Essays

Chapter 1 ( Prologue questions are at the end)

1. When your best friend hears that you are taking a psychology course, she asserts that psychology is simply common sense. Explain why your awareness of both the limits of everyday reasoning and the methods of psychological research would lead you to disagree with your friend's assertion.

2. The table below lists the scores of eight subjects on a test to measure anxiety, as well as the typical number of cigarettes each person smokes daily. Scores on the anxiety test can range anywhere from a low of 0 (indicating very low anxiety) to a high of 30 (indicating very high anxiety).

Anxiety Cigarettes

Subject Test Score Smoked Daily

1 8 11

2 9 3

3 15 11

4 14 16

5 21 26

6 12 10

7 22 24

8 17 18

Construct a scatterplot to represent the correlation between smoking and anxiety. Describe the direction of the correlation and give two possible explanations for it.

3. Speaking at a college graduation ceremony, Professor Robson compared college graduates with adults who are less educated. She correctly noted that college graduates pay more taxes, vote more frequently, engage in more volunteer activities in their communities, and are less likely to go to jail than less-educated adults. The professor concluded that colleges obviously do great things for society. How might you reasonably challenge the way the professor reached her conclusion?

4. Design an experiment to test whether alcohol consumption influences people's tendency to become socially aggressive. Be sure to specify your experimental hypothesis and identify your dependent and independent variables, as well as your experimental and control conditions. Identify any experimental procedures that would help to ensure the validity of your research.

5. Five students received the following test scores: 7, 11, 5, 6, and 11. Calculate the mode, median, mean, and range of this distribution of scores. Which measure of central tendency would change the most if an additional test score of 2 was included in the distribution?

Chapter 2 6. The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates believed that four basic body fluids (blood, black bile,

yellow bile, and phlegm) influenced human behavior, emotions, and personality. Use your understanding of the body's rapid and slower chemical communication systems to support or refute Hippocrates's theory.

7. Over the last few weeks, Mr. Klein has been bothered by nausea, frequent fainting spells, and severe headaches. Describe two ways a physician might seek to determine whether Mr. Klein's symptoms result from a brain disorder or injury.

8. After a mild stroke, Mr. McGeorge showed some signs of aphasia. What pattern of symptoms would lead you to believe the damage occurred primarily in (a) Broca's area, (b) Wernicke's area, (c) the angular gyrus?

9. After Jordan brilliantly performed a challenging and emotionally vibrant violin concerto, the orchestra conductor proudly proclaimed that Jordan was obviously a right-brained personality.What type of explanation is the conductor giving for Jordan's artistic skills? What's wrong with his statement? Provide an alternative reason for Jordan's talent.

Chapter 3

10. Many would consider it ironic that men are more likely than women to feel comfortable about having casual sex with multiple partners and yet at the same time more likely to feel jealous rage over a mate's having sex with someone else. How would an evolutionary psychologist explain these gender differences? What are the strengths and weaknesses of this evolutionary explanation?

11. Describe one of your personality traits that you believe to be highly heritable and another trait that seems to be much less so. Provide evidence to support your answer, and explain why you would expect genetics to exert a much greater impact on some personality traits than on others.

12. Mr. Firkin is a shy and reserved person who often feels tense and nervous. In therapy, he recalled that he had an unhappy childhood, feeling that he did not receive enough attention from his mother and resenting the conservative family discipline and life style enforced by his father. He blames both parents for his current anxiety, unhappiness, and loneliness. In light of your understanding of the interactive influences of nature and nurture, explain why Mr. Firkin's complaints about his parents may be somewhat unfair and unhelpful.

13. Describe ways in which our society might change in the future--in the home, school, and workplace, for example--if all children were raised in families that discouraged traditional gender-typing and distinct gender roles. Consider the advantages or disadvantages of such changes while you develop an argument as to whether you would or would not recommend the development of that kind of society.

Chapter 4

14. Three-year-old Ivan frequently takes other children's toys from them, showing little concern for their feelings, even when they cry. When he does this, his mother tells him to “imagine how other kids feel when they lose their toys.” Use your understanding of cognitive development to explain Ivan's antisocial behavior. Why is his mother's comment unlikely to influence his behavior? How would you encourage Ivan to stop behaving this way?

15. Mrs. Karina spends a lot of time stroking, cuddling, and rocking her infant son and seems to be highly aware of the baby's actions and needs. Mr. Karina worries that his wife's interactions with the baby may eventually lead the child to (a) cry easily when frustrated, (b) fearfully cling to his mother, (c) become unfriendly toward other people, and (d) become withdrawn and uninterested in his surroundings. Describe research on social development that supports or refutes each of the father's concerns.

16. Mr. and Mrs. McDonald believe in the importance of stern discipline; they impose strict rules which they expect their children to obey without question. They penalize misbehavior harshly, frequently with a spanking. Mr. and Mrs. Reynolds use milder forms of punishment to enforce their rules. They also have regular family meetings in which their children help them to establish household rules and penalties for breaking them. What do you see as the advantages and disadvantages of these two disciplinary approaches? Explain the reasons for your answer.

17. Thirteen-year-old Philip has begun to challenge many of his parents' values and to express his own set of highly idealistic standards. Compare and contrast the explanations for Philip's behavior that would be given by Kohlberg and by Erikson.

18. As Brianna begins experiencing symptoms of menopause, she worries about the loss of (a) health and vitality, (b) intellectual capacity, and (c) life satisfaction. Describe research that would serve to justify or minimize each of Brianna's concerns.

Chapter 5 19. Use your understanding of absolute thresholds, sensory adaptation, and pain control to argue

that sensation is often influenced by our motives, expectations, and psychological states of mind.

20. You are the president of a corporation that owns several large department stores. A board member has a plan for preventing shoplifting: In each store play musical soundtracks containing subaudible and consciously imperceptible verbal messages such as “don't steal” and “shoplifting is a crime.” Carefully discuss your reasons for supporting or rejecting this proposal to engage in subliminal persuasion.

21. In what sense is there a correspondence between the experiences of hue and pitch? Discuss how the Young-Helmholtz theory of color vision and the place theory of pitch perception are conceptually similar or different.

22. A friend believes that the five human senses--seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and feeling--are distinct and independent. Explain what is wrong with your friend's belief.

Chapter 6

23. You have been asked to paint a picture that includes buildings, fields, a river, and a mountain. Describe how you would use at least five monocular cues to give your painting a sense of depth.

24. The moon typically appears larger near the horizon than when high in the sky. The height of the Gateway Arch in St. Louis typically appears greater than its width. Explain these two perceptual illusions and show how your explanations for both illusions are similar.

25. Explain how research on size constancy, restored vision, perceptual adaptation, and perceptual sets serves to support and/or refute John Locke's emphasis on the importance of learning in perception.

26. Last night one of your mother's best friends had a car accident. Your mother feels guilty because three days ago she dreamt of such an accident but failed to warn her friend. How would you explain your mother's experience? What advice would you give her?

Chapter 727. Because he has difficulty falling asleep at night, Professor Hogan doesn't go to bed until very

late. Before he retires, he tries to wear himself out by running around the block several times. Then he treats himself to a beer and perhaps a pizza while preparing his lecture for the next day's early morning classes. What specific advice would you give the professor to help him fall asleep?

28. Franco studied all evening for a chemistry test the following morning. That night he dreamt that he copied test answers from a female classmate sitting nearby. Compare and contrast a Freudian and an information-processing explanation of Franco's dream.

29. A good friend of yours hopes that hypnosis will improve his memory and help him study longer and more effectively. He worries, however, that he might not be easily hypnotized. Your mother hopes that hypnosis will help relieve her arthritis pain but fears that under hypnosis she might do something embarrassing. Discuss the extent to which the hopes and fears of your friend and your mother are realistic. Where appropriate, use research evidence to support your conclusions.

30. A classmate believes that alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine all have similar effects on behavior and that therefore all three drugs ought to be legalized. Carefully evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of your classmate's position.

Chapter 8 31. (a) How would you classically condition an adventuresome 2-year-old to be more fearful of

running across a busy street near her house? (b) How would you classically condition a preschool child who is afraid of dogs to enjoy playing with a neighbor's friendly dog? Be sure to identify the UCS, CS, UCR, and CR in both answers.

32. (a) Several days after drinking an excessive amount of alcohol, Karen becomes nauseated simply by the smell of liquor. The sight of the half-empty liquor bottle from which she drank does not, however, upset her. What does Karen's pattern of response indicate about the limits of associative learning? (b) If George is spanked immediately after his baby sister cries, he is likely to become fearful every time she cries. If Ken is spanked immediately before his baby sister cries, he is not likely to become fearful when she cries. What do the different reactions of George and Ken suggest about the role of cognitive processes in associative learning?

33. Mr. Byrne can't understand why scolding his seventhgrade students for disruptive classroom behaviors makes them more unruly. Explain Mr. Byrne's predicament in terms of operant conditioning principles. Show how he could use operant conditioning techniques to (a) reduce disruptive behaviors and (b) increase cooperative behaviors.

34. For Vina, cigarettes reduce feelings of tension and anxiety. Because of her heavy smoking, however, she has a bad morning cough and breathing difficulties.How can the principles of operant conditioning help to explain the development and continuation of Vina's self-defeating smoking habit? Explain the extent to which the reinforcement for Vina's habit is positive or negative, primary or conditioned, immediate or delayed, partial or continuous.

35. Although Mr. Wright often tells his children about the importance of donating time and money to charitable causes, he rarely does so himself. He believes that this hypocrisy will not rub off on his children, however, as long as he has plausible excuses for his lack of charity. Use your understanding of learning processes to explain how Mr. Wright's children are likely to be affected by their father's behavior. What advice would you give to Mr. Wright?

Chapter 9 36. A friend claims that the faster you read, the more you remember. Use your knowledge of

effortful processing and effective encoding strategies to refute your friend's claim.

37. Describe three mnemonic devices that would enable you to remember the following list of grocery items: milk, eggs, margarine, oranges, rhubarb, ice cream, eggplant, and sausage. Explain why each would be effective.

38. Although you genuinely enjoyed studying hard for a biology exam, during the test you are feeling frustrated and irritable because you can't recall the answer to a series of fairly easy factual questions. What techniques could you use to effectively remember the information previously learned?

39. Professor Markus is a brilliant mathematician who is 70 years old and still enjoys teaching. Over the past few years she has experienced increasing difficulty remembering the names of her students. Suggest several possible explanations for the professor's increasing memory failure.

40. During the process of psychotherapy, Elaine accurately recovered some long-forgotten and painful memories from her childhood. This experience led her to conclude that these memories must have been repressed for many years. Use your understanding of the nature of memory to refute Elaine's conclusion.

Chapter 1041. Describe several heuristics that you might use or that you have used when deciding whether

you should (a) study especially hard for a test and (b) ask someone for a date (or accept a date). Under what circumstances are these heuristics likely to contribute to poor decision making?

42. You are the commissioner of a state lottery system that sponsors daily and weekly drawings. Lottery tickets have not been selling well over the past few months. Describe four ways you could take advantage of people's use of the availability heuristic in order to boost sales. Explain why you would judge your tactics to be fair or unfair to your customers.

43. Heike's older brother has suffered from chronic depression for several years. Unfortunately, Heike has been incorrectly informed by her parents that there is a 40 percent chance she will also suffer from depression. Explain how the availability heuristic, framing, the confirmation bias, and belief perseverance might lead Heike to conclude that she will definitely be a victim of a severe depressive disorder.

44. After returning from a shopping trip with his mother, little Tommy reported, “I goed to the store and eated candy.” Why might a behaviorist such as B. F. Skinner have had some difficulty explaining Tommy's incorrect grammatical construction? What does his error suggest about the process of language acquisition?

Chapter 1145. You have been hired by a large public school system to construct a musical aptitude test.

Describe how you would standardize your test and assess its reliability and validity. Explain why it might be more difficult to develop a valid musical aptitude test than a reliable one.

46. Although Susan is a brilliant pianist and highly acclaimed ballet dancer, her high school intelligence test scores were only average. What does Susan's experience suggest regarding (a) the reliability and validity of intelligence tests, (b) the nature of intelligence, and (c) the desirability of currently popular “gifted child” education programs?

47. A classmate makes the following claim: “Despite numerous federally funded Head Start programs and nationwide efforts to desegregate public schools, Blacks continue to lag behind their White counterparts in intelligence and academic achievement. Clearly, Black Americans must be genetically inferior to White Americans.” Use research evidence and logical arguments to intelligently refute your classmate's statement.

48. Juan is the oldest son of Mexican parents who immigrated to the United States less than five years ago. Juan's high school teachers perceive him to be fairly intelligent, but his SAT scores are low and he is having trouble getting into college. Juan's mother angrily claims that “intelligence tests are biased against Hispanics.” Juan's father sadly counters, “It's not the tests that are biased; it's American education that is biased.” Carefully explain why you would agree or disagree with the comments made by each of the parents.

Chapter 1249. Abraham Maslow suggested that “a person who is lacking food, love, and self-esteem would

most likely hunger for food more strongly than anything else.” Conversely, the novelist Dostoyevski wrote, “without a firm idea of himself and the purpose of his life, man cannot live even if surrounded with bread.” Give evidence that would lead you to support both statements.

50. Although Jan appears to be underweight, she is afraid of becoming fat and consistently restricts her food intake. Although Gene appears to be overweight, he enjoys eating and always eats as much as he wants. Explain how their different reactions to food might result from (a) differences in their inner bodily states and (b) differences in their reactions to external incentives.

51. The rate of teenage pregnancy in the United States has risen sharply in the last 40 years, despite the increased availability of contraceptives. Suggest how parents, teachers, religious leaders, government officials, and teenagers themselves could help remedy this situation. Include at least one concrete suggestion for each of these groups.

52. People often refer to homosexuals as persons rather than referring to homosexual behavior as something persons do. In fact, those who experience homosexual desires or engage in homosexual practices are often assumed to be gay or lesbian in the same sense that they are male or female. Describe the potential advantages and disadvantages of this assumption, and critically evaluate how it might influence research on the origins of differing sexual orientations.

53. Describe the contrasting effects of directive management and participative management on employee morale. Discuss these differences in terms of Maslow's hierarchy of motives. Explain why the effectiveness of each style would depend on the personality traits and cultural background of the employees.

Chapter 1354. Tranquilizing drugs that inhibit sympathetic nervous system activity often effectively reduce

people's subjective experience of intense fear and anxiety. Use one of the major theories of emotion to account for the emotionreducing effects of such tranquilizers. Which theory of emotion would have the greatest difficulty explaining these effects? Why?

55. A newspaper advice columnist suggests that thinking can be voluntarily controlled and changed, but emotions are gut-level, biological reactions that can't be voluntarily controlled or modified. Use your knowledge of emotion research and theory to either support or refute the columnist's claim.

56. Idaliza is furious because her steady boyfriend spent half an hour talking with his former girlfriend at last night's school dance. A friend suggests that Idaliza ought to get the anger out of her system by repeatedly pounding her pillow while she imagines that she is hitting her boyfriend. Explain why this might be an ineffective way for Idaliza to reduce her anger. Suggest better ways.

57. Jim, a 42-year-old engineer, is unhappy about his yearly salary although it is the highest salary he has ever earned. His wife, Carla, suggests that he vividly recall how little he earned at the age of 32. She also recommends that he watch a TV program about famine victims in Africa. Use your understanding of psychological principles to explain why Carla's suggestions might help to increase Jim's feelings of economic satisfaction.

Chapter 14

58. There's a dramatic increase in the likelihood of a person becoming ill or dying during a brief period following the death of a spouse. Describe some of the specific biological and psychological processes that may contribute to this effect.

59. A classmate argues that “the best way to handle stress is to work harder and meet life's challenges head-on.” Evaluate both the strengths and the weaknesses of your classmate's position.

60. Trevor, a college student, has tried to quit smoking on two different occasions. In each case, however, he relapsed into his old habit during the last few weeks of the school year. Explain the possible reasons for this relapse pattern and describe what Trevor can do to avoid repeated failure in his efforts to stop smoking.

61. Kate, who is 50 pounds overweight, has tried a variety of diets. Although she often loses some weight under each diet, she eventually gains it all back. Explain why Kate most likely has difficulty maintaining her weight losses. What are the advantages and disadvantages of her continued efforts to lose weight?

Chapter 1562. During a heated argument with his father, 15-year-old Jason developed a paralysis of his right

arm. Medical examinations can find no physical cause for the paralysis. Use the psychoanalytic perspective to explain how the paralysis may be Jason's attempt to deal with an unconscious conflict between his id and superego.

63. According to a number of distinguished psychologists, a major purpose of the defense mechanisms described by Freud is the protection of self-esteem. Give an example of how repression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, and displacement could each be used to protect or even enhance a positive self-image.

64. The behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner emphasized that people are largely controlled by forces outside themselves. Critique the practical implications of personally accepting Skinner's position in light of contemporary research on locus of control and learned helplessness.

65. Andy, a high school sophomore, lacks self-discipline, fails to plan ahead, and is excessively anxious. He is quickly frustrated by challenging tasks and frequently becomes overly critical of others. Use the psychoanalytic, humanistic, and social-cognitive perspectives to give three contrasting explanations of Andy's behavior.

66. Carl Rogers believes that most people consider themselves worthless and unlovable. Reinhold Niebuhr, on the other hand, claims that most people suffer from excessive self-love and self-pride. What do you consider to be the strengths or weaknesses of each of these contrasting positions? Use psychological research findings to support your arguments.

67. Explain how differences between individualist and collectivist views of self contribute to differences in marital expectations and political views. How do pro-choice and pro-life positions regarding the issue of abortion differ with respect to the ideals of individualism and collectivism?

Chapter 1668. A newspaper editorialist argues that the use of DSM-IV diagnostic labels is destructively

antidemocratic, because it enables an elite corps of mental health professionals to subtly control the values and life-styles of the rest of society. First give reasons supporting this argument, then defend the continued use of diagnostic labels.

69. June is so preoccupied with keeping her house absolutely spotless that she has no time to do anything but clean. After each family meal she not only washes the dishes, she also thoroughly cleans and polishes the kitchen table, chairs, floor, and cupboards. Although these cleaning rituals irritate her family, June is unable to discontinue them without experiencing intense feelings of discomfort. Use the learning and biological perspectives to explain June's behavior.

70. A guest on a TV talk show claims that “major depressive disorder is not a psychological problem; it's a disease that can be medically treated.” Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of this claim.

71. Differentiate between antisocial personality disorder, dissociative identity disorder, and schizophrenia. What relationships might exist between each disorder and insanity?

Chapter 17

72. Geraldo, a college sophomore, is so fearful of asking a woman out that he hasn't had a date in over three years. He has recently contacted a psychotherapist for help in overcoming his fear. Describe how a behavior therapist would treat Geraldo's problem differently from the way a psychoanalyst would.

73. Describe how a therapist might use both aversive conditioning and operant conditioning techniques in order to help a client overcome a compulsive habit of smoking more than three packs of cigarettes a day. Be clear about the exact procedures that would be used.

74. One of your best friends feels that he fails at everything he does and that his life isn't worth living. When you suggest that he talk to a psychotherapist, your friend responds, “Talking won't help. The more I talk about myself, the more I think about my problems. The more I think about my problems, the more depressed I get.” Explain why your friend's comment illustrates his need for cognitive therapy. What procedures would a cognitive therapist use to help your friend overcome his negative feelings?

75. Isaiah performed miserably on his first psychology test, even though he had carefully prepared written notes on each assigned chapter of his textbook. In an effort to improve his performance, Isaiah subsequently engaged in daily meditation exercises and discontinued his normal practice of textbook note-taking. To his delight, he performed somewhat better on his second psychology test. Give Isaiah some helpful advice regarding any conclusions he might draw about the reasons for his improved performance on the second test.

76. Mr. Andrews suffers from frequent episodes of extreme depression. When a friend suggests that he might be helped by drug therapy, Mr. Andrews responds, “Drugs are just a crutch for people who lack self-discipline and who want to hide from their problems. Besides, I'm not about to hand over control of my life to some psychiatrist and his magic pills.” Explain why Mr. Andrews' ideas about drug therapy are inaccurate.

Chapter 18

77. David's history teacher asked him why so many German people complied with Hitler's orders to systematically slaughter millions of innocent Jews. David suggested that the atrocities were committed because the Germans had become unusually cruel, sadistic people with abnormal and twisted personalities. Use your knowledge of the fundamental attribution error and Milgram's research on obedience to highlight the weaknesses of David's explanation.

78. Latitia, a college sophomore, reported: “Although I was not at all sure that I really loved my boyfriend, he coaxed me into sleeping with him. After that, I convinced myself that I really did love him.” Use your understanding of cognitive dissonance theory to explain why Latitia developed such positive feelings for her boyfriend. What could Latitia do in the future to ensure that her sexual behaviors are guided by her own true attitudes and desires?

79. Jill, a female employee at Acme Industries, recently complained that she had been sexually harassed by one of her male supervisors. Upon hearing of this complaint, Luis, a fellow employee, commented, “If the women around here would stop some of their flirting, they'd be left alone.” Jason, another coworker, quickly added, “If the women in this country stopped trying to act like men, they'd all be treated with more respect.” Explain how these insensitive remarks illustrate some of the social, emotional, and cognitive roots of prejudice.

80. Research indicates that we often form more positive impressions of beautiful people than of those who are physically unattractive. Explain how advertisements, movies, and children's fairy tales might encourage this tendency. Use your knowledge of the factors that facilitate interpersonal attraction to suggest how people could be influenced to feel more positively about those who are physically unattractive.

81. While walking through a busy city park, Mr. Cruz experiences sharp chest pains that indicate to him the onset of a heart attack. Describe several things Mr. Cruz should do to increase the chances that someone will come to his aid and quickly provide him with appropriate medical attention. Explain the rationale for your advice in light of research on altruism and the decision-making process underlying bystander intervention.

Prologue

82. Tom believes that children are born with neither good nor bad thoughts, desires, or character traits. He suggests, instead, that parents and culture shape individual minds and hearts in virtuous or harmful directions. For Plato, John Locke, and Charles Darwin, note whether that philosopher would agree or disagree with Tom's claims; in each case, explain why they would agree or disagree with Tom. Explain also why you would agree or disagree with Tom.

83. Julie, a physics major, has difficulty believing that psychology is a science, because people cannot observe other people's thoughts and sensations. Explain how Wilhelm Wundt and John Watson would have responded to Julie's skepticism regarding psychology's scientific status.

84. Jack is a second-grade student. He seems to have no interest in learning, often daydreaming in class and frequently disrupting the class by throwing objects at other students. Using the major theoretical perspectives employed by psychologists, give three alternative explanations for Jack's classroom behavior. In light of these explanations, what steps could be taken to reduce Jack's disruptive behavior?

85. Kathy does not want to become a psychologist because she has no interest in analyzing emotionally disturbed people. Use your knowledge of psychology's subfields and perspectives to expand Kathy's limited understanding of career opportunities for psychologists.