well-known errors the historians had made.ScienceClipstartdirection of linePrac 1p. 17Type-bar acts as a hammerRaised letters and numbers: these can have characteristic pits and cracks in them allowing the machine to be identied.Keyboard13Unit 1 . 2drawing a solvent up through the paper. This will dissolve the different pigments in the ink, causing them to move up with the solvent and streak out like a rainbow. Black inks may all look the same, but chromatography causes them to produce different patterns and show their different component colours. Different solvents such as water or methylated spirits also produce different patterns.ForgeryGovernments and banks use a range of technologies to make it difficult to counterfeit money, cheques and official documents. Since realistic forgery is beyond the ability of most amateurs, the circulation of counte