sicily places

Locality & Place Index

ContentsZUID-OOST......................................................................................................................................................2

Alcantara Gorge..............................................................................................................................................3

Piazza Armerina, Norman Palio & Caltagirone................................................................................................4

Enna and Morgantina......................................................................................................................................6

Morgantina.....................................................................................................................................................9

Siracusa.........................................................................................................................................................11

Noto..............................................................................................................................................................15

Ragusa and Hyblaean (Iblei) Mountains........................................................................................................17

Pantalica........................................................................................................................................................18

Cavagrande Cassibile Canyon........................................................................................................................19

Catania..........................................................................................................................................................21

Mount Etna...................................................................................................................................................22

Montagnola - Torre del Filosofo - Crateri Silvestri - Description...............................................................26

Schiena dell asino - Montagnola - Description..........................................................................................27

Monti Sartorius - Description....................................................................................................................28

NOORD-WEST...............................................................................................................................................29

Palermo.........................................................................................................................................................30

Palermo Cathedral....................................................................................................................................33

Norman Palace - A King's Refuge..............................................................................................................41

Monreale.......................................................................................................................................................45

Cefalù and the Madonie Mountains..............................................................................................................52

Agrigento......................................................................................................................................................55

Erice..............................................................................................................................................................57

General.............................................................................................................................................................59

SELECTED BEACHES IN SICILY........................................................................................................................59

HISTORICAL INFLUENCES ON SICILY..................................................................................................................62

ZUID-OOSTLocality & Place Index

Cities • Towns • Historical Sites • Nature Reserves • Islands» Alcantara Gorge• Piazza Armerina» Caltagirone» Enna» Morgantina» Vendicari ReserveTrip:

SiracusaNotoRagusaPantalica

Catania• Etna

» » Hyblaean (Iblei) Mountains

» Marsala» Messina» Milazzo (Mylae)

» Mozia» Naxos• Nebrodi Mountains

» Favignana•Halaesa

» Pantelleria» Peloritan Mountains

» Bagheria» Caccamo Castle» Caltani ssetta » Egadian Islands» San Vito lo Capo» Sciacca» Scopello• Segesta Temple» Sicanian Mountains» Selinunte Temples» Solunto• Taormina» Termini Imerese» Tindari» Wine Country» Zingaro Reserve

About This Index: Listed above are the names of cities, towns or geographic regions (such as Mount Etna) throughout Sicily which have sights or monuments of particular natural, historical or archeological interest, and they're also indicated on the map. Also mentioned are a few localities which, though not inhabited today, are identified with ancient or medieval settlements, such as Solunto. The Sights to See page indicates additional archeological sites (and has a map showing where these are), as well as nature reserves around Sicily. It's a good page to consult if you're searching for a certain kind of place or experience, but don't know exactly where to find it. Things to do are also indicated there: beaches, golf, children's activities. The road map of Sicily provides a more detailed view of Sicily. Other localities (Gela, Castelbuono, etc.) and regions (the Nebrodi and Madonie mountains, to name just two) are occasionally mentioned in connection with articles published in our online magazine or may be found by searching this site.

The wine page includes a list of wines produced in Sicily based on viticultural regions (denomination of origin) corresponding to geographic features or localities, and the Palermo page identifies districts of that large city, with info on our Palermo destination guide.

Alcantara Gorge

As canyons go, it's not too spectacular if your only point of reference is something grand and American, but the Alcàntara Gorge boasts a very special heritage. It was formed by the waters running off the slopes of Mount Etna and the southern regions of the Nebrodi Montains. Indeed, the Alcàntara River is one of the few streams in Sicily that actually has water all year. Its name comes

to us from Sicily's Arabs; the phrase al qantara means "the bridge" and refers to a Roman span found by the Arabs. The word (but with the accent on the third syllable) also made its way into Spain's landscape thanks to the Moors. The source of the Alcàntara is near Floresta, which at almost 1,300 meters above sea level is generally considered the highest town in Sicily. To the ancient Greeks it was the Akesines Potamos. The stream's mouth is near Giardini, where it empties into the Ionian Sea.

http://www.bestofsicily.com/sights.htm#forests

The Alcàntara Valley was the scene of the all-but-forgotten Battle of Francavilla between Austrian and Spanish forces in June 1719. Over 40,000 troops were involved in what was probably the largest military engagement in Sicily since ancient times, later surpassed by the Allied invasion of 1943. The Spanish won; combined casualties were approximately 8,000 dead or wounded.

But this is not the Alcàntara Valley's only history. Geology has been described as the "history of the Earth." It tells us that the Alcàntara valley was formed by volcanic stone which crystallized as it cooled rapidly en route from a minor crater atop Etna, a strato volcano having more than one active vent. It took at least a thousand years for the rushing waters - then much more voluminous and forceful than they are now - to form the basalt gorges and "columns" visible today. The formation of Sicily's other well-known canyons, most notably Cavagrande Cassibile near Noto and Avola Antica, was a more gradual process primarily involving limestone rather than lavic stone. But then everything involving volcanoes is sudden and cataclysmic.

The canyon reaches a depth of around 65 metres, of which some 50 metres are above the average water level, and the water is cool even during Sicily's hottest summer months.

The Alcàntara River parallels route SS185. The main entrance to the gorge is off SS185 near Ficarazzi, a district in the township of Motta Camastra - itself a scenic medieval town straddling a high cliff. It's possible to take a dip, or hike along the river's banks, where native vegetation grows. Either choice makes a great excursion from Taormina

Piazza Armerina, Norman Palio & Caltagirone

Set on a plateau almost 700 meters above sea level about 35 kilometers from Enna and a bit nearer Caltagirone, the city of Piazza Armerina is not without charm. Founded during the Arab era, its historical quarter has some beautiful churches, including a Baroque cathedral, as well as a well-preserved fortress (Spinelli Castle), but most visitors come here to see the Roman Villa, with its magnificent mosaics. Piazza Armerina is a charming town known for its Norman Palio, an annual summer pageant of medieval events, but the major attraction is its ancient Roman villa. Located a few kilometers outside town, the villa is one of the largest Roman dwellings of its kind to have survived antiquity, and probably belonged to a wealthy patrician. Depicting scenes from daily life, such as hunting, the mosaics are as remarkable for their sociological value as for their artistry. One of these, showing women clad in two-piece swimsuits exercising with barbells, could well describe a scene typical of the twentieth century.

The "Villa del Casale" was built between 330 and 360 AD. The identity of its owner remains a subject of debate. However, three individuals are usually mentioned: Proculus Populonius,

governor of Sicily from 314 to 337; Caeionus Rufus Volusianus, also called Lampadius, an influential and wealthy man; and Sabucinius Pinianus, probably of Roman birth.

There are 3500 square meters of mosaics on the villa's floors, and some surviving wall paintings. Many of the structure's walls are still standing. The style of the mosaics is said to be influenced by the North African motifs of the Romans. Some smaller finds from the site are housed in the Piazza Armerina archeological museum.

The art itself is impressive, but the visitor is also struck by the size of the villa, whose architectural style differs markedly from that of urban dwellings such as those of Pompei. The villa's buildings are arranged in sections, with an impressive entrance and numerous rooms of various dimensions, some quite large. There are also the remains of water pipes, visible near the entrance. Beneath the villa the remains of a village have been found. These have been dated to 100-200 AD.

The remains of another village, Sofiana, ancient Proedium Philosophianum, have been discovered about 6 kilometers south of the villa. This includes baths, as well as Roman and Byzantine cemeteries and the vestiges of a Paleo Christian church.

The scenic, mountainous area of Piazza Armerina is not far from Enna, a hilltop city some distance northward, past eucalyptus woods, founded by the ancient Sicels, later populated by the Greeks, then conquered by the Arabs (as Kasr' Yanni) and subsequently ruled by the Normans. Nearby is Lake Pergusa, associated with the the Greek maiden Persphone. There are several exceptional guest farms (agriturismo) in the area.

Norman Palio: For four days beginning around the 12th of August Piazza Armerina celebrates its status as a city which during the eleventh century was ceded to the leader of the Normans who conquered Sicily (instead of becoming the fief of a petty baron). This meant that Piazza Armerina, governed by a council of local giurati or aldermen, answered directly to the king and had more control over its own destiny than it would have as a 'feudal' town; it even had its own bishop. The city's four districts (contrade) - Canali, Casalotto, Castellina and Monte - are represented in the competitive events of the Palio. Apart from processions and the reenactment of the mayor giving the keys of the city to Count Roger, there are four standing and equestrian events: hitting a Saracen's shield with a flail mace, throwing a lance at the shield, throwing a lance through a ring, catching a ring with a lance. There is also music, dancing, demonstrations of medieval arts, and the sale of arts and crafts. And, of course, plenty of delicious food.

Caltagirone Once the location of a Saracen fortress, this high mountain town was rebuilt following the earthquake of 1693. This means that the architecture of its churches is typically Baroque, and while that may be considered unexceptional in Sicily, many older towns here do have at least some medieval elements. Caltagirone has a certain small town Sicilian charm, but it's most famous for its ceramic art. In fact, Sicilians refer to the "Caltagirone style" in ceramic pottery, characterized by ornate traditional motifs using a limited palette. Today, however, there's little difference between the style of Caltagirone and that of Santo Stefano di Camastra, Sicily's other traditional ceramics center. Being rather remote, Caltagirone is worth a stopover if you're passing through the area, but Santo Stefano is more conveniently situated off a main road between Palermo and Messina, and even has a beach.

Enna and Morgantina

The high, fortified town guarding central SicilyThe city of Enna (known as Castrogiovanni until the 1920s) is located high on a mountaintop almost in the exact center of Sicily, affording a panoramic view overlooking the scenic valleys of Sicily's rugged interior. Enna's position makes it

a natural strategic defensive position; any army that sought to control Sicily's interior would have to hold Enna.

Enna is not only Sicily's highest major city (several smaller towns are higher), but at an elevation of 931 meters above sea level, it is the highest provincial capital in Italy (actually higher than Potenza and Aosta). Historically, it is unique in being the only important city of ancient Sicily that was not founded by foreign invaders; it was established by one of Sicily's three indigenous peoples, the Sicels (or Siculi), from whom the name "Sicily" (from Sikelia) itself derives. This makes Enna one of the oldest continuously-inhabited cities on the island. Although scholars are not certain exactly when Enna was founded, most agree that a major settlement existed there as early as 1200 BC. Enna is also the capital of the only one of Sicily's nine provinces that has no coastline.

When the Greeks arrived a bit before 700 BC, contemporary sources described Enna as a native stronghold inhabited by the Sikels. The name "Enna" supposedly derives from the older Sicanian term Henna. Enna's early history sheds a rare light on the obscure origins of the three indigenous Sicilian peoples: The Elami, the Sicani and the Siculi. Since Enna was an established native center, the early Greeks were able to record the precious little history that exists regarding these peoples, in an epoch before extensive contact and conquest by the Greeks and other outsiders influenced their culture.

According to Diodorus Siculus, known as the "Father of History," what may very well have been one of Europe's first official armistices was drawn up between the Sicani and Siculi "newcomers" around 800 BC. This accord established Eastern Sicily as a "permanent" Siculi territory, relegating the Sicani to Western Sicily, with Enna acting as the boundary. If Diodorus' information is correct, this would obviously indicate that there had been previous warfare between the two peoples.

By the time of the Greek conquest of Enna by the tyrant Dionysius I in 397 BC, the Siculi were already Hellenized to a great extent. The Greek domination of Enna continued under Agathocles. In 309 BC, the city, led by its native son Xenodichias, rebelled against Syracuse. The revolt was successful, thanks to the aid given to the Ennans by the Greek forces from Akragas (modern Agrigento). Afterwards, Enna placed itself under the protection of Agrigento, voluntarily becoming part of that community.

Enna was first occupied by the Romans in 258 BC during the first Punic War. In the Second Punic War in 214 BC when Roman forces were besieging Syracuse which had allied itself with Carthage, the Roman Consul Pinarius, fearing that the people of Enna were on the verge of rebelling against their Roman rulers, massacred a large part of Enna's population, including almost all of the city's leading citizens, and sacked the city.

Roman rule of Enna, and Sicily in general, was oppressive and exploitative. The island was transformed into a giant wheat farm whose sole purpose was to feed Rome and her citizens. This was the beginning of the "latifundiae" system which saw great tracts of land in the hands of a few wealthy individuals or politically-connected noblemen, who reaped profits while their slaves reaped crops. The Romans brought in slaves and criminals to work these estates, and through one excuse or another, they eventually reduced a good part of Sicily's inhabitants to slavery.

In 137 BC, Enna became the springboard for the first great slave revolt against the Roman tyranny. Led by Eunus of Apamea, the rebellion achieved initial success, but was slowly beaten back by the Roman Legions. Three years later, the Romans besieged Enna, which had become the rebels' last stronghold. In 132 BC, Enna finally fell to the Legions, and the city was, of course, sacked and nearly destroyed once again. This tragic event marked the beginning of a long period of decline for Enna. The Romans also bequeathed Enna with another lasting legacy: they renamed the city "Castrum Hennae" or Camp Enna, a name change that would lead to a corrupted and confused nomenclature for centuries.

Under Byzantine Greek domination, Enna became known as "Castro Yannis" a corruption of the Roman name, which meant "John's Camp" in Greek. The Byzantines were only concerned with holding Enna for its strategic value; they cared little for the city's economic development or the welfare of its people.

Enna became the focal point of Byzantine resistance to the Arab invasion of Sicily, which began in AD 827. Upon the capitulation of Palermo to Saracens in 831, western Sicily rapidly fell to Muslim control. The Byzantines adopted a strategy whereby they would protect their capital of Syracuse and Eastern Sicily by keeping the Arabs at bay in Central Sicily. The key to this plan was control of Enna. After several failed attempts, the Arabs, led by the formidable Emir, Abbas Ibn Fahdi, finally managed to take Enna in 859. The fall of the "Navel of Sicily" signaled the death knell for Byzantine Sicily. The Arabs did not gain total control of the Island till circa 900, and Enna became known as "Kasr Yannas."

In 1087, Enna, by then the capital of one of Sicily's three emirates, fell into the hands of Count Roger of Hauteville after a siege on the part of the Normans. Some sources maintain that the city's capitulation was due to treachery on the part of a pro-Norman traitor in the Arab garrison, who purposely left a small gate unguarded. Other sources maintain that the fall of Enna was due to a very unwise cavalry attack by the Arabs. Their leader ordered the Arab forces to leave the shelter of their impregnable fortress to challenge the heavier armored Norman knights on open ground, where the Arabs were quickly defeated. This very decision by the Arab commander suggests that the Emir of Enna may have chosen to surrender his position to the Normans and only ordered the attack to save face.

Compared to Palermo and Siracusa, Enna's monuments and sights are not overwhelming. However, they are worth a look, especially if your visit there is combined with visits to other nearby places such as Piazza Armerina, Caltagirone and Morgantina. All can be visited briefly in one long day or covered thoroughly in two days. Enna is the crossroads of Sicily. The ancient Greeks called it the "umbellicum (navel) of Sicily."

Enna's main attraction is the Lombard Castle, built by Frederick II in the early part of the 13th century. Many historians, however, agree that the castle was erected upon the ruins of

an earlier fortification, possibly Arab or Byzantine. That older fortress could have been built on the remnants of an even earlier structure dating to the Roman period.

It is believed that the castle's name derives from the fact that Frederick II garrisoned the fort with troops from what is now northern Italy. In the 14th Century, Frederick III (son of Peter of Aragon), as ruler of Sicily, further improved the castle's defenses. It was here that he was crowned "King of Trinacria."

The "Lombard Castle" originally had 20 towers, but only six have survived to the present day. The so-called Pisan Tower is the tallest and offers a breathtaking panoramic view of Sicily's scenic Dittaino Valley. The castle is built in three levels of courtyards which seem to run haphazardly into each other. One of these courtyards serves as an open-air theatre; archaeological excavations are being conducted in the others.

Enna's other noted medieval fortification is Frederick's Tower, which stands twenty four meters high on top of a hill in a public park on the other side of town. It is a fine example of medieval defense-tower construction and has three floors, the top one having collapsed. The tower is built on an octagonal foundation instead of the more common round or square floor plan. (Presently, Frederick's Tower is being restored and is closed to visitors, but can be viewed externally.)

Scholars are not sure why Frederick II von Hohenstaufen built the tower, though an observation post would seem to have been necessary. Local legend maintains that the Hohenstaufen had it erected to mark the exact center of Sicily and called it the "Tower of the Winds."

The Lombard Castle, previously mentioned, lies at the extreme northeastern end of Enna, and marks the end of Via Roma, Enna's main street, on which most of the town's tourist attractions are located. The Duomo, the city's principal church, is located on Via Roma. It was built in 1307, and almost destroyed by a serious fire in 1446, to be restored during the 16th and 17th Centuries. Thus its architectural styles range from medieval Gothic to late Renaissance to Baroque. The elegant apse and transept were part of the original Gothic structure, while the rest of the church boasts many lovely, if not well-known, works of art from the Baroque period.

The Alessi Museum located near the duomo has the usual collection of area artifacts, none of them particularly outstanding, with the possible exception of the coin collection. The collection of the Church Treasury, however, justifies a visit to the Museum. This collection has many fine examples of Renaissance jewelry, with its showpiece the splendid gold-enameled "Crown of the Virgin." The Alessi Museum is open Tuesday through Sunday from 9 to 1 in the morning and 4 to 7 in the afternoon.

If you continue west down Via Roma you'll encounter several praiseworthy monuments and churches. Piazza Crispi has a fountain with a bronze reproduction of Bernini's famous sculpture "The Rape of Persephone." She was the daughter of Demeter, goddess of grain, whose cult was very influential here. Persephone was abducted in a valley nearby, not far from the shores of Lake Pergusa. The church of San Giovanni (St. John) in Piazza Coppola is a fine example of Gothic lines with Arabic construction. Right near the church there is a recently opened Archaeological Museum, housed in an elegant old palace. The Museum is open daily 9 to 1 in the morning and 3 to 6 in the afternoon.

Morgantina

Located off Route 288 near Aidone, in the province of Enna, Morgantina may have been settled by a certain King Morges who arrived with colonists from central Italy around 1300 BC. Therefore, the early Morgetian culture was perhaps somewhat distinct from Sikel civilisation. The Greeks absorbed the city some six centuries later. It was sacked by the Romans during the Punic Wars in 213 BC, but eventually rebuilt as a Roman city populated by Hispanic soldiers. Eunus "liberated" Morgantina in 139 BC during the slave revolt, and died a prisoner in this city. Morgantina was sacked by Verres in 72 BC and abandoned around 30 BC following its destruction by Octavian. It had been a wealthy and prosperous city.

The city was famous for its mint, a public building still easily identified. Its amphitheatre dates from the 3rd century BC. The ruins of a temple dedicated to Demeter and Kore have been identified. Pliny the Elder and other writers mention the particularly fine grapes of Morgantina.

Some of the site's finds, including the Morgantina Venus (shown here) and the Morgantina Silver, are on display in the museum at Aidone near the archeological site.

"Buried Treasure" would not be a misplaced description for what has been returned to Sicily after thirty years.

Sometime around 300 BC (BCE) Greek artisans in Sicily crafted a stunning set of silver dishes and other items, many with gilt accents and decorated with mythological figures.

These were eventually purchased by a wealthy man named Eupolemos. To discourage theft he had his name stamped into a few of the pieces, which he and his wife used in their splendid home in Morgantina in east-central Sicily. Much later, this would be key to identifying the objects when they appeared farther from his home than Eupolemos would have thought possible.

Founded by the Sikels, Morgantina flourished under Greek rule, though Ducetius tried to "liberate" the city in 459 BC.

Morgantina continued to prosper during the rule of Agathocles (317-289) and Hieron II (275-215), when the objects may have been made in Syracuse. During the reign of Hieron, in particular, such crafts flourished there. The style is certainly similar.

Having rebelled during the Second Punic War, the town (two kilometres away from what is now Aidone) was conquered and looted by Roman troops in 213 BC, but not before its citizens could hide some of their wealth. Somebody – perhaps Eupolemos himself – hid the silver objects in a shallow pit covered over with sandy soil. For some reason, many citizens abandoned the town, or perhaps their children forgot about what their parents had buried. Perhaps Eupolemos and his family were killed and their secret died with them. Maybe they were resettled or imprisoned by the Romans in a place far away.

Independent records indicate that a wealthy man named Eupolemos resided at Morgantina during this period in a house very near the site where the silver was found, so it is presumed that he was the man whose name was incised on the artefacts.

We'll never know for certain, but a number of jewels and coins discovered at Morgantina appear to have been hidden during this period, after which the city seems to have been underpopulated for some time, becoming the home of some Hispanic soldiers from the legions of Marcus Cornelius Cetego.

What remained of once-prosperous Morgantina was sacked by the corrupt Roman governor Verres around 72 BC and finally destroyed by a vindictive Octavian some four decades later. (Cicero successfully prosecuted Verres for this and other crimes.) But for their recent discovery, the tale of the sixteen objects – including bowls, cups, serving dishes, jewellery containers, a dipper, perfume holders – would end there.

What occurs next is a story worthy of Indiana Jones, but without the Nazis and guns.

The fate of the objects remained generally unknown to posterity until 1984, and it is here that the story of their discovery takes an unexpected turn, and an object lesson to those institutions or individuals who acquire undocumented antiquities from "private" sources.

In that year New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art announced to great fanfare its acquisition (for nearly three million dollars) of the collection from an antiquities dealer over the course of the immediately preceding years. For the Italian authorities, who became aware of their presence in New York in 1986, proving the theft was problematical: the treasure, the product of illegal excavations around 1980, had never been properly catalogued, nor had it ever been evaluated by archaeologists accredited to the digs themselves. Yet since 1980 rumours persisted in the Morgantina area of a great (illegal) find of silver objects at the site, and some of those rumours described a few of the objects in fairly precise detail.

Upon investigation, an illegally excavated pit was discovered, covered by loose soil. Expecting to find, at best, some small object or coin left behind (Morgantina once boasted an important mint), investigators were surprised to uncover an Italian coin dated 1978. Other factors were instrumental in ascertaining the origin of the stolen objects, not least of which being the incised name of the owner. Eupolemos could never have imagined that his name on these objects would prove so useful so long after his death.

True, the Italians could not actually "document" the ownership history of the objects, but neither could the folks at the Metropolitan Museum, who bore the burden of proof. Nevertheless, nobody had ever doubted their origin in Greece or Greek Italy. Their weights, for example, were marked with the Persian-Selucid system widely used in Greek Sicily.

The collection is on display in the permanent collection at the Morgantina archeological museum.

About the Author: Antonella Gallo, who teaches art in Rome, has written numerous articles on arts and artists for Best of Sicily.

Siracusa

Siracusa (Syracuse) is a window into the ancient history of the Mediterranean and Europe. Its vast archeological site, on the edge of the modern city, is a rare

treasure of temples, amphitheatres and an ancient castle. The island of Ortygia - a labyrinth of charming ancient and medieval streets - makes for a delightful holiday of sightseeing and shopping. This was a center of Greek, Byzantine and Judaic civilization. Physical evidence of these three cultures can still be seen today, making Ortygia a fascinating place to visit for anybody curious about the historic patrimony we have inherited from classical mythology, early Christianity and medieval Judaism.

Located near the southeastern corner of Sicily on the Ionian coast, Siracusa is built on an ancient Greek settlement founded by Corinthians in 734 BC (BCE), amalgamating with the Sicels (Sikels) who had displaced the indigenous Sicanians. More than any other modern city in Sicily, Syracuse manifests a visible continuity from its ancient Greek past, both historical and mythological.

Its older residential quarter is an island, Ortigia (or Ortygia), from the Greek for quail, probably named for that bird's abundance in this area. Ortygia is known for, among many other things, the freshwater Spring of Arethusa. When Artemis changed Arethusa into a spring of water to escape the river god Alpheus, it was here that the transformed maiden emerged. On a more factual note, Syracuse was the city of Archimedes, Aeschylus (whose plays are still performed in the huge amphitheatre) and Pindar. Plato spent several years here. It was the most important city in Magna Graecia, the Greeks' America, and for a long time rivaled Athens as the most important city of the Greek world. However, it was not the first "Greek" settlement in Sicily.

Thapsos, site of an ancient Mycenaean settlement not far from Syracuse (though today unpleasantly close to Augusta's oil refineries), has yielded finds dated to circa 1500 BC. Other traces of this civilization in Sicily have been found at Panarea in the Aeolian (Lipari) Islands. Given the seven centuries separating them, it would be incorrect to presume an extremely close link between the Mycenaeans (of Mycenae in the Peloponnese) and the Corinthians who founded Syracuse, but they broadly shared the same origins and aspirations.

Athens, Carthage, Rome. These were the only three cities of the ancient Mediterranean world to covet the power and prosperity of Syracuse during its Golden Age. Though it was an important city from the time of its foundation, Syracuse flourished unhindered after Gelon's victory (with the help of the Agrigentans) over the Carthaginians at Himera, near present-day Termini Imerese, in 480 BC, and soon became the most important Greek city in Sicily and peninsular Italy, both economically and politically. Enhanced by the civilization of the Romans and Etruscans to the north, Megara Hellas (or Magna Graecia to the Romans) became the cornerstone of the society and culture of western Europe. It would not be overzealous to say that the history of Hellenistic Sicily is largely the history of Syracuse.

The city also played an important role in the propagation of Judaism and Christianity in the central Mediterranean and then through the Italian peninsula to points northward and westward.

Unequivocal, tangible traces of both religions at the dawn of the Middle Ages, during Sicily's Byzantine period, can be seen here.

In 415 BC, in connection with the Peloponnesian War, the Athenians undertook an ill-fated invasion of eastern Sicily. By then, victorious Syracuse was at least as prosperous as Athens, a reality that was not lost on the defeated army. When Plato visited Sicily in 398 BC, suggesting Sicily as his model of a utopian society, it was Syracuse he had in mind.

Despite the efforts of Archimedes, the city fell to the Romans in 212 BC. Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century, it was sacked by Vandals and Goths. The Byzantine Greeks of the Eastern Roman Empire took it in 535, and for a few years in the middle of the seventh century the Emperor Constans made it his capital. The Arabs arrived in the ninth century, converting the splendid cathedral - itself earlier converted from a large Greek temple to Athena - into a mosque and developing Bal'harm (Palermo) as a metropolis that eclipsed Syracuse in population and affluence. Until then, Syracuse's position as Sicily's most important city had gone unchallenged for a thousand years.

Accompanied by Norman, Lombard and Norse adventurers, the Byzantines under George Maniakes reclaimed the city for a few years around 1040, eliminating the local emir, but internal quarrels among the Byzantine leadership facilitated the Arabs' return. These "Saracens" were removed from power by the Normans led by Roger I and his knights in 1085, yet the Arabs, who had contributed much to Sicilian administration, wealth, agriculture and technology, were to hold an important place in Norman Sicily.

Let's consider the city's ancient structures before looking at its medieval treasures. Some of the ancient sights to see in Syracuse are located in Ortygia, which is the medieval city's historic center but also the location of Syracuse's largest standing Greek temple, long ago converted into a cathedral. Ortigia is reached via the Ponte Nuovo, (New Bridge). However, some of the more spectacular of the ancient landmarks are on the Teminite Hill, on the city's periphery, in an archeological park near Viale Teracati and Via G. Emanuele Rizzo.

Greek and Roman structures are ubiquitous in Ortygia; the imposing cathedral of Siracusa was built around a Greek structure, the Temple of Athena (or Minerva), its massive columns very evident.

Located on the edge of Ortygia, the Temple of Apollo (or Artemis) is probably the oldest Greek temple in Sicily, and indeed the oldest Greek temple outside present-day Greece built in the Doric style, dating from around 565 BC. Unfortunately, only a few columns and walls remain in Piazza Pancali. A few blocks away, in Piazza Duomo, the 5th century BC Greek temple, built on the site of a much older Sikelian one, became the cathedral. This is one of the just a few surviving examples in the former Magna Graecia of a temple being converted directly into a church, though in Rome examples abound. (Various churches in Sicily were built on the sites of ancient temples, but nothing else of such scope is still standing.)

Down by the shore, the Spring of Arethusa, which takes the form of a large fountain and pool, is reached either from the Foro Italico or Via Capodieci. Further along the coast is Maniaces Castle, named for the able Byzantine general (George Maniakes) who occupied part of the Ionian coast of Sicily during the 1030s. Most of the medieval structure was

actually built during the reign of Frederick II two centuries later, and the fortress has been extensively modified in successive centuries.

The city's patron saint, St. Lucy, was martyred near the site of the church of that name, in Piazza Santa Lucia, in 304; her feast day in December is a local holiday marked by a grand festival. Located at the end of Piazza Duomo, the church was built during the Byzantine era, and then restructured by the Normans during the 12th century, only to be modified almost beyond recognition in the 17th century. Beneath it are extensive catacombs. The church houses Caravaggio's Burial of Saint Lucy.

In the Neapolis Archeological Park on the Terminite Hill a clear distinction can be made between the Greek and Roman structures. Siracusa has a large Greek amphitheatre (literally carved out of the rock) and also a Roman one, both well preserved. In conformity to tradition, the Greek Theatre is semicircular and open, the Roman one oval and enclosed. This archeological park has some charming surprises, such as the Altar of Geron II and the Ear of Dionysius, formerly a limestone quarry. There is also the Saint Venera Quarry and various necropoli and other caverns. Quarries are not exclusive to Neapolis; there are several elsewhere in Syracuse, such as the Capuchin Quarry in the city.

About eight kilometers due west of the city towards the Belvedere locality is Euryalus Castle, an ancient fortification complete with moats (now dry) and immense walls. It was probably designed, at least in part, by Archimedes, who among other talents was a distinguished military engineer. This vast fortress was remarkable in 401 BC, when it was built, and still magnificent when it was later expanded during Byzantine times. For that matter, it is still impressive today. To the Greeks, it was a defense against Carthaginians and then Romans (it fell to Marcellus due to betrayal rather than siege). To the Byzantines, it was a bulwark against the Saracen Arab threat. In 309 BC, during the war against the Carthaginians, it held some three thousand foot soldiers and four hundred horsemen. Euryalus Castle today may be a shadow of its former self, but it remains one of the few extant examples of Greek defensive architecture anywhere.

The castle itself was the centerpiece of an extensive defense system that included 27 kilometers of walls around what was then one of the largest cities in the Greek world. Dionysius the Elder developed the city in this way to make it safe from any attack. In this he succeeded to a great extent.

The Roman Gymnasium is located off Via Elorina near the Porto Grande (Large Port). Built during the 1st century AD, it included a temple, theatre and court. Located below sea level, it is sometimes flooded.

Another Greek settlement, Megara Hyblaea, on the coast about 10 kilometers north of Syracuse and south of Augusta, can be reached by local train via the Megara-Giannalena station.

The Orsi Regional Archeological Museum, one of Sicily's finest and most modern, displays finds from Megara as well as ancient Syracuse, and is well worth a visit. This structure exhibits archeological treasures in their proper historical context. In many respects, it is superior to Palermo's Archeological Museum, though the collections are actually somewhat different. It is located on the grounds of Villa Landolina off Via Teocrito. Nearby you'll find the most extensive Paleo-Christian catacombs outside Rome itself.

Saint Paul visited Syracuse around AD 59, and probably preached in the Giudecca (Jewish Quarter) where medieval Saint John the Baptist Church now stands. Enhancing the lustre of the city's religious heritage is the recently-discovered mikveh (Jewish ritual bath) a few blocks away in Via Alagona, dating from the seventh century.

Syracusa's medieval heritage mustn't be overlooked. A few sights stand out. The Bellomo Palace, on Via Capodieci, was built as a castle during the 13th century and restructured in the Catalan Gothic style during the 15th. It houses the Art Gallery, whose collection includes Antonello da Messina's Assumption and other notable works.

Palazzo Montalto, near Piazza Archimede, was built in 1397 in the so-called "Chiaramonte Gothic" style; its arched windows and detailing resemble those of Palermo's Steri, built in the same style a few decades earlier. The Fountain of Artemis in Piazza Archimede is attractive, though perhaps overrated in such a monumental city as this one.

For Visitors: Except for forays to the large archeological site and the Orsi Museum in the "modern" city, you'll probably want to spend your time Ortygia. With its delightful narrow streets and restricted traffic, this island makes sightseeing on foot a joy. Much as we love Taormina, the cognoscenti regard less-crowded Ortygia as a pleasant alternative. The island is full of good hotels; a favorite for intellectuals and culture vultures in search of genuine atmosphere is Alla Giudecca in Via Alagona above the mikveh hypogeum. Yes, there are beaches nearby, and there's no shortage of fine restaurants in Ortygia, but we suggest you avoid those that offer "tourist menus" in favor of the charming trattorias, pizzerias and seafood restaurants on the narrow streets away from the largest squares. The seafood specialties are seasonal to some extent. The pastas with mussels and urchins are especially tasty but more available in Spring and Fall than Summer. See the restaurant page for a few suggestions. The Saint Lucy Festival is held on the 12th and 13th of December.

Noto

Considered Sicily's "Baroque City," Noto is in the province of Syracuse, in the southeastern corner of Sicily. The town is located about 35 kilometers southwest of the city of Syracuse. Old Noto was completely destroyed in the extremely violent earthquake that struck Eastern Sicily in 1693, a quake that heavily damaged Catania and Syracuse also. The present site of Noto was rebuilt from scratch, and almost entirely in the Baroque style, the prevailing style of building in Sicily at the time.

The area around Noto towards the west was populated by a Bronze Age people between 2000-1500 BC (BCE). The noted archaeologist who explored and studied the site, Paolo

Orsi, ascribed the name "Casteluccio Culture" to the site and its inhabitants. The major part of the significant finds unearthed here are now on display in Syracuse's Archaeological Museum. The site of the excavations can be visited daily from 9 to 1 in the mornings. There are a few ruins of the prehistoric village and a primitive necropolis.

The history of Noto prior to the 1693 quake belongs to the old town, now called "Noto Antica" and known in antiquity as "Netium." What remains of the old town is located some 13 kilometers from the present town of Noto. A plausible legend has it that Noto Antica was founded by a leader of the Sikels called Ducetius circa 500 BC. Scholars have dated the earliest ruins to circa 800 BC. With the Greek colonization of Syracuse, Netium came into contact with the advanced Hellenistic Culture and was eventually absorbed by it.

Noto Antica achieved a certain level of importance during the Arab period when it became the administrative center of the Noto Valley, one of the three provinces (briefly an emirate) that the Arab governors subdivided Sicily into. The town was one of the last bulwarks of Saracen resistance to the Norman takeover, not surrendering to Count Roger de Hauteville until 1091. The history of Noto generally follows the general flow of Sicilian history.

At its eastern end is the town's gate, known as Porta Reale, built in 1838. Noto's grand main street, Corso Vittorio Emanuele, offers a good view of the city's architecture.

The neo-classical church and convent of the Holy Savior dates from 1703, the Church of San Francesco from 1745, the latter at the top of a splendid wide stairway whose steps curve all the way up to the entrance. The "Museo Civico," or Civic Museum, is situated on the first floor of the Holy Savior convent, at 134 Corso Vittorio Emanuele. This museum is being restored. It contains pre-historic objects, ancient Greek pottery and statuettes from a Greek sanctuary dedicated to the deities Kore and Demeter.

The next plaza you will come to is Noto's main square, the Piazza Municipio, where you'll find the Cathedral of Noto. Unfortunately, the cathedral's dome (cupola) collapsed due to an earthquake a few years ago and has yet to be rebuilt. The Palazzo Vescovile (Bishop's Palace) is next to the cathedral while the town hall is opposite, across the square.

Noted for its elegant portico, the Town Hall, known as Palazzo Ducezio, was built in the Neo-Classical style in 1746 to plans by Vincenzo Sinatra. Palazzo Alfano flanks the left side of the Cathedral, and next to it is the Palazzo Villadorta. The latter was built for a Sicilian aristocrat in a fanciful Baroque style back in the 18th century. Palazzo Villadorta is decorated with superb wrought-iron balconies and a series of fantastic statuettes of nymphs, lions, ogres and other mythical animals; the effect is similar to that of Villa Palagonia in Bagheria.

Towards the end of the Corso, you will come to Noto's last large piazza, the Piazza XVI Maggio. Here you will find the Church of San Domenico, with its elegant curving facade built in 1727 by the architect Gagliardi. The Villetta di Ercole is a little villa which has a fountain with a statue of Hercules. It is said that this statue is a Greek work recovered from the ruins of Noto Antico, but some scholars disagree. The Vittorio Emmanuele Theater is also located here and dates from 1842.

Ragusa and Hyblaean (Iblei) Mountains

Modican Chocolate

The city of Ragusa, capital of the province of the same name, is located about an hour's drive from Syracuse, the nearest large city. Ragusa's population

falls a shade short of 70,000. For most visitors, Ragusa and its province are off the beaten path. However, this factor also has an advantage since the area is one of the more tranquil and thus more "authentically" Sicilian of the island's nine provinces, and while the province of Enna can make the same claim, landlocked Enna doesn't have any beaches while Ragusa has. Consequently, the dearth of tourists here makes the beaches of the province of Ragusa some of the cleanest and affordable and least crowded to be found in Sicily. Though we would not place Ragusa and its surrounding area on the must-see list of Sicilian attractions, if you are traveling from Syracuse to Agrigento or vice-versa, Ragusa and its Baroque churches are worth seeing.

Ragusa is really two towns combined into one municipality in 1926. Lower Ragusa, known as Ragusa Ibla, or simply "Ibla," was the ancient city, rebuilt after suffering heavy damage due to the infamous 1693 earthquake that devastated southeastern Sicily. Upper Ragusa, or Ragusa Superiore, is the main part of the new city built on the ridge across from the old city of lbla after the earthquake. Due to the fact that upper Ragusa was built in the early 1700s, most of its churches and main buildings were thus constructed in the Baroque and Neo-Classical Styles. Most of the city's history deals with the old city of Ibla.

Lower Ragusa was populated by the indigenous Sikels in ancient times and was called "Hybla Heraea," from which the name Ibla is derived. The town was the major native center in southeastern Sicily, and rapidly became Hellenized after coming into contact with the Greeks, established in nearby Syracuse, around the 5th Century BC. In 258 BC, the city was conquered by the Romans, and soon lost the importance that it had previously enjoyed as a conduit for trade between the coastal Greek colonies and the interior native population. The town's decline continued through the Byzantine and Arab periods. In 1091, after the Norman conquest, Count Roger de Hauteville consolidated Ragusa and the surrounding area and gave the unusually large fief to his son, Godfroi. In 1296, Baron Manfred Chiaramonte took possession of Ragusa, and then joined it together with Modica and Noto, thus creating one of the largest feudal holdings in Sicily.

Ragusa Ibla's best-known church is the imposing Basilica of St. George (shown here), whose entrance is reached by climbing a spacious set of elegantly decorated curving stairs. The majestic dome of the church towers above the town and dominates the Piazza del Duomo and its neat rows of palm trees beneath it. The basilica was built in 1738 by the noted architect Rosario Gagliardo, who was responsible for designing several churches in the area, especially in Noto. This basilica is considered to be Gagliardo's baroque masterpiece.

Continuing past down the Corso 25 Aprile, you will pass the Church of San Giuseppe, another baroque jewel. "Giardino lbleo" or lbla Gardens, offers spectacular views of the surrounding mountains and valleys, said to be some of the most scenic in Sicily. The Church of San Giorgio Vecchio is near the park entrance, and although the church was restored after the 1693 quake, the structure still retains some elements of its original 15th Century Catalan-Gothic construction. The Church of San Domenico is located inside the Gardens; this church is noted for its bell-tower decorated with Maiolica ceramic tiles from Caltagirone. There is another church in the vicinity of the park which is called the Church of the Cappucini Vecchi, noted for several paintings by the noted 16th century Sicilian artist Pietro Novelli.

Crossing into Upper Ragusa from Lower Ragusa, you will encounter the Church of Santa Maria delle Scale (St. Mary of the Stairs) on the Via XXIV Maggio (29 May Street). The Church was restored in the 18th century and contains some sculptures attributed to the Gaginis. It is noted for the 242-step staircase that leads up to it. The Cathedral of Ragusa is a large domed Baroque structure.

The Archaeology Museum has a good collection of ancient artifacts dating back to the Bronze Age "Castelluccio Culture" through the Sikel, Greek and Roman periods. Some of the more noteworthy items are fragments of mosaic floors and wall panels from a Paleo-Christian church, Greek vases from the 6th century BC, and various statues of ancient Greek and Roman deities.

Hyblaean MountainsThe Hyblean (Iblei) Mountains occupy an area between Siracusa and Ragusa. Though scenic, the range is not very high. Mount Lauro, the highest peak, reaches only 986 metres above sea level. Yet their history is interesting. The name of the range comes to us from the Sicel king Hyblon, who ceded part of his domain to Greek colonists who founded Megara Hyblaea.

Mount Casale is 910 metres above sea level, Mount Arcibessi is 907, and Serra Brugio stands 870 metres high --all unremarkable by Sicilian standards.

As in Sicily's other mountain ranges, the Hybleans are predominantly limestone, though with some volcanic features. There are woodlands in some areas. Pantalica was probably a Sicanian necropolis. In addition to Ragusa, places of historical interest include Ragusa, Modica and Palazzolo Acreide. Cava Ispica is a spectacular canyon.

One of the region's more interesting culinary specialties is Modican Chocolate. As its name implies, it is made in the town of Modica. This delicious confection is based on a recipe dating from five centuries ago.

Pantalica

Pantalica is found near the Anapo river and the Ferla and Sortino localities in a canyon not too far from Siracusa. The site is famous for its necropoli carved in squared forms into the

limestone. Numbering around five thousand, the tombs were carved beginning in the twelfth century BC (BCE). This is one of the oldest archeological sites in Sicily, and was largely abandoned by the time the Greeks settled the area in the seventh century BC, but in the Middle Ages the Arabs established a community here.

Who built Pantalica? What do we know of the people who once lived here? They were probably part of a neolithic civilisation which later, with the early use of metals, came to be identified with the Sicanians. When the Sicels (or Sikels) arrived, they displaced the Sicanians, who had at one time inhabited most of Sicily. Yet the "Proto Sicanian" influence may have spread as far as Malta.

By 800 BC these communities flourished westward in the area of the Sicanian Mountains which bear their name. Cefalù's Temple of Diana was built by Sicanians.

One of the earliest structures at Pantalica, the Anaktoron, is a megalithic building which may have been influenced by Mycenaean architecture. We know that there were Mycenaean settlements along Sicily's Ionian coast, and this suggests close contact between them and the native Sicanians. Though Pantalica itself is a cemetery, there were settlements nearby. Not many certainties can be deduced about the ancient people of the Pantalica area. Other Mediterranean cultures (for example the Egyptians) were far more advanced. As so often happens in historical studies, what we know is eclipsed by what we do not know.

There are a few necropoli carved in circular forms, and in fact the tombs of Pantalica are linked to two periods of exceptional development. Pantalica is a very natural setting for these tombs. The gorge formed by the Anapo and Calcinara is a a focal point of natural beauty, both flora and fauna.

Coming from Ferla the visitor benefits from a more gradual path. Entering from Sortino, the descent is a more demanding hike. Sicily boasts a similar site not too far from Pantalica; Cavagrande Cassibile is a splendid canyon and nature reserve where a small number of necropoli are carved into the limestone cliffs

Cavagrande Cassibile Canyon

It is not Sicily's only canyon (there are several others, including Alcantara), but Cavagrande, formed by the Cassibile River in the Hyblaean (Iblei) Mountains a few kilometers from the long-abandoned Avola Antica in the island's south-eastern region, boasts a spectacular setting. The surrounding cliffs, dotted with wild plane trees, poplars and oleander, reach over five hundred meters, and the river can be reached only along winding, rocky paths. The canyon is about ten kilometers in length, and this part of the winding river features numerous pools and small water falls. Swimming is permitted in some areas. Principal - and easiest - access is from Scala Cruci near Avola Antica.

Unlike Alcantara, which was formed of dark basalt by volcanic activity, Cavagrande's evolution was slow even by geologic standards. Here, as throughout most of Sicily, Calabria and Malta, the bedrock consists primarily of golden limestone. It is into this stone that the canyon was carved over time. The Cassibile River (historically sometimes called the "Cassabile") was known to the ancient Greeks as the Kacyparis, and the few necropoli carved into its walls, while they do not rival those of Pantalica, indicate habitation of the area in antiquity. Long before the arrival of the Greeks, the Sikels had two small settlements here circa 1200 BC (BCE). In the carved homes and tombs there are traces of Ausonian architectural influences.

Like the Alcantara Valley, the Cassibile is a footnote to military history. In 413 BC the Ionian mouth of the Cassibile River was the site of the surrender, to Siracusan forces, of six thousand Athenian troops who had been led by the defeated Demosthenes. Their leader was exceuted and most of the Athenians were enslaved.

The canyon, which is a protected nature reserve, is home to a number of animal species, including the Sicilian Rock Partridge, the Mediterranean peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) and a local variety of the long-tailed tit (Aegithalos caudatus siculus). These birds are not alone. The hedgehog and Hermann's tortoise live here. Surprisingly, so does the European pine marten (Martes martes), preyed upon by the equally rare red fox. The leopard snake (Zamenis situla) is at home in this rocky environment. A particularly rare species, the freshwater crab (Potamon fluviatile), lives here, and so does the distinctively green Italian Tree Frog (Hyla intermedia).

Over four hundred native plant species - some quite rare in Sicily - are found in the Cassibile Valley. Here we'll mention a few.

Several orchid species thrive in the canyon. The Sicilian orchid (Ophrys lunulata), identified by botanist Filippo Parlatore in 1838, is a purplish flower on the endangered list. The more delicate Anacamptis longicornu is also present. The rare but more widely diffused Ophrys exaltata is found as far away as Spain.

The Sicilian snapdragon (Antirrhinum siculum) blooms in Spring; it is also found on Malta and Gozo. The wild snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis) grows here, as do the the pot marigold (Calendula suffruticosa), the wood splurge (Euphorbia amygdaloides), ladder brake fern (Pteris vittata pteris), tree germander (Teucrium fruticans), the deep blue Sicilian throatwort (Trachelium lanceolatum), horsetail (Equisetum arvense) and others.

Myrtle, sage (the salvia plant), rosemary, lesser calamint (non-edible Calamintha nepeta), oregano and thyme are abundant. All in all, a priceless gift from Nature.

Catania

Since the eighteenth century, Catania has been the second most important city of Sicily, supplanting Messina in that respect. Subjected to Etna's fickle temperament, Catania has been damaged by lava flows and earthquakes on several occasions. A particularly destructive volcanic eruption in 1669 was followed by a serious earthquake in 1693.

Founded by the Siculi and colonized by Chalcidians (a Greek people) from Naxos in 729 BC, Catania was conquered by the Romans in AD 263, eventually becoming the most prosperous city in Roman Sicily. However, archeological evidence indicates man's presence in the area during the early Bronze Age (2200-1400 BC). By the Middle Ages, it was still an important port, though less prominent than Messina. It flourished until 1169, when it was almost completely destroyed by a particularly violent earthquake. Following this catastrophe, Catania was gradually rebuilt.

The city has two Roman amphitheaters. The smaller one, off Via Vittorio Emanuele near Piazza San Francesco d'Assisi, was built upon an earlier Greek theater and is open to the public. It is said to have accommodated as many as 6,000 spectators. The nearby Odeum, a much smaller theatre, could hold about 1,300. A larger amphitheatre, closer to the commercial center in Piazza Stesicoro at the intersection of Via Etnea and Corso Sicilia, is a completely Roman structure built in the second century AD. The piazza, incidentally, is named for Stesichorus, a Greek poet who lived in Catania during the sixth century BC. Now located below ground level and usually closed, this vast complex probably seated about 14,000 spectators. Only a small part of is actually visible today. With its vast underground network of passages and alcoves, it is reminiscent of the Roman Colosseum.

Ursino Castle, located in Piazza Federico di Svevia, at the end of Via Auteri between Via Plebiscito and Via Garibaldi, used to be a coastal fortress before volcanic eruptions extended the coastline. This castle was built by Richard de Lentina on the orders of Emperor Frederick II von Hohenstaufen in the first half of the thirteenth century and subsequently modernized in the manner of those at Messina, Taranto and Bari. It is now a museum open to the public.

Though extensively rebuilt on Baroque and neo-classical models, the oldest part of the cathedral (duomo) was constructed in 1092. Several royal personages are entombed there, including Frederick III of Aragon (ruled 1296-1337) and Queen Constance, wife of Frederick IV (ruled 1355-1377). It was during the Aragonese period that Catania began to compete with Messina to become the most important city of eastern Sicily, and a point of reference for islanders from Castrogiovanni (Enna) eastward.

Most of Catania's wide streets and majestic palaces were built during the eighteenth century, coincidental to the Bourbon's development of Naples, and the architectural similarity between the two cities is striking. That both were continually menaced by volcanic eruptions is a further similarity, though Etna is larger and more active than Vesuvius. An obvious difference will be seen in the gray volcanic stone used to construct the Catanian buildings; some visitors believe it gives the city an ominous face.

Giovanni Verga and Vincenzo Bellini were Catanian (though Verga was actually born at Vizzini). Catania's best known citizen was Saint Agatha, its patroness, martyred here in the middle of the third century.

It was during the eighteenth century reconstruction period that noble families from across eastern Sicily began to build palazzi in Catania. Thus began a social and economic rivalry

with Palermo that continues to this day. One of the essential differences between the cities is that while Catania is somewhat more industrial, Palermo remains the administrative center of Sicily. Though it won't be readily apparent to the casual visitor, the two cities differ from one another in many subtle ways. Catania is certainly less chaotic than Palermo, and most streets and squares are a good bit cleaner. Its residents are generally more open, and organized crime, which certainly exists, is slightly less pervasive here than in Palermo. Most Sicilians, even Palermitans, would agree that it's generally easier to do business in Catania than in Palermo.

For all its Baroque grandeur, the city is not frequented by the number of tourists who flock to Palermo, Syracuse and Taormina, most of whom just briefly pass through Catania on their way to Mount Etna or Syracuse. That's unfortunate because, like Messina, Catania has something to offer those willing to unveil its historic treasures. Even during a brief itinerary, this very special city is worth at least a morning or afternoon.

For Visitors: If you're shopping for souvenirs, Taormina might be a better choice than Catania as it has a large number of shops concentrated on a few streets, though Catania offers Via Etnea. The city has a number of restaurants but they're not easy to find. Catania is certainly worth seeing – at least for a brief visit. The two large street markets are particularly interesting, and the churches and palaces have a distinctly Baroque aura. Catania is a good point for making connections to other places if you're traveling by train or bus. Buses for Etna, the airport, Palermo and various nearby towns depart from the piazzas near the train station (there are several different bus lines with offices off the main square). Fontanarossa Airport is only about 20 minutes from Catania. There are fairly frequent train departures for Taormina, Syracuse, Messina and the mainland.

Hotel Reservations are easy with the online reservation system on our travel planning page, where you'll find convenient links to information on flights, hotels, car rentals, restaurants, weather and even travel books.

Mount Etna

Europe's greatest natural wonder

Sicily's greatest natural attraction is also its highest mountain. To the ancient Greeks, Mount Etna was the realm of Vulcan, god of fire, and the home of the one-eyed monster known as the Cyclops. At approximately 3350 meters, it is Europe's highest active volcano. The height of its summit changes with each eruption, and over the centuries a few lava flows have reached the coast. Over 1200 square meters of Etna's surface is covered with solidified lava. Etna offers

skiing in the Winter months and breathtaking hikes in the woods during the Summer. There are also a number of smaller peaks on the slopes of Etna, and some interesting caverns. Since Etna is a strato volcano, with relatively cool lava temperatures and numerous openings (vents), nobody ever knows precisely where on its vast surface the next eruption will be. Etna's long recorded history has proven invaluable to the world's volcanologists.

Various species of oak and stone pine, as well as birch and beech, cover much of its sloped surface. Broom plant and other shrubs dot the area, especially at lower altitudes. Etna's deciduous trees change color in the Autumn, creating a spectacular panoply of changing shades.

Frogs, toads and turtles live in the streams and small ponds of Etna's forests. There are also various species of snakes and Sicily's ubiquitous lizards. Foxes, squirrels, weasels, hare, hedgehogs, porcupine and a few wild cats also consider Etna their domain. Overhead, you'll see owls, falcons, partridges and the occasional golden eagle, a Mediterranean species re-introduced here in recent years. In the Gurrida Lake area, there are herons, ducks and migratory birds.

The scenic Alcantara Gorge is located on the Alcantara River north of Mount Etna near Taormina off Route 185. This beautiful rock formation, composed of basalt, was created by volcanic activity.

For Visitors: Remember that it's always quite a bit cooler on Etna than it is in the valleys or along the coast. There are several roads into the park, and even a railway line from Catania to Riposto (though with only occasional departures), as well as bus service from Catania.

Recommended itineraries:

Western Slope: Monte Gallo and Rifugio della Galvarina. Start at the clearing on the slope of Mount Gallo, reached via the Nicolosi-Adrano road, following the road for about 12

kilometers to the sign indicating Monte Intraleo. This hike leads to the Galvarina forest refuge.

Casa Pirao to Monte Spagnolo to Cisternazza. This hike takes about five hours. It starts from the Case Pirao on the northern slope, reached by turning off the Linguaglossa-Randazzo road just outside Randazzo. This excursion will take you through the Mount Spagnolo beech wood.

Monte Nero degli Zappini Nature Trail. This trail offers a view of some of the typical natural settings of the area. It starts from Piano Vetore, which is not far from the Grande Albergo dell'Etna.

Mount Zoccolaro Nature Trail. Not far from Zafferana Etnea, this steep trek offers spectacular views of the Calanna Valley and the Valle del Bove with patches of

aspen and beech woods along the way. Exercise caution because the path is flanked by a steep precipice.

For further information, contact:

Parco Regionale dell'EtnaVia Etnea 107, NicolosiTel. 095 914588, Fax 095 914738

Grande Albergo del Parco (a "base camp")Contrada Serra La NaveRagalnaTel. 095 911500

De meeste toeristen bezoeken de Etna vanuit de zuidkant, maar wij geven de voorkeur aan de noordzijde. Het is er rustiger en het landschap is afwisselender. Via Lingualossa rijd je door de pijnboombossen naar het skistation Piano Provenzana, op 1810 m hoogte. Het skistation werd in 2002 verwoest door een lavastroom, maar is sinds kort weer open. Je zou het misschien niet verwachten, maar van circa december tot april ligt er sneeuw op de top van de vulkaan en is het mogelijk om hier te skiën.

Afhankelijk van het weer en de activiteit van de vulkaan op dat moment* is het mogelijk om vanuit Piano Provenzana een 4x4 busje te nemen naar de noordoostelijke krater op 2800 m hoogte. Samen met een gids maak je een wandeling door het kale, stoffige maanlandschap. Het pad loopt langs zwarte bergen gestolde lava en rokende kraters die verstikkende zwaveldampen uitstoten. Beschik je over een goede conditie, dan kun je er voor kiezen om, in plaats van de bus te nemen, in circa 2 uur terug te lopen naar Piano Provenzana. Een pittige, maar indrukwekkende wandeling langs een oude lavastroom en stoffig los zand (neem een stofmasker of bandana mee).

omdat de omstandigheden regelmatig veranderen, adviseren wij deze excursie (circa €55,- p.p.) ter plaatse te reserveren, de eigenaar van je agriturismo kan jou hier mee helpen.

Mount Etna Central craters

"La voragine" (the Abyss)

"La bocca nuova" (the new crater)

North-east crater

South-east crater

New South-east crater, also known as Pit-Crater, currently the most active

You can easily recognize them on wikimapia; many people would look at them closely, probably just a few manage to do it.

First of all, there are real security concerns: during mount Etna eruptions (or even just during strong gas ejections), the access to central craters is forbidden by prefect order, usually is possible to get the "safe" altitude for tourists excursions: 2920 meters at Torre del

Filosofo on south side, 2990 meters at Punta Lucia, on north side, quite far away from the peak at about 3350 meters above sea level.

But even when Mount Etna seems to be sleepy, I think many of you would be afraid to go close to the enormous central craters. Eruption are usually preceded by tremors and other signs, but sometimes they happens suddenly. However, the few incidents on Mount Etna had been caused only by clear tourists imprudences.

The "tourist" ascent towards central craters can be done in two ways:

By cableway and off-road vehicles from Rifugio Sapienza, South Etna side (Nicolosi) - ticket approximately 60 euros (details here)

By off-road vehicles from Piano Provenzana, Etna North side (Linguaglossa) - ticket approximately 60 euros (details here)

Usually, these excursions include a really basic tour at the craters close to the off-roads stop areas; in my view, the expense is really high, comparing to what you will see during the tour. So, I suggest the "tourist" ascent only to lazy or incurious people. For all the people able to walk, headed to spend less money and see more about Mount Etna, we are going to show some different path with varius difficulty level, all of them landing at the safe tourist area. When you'll be there, according to the situation you'll evaluate wheter will be possible to go further up towards the peak.

Here we are with our proposals: costs refers to March 2012

Montagnola - Torre del Filosofo - Crateri Silvestri , starting by cableway from "rifugio Sapienza", ticket about 16 euros, difference in height 400 meters ascending and 900 meters descending - Difficulty: medium

Schiena dell'asino - Montagnola - Torre del Filosofo - Crateri Silvestri , starting from the "Schiena dell'Asino" nature trail, no tickets, difference in height 1000 ascending and descending - Difficulty: high

Piano Provenzana - Punta Lucia - Piano Provenzana , starting from Piano Provenzana, no tickets, difference in height 1200 ascending - Difficulty: very high (to be tracked)

Montagnola - Torre del Filosofo - Crateri Silvestri - Description

We leave by cableway from Rifugio Sapienza. It could be possible to rise by walk, but the section from here to Montagnola could show us just volcanic ash, so we decide to bypass the first section using the cableway: one way ticket to the Montagnola, ask for a return ticket if you don't think confident on the steep final descent; one way ticket is approximately 24 euros, 30 euros return trip.

We leave the cableway and go right, on the off-road track towards Mount Escrivà, a crater of the 2001 eruption. Before we reach the mount, we turn right, leaving the off-road track so that the mount stays on our left.

There is a hole on the crater side, some gas is still coming out of it (10 years later!); we also look at the shining minerals on the ash. There are some volcanic bombs, under those stones we find a lot of ladybirds.

We are going toward the Bove valley viewpoint, from here is possible to look at both norh and south valley sides, entirely covered by cold magma.

We go back in order to quickly browse on Mount Escrivà, just a quick walk on the crater edge. From here is possible to look at the "Cisternazza" ("the big water container"), a huge depression that becomes a small lake during snow melting season. We also go inside the crater, there are some hot iron and sulphur gas emissions.

We descend from Mount Escriva, aiming the Central Craters, walking on the off-road track or cutting somewhere the corners. It's August, the are many off-road vehicles on the track but we feel comfortable (no risk due to the traffic or the dust). It takes 2 hours and half (from the cableway landing point) to reach the "Torre del Filosofo" area: just 6 km walking, 500 meters difference in height. We can't go further, mount Etna is not sleeping.

Here you can walk on the 2002 craters (similar to Mount Escrivà) or you can try to go further toward the central craters, according to security conditions. We just have some rest before the descending path. We walk close to 2002 craters, leaving them at our right. We meet the off-road track close to mount Escrivà, crossing it to pass behind the mount, so that we can get the Montagnola's peak.

Here starts a really steep downhill slope, potentially dangerous but also extremely funny. It's a huge sandy path, you'll sink softly in the ash (it will reach you knees!), it seems to float on it. We suggest you to wear trousers in order to cover your shoes and avoid them to be filled by the ash.

Don't be to enthusiastic during the descent! You must pay attention at this point in the picture, you don't have to go straight on but you must cross the rocks you can see on the left, so that you can keep descending toward the "Crateri Silvestri".

From now on is really easy, you'll pass next to the north "Silvestri Crater" and then you'll get the "rifugio Sapienza" area.

Schiena dell asino - Montagnola - Description

In this section we'll describe just the ascent towards the Montagnola; then, if you want to get the central crater you can follow the path we tracked reaching the Montagnola by cableway.

This time the path will be entirely covered by walking; you'll save the cableway ticket, the physical effort is quite higher but the panorama really deserves it.

We start from the Schiena dell'Asino path, rising it as described on the nature trail section, crossing the bar and the pinewood. It's an easy walk until you get the Bove valley edge, where you can look at some nice dicchi at the bottom of the valley and in the meantime the central crater.

From now to the Montagnola's peak, the path is quite demanding with a steep ascent (gradient 30% in some sections). First section is the most difficult, you'll have to walk on some irregular stones. After that, you'll walk among the last vegetation surviving at this altitude on mount Etna. The last section of the ascent is all over the black volcanic ash.

We are at 2550 meters above sea level, on Montagnola's peak. On the last 2 km the average gradient is about 25%. In front of us there is mount Escrivà and the off-road path, if you want to go on top you can keep walking following the tracks from Montagnola to Torre del Filosofo.

Last observation on the path: if you follow our descending path, you'll land at Crateri Sivestri, so you'll have to walk one more km on asphalted road towards Schiena dell'Asino departure point to get the car. If you walk the whole path, you'll climb for 1000 meters difference in height and then come back, for an overall length of 16km

http://www.etnatracking.com/Tracciati/MontagnolaFilosofo/Foto/16.JPG

Monti Sartorius - Description

The Sartorius Mounts are ancient craters that originated during the 1865 lava flow. They owe their name to Sartorius Von Waltershausen, one of the first scientists who tried to catalogue Etna’s eruptions.

The starting point of the path is a few hundreds of metres from the Citelli Refuge. If you leave from Catania, you have to go past Zafferana Etnea, Milo and Fornazzo. Just before the end of Fornazzo, on the left you find a sign for Citelli Refuge. You keep on following the Refuge direction for a few kilometres, until you see the sign of the beginning of the path.

If you go past the bar you’ll find yourself inside a birch wood. This is an endemic species of Etna, and you can only find it in this area of the vulcano. In the distance you can see the Sartorius Craters, main target of our excursion.

At the first fork , you take the climb on the right that takes you straight to the craters. The path is clearly signed with spots of orange varnish and goes up the crater. Along the way you’ll notice that some vegetation has already colonized the sides of the vulcano. At the end of the climb, the view that opens on the valley is simply breath-taking! Down the valley you can observe the sea-coast, pine woods and ancient craters, while up the valley you can see the Sartorius Mounts, and behind them the “Frumento delle Concazze” Mount and the Central Crater. The ground is often red coloured , because of the iron inclusions inside the lava rocks.

We go around the crater (we keep on following the varnish signs) and we reach the O.P. 5 of the old path of the park, dedicated to the observation of the lava flow. We exit the lava flow and we enter a birch wood, also indicated by the O.P. 4 of the old path. In this part the birch wood is pretty impressive and we are fascinated by these plants that

http://www.etnatracking.com/Tracciati/SchienaAsinoMontagnola/Foto/4.JPG

only exist in this area of the world. After the O.P. 3, dedicated to the different life forms that gradually attack the volcanic rocks, you see a sheep-pen. If you go to the left, you go back to the beginning of the path, going past birch trees, volcanic bombs and the other guests of the path.

If you decide to turn right at the sheep-pen, you can lengthen your walk for a few kilometres, going towards BARACCA MOUNT. We went there and we weren’t disappointed by what we saw. We go towards Baracca Mount. We go through the last part of the birch wood, that gives space to a pine wood. At the fork we go on the right. We encounter a fantastic cluster pine tree! It was so big that we couldn’t take a single picture of it, we had to take two pictures and then join them!

We see another fork and we keep on going on the right. A few pines still show the signs of the incisions that were made on them to pick the resin. Our walk continues among flowers, trees and butterflies camouflaged in their environment before we encounter an asphalted road. We walk through it for a few metres, then, on the right, we get back into the path. Now we just have to follow this path until we cross the main path. We go on the left so that we can go back to the starting point.

NOORD-WESTLocality & Place Index

Cities • Towns • Historical Sites • Nature Reserves • Islands• Palermo»»• Cefalù• Monreale» • Agrigento Temples• Erice

» Favignana» Ficuzza» Halaesa» Himera» Hyblaean (Iblei) Mountains

» Lampedusa» Lipari» Madonie Mountains» Malta» Marsala» Messina» Milazzo (Mylae)

» Morgantina» Mozia» Naxos• Nebrodi Mountains» Noto• Piazza ArmerinaPantalica» Pantelleria» Peloritan Mountains

Ragusa» Bagheria» Caccamo Castle» Caltanissetta

» Egadian Islands»» San Vito lo Capo» Sciacca» Scopello• Segesta Temple» Sicanian Mountains» Selinunte Temples• Siracusa» Solunto• Taormina» Termini Imerese» Tindari» Trapani» Ustica» Vendicari Reserve» Wine Country» Zingaro Reserve• Aeolian Islands

Palermo

Things to see in Palermo are indexed by zone (see map) according to their locations within the city, and by category in our Sights To See index. Names of a few of the more prominent sights listed here correspond to the numbers indicated on the map. Though based on actual parts of the city, the "quarters" indicated here are generalized; the Magione Church, for example, isn't actually in the historical Kalsa Quarter but is fairly close to it, while the Chinese Villa, Mondello and Mount Pellegrino, though reached from Via Libertà, are not actually very near it. The history of Palermo follows below. For a complete travel guide we suggest our sister site, See Palermo, and for tours of Palermo visit our Sicily tour guide page.

Quattro Canti: Royal Palace and Palatine Chapel, Quattro Canti, St. Joseph of the Theatines, Piazza Pretoria, San Cataldo, Martorana, Saint John's of the Hermits, Saint Francis of Assisi, Cathedral, Roman Palermo, Casa Professa, San Domenico

Kalsa: Magione Church, Steri Castle (Piazza Marina), Santa Maria della Catena, St John of the Lepers, Palazzo Mirto, Marionette Museum, Art Gallery, Admiral's Bridge, Botanical Gardens

Maqueda: Sant'Agostino Church, Villa Malfitana, Castle-by-the-Sea, Archeological Museum, Opera Houses

Libertà: Mount Pellegrino & Saint Rosalie's Shrine, Chinese Villa, Favorita Park, Mondello Beach, Addaura, Villa Trabia, Ficuzza

Calatafimi: Zisa, Cuba, Cubola, Carthaginian Cemetery, Capuchin Monastery

1. Cathedral

2. Chinese Villa

3. Magione Church

4. Martorana Church

5. Mount Pellegrino

6. Politeama Theatre

7. Quattro Canti

8. Royal Palace

9. St. Francis Church

10. St. John of the Hermits

11. Teatro Massimo

12. Zisa

Destiny of a King's CapitalNiscemi's Cave and Addaura Cavern, in the cliffs of Mount Pellegrino, were both inhabited in middle neolithic times and boast some remarkable wall drawings. This was the dawn of European prehistory. Palermo's recorded history begins four millennia later.

Founded by the Phoenicians, who named it Ziz, Palermo was settled in the eighth century BC as a port. Its development paralleled that of Solunto and Motia. Archeologists generally agree that the Phoenicians were compelled to develop these cities because they were forced out of eastern Sicily by the Greeks, but this civilization's presence in western Sicily seemed inevitable. The Greeks called the city Panormos, meaning "all port." The Latin name, still used in Catholic Church documents well into the nineteenth century, was Panormus.

The Phoenicians' descendants and successors, the Carthaginians, made Panormos a center of commerce, and it was their base port, in 480 BC, for the navy that was defeated in the Battle of Himera. In 276 BC, Panormos finally fell to the Greeks. The Punic Wars followed, and the city was part of the Roman Empire from 253 BC. Phoenician and Roman Palermo extended from the port area along what is now Corso Vittorio Emanuele to Corso Calatafimi in the area beyond the Royal Palace (viewed from a distance in this photo of the Monastery of Saint John of the Hermits).

The Paleo-Christian era left several early churches in the city. Its earliest faith was Orthodoxy. Following a brief Gothic occupation and occasional Vandal raids, Panormus was part of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire from 535 until 831, when it fell to the invading Saracen Arabs ("Moors"), who turned many of the churches into mosques. Thus began the reign of the Aghlabid dynasty of what is now Tunisia. From 948, as Bal'harm, it was the capital of the Emirate of Sicily of the Kalbite dynasty, and it is from that date that Palermo may be considered to have been the royal capital of Sicily. (On our simplified map the three major Arab districts are shown in yellow.)

The Arabs brought the lemon and the orange, cane sugar, and the cultivation of mulberry trees, dates, cotton and hard wheat. They introduced innovative irrigation systems and a novel system of aqueducts. Palermo became one of the Muslim world's most splendid cities, surpassed only by Baghdad.

In stark contrast to the Normans' conquest of England, the Sicilian conquest was long and difficult. Only in 1071, almost a decade after they had landed at Messina, did the Normans, led by Robert "Guiscard" de Hauteville, capture Palermo, and then after a five-month siege. Numbering perhaps as many as a hundred thousand, the residents (Palermitans) of this medieval metropolis were Muslims, Christians and Jews from every part of Sicily and every part of the Mediterranean. The island was the place where east met west, and north met south. In the decades to come, Palermo flourished as the wealthiest city of Europe, the victor in a subtle sibling rivalry with another newly-Norman city, London.

From the eleventh century onward, the history of Palermo is largely the history of Sicily. Despite brief periods of competition from Messina and then Catania, it was the seat of the island's government. By the eighteenth century, Palermo had become the place of residence of most of western Sicily's nobility. Its splendid Baroque palazzi are their legacy. If Milan seems to ignore the rest of Italy, if Rome presumes to be the national capital, Palermo exists in a realm neither could ever hope to occupy.

The city once boasted a prosperous Jewish community. In 1492, with Sicily under Spanish control, the infamous edict of expulsion ordered them to leave or convert. It appears that about half chose to remain in Sicily as Christians.

Its ancient and medieval historical district is larger than that of any other Italian city except Rome and maybe Naples. Southern Italy's entire historical legacy exists along a kilometer of Corso Calatafimi - a Punic cemetery, Roman homes (in Piazza Vittoria), Norman palaces (the Cuba and Royal Palace) and Baroque churches. Perhaps no other street in Europe boasts a heritage so ancient and so varied.

There's no other Italian city quite like it. Palermo is an urban paradox. Life in this unique city can be challenging, though most Palermitans seem to have adapted well. Water is rationed; it is provided for a few hours every two or three days, just long enough to fill up the tanks in residents' homes. Air quality leaves something to be desired; in 2000 Via Roma registered the highest level of pollutants of any main street in a large Italian city. Traffic often comes to a complete halt for hours; Via Regione Siciliana, the city's main highway, is infamous for this, especially near the poorly-designed interchange at Via Da Vinci (and McDonalds and the Holiday Inn). Protests often block central streets; these "mini-revolutions" are invariably over by lunchtime. Despite such inconveniences, Palermo remains a jewel of the Mediterranean. No visit to Sicily is ever complete without a visit to Palermo, a city that permits one not just to know this island but to begin to understand it.

For Visitors: As Sicily's largest and most cosmopolitan city, Palermo offers great dining as well as excellent shopping. Though there are good restaurants throughout Palermo, they're not easy to find. In general, we suggest that you try the ones on side streets instead of those near the port (on Via Amari and Via Cavour), which might be described as "tourist restaurants." (A number of Palermitan restaurants and wine bars are listed and reviewed on our special page dedicated to Palermo's Best Restaurants.)

Throughout Palermo, there are excellent pastry shops and "bars" that serve ice creams, pastries and, during Summer months, granita (flavored ices). If you want to sample these tempting delights in a leisurely setting, we suggest the charming outdoor cafés on Via Principe di Belmonte, which runs from Via Maqueda to Via Roma near the Politeama Theatre. Located in the city's best shopping district, Via Belmonte is closed to traffic, making it Palermo's answer to Rome's Piazza di Spagna or Via Condotti. The city doesn't only offer great cuisine and fascinating history. Palermo also has some very good shopping, and many of the better shops are conveniently located in the city's centre around Via Maqueda and Via Libertà, especially on the side streets, where you'll find shops that sell everything from antiques to Sicilian-made specialty goods like ceramic items and original jewelry.

Palermo Cathedral by Vincenzo Salerno

Multicultural - of, relating to, or constituting several cultural or ethnic groups within a society.

Multiculturalism - the doctrine that several different cultures, rather than one national culture, can coexist peacefully and equitably in a single country.

Those who ascribe "political correctness" or other "modern" motives to these two simple words must know nothing about the society that flourished in Sicily from about 1070 into the early decades of the thirteenth century. Without wishing to foist religion upon the most vocal cynics, one suggests that a visit to Sicily's largest church, affording us a long glance toward a more tolerant time, might change a few opinions. As fascinating as the Palatine Chapel and Monreale Abbey are, capturing a magical moment in European (and Asian and African) history, Palermo's cathedral presents to the visitor a diversity and mixture of architectural styles unique in the world for a church of this strikingly vast scale: Arab, Norman, Byzantine, Swabian, Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque. It's all here, in one grand, inspiring setting, complete with soaring medieval spires. This is the world's most eclectic ecclesiastical architecture.

If there were ever a building that could lay claim to being the world's most architecturally diverse, "multicultural" place of worship, it would be this one. Built during the twelfth century on the site of a Roman temple, and a Byzantine basilica converted into a mosque, the cathedral is a masterpiece of Norman-Arab architecture embracing several additional styles throughout the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance and Baroque periods, yet

transcending any single movement. Here we'll focus more on the medieval features incorporated into the cathedral before 1460 than on the later modifications.

OriginsToday, Palermo's cathedral is known officially as "Santa Maria Assunta" or Saint Mary of the Assumption. Arab records mention the existence of a large "infidel" temple present on this site when they conquered Palermo in 831. This was turned into the Great Mosque. In early 1072, when the Normans wrested control of Palermo from the Saracens, Count Roger (Roger I) promptly saw to it that the great mosque was reconsecrated as a Christian church. It was in this earlier incarnation of the cathedral that Roger II was crowned in 1130. By way of introduction, Sicily's earliest churches, like others in the central and eastern Mediterranean, were built upon existing Greek or Roman temples during the Paleo-Christian era beginning in the final years of the Western Roman Empire. In Syracuse Cathedral the massive columns and wall of a temple form part of the structure, and Agrigento's Concord Temple spent several centuries of its like as a church. In Italy, the "Romanesque Basilica" style of ecclesiastical architecture owes much to this early influence.

By the seventh century, following occupations by the Vandals and Visigoths, Sicily found herself under the sway of the Byzantine Empire, though for some decades the island's bishops answered to the Patriarchs of Rome rather than to the Patriarchs of Constantinople. At this time the early Church was essentially unified. The Sicilians spoke Greek, Latin or (often) both. There was not yet any distinct Italian or Sicilian language as we understand those concepts today.

Palermo's first cathedral (by definition this is the ecclesial see of a bishop) was probably built around a Roman temple on the site of the present structure but perpendicular to it, extending across what is now the large square flanking the cathedral, and much of Punic Palermo was still very visible. Precious little is known of this original structure though some of its large foundation stones are preserved beneath the square. At least part of the Paleo-Christian church appears to have been destroyed ("vandalized") by Vandals between 440 and 468; the crypts or underground foundations of several churches in Palermo date from this era. By 604 a larger structure was being built on this site using some stones from the earlier one. We know little of it except that it conformed to styles popular in Greece and Italy during that era and was dedicated to Mary. This is what became the Byzantine cathedral and - in the ninth century - the Great Mosque. (An artists concept appears below.) It is believed that a few small sections of the present crypt were part of this Byzantine church.

Grandeur and RivalryThe Norman-Arab style was born in the eleventh century and flourished into the twelfth. The cathedrals of Cefalù and Monreale are typical. More accurately, the ephemeral style is Norman-Arab-Byzantine. In our photograph we've omitted the cupolas and other Baroque additions to present an impression of what the cathedral looked like toward the end of the Middle Ages circa 1460.

The church was constructed on the orders of bishop Walter Ophamilias (often incorrectly referred to as Walter "of the Mill"), a cousin of the Hauteville kings, beginning in 1184. The young King William II, in an attempt to demonstrate his independence from Walter and various courtiers under whom he had spent his minority, had established a bishopric and splendid cathedral at Monreale, where he also spent time at a small royal palace. Walter's construction of Palermo Cathedral may be seen as a response to this - though it was difficult to rival Monreale Abbey. Until a series of modifications in 1781, the interior of the grand church retained its medieval form, which featured a wooden ceiling and at least a few mosaic icons.

One is struck by the great church's size, which for its era made it one of Europe's largest places of worship. Overall, the edifice is still Sicily's largest church. Incredibly, the actual construction (like that of Monreale Abbey), took just a few years, even though the width of the "nave" is exceptionally broad for a Romanesque church of this architectural type. Twelfth-century Palermo, as one of the wealthiest cities of Europe (its revenue eclipsing that of all of Plantagenet England), boasted an immense corps of highly-competent artisans and workmen among Arabs and "Greeks." The

modern preconception that medieval cathedral construction required many decades of labour is based on the intricacies of Gothic architecture. Splendid Cologne Cathedral, founded by Sicily's Frederick II, comes to mind.

Whereas the floor plan of the earlier Byzantine cathedral was probably rather squarish (so far as we can infer from what little of its archeology is known to us), the Norman-Arab structure we see today is based on the typical "latin cross" design that foreshadowed the Gothic - a long nave and at least something of a transept. In that respect, Monreale Abbey is somewhat more "square" while Cefalù Cathedral is relatively (and literally) narrower, with a more developed transept, representing a more distinct step toward the Gothic.

Architectural EvolutionThe cathedral of Palermo underwent major changes in the following centuries. Subtle Catalonian Gothic touches such as the portico, with its gargoyles - in the form of angels rather than grotesques - complement the original styles. Designed by Antonino Gambara, it was added in 1453. However, modern renovations and additions, such as the large cupola constructed in 1785, severely altered its appearance. This dome, and the extensive Baroque reconstruction of the interior, completely defaced the beautiful Norman Arab arches and lines of the inside of the church and corrupted the exterior's aesthetic lines.

Among the Baroque features is Saint Rosalie's Chapel, commemorating Palermo's patron saint, possibly a Norman maiden, who repudiated the worldly life in favour of a hermit's existence in the caves of Mount Pellegrino overlooking the city. A grand festival is celebrated in her memory in mid-July. The meridian line in the floor is also a recent addition.

The church is a massive rectangular structure, with two towers at the two front corners constructed in the Norman Arab style. The exterior of the apses is similar to those of Monreale Cathedral and the smaller Basilica of the Magione. The details are fascinating.

In the relief carvings of the wooden door at the archway under the portico can be seen deer, boar and other game once hunted in Sicily but long extinct. There are also deerhounds, lizards and mythological and religious figures.

The main entrance of the cathedral is located at the southern end of the nave along Via Bonello across the street from some reconstructed towers (the originals were destroyed by an earthquake) of the archdiocesan curia. The two arches over the street once supported a wooden roof. This entrance is used only on special occasions - usually when the archbishop enters the cathedral - but the facade reflects a succession of architectural styles, from the medieval Romanesque and Gothic through the Renaissance and into the Baroque. Adjacent to the church (on its western side), at the corner of Via Bonello and Via dell'Incoronazione, is the "Loggia dell'Incoronata," much altered since its construction in the twelfth century. Most of Sicily's newly-crowned Norman, Swabian and Aragonese kings ascended this arched platform to greet their applauding subjects immediately following a coronation mass in the cathedral.

This reminds us, of course, that until the reign of Ferdinando I of the Two Sicilies (who died in 1825), most kings of Sicily (including the first, Roger II) were actually crowned in Palermo's cathedral, which is the episcopal seat of the Primate of Sicily, the Archbishop of Palermo, who is usually a cardinal. Even so, some of the cathedral's most inspiring features are not Latin (Roman Catholic) but Muslim or Byzantine (Eastern Orthodox) in inspiration.

God is in the detailsA few pieces of the Paleo-Christian, Byzantine and Arab structures were incorporated into the present cathedral. Several, though not very imposing, are worthy of note. The left-most pillar supporting the Gothic portico bears an inscription from the Koran. The pillars were probably incorporated into the Great Mosque of Bal'harm (as the Arabs called this city) before the arrival of the Normans (1071). as we've noted, the portico itself is a later addition. Another interesting detail is the Byzantine icon of the Theotokos (Mother of God) in a niche above the Gothic archway beneath the portico. This may have been part of the medieval Byzantine church which became the great mosque, though its origin is disputed. It would have been covered or removed when the church was converted to a mosque during the ninth century, then re-incorporated into the Norman church. However, it may well have been created specifically for the Norman church by some of the same Greek (Orthodox) artists who designed the mosaic icons elsewhere in and around Palermo long after the Great Schism of 1054.

The geometric decorations of the apse exterior, not unlike those of Monreale Abbey, are of Islamic design, their symmetry reflecting Muslim thought and spirituality. This is also true of some of the decoration of the long walls on east side of the building, such as the geometrical "rosettes." Another Arab detail awaits us in the clerestory (actually an apse). In a corner can be seen part of a stone muqarnas ceiling similar those of the Zisa and (in wood) the Palatine Chapel. This originally covered a larger area when it probably formed part of the mosque.

Beyond the Theotokos icon already mentioned, we know not to what extent the original walls were covered with mosaics. Certainly they were surpassed in spiritual expression and pure scope by those of Monreale, but there were probably a few large icons such as the Pantocrator of Cefalù's splendid cathedral.

The long, long sleep of kingsThe side chapel that is located near the portico entrance of the church is famous for its royal tombs. It is here that King Roger II is buried, along with his daughter, Constance de Hauteville, mother of Emperor Frederick II Hohenstaufen, who is also laid to rest here. Henry VI Hohenstaufen, Holy Roman Emperor, father of Frederick and husband of Constance, is also entombed here. Frederick II, who besides being the King of Sicily was the Emperor of the Germans, has not been forgotten by the modern-day descendants of his Teutonic subjects. Even though Frederick has been dead for more than seven centuries, don't be surprised if you see German tourists leaving flowers at the foot of the Emperor's tomb. Other personages, including Bishop Walter himself, are interred in the crypt.

Treasury, Crypt, ClerestorySeveral areas of the cathedral, often (unfortunately) overlooked by visitors in a hurry, provide a fascinating insight into Palermo's medieval past.

The Cathedral Treasury (Tesoro) is a small museum containing a collection of finely crafted religious objects. There are illuminated manuscripts here and bejeweled chalices and crucifixes, along with sophisticated gold jewelry adorned with Byzantine enamel-ware, and even a few metal icons. The queen's various jewelled rings are stunning to behold. Not every item is always on display, but one usually is - the treasury's most famous object, the Crown of Queen Constance of Aragon, wife of Frederick II. Don't expect a jewelled coronet.

This is a much more intricate masterpiece of twelfth century metalwork combining Byzantine, Arabic and Western elements, made by the artisans of the palace workshops. Fragments of royal robes are also displayed, as well as episcopal vestments.

The Crypt, as we've mentioned, houses the remains of Archbishop Walter, who in the twelfth century ordered construction of this cathedral, overlaying the earlier church and mosque, and sections of it may have been part of the original Byzantine structure. In addition to Walter, Saint Nicodemus, Orthodox bishop of Palermo in 1071, is also buried here. At one end is an altar in white marble bearing Byzantine mosaic detailing - perhaps transferred downstairs during the eighteenth-century remodeling - and a Roman sarcophagus from ancient Panormus. Unlike many other parts of the cathedral, the crypt retains its original form, with stark, heavy Romanesque arches and stonework. Quite obviously, a piece of a Punic wall of huge stones (incorporated into the earlier cathedrals) protrudes from the curved wall of an apse. The crypt open to visitors is not actually the deepest area of the cathedral complex; there are tunnels and ancient ruins - including the remains of catacombs - far beneath the church and under the large cathedral square. Nor is it the largest grave site nearby; a simple monument in the centre of Piazza Sett'Angeli, the open square behind the apse, commemorates the deaths of some two hundred people during an Allied bombing raid which in 1943 destroyed a building there, where the nameless dead are buried. The cathedral itself was virtually untouched by the hostilities.

The term "clerestory" may be a misnomer, but that is how Palermitans refer to the interior apse chamber from which one descends into the cathedral's crypt. This chamber boasts a beautiful Romanesque-Gothic archway not unlike those leading into the cathedral from the portico and from Via Bonello. These ornate arches are thirteenth-century additions typical of their era. Though they were popularised in the Gothic churches of western Europe (of which there are very few pure examples in Sicily), they are, in fact, an element adopted from the earlier Romanesque style which predominated until the thirteenth century. During a restoration of the clerestory were revealed the muqarnas already described - perhaps created in the ninth or tenth century for the mosque but this too is a matter of scholarly debate. Here are also visible what appear to be small segments of the supporting walls of the earlier church and mosque.

The carved wooden coro in Catalan Gothic style dates from1466. Like some other elements, this is the work of Francesco Lauranae and his team of artisans.

The austere west walls on the "other" side of the cathedral (along Via dell'Incoronazione), though less detailed, include a few Arab-style windows and other medieval features along with Neoclassical columns at the side entrance. At the corner of this street and Via Bonello is the "Loggia" (royal dais) already mentioned. What was once the beautiful Norman-Arab west wall was destroyed at the time of the Baroque modifications.

Which of the limestone blocks used in the cathedral's twelfth-century construction were taken from the prior structure? In particular, we note certain of the very large pieces which form the base of the lateral walls.

Among the kings crowned here were Frederick II, who is entombed within, and in the eighteenth century Victor Amadeus of Savoy and Charles of Bourbon (later Carlos III of Spain), both commemorated by large, ornate plaques in the portico bearing their coats of arms.

Renaissance?Depending on your point of view, Europe's Middle Ages ended around 1453 (coinciding with the Fall of Constantinople to Turkish forces and the end of the Hundred Years War, when Leonardo Da Vinci was a year old) or perhaps a decade or two later. By then, the Renaissance had arrived.

A holy water font in marble was probably designed by Domenico Gagini while the Madonna della Scala was executed in 1503 by Antonello Gagini for the new sacristy. By 1600, in the wake of the Renaissance, movements such as the Baroque began to emerge. In Italy these styles supplanted the simple Romanesque and the true Gothic (Milan's cathedral is an exception). The shortcoming here occured not in the erection of churches and palaces in the new styles, but where existing structures were modified to reflect what was considered the epitome of artistic expression.

In 1767 Archbishop Filangieri commissioned the Florentine architect Ferdinando Fuga to restore the structure. This was not intended to include drastic modifications, though parts of the interior had already been altered. In 1781 Fuga began his work, which was continued by Palermitan architect Giuseppe Venanzio Marvuglia into the nineteenth century. Marvuglia's changes were actually more extensive than what Fuga had envisaged. For example, Fuga wanted to retain part of the cathedral's original wooden ceiling. The principal dome (cupola), however, was Fuga's idea; it just so happened that it fell to Marvuglia to execute it. Marvuglia was a great architect who designed - among other aristocratic residences - the Ficuzza hunting lodge of King Ferdinand I. These comments aren't intended to disparage his talent but simply to question its use in so drastically modifying a splendid medieval structure.

A large round window was added to the transept on each side of the nave. These are now filled in with stone. A clock was added in a tower near the apses. With the cupolas, these features disfigured the original design (the image below shows what it looked like without these additions).

What's what?Here's a list identifying the cultural origin of each architectural element - please forgive some redundancy as many of these details have already been mentioned.

Norman Elements and Motifs: The pointed arches and windows, and the four towers, are obviously original, though the towers across Via Bonello opposite the main entrance were rebuilt after collapsing. The crypt, the defensive battlements, and the vaulted ceilings visible in the clerestory are all typical of the Normans and other Western European civilizations.

Byzantine Art: Initially there were at least a few mosaic icons inside the cathedral similar to those of the Palatine Chapel, Monreale Abbey and Cefalù Cathedral. All that remains today is a mosaic icon of the Theotokos in a niche above the archway under the Gothic portico, and a few details like the marble altar in the crypt decorated in mosaic inlay. These date to the cathedral's construction or perhaps a few decades later; it is obvious that the altar was first located upstairs in the church. The archway in the wall beneath the portico was built during the thirteenth century (see the next section). Another detail is the throne of King William II in the sanctuary; though restored, its essentially Byzantine style can be discerned.

Swabian Gothic: The main entrance, used only on ceremonial occasions, is on Via Bonello. Rendered in gray stone, this is a typical gothic arch of the kind popular in Europe at the time, and there are numerous examples in Sicily. Despite our use of the term, this was not an exclusively Swabian or German style, nor was it specifically "Gothic." The Hohenstaufen eagle is visible on an escutcheon at the point of the arch. A similar but smaller arched entrance is located under the portico around the corner on the east side of the cathedral; carved around 1432, the wooden doors depict deer, wild boar, deerhounds and other creatures familiar to the Sicilian hunters of that period. Immediately above this arch is the niche bearing the Byzantine icon mentioned earlier. A similar arch, but in native limestone, is present inside, near the stairs leading down to the crypt, and the traces of frescos visible along the rims of the arched windows in the tower far above probably date from this period or earlier.

Catalonian Gothic: The Catalonian Gothic portal and gargoyles (here angels rather than grotesques) were added in 1453. As we've said, the niche, arched portal and wooden doors are older. The three escutcheons immediately beneath the gargoyles display the coats of arms of the Swabian and Aragonese kings.

Arab Elements and Motifs: The left (southernmost) pillar of the portico bears an inscription of the first sura of the Koran: "God is Allah and Mohammed is His Prophet." There are at least two columns in Palermo bearing similar inscriptions, including one just inside the entrance of Palazzo Steri. These columns were most likely taken from mosques, but the Sicilian and Spanish architects of the fifteenth century may not have even recognized the decorative writing as Arabic. In an isolated part of the clerestory, the muqurnas in a corner of the ceiling may have been preserved from the mosque but it is more likely that - like the ceiling of the Palatine Chapel - they were designed for this church. It is probable that others existed originally. The keyhole windows in the upper parts of the rear exterior (next to the apses) are very typically Arab or Islamic. Indeed, the apse area abounds with geometric motifs in black-and-white stone inlay and cut stone. Some cut-stone roundels can also be viewed above several windows and arches along the east side of the church.

Baroque: Extensive restructuring of the interior took place during the eighteenth century, when the cupolas were added.

Royal Heraldry: The Hohenstaufen eagle over main arch portal and the Aragonese insignia of the portico are the most obvious heraldry. The lion rampant guardant appears as a repeating motif profiled on a black stone background on the lower part of the large central apse (see the last picture of geometric details in the series above); this was a royal Judaic symbol adopted by the Norman monarchs of Sicily and England, and in the time of Richard Lionheart it formed the basis for England's earliest coat of arms. As we've mentioned, the Bourbon and Savoy coats of arms were added to the walls beneath the portico in the eighteenth century. Apropos royalty, the Crown of Queen Constance is preserved in the Treasury Museum along with several beautiful gemstone rings and seals.

Royal Tombs: Roger II, first king of Sicily, and his grandson, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, rest here. So do Frederick's wife and mother (Roger's daughter), both named Constance, and his father, Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI. Bishops, nobles and a few ancient Roman citizens are entombed in the crypt - parts of which probably date from the construction of the seventh-century Byzantine basilica. The sarcafogous of Saint Nicodemus, bishop of Palermo from 1065 to 1072, is here. The remains of Odo of Bayeux, Earl of Kent, troublesome half-brother of William the Conqueror, were interred in the original cathedral; he died in Palermo in 1097 en route to the First Crusade during a visit to Count Roger, Sicily's first Norman ruler. It is just possible that one of the large, unidentified tombs in the crypt is his

Norman Palace - A King's Refuge

It looks medieval, with a generous dose of the Baroque added over the centuries (and by 1400 the imposing Steri Castle was Sicily's official "royal palace") but Palermo's Norman Palace, with the Palatine Chapel as its centerpiece, is built - quite literally - on ancient foundations.

OriginsIf Palermo lacks a Romulus and Remus it can claim equal antiquity to Rome. Neither was built in a day. The site where the Norman Palace now stands was fortified with heavy stone walls by the Phoenicians, who founded it as a trading colony sometime before 700 BC (BCE), coinciding with the Greeks' colonisation of eastern Sicily. The Phoenicians' descendants, the Carthaginians, returned three centuries later to develop and fortify their city of Zis into what later became known successively as Panormos, Panormus, Bal'harm and finally Palermo.

To the Greeks the port city was an irritating reminder of Carthaginian power in western Sicily and a springboard for Punic attacks on Greek cities such as Himera to the east. Zis, of course, was not the only such annoyance; there were also Motya and Kfra (or Solus or Soluntum), the latter of which fell to Greek power in 396 BC. Following the fall of Greek Sicily to Rome, the rulers of the emerging Empire simply couldn't tolerate a competing power in the central and western Mediterranean, hence the Punic Wars, with Punic Palermo as one of their main battlegrounds. The Romans had, in a sense, inherited the Greeks' complex power struggle against the Carthaginians.

Carthage fell, followed by Rome. The Vandals and Goths discovered Panormus but didn't stay long. For the Byzantine Greeks Palermo, and therefore the high point of the city built around what is now the Norman Palace, never warranted so much attention as Syracuse on the Ionian coast. In the meantime the shoreline receded and the population dwindled, to be restored by the Arabs in the ninth century. They build the emir's large citadel, al Kasr, over the walls of the Carthaginians' fortress overlooking the Kemonia River nearby, and expanded their new metropolis in every direction, erecting administrative buildings in the district claimed from the sea, al Khalesa (today's Kalsa). Until the unification of Italy in 1861, the street now called "Corso Vittorio Emanuele" (for the new monarch) was, in fact, called "Via Cassaro." This district, like the Kalsa, was known by the Italianised version of its Arabic name.

Sicily's Aghlabid emirs (a Tunisian dynasty) ruled by authority of the Fatimids, their suzerains until 948. Under the Aghlabids' successors, the local Khalbids, the unified Emirate of Sicily, such as it was, divided several times, though Bal'harm (Palermo) remained the island's nominal capital and most important city. The cooperation of rival emirs with the invading Normans rendered a difficult conquest less difficult. With the arrival, in 1071, of Robert Guiscard and his younger brother, Roger, the stage was set for Palermo to assume its rightful place as a European capital. Al Kasr became the fortress of Palermo's - and Sicily's - rulers. It was restructured around four large towers: the Pisan, Greek, Kirimbi and Joaria.

View from the palaceAlmost everybody who comes to the Norman Palace comes to see the Palatine Chapel, but there's much more to see. Apart from the Palatine Chapel, the structure's main attractions (most are open to the public most of the time) are the Punic (Phoenician-Carthaginian) archeological site, the "crypt chapel" with the "donjon" passages nearby, Roger's Salon, the astronomical observatory and the various Baroque rooms throughout the palace.

From outside the visitors' entrance, a few pointed battlements have been preserved, but most of these crenels are relatively recent modifications. Originally there were battlements in some parts of the palace. Most of its medieval walls, both inside and out, are now obscured by the less attractive additions of subsequent times, but the Pisan Tower of the Normans' Royal Palace looks much as it did nine centuries ago, at least from the outside. Don't judge it from outside, for if its exterior is less than impressive, the palace's interior still evokes much of its former grandeur.

The Royal Palace now houses the Sicilian Regional Assembly,the parliament of Italy's largest semi-autonomous "regional" government. Roger II ordered the palace's enlargement sometime before 1132, though the existing structure already included the simple chapel (now the "crypt") near ground level. It was actually a castle in the most traditional sense, complete with a garrison (the royal bodyguard), victual stores and armory - though with a lavishness of design rare in western Europe in the twelfth century.

The Palatine ChapelThe Romanesque floor plan is rectangular with a rudimentary transept. Resplendent with traditional Orthodox iconography and a painted Arabic muqarnas ceiling (made of local Nebrodi Pine, now rare) bearing numerous figures of beasts and people, the Palatine Chapel seems to be a Monreale in

miniature, though it antedates that church by decades. Of particular note are the fine icons of Saint Peter and Saint James, and the throne. The large central mosaic icons in the apse and cupola (dome) represent Christ Pantocrator (ruler of all), one of several such medieval Byzantine images in western Sicily (the others are at Monreale Abbey and Cefalù Cathedral)

Recently restored, the ceiling has some interesting images, and even Arabic script. Lions and eagles are prominent. One of the more remarkable images shows chess being played - an indication of the intellectual pursuits of the medieval Palermitans. Dancing is also depicted. Islamic practice generally discouraged the artistic representation of humans in portraiture, but these paintings in tempera, part of what is widely considered the largest single Fatimid work of art of its day, seems to reflect the relaxed norms of a tolerant society.

Though the architectural construction of the chapel was probably completed by 1140, the artistic phase certainly required several more years. The ceiling is the work of local and Tunisian artists. The mosaics - many representing Biblical scenes - were created by Orthodox monks from Sicily, mainland Italy and Greece (and as far away as Constantinople), the same artists who worked on the Martorana. The stone inlay of the floor and lower walls is also a very demanding craft requiring much skill and effort.

The Old Testament scenes of the nave walls (there are none from the New Testament although apostles and angels are represented on other walls) offered the advantage of appealing to Christian, Jew and Muslim alike.

On the wall behind the throne platform is the coat of arms of Aragon added some time after the Sicilian Vespers war of 1282 when that dynasty began its reign in Sicily. The mosaics outside the chapel are modern additions. It is not known whether the Hautevilles ever used as their coat of arms a red and white checkered bend on a blue field.

Roger's SalonThe "Sala di Ruggero" is one of several rooms in the palace which exist in something close to their original condition. This one has mosaics, some of which doubtless represent animals in the Genoard park, while others are clearly symbolic. The pairing of animals, sometimes as mirror images, is typical of Byzantine iconography, even if none of these images are explicitly religious. This part of the royal apartments probably was a place for dining or entertaining. Despite what you may read, Roger II and his grandson, Frederick II, did not keep harems in a formal way; officially there were beautiful, young, single women resident in the palace whose principal occupation was weaving and who were not part of the court, but who occasionally performed other duties as well.

Astronomical ObservatoryThis modern addition to the Pisan tower is essentially a museum of nineteenth-century telescopes and other instruments used in the earth sciences. The first large asteroid, the dwarf planet Ceres, was discovered through observations here in 1801.

Crypt Chapel and DonjonThe original "palatine chapel" was this one, located in a quiet and secure area just below ground level, constructed late in the eleventh century. (This is not actually a crypt.) It predates the construction of the upper levels of the castle's superstructure and towers. A mosaic fresco on display has been preserved from this early period. Parts of the

surrounding corridors and rooms (the donjon) date from before the arrival of the Normans. This is the oldest surviving part of al Kasr readily visible to us today, other walls having been destroyed, built upon or incorporated into more recent rooms. Entry is through the Montalto room.

Punic WallWhile it's not nearly so extensive as the Punic walls at Erice or Mozia, this site is one of the oldest of its kind preserved in Palermo. It cannot be dated precisely, being either Phoenician (circa 700 BC) or Carthaginian (400 BC). Precisely cut and constructed, it is similar to other Phoenician structures around the Mediterranean. In common parlance the term "Punic" describes both cultures.

Monreale

Castellaccio Castle & San Martino AbbeyMulticultural synchronicity of Norman, Arab and Byzantine in a magical time and placeMonreale's cathedral and abbey are good reminders that the beauty of a particularly

splendid church transcends that of any single work of art, however noble. Overlooking Palermo, the town of Monreale, from the Latin "Mons Regalis" (literally 'Royal Mountain'), straddles a slope of Mount Caputo about eight

kilometers south of Palermo's cathedral. Set at about three hundred metres above sea level, the town overlooks the "Conca d'Oro," as the valley beyond Palermo is known. No extended visit of Palermo is truly complete without a visit to Monreale. The cathedral and its cloister represent the largest concentration of Norman, Arab and Byzantine art in one place. True, Palermo's cathedral is larger, but Monreale's exists in something far closer to its original twelfth-century state. This wondrous place is much more than "just another church." If your impression of the overused word multicultural is at all negative, the effect of Monreale Abbey will convert you to another way of thinking.

East meets WestThe focal point of the town is its cathedral, an amalgamation of Arab, Byzantine and Norman artistic styles framed by traditional Romanesque architecture, representing the best of twelfth-century culture. The mosaics covering the cathedral walls are one of the world's largest displays of this art, surpassed only by Istanbul's Basilica of Saint Sofia, once an Orthodox church. (Unfortunately, many of those beautiful mosaics were destroyed or whitewashed when the Turks conquered Constantinople in 1453.) Monreale's mosaics cover over six thousand square metres of the church's's interior, an area larger than those of the splendid church of Saint Mark in Venice.

The mosaics of "Santa Maria la Nuova" (Saint Mary the New), the official name of Monreale Cathedral, are far more extensive than those of the cathedral of Cefalù, and while the mosaics of the Palatine Chapel in Palermo's Norman Palace are of equally exquisite

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craftsmanship, the latter leave many with the impression of a complex work of art in a restrictive space.

It is tempting to identify each element of the abbey complex with a specific culture and tradition, though in truth these overlap considerably. The mosaics are a strongly Byzantine element, while certain structural details, such as the geometric inlay of the apse exteriors, are Arab and actually Islamic. The cloister, on the other hand, reflects a mixture of influences.

Attached to the cathedral, the Benedictine cloister courtyard consists of 228 columns (paired, with four on each corner), some inlayed with Byzantine-style mosaic work, each supporting an ornately carved capital. The capitals themselves depict scenes in Sicily's Norman history, complete with knights and kings. The style of the Norman knight figures evokes that of the knights depicted in the Bayeaux Tapestry, a chronicle of the Battle of Hastings. Historians have determined the date of the introduction of heraldry (coats of arms) in Sicily by the shields of the Monreale knight figures, which lack any heraldic decoration. The capitals strongly reflect the Provencal styles of the twelfth century, and at least three of what are thought to have been five master sculptors were probably from that region.

Royal OriginsThe idea of building Monreale Abbey was the idea of King William II "the Good," grandson of the Roger II. On the site of Monreale had stood a small Arab hamlet named "Ba'lat," where local farmers would gather each morning to cart their produce to the souks of Bal'harm (Palermo).

In the Norman era the area around Ba'lat, eventually renamed Monreale, became a favorite hunting ground of the Hauteville monarchs. In those days deer, boar and wild cats still roamed Sicily, where there were far more forests than today, and falconry was popular among the baronage. William's extensive royal hunting reserve extended across the valley to what is now Altofonte, and down the slopes of Mount Caputo toward Palermo (probably as far as the Royal Park or Genoard), perhaps encompassing some areas south of Monreale as well.

Walter "of the Mill" (actually "Offamilias" indicating his familial connection to Sicily's Hauteville kings), the English bishop of Palermo, was the head of a faction of nobles that sought to influence and persuade the young king into granting them more power. This faction also hoped to attenuate the power of Muslim ministers and functionaries in William's court. Walter had been William's tutor when the king was a child and during his mother's regency. William was just 13 years old when his father, William I, died in 1166, and until he reached his majority in 1171 he was subject to the regency of his mother, Margaret of Navarre. However, the kingdom was actually controlled by Matthew d'Aiello, the royal chancellor, and Walter, the bishop of Palermo --the latter having attempted to exert undue influence on William as his tutor. The young sovereign wished to demonstrate his independence through the construction of a grand cathedral. The Benedictines, already present in Sicily, readily obliged.

King William's first objective was to establish himself firmly as sovereign. William had only been crowned in 1171 when he turned eighteen. Construction began in 1172. The superstructure took four years to build, reaching completion in 1176. Work on the mosaics and cloister was completed by the time of the young king's death in 1189.

Apart from demonstrating his true power to the Sicilian nobility, is possible that William wanted the cathedral to impress his subjects in an equal measure.

Many Muslims from Palermo had fled to the hill country surrounding the capital after a rebellion against William's father in 1161, and others already lived in towns in the region. Led by Matthew Bonellus, a vocal element of the Siculo-Norman nobility had begun to support an anti-Muslim policy, leaving the 'Saracens' to establish themselves in easily-fortified towns of the interior, though they were nominally loyal to William. Though Bonellus himself was eventually eliminated, the cathedral, actually fortified with embattled towers and slit-windows as if it were a fortress, was strategically important for guarding the passes that served as the gateway to these communities. The nearby hilltop castle of Castellaccio bolstered this military strategy.

Though little of the monastery except the cloister survives, the monastery of Monreale originally boasted twelve embattled towers and thick walls. A few of the towers are still visible. The Arabs did eventually rebel, after King William's death, in reaction to the mistreatment and excessive taxation imposed upon them by the Abbot of Monreale, under whose feudal authority they had been placed by William II and the Pope. The cathedral itself was attacked by the Muslims on several occasions, the worst incident occurring in 1216 during the reign of Frederick II (Hohenstaufen). However, the "rebellions" were never a serious threat to the Norman, Swabian (and at all events Christian) rule of Sicily. In 1246, Frederick II dispatched a large army from Palermo to rein in what resistance remained, taking control of Corleone and San Giuseppe Jato.

Another reason for William's construction of the cathedral was his desire to establish the Roman Catholic church, known as the "Latin" church in those days, as the official church of Sicily. There were still many Orthodox Christians and Muslims in twelfth-century century Sicily, and a number of Jews. Although Orthodoxy was permitted and Islam tolerated, William embraced Papal authority. Thus, despite the mosaic icons which give it the appearance of an Orthodox basilica, Monreale was actually part of the 'Latinizing' of Sicily.

Pope Alexander III granted the abbot of the Benedictine monastery episcopal privileges in 1174, and elevated Teobald to the rank of archbishop in 1183. The installment of a bishop in Monreale who owed his position to pontiff and sovereign and who, as an outsider, had no stake in local politics, neatly accomplished the political purposes of both powers.

Building a dreamAs we've mentioned, work on the cathedral was begun in 1174. In 1177, at twenty-four, William married Joan, daughter of King Henry II of England. The marriage made William brother-in-law to Richard I "Lionheart" and John "Lackland," Henry's sons. In 1170, William's father-in-law had instigated the murder of Thomas Becket, then Archbishop of Canterbury. Canonized in 1173, Saint Thomas is depicted in a mosaic icon of the cathedral's main apse near the altar (as one faces the apse it is the second icon to the right of the apse niche). This is believed to be the first public work of art honoring the English saint.

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Though William sought to make his realm to be a European one, he engaged in certain practices somewhat unusual for a Christian monarch of the Middle Ages. Not only did he have many Muslim ministers, astrologers and doctors in his court, William is said to have kept a harem in his palace, and to have spoken, read and written Arabic. That work on the cathedral was completed before William's death (aged just 36) in 1189 was indeed a fortunate thing, for the period of quasi-anarchy which ensued as rival claimants sought the crown did not bode well for costly construction projects.

Externally, most of Monreale Cathedral is not particularly striking. Its front facade faces west, looking onto Piazza Guglielmo. Two massive square bell towers flank the main church entrance. The porticos are not original components of the structure. The sides of the cathedral are over a hundred metres long. From Via Arcivescovado, the street behind the cathedral, can be seen the complex geometric inlay of the apse --a kind of symmetry which reflects Muslim spirituality.

Framed by a typical medieval arch, the Romanesque bronze doors under the main (front) portico were manufactured in the workshops of Bonanno of Pisa in 1186. Constructed in the same year, the side doors were designed by Barisano of Trani set within a squared frame decorated in Arab mosaic. Each door features panels on which are carved various religious figures amidst floral and other symbolic motifs.

The floor plan of the cathedral combines elements of both a traditional Western (Latin) basilica and an Eastern (Orthodox) one. The combination of Greek and Latin elements is a distinct feature of Norman architecture in Italy.

The cathedral has a wide central nave between two smaller aisles. Nine monolithic columns of gray granite support the eight pointed arches on each side of the central aisle, for a total of eighteen columns, each bearing a Corinthian style capital. Each individual capital is sculpted with a different motif featuring religious figures and symbols. Only one of the eighteen columns is not made of gray granite, the first column on the right of the front entrance, which is made of "cipollina" marble. The roof of the cathedral is made of wood, carved and painted in great detail, and while its style shows a strong Saracen influence the present roof is, in fact, a restored reproduction dating from 1811 when the original roof was severely damaged by fire. The present roof is a faithful reproduction, very similar to the original. The sixteenth-century floor of the church is composed of white marble with multi-colored granite and porphyry patterns and borders.

Mosaic art and iconsThe splendid mosaics in the interior of Monreale cathedral are its principal artistic attraction. Their subtle beauty creates an atmosphere of solemn tranquility and perhaps even awe. The mosaics cover practically all the surfaces of the cathedral's walls, except for the ground level, up to a height of two meters, where the walls are finished in white marble bordered with polychrome inlay decoration.

All of the cathedral's mosaic figures (many are icons) are placed upon a background of gold mosaic "tesserae" (tiles). The interior of the church is about a hundred metres long by forty

meters wide. There are a total of 130 individual mosaic scenes depicting biblical and other religious events. The Old Testament is depicted on the walls of the central nave, starting from the Creation and ending with Jacob's Fight with the Angel. The mosaics on the side aisles illustrate the major events of the life of Jesus, from birth to crucifixion, and include a cycle illustrating the miracles worked. Many of the mosaics are accompanied by inscriptions in Latin or Greek.

Dominating everything is the imposing mosaic of Christ Pantocrator ("Ruler of All") located on the central apse over the main altar. The entire image is thirteen meters across and seven meters high. Beneath the stupendous portrait of Jesus is a mosaic of the Theotokos (Mother of God) enthroned with the Christ child on her lap. This depiction is flanked by mosaics of the angels and various saints and apostles. There are mosaics of numerous other saints and scenes from the Gospels all about the transept area, including the previously-mentioned icon of Saint Thomas Becket. Two noteworthy mosaics are located on the sides of the presbytery, over the royal and episcopal thrones. The one above the royal throne shows Christ crowning William II. It is patterned on the icon in the Martorana (in Palermo) showing Roger II crowned by Christ. The mosaic over the episcopal throne shows William II offering Monreale cathedral to the Virgin. In the West it was rare for living monarchs to be represented in a Heavenly setting in this manner.

Our printable Key to Monreale's Mosaics explains most of the principal mosaics of the nave, with notes on those of the apse and transepts.

Monreale Cathedral also houses several royal tombs. That of William II is a white marble work dating from the sixteenth century. William's father, King William I "the Bad" lies in the deep-red porphyry tomb which dates from the twelfth century and is, presumably, his original. William II's mother, Margaret of Navarre, is also interred at Monreale. Curiously, so is the heart of King Louis IX of France (Saint Louis). The royal cortege stopped here for a funeral en route to France following Louis' death during the Tunisian Crusade (in 1270) when his less-saintly younger brother, Charles of Anjou, was king of Naples and Sicily.

CloisterExcept for some foundations and external walls, the cloister court proper is the only part of the monastery standing today. Its plan is a perfect square, measuring forty-seven metres on each side, enclosing a covered walkway. As we've mentioned, there are 228 columns. Carved into the capitals of the columns are all manner of Biblical figures, mythological scenes, quasi-heraldic elements, Arab warriors and Norman knights, as well as floral motifs and fauna.

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Perhaps the crowning glory of the cloister is the Arab fountain in the southwest corner. The fountain is almost a mini-cloister within the cloister, surrounded by its own four-sided colonnade. Longstanding tradition says that William, who had a small palace next to the cathedral, often washed his face in this fountain.

Our printable map of Monreale's cloister capitals describes the fascinating carvings of over thirty of the capitals.

The garden terrace or "belvedere" is also worth visiting. Affording a panoramic view of Palermo,

it is reached through a courtyard near the cloister, in a corner of the square. Next door, the monastery galleries sometimes host interesting exhibits.

Selected Figures of the Cloister Capitals Described1) Arab archer and swordsman, 2 Lions and other beasts, 3) Merman (triton) and standing Norman knights, 4) Parable of Lazarus, 5) Knight attacking beast, Arabs with round shields decorated with lions, 6) Leaves blowing around capital, 7) Naked men killing beasts, 8) Life of John the Baptist, 9) Story of Samson, 10) Mounted and standing Norman knights, 11) Massacre of the Innocents, 12) Evangelists and mermaids, 13) The magi visit Jesus, Annunciation, other events, 14) Men supporting capitals 15) Owls with monks' heads (harpies) and owls as signs of monastic vigilance, 16) Men supporting capitals between beasts and lizards, 17) Story of Joseph of the Old Testament, 18) Abraham sacrifices Isaac, 19) resurrection of Jesus, 20) Roger II and William I both crowned between episcopal cross representing Apostolic Legateship of Norman Kings of Sicily, 21) Lions devouring men and stags, 22) Acrobats, 23) Eagles supporting capital, 24) Arab (wearing turban) killing sheep or goat, 25) Mounted Norman knights, 26) Harvesting of grapes, 27) Apostles, flight into Egypt, cherubs, 28) Wine barrels representing Autumn, on column are signs of Zodiac and symbols of seasons. 29) Old Testament prophets and angels, 30) King William II offers Monreale cathedral to Virgin Mary, 31) Lion slaughters pig as Norman knight and Arab warrior watch

Crypt, Museum, RoofWhile the small crypt is usually closed to the public, the cathedral's Treasury Museum houses some interesting relics and other ecclesiastical items. The stairs and passages to the roof encircle the church, affording good views of the cloister, the inside of the taller tower, and of course the valleys around Monreale.

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For Visitors: Monreale's cloister is usually open from 9:00 AM to 6 PM Monday through Saturday, and from 9:00 to 12:30 on Sundays year-round, though afternoon schedules may vary. Monreale is also known for its craft and artisan shops, specializing in ceramic art and mosaics ranging in style from the Byzantine to the Baroque to folk and abstract. Monreale boasts some of the island's best mosaic galleries. Two of these are found on Via Arcivescovado in back of the cathedral. Other noteworthy artisan shops will be found on Via Ritiro and the nearby streets.

Getting There: Driving to Monreale is not advised because you're not likely to find a parking space in the town. However, Monreale, which is actually on the edge of the city of Palermo, can easily be reached with the number 389 bus departing from Piazza Indipendenza in Palermo. The bus follows Corso Calatafimi, one of Palermo's main streets, and takes about thirty minutes, depending on traffic, to arrive at Monreale, with its terminus in the square next to the cathedral. A taxi will co cost you about 30 euros from the centre of Palermo. Keep in mind that finding a taxi to take you back down to the city may not be very easy.

CastellaccioAbout 5 kilometers north of Monreale on the steep, winding Via San Martino we come to the Castellaccio (literally "Big Castle"), perched atop Mount Caputo, over seven hundred metres above sea level. The castle is a twelfth-century fortress erected by the Normans.

Its strategic position was intended to guard all the possible approaches to the city, either by land or by sea. This castle is one of a handful of medieval fortresses left standing in the immediate Palermo area, the others being the largely reconstructed Steri (in Piazza Marina in Palermo) and the ruins of Castello al Mare (near the Port of Palermo), neither of which retains much of its original form as Castellaccio. The fortress provides one of the most spectacular views of the area, so make sure you visit on a clear day if possible. The castle is well preserved owing to its rather remote location. The ride from Monreale takes about 15 minutes, and once you park on the side of the road (or in the small parking lot) you have to take a fairly demanding 20-minute hike up a winding path along the side of the mountain to reach the castle. This hike is never advised for any but the fit or stout-hearted. The castle itself is sometimes open during tourist season, with tours arranged by the Sicilian Alpine Club. (The club may make special arrangements for your visit, especially if you are part of a large group or organization.) The castle can be visited when it's closed, if you want to see the exterior and view the magnificent panorama. It's also a good place to have a picnic or to enjoy nature.

San Martino AbbeyA few kilometers further up the road is the Benedictine abbey of San Martino delle Scale. The original monastery was probably founded by Pope Gregory the Great circa 600. It was burnt down by invading Arabs in 829, and built anew over the ruins in 1346. It is still used. Among its art treasures is a splendid marble staircase by Venanzio Marvuglia from the 1700's and Ignazio Marabitti's famous "Saint Martin and the Beggar," dedicated to the patron saint of the abbey. There is also a painting titled "Daniel in the Lions' Den" by Monreale's own Pietro Novelli, dating from the late 1500s. The church choir has a magnificently elaborate carved walnut chorus section. Parts of the monastery, which is actually quite large, are clearly medieval, though many sections were reconstructed and expanded after the fifteenth century. The abbey is usually open from 8:30 to 12:30 in the

mornings and 4:30 to 6:30 in the afternoons, and between masses on Sunday morning, and also from 5 to 7 PM. There is free parking and no admission fee.

Cefalù and the Madonie Mountains

One of the Mediterranean's undiscovered jewels. The epitome of picturesque grandeur. Good descriptions of this captivating seaside town in the shadow of a steep mountain. Cefalu has a beach, winding, narrow,

medieval streets, and delightful restaurants overlooking a rocky coast. All under the everpresent gaze of the Norman-Arab-Byzantine cathedral, one of the greatest churches of southern Europe. Nestled between the Madonie Mountains and the sea, Cefalù's mountain boasts the ruins of a large fortress and an ancient Sicanian-Greek temple. The view from the summit is inspiring.

On the northern coast, 75 kilometers east of Palermo, from which it is about forty-five minutes by car, a bit longer on an express train, Cefalù (with the accent on the last syllable) is a medieval town built on the site of an ancient Sicanian and Greek settlement. In fact, its name derives from the Greek word for a cape; the ancient city was called Cephaloedion. Except for a few archeological items in a local museum (the Mandralisca), all that remains of these ancient cultures today is a small structure, the Temple of Diana, on the mountain overlooking the town. The foundation of this simple enclosure, a pseudo-trilithon, is said to be one of the oldest structures still standing in Sicily. Though the fortress itself crumbled long ago, the battlements atop the mountain were built during the Norman rule of the island in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. A few segments of this outer wall are restorations; most are original. For the stout hearted, the summit, with its magnificent view of the town, cathedral, mountains and sea, is well worth the climb. (Only Taormina's seaside view rivals this coastal vista.) Viewed at night from the shore to the west, the illuminated mountain and cathedral make for an inspiring site, evoking much of the city's medieval grandeur.

Begun in 1131 during the reign of Roger II, the cathedral and the adjoining abbey and cloister (also open to the public during limited hours) were completed by around 1150. The floor plan and artistic style, typical of those of many cathedrals built in

Northern Europe during the same period (notably Saint Etienne), differ somewhat from the simple Romanesque lines of Monreale's cathedral, especially when viewed from the outside. The church, with some Gothic features, was one of the first Sicilian cathedrals built on the Western model, with a long nave and distinct transept. This indicates an influence more Norman than Byzantine or Arab, though the icon of Christ in the apse leaves no doubt about the Eastern (Orthodox) tradition still very much alive in western Sicily at the time the church was built. Cefalù Cathedral lacks the extensive mosaics of Monreale; its ambience is altogether more Gothic than Byzantine, though purists would point out that its style shows only partial signs of early Gothic forms. Do keep in mind that the cathedral is closed in the afternoon from 1 to 4.

During the the War of the Vespers, Charles the Lame, son and heir of the King of Naples, was imprisoned in the citadel by the Aragonese following a naval defeat during the War of the Sicilian Vespers. While the royal visitor's imprisonment could not have lacked for splendid views or fine cuisine, one senses a certain isolation here. The prince survived his stay at Cefalù to be crowned Charles II of Naples upon his father's death in 1285, though his dynasty had to renounce their rights to Sicily in favor of the House of Aragon.

Near the ruins of the fortress at the top of the mountain are the remnants of the so-called Temple of Diana, probably a Sicanian structure. Its portal and cut stone reflect Greek and Roman construction, and in fact the cult of Hercules worshipped here. However, the temple's foundations are actually far more ancient, dating to the ninth century BC if not somewhat earlier.

Several medieval buildings still stand in the city itself. These include the lavatoio (lavandai), a medieval wash house fed by freshwater springs, and the Osteria Magna (Great Guesthouse), where King Roger stayed during his visits to Cefalù. A maze of charming medieval streets makes Cefalù a pleasant spot, whether you stay for a morning or an entire day.

The Mandralisca Museum is worth a visit. Its extensive collections of art, archeology and natural objects (sea shells) include a painting by Antonello da Messina.

High in the Madonie Mountains nearby, some 15 kilometers away, is Gibilmanna Sanctuary. The church itself is unremarkable but the wooded area surrounding it is beautiful.

Castelbuono, a mountain town about 20 kilometers from Cefalù, boasts a castle once owned by the Ventimiglia family, feudal lords of several towns in the area. Castelbuono is a charming locality in an attractive wooded location, though a bit remote for the casual traveler. Like Caccamo, Castelbuono (literally "good castle") has vestiges of medieval architecture, but its castle, which was modified somewhat over the centuries, is usually closed to the public.

For Visitors: There are some good restaurants in the town center and near the shore that offer seafood and other local specialties, and a number of pizzerias. You'll also find many small shops. Cefalù also has a nice public beach. As the cathedral and most museums are closed in the afternoon from 1 to 4, this is a perfect time to eat or go sunbathing. Finding parking space is difficult at times, but Cefalù is conveniently located on the Palermo-Messina railway, and most (though not all) trains traveling this line stop here. The train

station is just a few steps from the centre of town. The Madonie Mountains (following section) are nearby.


Madonie MountainsDriving northward in Winter along the A-19 Palermo-Catania highway (autostrada) in the stretch near Polizzi Generosa and Caltavuturo, you pass a series of high rocky peaks usually covered with snow from late December until mid-March. It's the highest part of the Madonie range, and it's a majestic sight.

The Madonie boast Pizzo Carbonara (Carbonara Peak, formerly Pizzo della Principessa), at 1979 meters (about 6000 feet) the highest point in Sicily after Mount Etna. Eagles and hawks soar overhead. The Madonie are an extension of the Nebrodi and Peloritan mountains to the east, and with them are part of a rugged chain extending through Italy across Calabria and Sicily and then into Tunisia. Many of the towns nestled into the Madonie are of Saracen Arab foundation, dating from around the ninth century, and were subsequently developed further into larger villages under the conquering Normans. Several are ancient, built upon the remains of Sicanian, Greek and Roman settlements.

The Madonie region extends, between the towns of Scillato and Castelbuono, from the Pollina to the Imera rivers, reaching down to the foothills visible from coastal Cefalù. The land itself is often wooded, and while few wild cats and no native deer remain, it is a beautiful area, especially in Winter. There are porcupines, foxes, hares, numerous birds of prey and some re-introduced deer. Among the native flora are the giant holly (some over three hundred years old), wild olives (oleasters), and the rare local variety of Madonian Spruce or "Sicilian Fir" (Abies Nebrodensis), as well as the flowering Manna Ash (Fraxinus Ornus).

Like many "micro-regions," the Madonie has its own cuisine, and a typically rural lifestyle. In recent decades, emigration has depleted the population of many of the hill towns, but these scenic mountains remain popular with residents of Palermo seeking to escape from the city for a few days. It's a favorite area for hiking. At the Piano Battaglia resort, there's skiing for a few weeks in January and February. Indeed, these mountains are the only area in western Sicily where snow typically lasts for more than a few days. The Tiberio Gorge, formed from limestone erosion, on the Pollina River near San Mauro Castelverde, is one of the area's many attractions.

The "Madonie Park" is a protected reserve encompassing several townships, including Cefalù, Pollina, Castelbuono, Geraci Siculo, Petralia Soprana, Petralia Sottana, Polizzi Generosa, Sclafani Bagni, Caltavuturo and Collesano, as well as the villages of Gratteri, Isnello, San Mauro Castelverde, Scillato and Lascari. When the Normans fought several

minor battles here in 1062-1063, the largest Saracen (Arab) Muslim towns were Kalat-Abi-Thur (Caltavuturo) and Petralia. The towns in the Nebrodi Mountains to the east were predominantly "Byzantine" settlements peopled by Greek Orthodox Christians before the arrival of the Arabs.

Agrigento

Located on a plateau overlooking Sicily's southern coast, Agrigento was

founded as Akragas around 582 BC (BCE) by a group of colonists from Gela, who themselves were the immediate descendants of Greeks from Rhodes and Crete. The area was inhabited much earlier; a female skull (that of the "girl of Mandrascava") found near Cannatello is half a million years old. A Mesolithic village at Point Bianca, farther down the coast toward Montechiaro Castle, dates from 6000 BC. The Sicanians may have descended from that civilization. Akragas was renamed Agrigentum by the Romans, and Girgenti by the Arabs, only to be christened Agrigento in 1927, but the place is the same.

Greatly enlarged by Berbers beginning in the ninth century, the medieval city of Agrigento is not without a certain charm. High in the historical center of the city, the Romanesque Gothic cathedral, built during the fourteenth century, still displays some of its medieval character, as does the thirteenth-century Church of San Nicola (St Nicholas). Unfortunately, the Saracen fortress believed to have stood at Agrigento has not stood the test of time. The Greek temples, theatres and ruins, and even the archaeological museums, are located outside the city proper.

Akragas, named for the nearby river, flourished under Phalaris (570-554 BC), and developed further under Theron (488-471 BC), whose troops participated in the Battle of Himera in 480 BC, defeating the Carthaginians. Agrigento was destroyed several times during the Punic Wars, suffering particularly extensive damage during a siege by Roman forces in 261 BC, but always rebuilt. The Greek poet Pindar (518-438 BC) described Akragas as "the most beautiful city of the mortals." Akragas' most famous citizen was the philosopher and scientist Empedocles (490-430 BC).

In the Valley of the Temples are the ruins of numerous temples but also necropoli, houses, streets and everything else one would expect to find in an ancient city. There is a small amphitheatre, as well as several auditoria, and a fine archeological museum. Unfortunately, most of the temples at Agrigento are in ruins, with pieces strewn about, and several appear to have never even been completed. Part of the Temple of Hera (Juno), built around 450 BC, is still intact. Its style has been compared to that of the temples at Paestum, near Salerno. The Temple of Concord (named retroactively), built around 440 BC, is in far better condition, and at night the illuminated temple is a sight to behold. A number of telamons (large segmented stone columns in the form of human figures) have been preserved.

Ancient Agrigento's importance declined under the Byzantines and Saracens, who encouraged settlement of the medieval city (present-day Agrigento) several kilometers from the Valley of the Temples. The Normans, however, recognized its importance, and it was during the Norman rule that beautiful churches were constructed in and around the city.

The ancient city's architectural character seems more Greek than Roman. What's missing are the thin, reddish bricks so typical of Roman sites like Solunto and Taormina. Despite its location virtually in the shadow of a modern city, the Valley of the Temples is surrounded by olive groves and almond orchards that render its ambience altogether natural, though a number of illegally-built houses mar the landscape. The almond blossom festival held in February is a spectacular event full of folklore.

The ruins of a Roman villa are located at an archeological site a few kilometers up the coast from Porto Empedocle. Though Porto Empedocle itself is today little more than an ugly shipping town, there is a nice beach nearby. The birthplace of Luigi Pirandello, (1867-1937) a Nobel prize-winning author, is located in the tiny hamlet of Caos, where his house is a museum.

For Visitors: Sample the local cuisine if you have a chance. Except for a visit to the Valley of the Temples and the archeological museum nearby, and perhaps a quick glimpse of the cathedral and San Nicola if you're a real medievalist, it probably isn't worth spending more

than a day in Agrigento. Since this part of Sicily is torrid from the end of June through late September, we suggest, if possible, that you visit Agrigento during spring or autumn, when the fields are still green and the wildflowers are blossoming.


Erice

Superficially, it is the epitome of

the Middle Ages, beginning with the castles, walls and stone streets. In reality, it's much older. This singular city, located on a mountain overlooking the Tyrrhenian coast of western Sicily, was ancient Eryx, a prosperous Elymian and Carthaginian city, boasting a well-known temple to a Phoenician fertility goddess, Astarte (later identified with Venus and worshipped by the Romans) and its own eponymous - if mythical - hero, the Elymi ruler Eryx. Both Hercules and Aeneas are associated with ancient Erice. According to Diodorus Siculus, Eryx received Heracles (Hercules) on his visit to this part of Sicily, and lost to him in a wrestling bout. As Eryx would have been a son of Aphrodite and King Butes of the Elymians, Virgil identifies him as a brother of Aeneas.

Unfortunately, little is known of the Elymians. Originally from Asia Minor (possibly Anatolia), they arrived in Sicily to settle some of the island's western regions around 1200 BC (BCE), during more-or-less the same period that the Sicels, migrating from peninsular Italy, colonised the northeastern part of the island. Both coexisted with the native Sicanians. During the Greek domination most of the Elymians, including those of Segesta (Egesta), assimilated culturally with the Greeks. Evidence suggests that the Elymians of Eryx, however, assimilated more readily with the Punic culture of the Carthaginians.

The Phoenicians, Carthaginians and Romans, in turn, conquered the city, which never developed a particularly strong Greek culture except for that of the medieval Byzantines of the Eastern Roman Empire. To the Arabs, Erice was an important foothold known as Gebel Hamed, which the Normans christened Monte San Giuliano, a name by which it was known until 1934, when it was given its original Latin nomenclature.

Standing atop a mountain (around 750 metres above sea level) overlooking nearby Trapani and the beaches of San Vito Lo Capo, delightful Erice is almost something of a western Sicilian Taormina. There are some ancient Elymian and Phoenician walls surrounding the northeastern side of the city, and two castles, Pepoli Castle, with foundations dating from Arab times, and nearby Venus Castle, dating from the Norman period but built on ruins of the ancient Temple of Venus (or Astarte) where it is believed that ritual prostitution was practiced. Surrounded by a lush park, the hilltop castles alone are worth a stop in Erice, which offers charming old stone streets and several medieval churches. Pepoli Castle was at first a feudal stronghold, though Erice was eventually ceded to the Crown as a demesnial city. The view from the castle towers is stupendous. Though both castles have been modified somewhat over the centuries, they still have that distinctively medieval character one expects of such fortresses. (Pepoli Castle is now a hotel.)

The town is by no means overlooked by the annals of history. Strabo, Pliny and Tacitus wrote of it. Thucydides mentions the Elymians of Eryx and Egesta (Segesta). In 406 BC, an important sea battle took place in the nearby waters between fleets of Carthage and a Syracuse, with the latter winning. Later, in the First Punic War, Eryx fell to the Carthaginians, and in 260 BC Hamilcar destroyed it. It was much contested by Greeks, Carthaginians and Romans, then reached by the Arabs in the chaotic years following 827 as part of their drive toward Palermo and other parts of western Sicily. Writing in the twelfth century, the Arab geographer Idrisi observed that the women in this town were among the most beautiful in Sicily. Later, Ibn Jubayr also wrote about it.

Ecclesiastical architecture is not absent from Erice. The Mother Church, on Via Carvini, is essentially a fourteenth-century proto-Gothic structure whose style reflects certain Romanesque influences. An older tower stands at the entrance, and the church itself was built upon a much earlier structure. The medieval Church of Saint John the Baptist was modified in recent centuries but still retains something of its original style, especially its exterior. It was built as an Orthodox chapel. The fifteenth century Church of Saint Ursula, which also retains some medieval Gothic elements, is worth a visit.

Depending on your route, the trek to Erice from nearby Trapani will take you several miles up winding roads or, alternately, along a convenient cableway. The Cordici Civic Museum in Piazza Umberto I houses some interesting finds from the area. Its Carthaginian ("Punic") collection is remarkable, but the Greek and Roman pieces are also interesting.

Except in summer, Erice is often covered in fog even when there's sunshine bathing the surrounding areas, and this may limit the views of the coast and valleys below. That said, spring and autumn are the perfect seasons to visit.

For Visitors: You'll find some good restaurants in Erice, which makes a pleasant stop on the way to Trapani, Marsala and Favignana. Couscous with fish is a local specialty. There are also several exceptional pastry shops, including Maria Grammatico's in the centre of town.

General

SELECTED BEACHES IN SICILY

Get current and seasonal weather info on our Sicily weather page. The following are public beaches listed according to their nearest city or town. Please note that they may be somewhat distant from the localities indicated and may not have lifeguards. This is a selective list; beaches we consider less than enticing, such as Aspra near Bagheria, are excluded for various reasons (for example: too pebbly, too dirty, full of broken glass, bad location next to active railway lines). In the Aeolian (Lipari) Islands, there are several beaches which are not always referred to by name. A beach map follows on this page; our map of Sicily will be helpful in finding Sicilian localities. (For the eclectic subject of nudity on public beaches in Italy see our Sicily travel faqs page.) The oft-heard term lido usually refers to a "semi-private" beach which has chairs, parasols, children's areas, lifeguards and windsurfing facilities. Some Sicilian beaches are divided into public and private areas. Sicily's beaches are just one part of a splendid coastline; if time permits, explore some of our island's scenic regions too.

Cleanest Waters? In 2012 six Sicilian beaches were awarded the Blue Flag for their waters being among Europe's cleanest. This is a rating based on specific scientific

standards rather than subjective ones. They are Porto Paolo (Menfi), Pozzallo and Ispica (Ragusa), Fiumefreddo-Cottone (Catania), Spiaggia Bianca (Lipari) and Marina di Ragusa.

• Aeolian Islands (Lipari Islands): These islands have numerous beaches. Spiaggia di Sabbia Nera (Black Sand Beach) on Vulcano is unique. Salina offers Pollara Beach. On the larger island of Lipari is Spiaggia Bianca (White Beach) and Ponente (Marina Lunga).

• Agrigento: San Leone, Scala dei Turchi (near Realmonte and Montallegro), Siculiana Marea, Gelonardo (east of Siculiana), Torre Salsa (near Siculiana).

• Alcamo: Beach is Alcamo Marina. Balestrate Beach is nearby.

• Augusta: Agnone Bagni and Brucoli (nearby).

• Avola Marina, south of Siracusa.

• Balestrate, on the Tyrrhenian coast west of Palermo near Castellamare del Golfo and Alcamo.

• Brolo, on the Tyrrhenian coast west of Messina.

• Campofelice di Roccella, between Termini Imerese and Cefalù.

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• Capo Bianco, near Montallegro and Realmonte in the Sciacca area.

• Capo Calavà, near Gioiosa Marea (along Tyrrhenian near Messina).

• Capo d'Orlando, on the Tyrrhenian west of Messina. Nearby is also the slightly more secluded Cape Calavà.

• Castellamare del Golfo: Best public beach in the area is Balestrate.

• Catania: La Playa, Marina di Cottone (Fiumefreddo),

• Cefalù has its own beach; Lascari and Pollina Beaches are to the west.

• Egadian Islands: Cala Rossa on Favignana and Cala Minnola on Levanzo.

• Gela. See Scoglitti below.

• Gioiosa Marea (along Tyrrhenian near Messina): Capo Calavà.

• Isola delle Femmine, west of Palermo.

• Lampedusa, an island off the southern coast, boasts Spiaggia dei Conigli.

• Lascari, near Pollina west of Cefalù.

• Licata, near Gela east of Agrigento. The Scoglitti beaches begin to the east of Licata.

• Mazara del Vallo: Beach is divided into several sections.

• Menfi (near Sciacca): Beach is Porto Paolo, a name shared with a coastal area near Pachino.

• Messina: Mortelle (near Lido Tirreno) is north of the city on the Ionian side of the Peloritan Cape.

• Milazzo (gateway to Aeolians) is west of Messina.

• Marinella: Near Selinunte.

• Modica: Sampieri Beach.

• Montallegro (west of Agrigento near Sciacca and Realmonte): Capo Bianco.

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• Pachino (southeast Sicily): Isola delle Correnti, Morghella and Carratrois (Porto Paolo near Capo Passero), San Lorenzo and Spinazza (both near Marzamemi), Granelle Beach.

• Palermo: Mondello (very crowded in July and August), Arenella (same name as beach near Siracusa). To the east toward Cefalù: Lascari, Pollina, Salinelle.

• Pantelleria (island off the Sicilian coast): Balata dei Turchi.

• Pollina (east of Cefalù): Pollina and Finale di Pollina. Nearby: Lascari and Salinelle.

• Porto Paolo, outside Menfi near Sciacca (a beach area near Pachino has the same name).

• Ragusa: Capo d'Aliga, Pineta del Gelsomineto, Pozzallo, Punta Secca, Acate, Marina di Ragusa. Also see Scoglitti (below).

• San Vito lo Capo, near Trapani.

• Sciacca: Triscina, Porto Paolo (Menfi), Capo Bianco (near Realmonte and Montallegro).

• Scicli: Capo d'Aliga.

• Scoglitti, on the southeastern coast near Vittoria and Ragusa, has several beaches, namely Baia del Sole, Baia Dorica, Bianco Grande, Bianco Piccolo, Cammarana, Costa Fenicia, Forestale, Lanterna, Passo Marinaro. (This is Sicily's most extensive network of sandy shores.)

• Scopello: Guidaloca. Also see Zingaro (below).

• Selinunte: Marinella. Menfi is nearby

• Siracusa: Fontane Bianche, Arenella.

• Taormina: Giardini (Recanati Beach), Letojanni, Fondachello, Mazzarò.

• Tindari: Maranello, Oliveri.

• Vendicari: Calamosche Beach near Pachino and the southeastern tip of Sicily along the Ionian Sea.

• Zingaro, west of Palermo near Scopello.

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HISTORICAL INFLUENCES ON SICILY

The First Sicilians: With the exception of a few Greek trading settlements on the coasts, Sicily was the domain of three distinct civilizations until circa 800 BC (BCE). The Elymians and Sicels arrived a few centuries earlier. The natives were the Sicanians, whose ancestors colonized Malta, where they built Europe's oldest temples. In Sicily, a Sicanian temple stands atop the rocky mountain overlooking Cefalù.

• The Punic Peoples: The seafaring people who invented the alphabet and traded as far as Britain were nautical masters of the Mediterranean, leaving traces of Egyptian art in Sicily. Palermo, Solunto and Motia (near Marsala) have Phoenician walls, and so does Erice – though ancient Eryx began as an Elymian city. By around 400 BC (BCE), the Carthaginians had inherited the Phoenician territories of the central and western Mediterranean.

• The Greeks: Their culture largely supplanted that of the Punics in the eastern Mediterranean and then Sicily. Segesta was an Elymian city that readily assimilated Greek culture, and there are also standing Greek temples at Selinunte, Agrigento and Segesta, with small amphitheatres and archaeological sites around Sicily. In Syracuse, the most important of the Greeks' Sicilian cities, the cathedral was built around a large Greek temple whose columns are still very evident. Sicily eventually became Rome's first foreign province (and with the Punic wars fought here the Carthaginians were finally defeated) but Greek – not Latin – remained the island's principal language into the Early Middle Ages.

• The Romans: Rooted in Etruscan and Latin origins, Roman culture readily assimilated that of the Greeks. Sicily has a few "purely Roman" monuments, such as those in central Catania, and a number of ground-level archeological sites like Palermo's. But things like Taormina's Roman walls and theatre (built around an earlier Greek amphitheatre) are the rule – though Syracuse has an oval Roman theatre in addition to its larger, semi-circular Greek amphitheatre. Piazza Armerina's Roman villa, with its stunning mosaics, is the largest, best-preserved residence of its kind in the Roman World. With Rome's fall during the fifth century AD (CE), Sicily looked to the East.

• The Byzantines: Interesting though the Goths and Vandals may have been, they left few tangible traces in Sicily during several decades of rule. Following Rome's fall, Greek culture, with Byzantium (now Istanbul), as its point of reference, flourished here. Its influences are most evident in the icons created ("written") in mosaic. In Taormina there's one in an archway in a main street, and of course the cathedrals of Monreale and Cefalù are famous examples. Byzantine culture was closely linked to the Greek (Orthodox) Church. The cathedral of Syracuse is the classic example of a Greek temple converted into an early (Paleo-Christian) church, and that city's mikveh (Jewish ritual bath) was carved into limestone during the Byzantine period. A must-see is Palermo's Martorana, built as a Greek Orthodox church.

• The Arabs: By definition, speakers of Arabic were Arabs, but the Muslim peoples arriving in Sicily during the ninth century included Berbers and others. Few visible traces remain of the purely Khalbid and Fatimid cultures of Sicily except in museums – inscriptions in stone and paper documents. The Koranic suras inscribed in several pillars in Palermo – one

supporting the cathedral's portico – are the exceptions. There are also some underground channels (kanats). More evident are churches and palaces in the Norman-Arab style, some (like Monreale Abbey) incorporating Byzantine features. Of special note, as regards purely Arab art, is the ceiling of the Palatine Chapel.

• The Normans: When the Normans arrived in Sicily in 1061, a few years before their conquest of England, they found what seemed to be two populations living side-by-side, namely Arabs and Greeks. There was also a small but prosperous Jewish population seeded among the other two. Whatever the rapport of the Normans with the Saxons they found in England, in Sicily there was (at least initially) accomodation of the pre-existing populace, and Sicilian-Norman culture reflected this. With a few exceptions (such as Cefalù Cathedral's nave and the subtle Provençal touches in Monreale's cloister), Norman architecture in Sicily is a Romanesque style – rather than the pure Gothic – which developed in synergy with Islamic and Byzantine movements. In Palermo (Cathedral, Palatine Chapel, Zisa), Monreale (the cathedral complex) and Cefalù (the cathedral) can be seen the greatest examples. Some of Sicily's castles also date from this era, when feudalism was introduced.

• The Swabians, Angevins and Aragonese: By 1200, the island's cultural influences were becoming increasingly Western. Most Christians were now Latins (Roman Catholic) and Islam was disappearing through conversion. Cosmopolitan he may have been, yet Frederick II was solidly European politically. Signs of medieval German, French and Aragonese (northeastern Spanish) influences abound in Sicily. The Italian Romanesque-Gothic, Catalonian Gothic and Swabian Gothic styles of many churches, castles and palaces built between circa 1300 and 1500 are typical. And, of course, there's the heart of Saint Louis in Monreale's cathedral.

• The Spanish: Perhaps the greatest legacy of the Spanish period, from 1500 to 1700, is the ubiquitous Baroque present in virtually every Sicilian locality. While a Sicilian Baroque developed after 1700, to be seen in Catania, Noto and Ragusa, most of Sicily's churches and palaces were constructed in an ornate Spanish style vaguely influenced by Italian movements. Lovers of the true Gothic (a movement very rare in Sicily) often find the Baroque and Rococo rather ugly, but Baroque fanatics abound.

• The Albanians: Arriving as refugees around 1500, the Albanians established or repopulated several communities – Piana degli Albanesi, Contessa Entellina, Mezzojuso and others – where they re-introduced the Eastern Orthodox faith. These towns, and Palermo's Martorana Church (built for the Greek community in the twelfth century), are well-known for their religious festivals, especially around Easter.

• The Jews of Sicily: The Inquisition dissolved Sicily's Jewish communities in 1493 – the island was then ruled by Spain – and many Jews left while some converted to Catholicism. Their visible traces are rather few, but the mikveh of Siracusa, in that city's Jewish Quarter, is the oldest such structure known to exist in Europe.

• Italian Sicily: There exists a Sicilian language with roots in the twelfth century, but what you'll hear most is Italian. Sicily has been part of Italy since 1861. For seven centuries before that it was a sovereign kingdom, though for a few hundred years it was ruled from afar by distant monarchs in Madrid and Naples. If you scratch its surface, Italy itself might

be said to be an eclectic mix of cultures. Virtually everything created in Sicily since 1861 is "Italian" – the great opera houses of Palermo and Catania come to mind.

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