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Introduction to Six Sigma

Quality Gurus and Their Contribution to Quality

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Introduction‘Quality must be managed; it does not just happen’ (John S. Oakland). There have been a lot of theoretical studies about how to improve quality. Quality gurus like Deming, Juran, Crosby, Ishikawa, and Taguchi present different theories of quality management.


management.Philip Bayard Crosby (June 1926 – August 2001) • Philip Bayard Crosby was born in Wheeling, West Virginia, USA.

He was instrumental in popularizing the concept of ‘Zero Defects’. He established Philip Crosby Associates in 1979 to teach the significance of “zero defects” quality and the need for building processes which do things right the first time.


• Four absolutes of quality managementFour absolutes of quality management are:• Crosby’s definition of quality as conformance to

requirements.• The system for making quality is prevention.• The only standard of performance must be “zero defects” –


• The only standard of performance must be “zero defects” –anything less is unacceptable.

• The only measurement of quality is the cost of nonconformance.

• Crosby’s 14 stepsIn 1979, Crosby developed a fourteen step approach in order to improve quality. The fourteen steps are:• Management commitment• The quality improvement team


• Quality measurement• The cost of quality• Quality awareness• Corrective action• Zero defects planning


• Supervisor training• Zero defects day• Goal setting• Error cause removal• Recognition• Quality councils• Do it over again

Dr. W. Edwards Deming (Oct 1900 – Dec 1993) • William Edwards Deming was born in Sioux City, Iowa, USA. He

had a B.Sc in electrical engineering from the University of Wyoming and M.S. from the University of Colorado. In 1965 he received his doctorate from Yale University. The Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) founded the Deming Prize to


of Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) founded the Deming Prize to commemorate his contribution to the development of quality control in Japan.

• The PDCA cycleDeming elaborated Walter A. Shewhart’s concept of PLAN, DO, and SEE. The PDCA cycle, also known as the Deming cycle, consists of four steps : Plan, Do, Check, and Act. This cycle aims at achieving continuous quality improvement.


Statistical process control (SPC)Edwards Deming used the statistical process control approach in the U.S. during World War II. After the war, he applied SPC methods in Japan. This method is effective in examining a process with the help of control charts.

Deming’s 14 points for managementDeming’s 14 key points for management, first presented in his book Out of the Crisis, are used as management guidelines. These points help to create a better workplace and increase productivity and profits.


workplace and increase productivity and profits. • Deming’s 14 points excerpted from his book Out of Crisis are as follows:

• Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product and service with the aim to become competitive, to stay in business, and to provide jobs.

• Adopt the new philosophy. We are in a new economic age. Western management must awaken to the challenge, must learn their responsibilities, and take on leadership for change.

• Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality. Eliminate the need for inspection on a mass basis by building quality into the product in the first place.


• End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag. Instead, minimize total cost. Move toward a single supplier for any one item, on a long-term relationship of loyalty and trust.

• Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service, to improve quality and productivity, and thus constantly decrease costs.

• Institute training on the job.• Institute leadership. The aim of supervision should be to help people


• Institute leadership. The aim of supervision should be to help people and machines and gadgets to do a better job. Supervision of management is in need of overhaul, as well as supervision of production workers.

• Drive out fear, so that everyone may work effectively for the company.• Break down barriers between departments. People in research, design,

sales, and production must work as a team, to foresee problems of production and in use that may be encountered with the product or service.

• Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the work force, asking for zero defects and new levels of productivity. Such exhortations only create adversarial relationships, as the bulk of the causes of low quality and low productivity belong to the system and thus lie beyond the power of the work force.

• Eliminate work standards (quotas) on the factory floor. Substitute leadership.• Eliminate management by objective. Eliminate management by numbers,

numerical goals. Substitute leadership.


numerical goals. Substitute leadership.• Remove barriers that rob the hourly worker of his right to pride of workmanship.

The responsibility of supervisors must be changed from sheer numbers to quality.• Remove barriers that rob people in management and in engineering of their right

to pride of workmanship. This means, inter alia, abolishment of the annual or merit rating and of management by objective.

• Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement.• Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the transformation. The

transformation is everybody’s job.

Dr. Armand V. Feigenbaum• Dr. Armand V. Feigenbaum is an American quality control guru. He did his

master’s degree and Ph. D from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Feigenbaum now serves as the president and CEO of General Systems Co.

• He developed the concept of Total Quality Control, which was later referred to as Total Quality Management (TQM). His two famous books are Quality Control: Principles, Practice, and Administration and Total Quality Control.


Principles, Practice, and Administration and Total Quality Control.• According to him, ‘Total quality control is an effective system for integrating the

quality development, quality maintenance, and quality improvement efforts of the various groups in an organization so as to enable production and service at the most economical levels which allow full customer satisfaction’.

• To him, the word ‘control’ includes four steps:• Establishing quality criteria• Evaluating conformance to standards• Acting when standards are not fulfilled• Planning to make improvements in the criteria


• Feigenbaum’s ten benchmarksFeigenbaum, in his book Total Quality Control, points out ten important benchmarks for total quality control. They are as follows:• Quality is an organization-wide process.• Quality is what the customer says it is.• Quality and cost are a sum, not a difference.


• Quality and cost are a sum, not a difference.• Quality needs both individual and team work.• Quality is a means of managing.• Both quality and innovation depend on each other.• Quality is an ethic.• Quality requires continuous improvement.• Quality is most cost-effective. • Quality is implemented with a total system connected with

customers and suppliers.


Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa (1915 – April 1983)• Kaoru Ishikawa was born in Tokyo. Ishikawa received the Deming Prize and the

Nihon Kezai Press Prize. He did his Ph.D in engineering and is considered as the father of quality circles. He is well known for his cause-and- effect diagrams, also known as Ishikawa or Fishbone diagrams. These diagrams are used to find out the root causes of any particular problem under study. He also expanded Deming’s PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act) model.

• Company Wide Quality Control (CWQC)


• Company Wide Quality Control (CWQC)Ishikawa, in his book What is Total Quality Control? The Japanese Way, explained the concept of Company Wide Quality Control (CWQC). All the individuals involved in the processes of the organization should be included in the quality program. According to Ishikawa, CWQC includes:

• All department involvement• All employee involvement• Integrated process control

This approach is intended to achieve total quality by constantly improving all processes.


• Quality circlesIshikawa developed the concept of ‘Quality Circles’ in 1962, which is widely used in Japan. A quality circle is a volunteer group which consists of employees who, under the leadership of their team manager are prepared to recognize and evaluate work-related issues, and provide their suggestions for the better


work-related issues, and provide their suggestions for the better performance of the company.

• 7QC toolsAlthough ‘Seven Tools of Quality’ is the term used by Ishikawa, all these tools are not developed by him. The seven tools such as Pareto diagram, cause-and-effect diagram, stratification, check sheet, histogram, scatter diagram, graphs and control charts are very simple and can be used to solve more than 90 percent of the problems.


Dr. Joseph M. Juran (December 1904 - February 2008)• Joseph Moses Juran was born in Romania. When he was 8

years old, he immigrated to the US with his family. Juran had a bachelor’s degree in electrical engineering from the University of Minnesota. He is renowned for his contributions in the realm of quality management. His classic book, The Quality Control


quality management. His classic book, The Quality Control Handbook, is really valuable for quality managers. Besides, he wrote Quality Planning & Analysis for Enterprise Quality and Juran on Leadership for Quality.

• According to him, quality is a ‘fitness for use’. ‘A greater number of characteristics to meet customer requirements’ is a significant constituent in Juran’s definition of quality.


• Juran’s most important ideas are:• Top management involvement • The Pareto principle• The need for widespread training in quality• The definition of quality as fitness for use


• The project-by-project approach to quality improvement• Juran’s quality trilogy

The three steps of Juran’s trilogy are:1.Quality planning : The quality planning step concentrates on

developing products and processes to meet customers' requirements. It deals with establishing the objectives and ways essential to achieve those objectives.


• The following are the steps in the quality planning process:• Set quality goals and ways to achieve those goals.• Identify the customers - both internal and external.• Determine those customers’ requirements and tools (e.g. direct discussions

or interviews, surveys, focus groups, customer specifications, observation, warranty data, field reports, etc.) to collect information on customer requirements.


requirements.• Interpret those requirements and convert into company’s language.• Develop a product meeting those requirements.• Develop processes to optimize the product characteristics in order to meet

the company’s and customers’ requirements .• Prove whether the process is capable of fulfilling the quality goals under

operating conditions with minimal inspection.• Convert the process into operating forces.

2. Quality control: The quality control step focuses on implementing the plans. It is important to monitor the operations so that differences between actual performance and objectives can be identified. This phase contains three steps:

• Describe the control. Juran defines quality control as ‘the regulatory process through which we measure actual quality performance, compare it with quality goals, and act on the difference’ (Juran,1988).

• Identify different units of measurement, for example, hours spent, fuel


• Identify different units of measurement, for example, hours spent, fuel efficiency, and the number of defects.

• Evaluate actual performance of the operation. There are various sensors to gather data. They are human sensors (e.g. inspectors) and machine sensors (e.g. recorders).

• Weigh actual performance against objectives. Control charts, trend analysis, correlation analysis, control wastes are some of the tools to compare actual performance with goals.

• Take steps to eliminate the difference.

3. Quality improvement: The quality improvement step aims at achieving improvement in quality performance by changing the process. Gibbons describes quality improvement as the organized creation of beneficial change; the attainment of unprecedented levels of performance. It contains several steps.

• Prove that improvement in the product or process is required.• Form a quality council which consists of upper management and discuss the

areas such as policies, measures of performance, project and team


areas such as policies, measures of performance, project and team selection, resources, follow-up, and recognition and rewards.

• Develop specific projects for improvement.• Choose a suitable project team.• Analyze the project team’s performance.• Recognize team performance and reward for quality and quality

improvement.• Continue with quality improvements.


Walter Andrew Shewhart (March 1891 – March 1967)• Walter Andrew Shewhart, the first honorary member of the

American Society for Quality (ASQ), was an American physicist, engineer, and a statistician. He was born in New Canton in 1891and received his doctorate in physics from the University of California, Berkeley in 1917.


California, Berkeley in 1917. • Shewhart succeeded in effectively bringing together different

knowledge areas such as statistics, engineering, and economics. He is sometimes known as the father of Statistical Quality Control (SQC).

• Shewhart, in his book Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product, explains the fundamental points of SQC.


• Control chart The control chart, also referred to as Shewhart chart or process-behavior chart, was developed by Shewhart in the 1920s. It is the most important tool employed in statistical process control to determine whether a process is under statistical control or not. Shewhart invented this tool to distinguish between common and


Shewhart invented this tool to distinguish between common and special causes of variation.

• PDCA cyclePDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act) cycle is sometimes referred to as the Shewhart Cycle or Deming Cycle. Walter A. Shewhart developed the concept of PLAN, DO, and SEE. Later Deming elaborated this and made it popular.


Dr. Genichi Taguchi• Genichi Taguchi was born in Takamachi, Japan in January 1924 and

studied technical engineering at Kiryu Technical College. He earned his doctorate in science from Kyushu University in 1962. In 1960, he received Japan’s Deming Prize. He was also awarded the Indigo Ribbon in 1986.

• He became an honorary member of the Japanese Society of Quality


• He became an honorary member of the Japanese Society of Quality Control in 1995. Many consider him as instrumental in the emergence of Japan as a manufacturing power.

• Taguchi believed in the statistical techniques to identify and eliminate quality problems.

• He invented a methodology referred to as ‘Taguchi Methods’ with the objective to improve quality and decrease costs. His concept of ‘Robust Design’ is intended to optimize quality at the design phase.


• Taguchi quality loss function• According to him, ‘the quality of a product is the (minimum)

loss imparted by the product to society from the time the product is shipped’.

• Taguchi quality loss function, an important tenet of Taguchi’s quality philosophy, is established to measure financial loss to


quality philosophy, is established to measure financial loss to society because of poor quality. It is used to evaluate the financial impact on account of a process deviation from the target.

• Design of experiments• Taguchi made numerous innovations in the design of

experiments. Design of experiments (DOE) is a methodology to describe the relation between input variables (Xs) influencing a process and the outputs of the process (Y).


Shingo Shigeo (1909 – 1990)• Shingo Shigeo was born in Saga City, Japan in 1909. He was one of the

industrial engineers at Toyota and is known for his important concept of Poka-yoke. Shingo wrote numerous books. Some of them are A Study of the Toyota Production System, Revolution in Manufacturing: the SMED System, and Zero Quality Control: Source Inspection and the Poka-yoke System.


Poka-yoke System. • Shingo Shigeo’s concepts such as SMED, Poka-yoke or mistake-

proofing, and zero quality control are applied not only in the area of manufacturing but also in the area of sales process engineering.

• Poka-yoke is an important part of zero quality control (ZQC) developed by Shigeo Shingo. Zero quality control aims at producing zero defective products. Poka-yoke is a mistake-proofing or error proofing mechanism to identify and prevent incorrect components from being made or brought together.


John S. Oakland• John S. Oakland is a British quality expert. He served as head of

the European Centre for Total Quality Management at the University of Bradford Management Centre in Britain. His contribution to the development of quality in Britain is noteworthy.

• According to him, ‘quality is meeting the customer’s


• According to him, ‘quality is meeting the customer’s requirements’ and ‘quality starts at the top’. He considers the pursuit of quality as the basis for the success of any company.

• Oakland opines that quality has emerged as the most significant competitive weapon and total quality management (TQM) is a means of managing for the future.


• Oakland describes seven principal features of TQM. They are as follows:• Quality is fulfilling the customer’s needs.• Most quality problems are among departments.• Quality control is monitoring, finding, and eliminating causes

of quality problems.


of quality problems.• Quality assurance rests on prevention, management

systems, effective audit, and review.• Quality must be managed; it does not just happen.• Focus on prevention, not cure.• Reliability is an extension of quality and enables us to ‘delight

the customer’.


Conclusion• Philip B. Crosby• Dr. W. Edwards Deming • Dr. Armand V. Feigenbaum• Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa



• Dr. Joseph M. Juran• Walter Andrew Shewhart• Dr. Genichi Taguchi• Shingo Shigeo • John S. Oakland

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