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I N S T I T U T E O F F O R E I G N L A N G U A G E S
Port - the side of the ship which lies to the left when an observer within the ship faces
forward. (A mnemonic to distinguish port and starboard notes that leftand portboth have
four letters. Another incorporates the navigation light:Is there any red port left?)
(Navigation) Bridge - A structure above the weather deck, extending the full width of the
vessel, which houses a command centre, itself called by association, the bridge. A bridge
usually extends a little beyond the ship's side to enable observation of boats alongside, or the
proximity of adock orlock gate; these projections are called bridge wings. In big vessels,
a docking bridge used to be found aft. (See Lord, Walter. A Night to Remember(1976) p.96).
It enabled an officer to observe docking manoeuvres before giving orders. RMS Titanic had
one but they have been superseded by Closed-circuit television cameras.
Bulkheads - internal "walls" in a ship. Bulkheads are the vertical equivalent of decks. They
have a structural function as well as dividing spaces. They serve to prevent collapse of the
hull under stress, to maintain stability(remain afloat on water by sub-division
method,Naval architecture), in the event of flooding and damage, and to contain fire.
Many bulkheads feature watertight doors which, in the case of certain types of ships, the
crew may close remotely. An internal "wall" that is not load-bearing is usually referred to as
a "partition". It is to a bulkhead as a flat is to a deck.
Cabin - an enclosed room on a deckor flat.
Capstan - a winch with a vertical axis.
Centre-line structure - The keel, stem, sternpost and the keelson, deadwoods, apron etc.
or their modern equivalents.
Coaming - The raised edges of hatches and deck house's opening on decks for keeping
water and articles free on the deck from falling into the hold, cabin or compartment. In the
view of Naval Architect, Shipping authority orClassification society, the
coaming is one of the critical criteria for the damage stability. In addition, the coaming can
strengthen the structure of deck openings too.
Decks - the structures forming the approximately horizontal surfaces in the ship's general
structure. In a modern ship, they may be flat but used to be cambered. Unlike flats, they are a
structural part of the ship.
Deck Head - The under-side of the deck above. Sometimes panelled over to hide the pipe
work. This panelling, like that lining the bottom and sides of the holds, is the ceiling.
Another common Naval term for a Deck Head is "Overhead"
Draft - The vertical distance from the current waterline to the lowest point of the ship or in
the part of the ship under consideration.
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I N S T I T U T E O F F O R E I G N L A N G U A G E S
Figurehead - carved decoration at the head of a traditional sailing ship or early steamer.
Flat - A horizontal division inserted between decks or in the superstructure, to provide
smaller accommodation such as cabins.
Forecastle - a partial deck, above the upper deck and at the head of the vessel; traditionallythe sailors' living quarters.
Freeboard - The vertical distance from the current waterline to the highest continuous
watertight deck. This usually varies from one part to another.
Freeboard deck - The uppermost complete deck with permanent means of closing all
openings in those parts which are open to the weather. In a large ship this will be the upper
deck and in a smaller one, the main deck. Decks above this are superstructure.
Galley - the kitchen of the ship
Gunwale - Formerly a fabricated band placed for strengthening around the ship at the main
or upper deck level to accommodate the stresses imposed by the use of artillery. In later use it
is the angle between the ships side and upper deck. It remained as a structural member, in
wooden boats where it was mounted inboard of the sheer strake regardless of the need for
gunnery.
Bulwark - the extension of the ship's side above the level of the weather deck.
Hold - In earlier use, below the orlop deck, the lower part of the interior of a ship's hull,
especially when considered as storage space, as for cargo. In later merchant vessels it
extended up through the decks to the underside of the weather deck.
Hull - the shell and framework of the basic flotation-oriented part of a ship
Keel - the central structural basis of the hull
Keelson - the timber immediately above the keel of a wooden ship.
Mast - a spar (in a ship, a very heavy one stepped in the keelson) formerly designed for the
support of one or more sails. In modern ships, it is a steel or aluminium fabrication which
carries navigation lights, radar antennae etc.
Prow - a poetical alternative term for bows.
Scupper - a drainage waterway at the edge of a deck, is drained by a pipe or, on the
weather deck, a small opening in the bulwarks, leading overboard. It is called a scupper
which is distinct from larger openings with hinged covers on the bulwarks, designed for
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I N S T I T U T E O F F O R E I G N L A N G U A G E S
relieving the ship of large quantities of water in a seaway. These are called freeing ports or
wash ports.
Stem - the upright part of the centre-line structure at the fore end of the ship.
Stern tube - the tube through the after end of the centre-line structure, through which thepropeller shaft passes.
Superstructure - The decked structure built above the freeboard deck (main or upper
deck); that is, above the hull.
Tail shaft - a shaft (a rod or tube of metal) which transmits the power by rotary motion,
from the engine to the propeller.
a transom is a vertical (or near-vertical) flat or flattish surface that forms the stern of a
vessel.
Weather deck - a deck which is exposed to the weather usually either the main deck or,
in larger vessels, the upper deck and forecastle and poop decks as well as parts of promenade
decks, boat decks and so on in the superstructure.
Windlass - A winch mechanism, usually with a horizontal axis. It is used where mechanical
advantage greater than that obtainable by block and tackle was needed.
Measuring ships
One canmeasure ships in terms of overall length, length of the waterline, beam (breadth), depth
(distance between the crown of the weather deck and the top of the keelson), draft (distancebetween the highest waterline and the bottom of the ship) and tonnage. A number of different
tonnage definitions exist; most measure volumerather than weight, and are used when describing
merchant ships for the purpose of tolls, taxation, etc.
In Britain until the Samuel Plimsoll Merchant Shipping Act of 1876, ship-owners could
load their vessels until their decks were almost awash, resulting in a dangerously unstable condition.
Additionally, anyone who signed onto such a ship for a voyage and, upon realizing the danger, chose
to leave the ship, could end up inPrison jail.
Samuel Plimsoll, a member of Parliament, realised the problem and engaged someengineersto derive a fairly simple formulato determine the position of a line on the side of any
specific ship's hull which, when it reached the surface of the water during loading of cargo, meant
the ship had reached its maximum safe loading level. To this day, that mark, called the " Plimsoll
Mark", exists on ships' sides, and consists of a circle with a horizontal line through the centre.
Because different types of water, (summer, fresh, tropical fresh, winter north Atlantic) have different
densities, subsequent regulations required painting a group of lines forward of the Plimsoll mark to
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indicate the safe depth (or freeboard above the surface) to which a specific ship could load in water
of various densities. Hence the "ladder" of lines seen forward of the Plimsoll mark to this day.
Propulsion
Pre-mechanisation
Until the application of thesteam engine to ships in the early 19th century, oars propelled
galleys or the wind propelled sailing ships. Before mechanisation, merchant ships always used
sail, but as long as naval warfare depended on ships closing to ram or to fight hand-to-hand,
galleys dominated in marine conflicts because of their maneuverability and speed. The Greek
naviesthat fought in thePeloponnesian War used triremes, as did the Romans contesting
the Battle of Actium. The use of large numbers ofcannon from the 16th century meant that
maneuverability took second place to broadside weight; this led to the dominance of the sail-
powered warship.
Steam propulsion
The development of the steamship became a complex process, the first commercial success
accruing to Robert Fulton'sNorth River Steamboat(often called Clermont) in the US in 1807,
followed inEuropeby the 45-foot Cometof1812. Steam propulsion progressed considerably
over the rest of the 19th century. Notable developments included the condenser, which reduced
the requirement for fresh water, and the multiple expansion engine, which improved efficiency. As
the means of transmitting the engine's power, the paddle wheel gave way to the more efficient
screw propeller. The marine steam turbine developed by SirCharles Algernon Parsons,
brought the power to weight ratio down. He had achieved publicity by demonstrating it unofficiallyin the 100-foot Turbinia at the Spitheadnaval review in 1897. This facilitated a generation
of high-speed liners in the first half of the 20th century and rendered the reciprocating steam
engine out of date, in warships.
Most new ships since around1960 have been built with diesel engines. Rising fuel costs have
almost lead to the demise of the steam turbine, with many ships being re-engined to improve fuel
efficiency. One high profile example was the 1968 built Queen Elizabeth 2 which had her
turbines replaced with a diesel-electric propulsion plant in 1986. The last major passenger ship built
with steam turbines was the Fairsky, launched in 1984. Some specialised merchant ships have also
been built with steam turbines since then, notably Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) and coalcarriers where part of the cargo has been used as fuel for the boilers.
LNG Carriers
LNG carriers in particular have remained a stronghold for steam , and new ships continue to be
built with steam turbines in this high growth area of shipping. This is because the Natural Gas is
stored in a liquid state in cryogenic vessels onboard these ships. A small amount of "boil off" of
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gas is required to maintain the pressure and temperature inside the vessels to within operating limits.
The "boil off" gas provides the fuel for the ship's boilers, which provide steam for the turbines- the
simplest method of dealing with the gas. Technology to operate internal combustion engines
(modified marine two stroke diesel engines) on this gas has improved however, so these
engines are beginning to appear in LNG carriers; with their greater thermal efficiency, less gas is
burnt. Also, developments have been made in the process of re-liquefying "boil off" gas, enabling it
to be returned to the cryogenic tanks. The financial returns on LNG are potentially greater than the
cost of the marine grade fuel oil burnt in conventional diesel engines, so the re-liquefaction process
is starting to be used on diesel engine propelled LNG carriers. Another factor driving the switch
from turbines to diesel engines for LNG carriers is the shortage of steam turbine qualified sea going
engineers. With the lack of turbine powered ships in other shipping sectors, and the rapid increase in
size of the worldwide LNG fleet, not enough have been trained to meet the demand. It may be that
the days of the last stronghold for steam turbine propulsion systems are numbered, despite all but
sixteen of the orders for new LNG carriers at the end of 2004 being for steam turbine propelled
ships. [1]
Diesel propulsion
The marine diesel engine first came into use around1912: either theVulcanus or the Selandia
(depending upon who you talk to) first deployed it. It soon offered even greater efficiency than the
steam turbine but for many years had an inferior power-to-space ratio. About this period too, heavy
fuel oil came into more general use and began to replace coal as the fuel of choice in steamships.
Its great advantages were the convenience, the reduction in manning owing to the removal of the
need for trimmers and stokers, and the reduction in space required for fuel bunkers. Diesel engines
today are broadly classified according to their operating cycle (two-stroke orfour-stroke), theirconstruction (crosshead, trunk, or opposed piston) and their speed (slow speed, medium
speed or high speed). Most modern larger merchant ships use either slow speed, two stroke,
crosshead engines, or medium speed, four stroke, trunk engines. Some smaller vessels may operate
high speed diesel engines. The operating ranges of the different speed types are as follows;
Slow speed- any engine with a maximum operating speed up to 300 revs/minute, although
most large 2 stroke slow speed diesel engines operate below 120 revs/minute. Some very
long stroke engines have a maximum speed of around 80 revs/minute. The largest, most
powerful engines in the world are slow speed, two stroke, crosshead diesels.
Medium speed- any engine with a maximum operating speed in the range 300- 900 revs/
minute. Many modern 4 stroke medium speed diesel engines have a maximum operating
speed of around 500 rpm.
High speed- any engine with a maximum operating speed above 900 revs/ minute
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As modern ships' propellers are at their most efficient at the operating speed of most slow speed
diesel engines, ships with these engines do not generally require gearboxes. Usually such propulsion
systems consist of either one or two propeller shafts each with its own direct drive engine. Ships
propelled by medium or high speed diesel engines may have one or two (sometimes more)
propellers, commonly with one or more engines driving each propeller shaft through a gearbox.
Where more than one engine is geared to a single shaft, each engine will most likely drive through a
clutch, allowing engines not being used to be disconnected from the gearbox while others continue to
operate. This arrangement allows maintenance to be carried out while under way at sea. Diesel
electric is another propulsion system that has been around for a long time, but is becoming more
common. By having the engines drive alternators, which supply electricity to motors driving the
propellers, gearboxes and clutches can be dispensed with and greater flexibility gained in the
positioning of the engines, while still providing the step down in speed required for a medium speed
engine to efficiently drive a ships propeller.
The size of the different types of engines is an important factor in selecting what will be installed in
a new ship. Slow speed two stroke engines are much taller, but the foot print required- length and
width- is smaller than that required for four stroke medium speed diesel engines. As space higher up
in passenger ships and ferries is at a premium, these ships tend to use multiple medium speed
engines resulting in a longer, lower engine room than that required for two stroke diesel engines.
Multiple engine installations also gives greater redundancy in the event of mechanical failure of one
or more engines and greater efficiency over a wider range of operating conditions.
Other propulsion systems
Many warships built since the 1960s have used gas turbines for propulsion, as have a few
passenger ships, like thejetfoil. Most recently, the Queen Mary 2 has had gas turbines installedin addition to diesel engines. Due to their poor thermal efficiency, it is common for ships using
them to have diesel engines for cruising with gas turbines reserved for when higher speeds are
required. Some warships and a few modern cruise ships have also utilised steam turbines to improve
the efficiency of gas turbines in a combined cycle. In such a combined cycle, where waste heat
from a gas turbine is used to create steam for driving a steam turbine, thermal efficiency can be the
same or slightly greater than that of diesel engines. However, the grade of fuel required for gas
turbines is much more expensive than that required for diesel engines so running costs are higher.
A few ships have used nuclear reactors (like Arktika class icebreaker with 75,000 hp
power), but this is not a separate form of propulsion; the reactor heats steam to drive the turbines.
Nonetheless, it has caused concerns about safety and waste disposal. It has become usual only in
large aircraft carriers, where the space previously used for ship's bunkerage could then be used
instead to bunker aviation fuel, and in submarines, where the ability to run submerged at high
speed and in relative quiet for long periods holds obvious advantage.
General terminology
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Ships may occur collectively as fleets, squadrons orflotillas. Convoys of ships commonly
occur.
A collection of ships for military purposes may compose a navy or a task force.
In the past, people counting or grouping disparate types of ship may refer to the individual vessels asbottoms, but this generally refers only to merchant vessels. Groups of sailing ships could
constitute, say, a fleet of 40 sail. Groups of submarines (particularly GermanU-boats in the 1940s)
hunt in wolf packs.
Some types of ships and boats
Semi-submersibleMV Blue Marlin carryingUSS Cole
Semi-submersible The Zhen Hua 1 in Astoria, Oregon
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3 D Printing
Like Life
Proponents say it's the next step in rapid prototyping: systems that reproduce their own kind
and evolve.
When it first came on the scene some 10 years ago, the ability to print your digital design in three
dimensions seemed like a technology straight from the pages of science fiction. The shape stored in
your computer assembled itself from a claylike material right before your eyes and you could hold
that design in your handoften that same day.
Now, efforts are under way that will try to take the technology a significant step farther.
A research group at Brandeis University in Waltham, Mass., is at work on a scheme to devise robots
that would evolve both their electronic brains and their bodies to meet each user's prescribed needs.
The robots would then build themselves by a rapid production method similar to 3-D printing or
rapid prototyping, a method of manufacturing objects, usually by depositing and curing successive
layers of material.
There is also Adrian Bowyer. A senior lecturer in mechanical engineering at the University of Bath
in England, he and his team have given a preliminary demonstration of RepRap, a device that they
hope will one day use 3-D printing to replicate itself and manufacture a variety of consumer
products. According to Bowyer, RepRap is an attempt to democratize the manufacturing process by
bringing an easy and inexpensive means of production to individuals and to developing countries.
Prototype parts of this lawn sprinkler are produced by a method
called 3-D printing through which engineers can literally print a
CAD design.
These machines are intended to reproduce themselves, and that is a
characteristic they would share with animals and plants. The idea is
hardly foreign to technology. As Bowyer pointed out, "After all, ouroldest technology agriculturedeals entirely with self-replicating
objects and with selective breeding."
According to the researchers, the machines won't have to be built on
an assembly line and thus have the potential to replicate
exponentially, bringing down their production costs and making them more readily available.
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Robot Age Upon Us
The program at Brandeis is under the lead of a computer science professor, Jordan Pollack. The
research program is called the Genetically Organized Lifelike Electro Mechanic, or Golem, Project.The original golem is an automaton of Jewish folklore.
Pollack is trying to use rapid prototyping technology that will someday build a robot that can create
itself.
"What I've been interested in is how do we get to the robotics age we've been waiting for now for
many years," Pollack said.
That promised age, in which cheaply produced robots perform tasks, has been delayed by economic
factors, Pollack claims. Robots are still designed laboriously and constructed by teams of human
engineers.
"That's why we don't have a robotics industry, other than pick-and-place, where you have to sell a
million robots to justify production," Pollack said. "Most of the time, engineering and design
produces something to be mass produced and manufactured at the cost of human creative talent and
labor, which can be amortized over many copies of something for sale."
That scenario doesn't hold true for robotics, he added. The number of robots that can be sold is
limited. To justify their costs, mass-produced robots are really feasible only for toys, weapons, and
oft-used machines.
"We have to get the design and manufacturing costs down to where one or two copies of a robot can
make a return on investment," Pollack said.
But Pollack and his team say they have a way to make robots more affordable and, at the same time,
to custom-tailor them to particular
applications.
Researchers have built robots like this onethat evolve from software and print
themselves in 3-D.
A robot in the Golem Project starts out as a
computer program. This program contains
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the designs for the plastic pipes, joints, motors, and electronic circuits that will eventually become
the robot. The computer also is programmed to understand the physics of movement.
The software cycles through matching parts, looking for the combination that will allow the robot to
best move on its own for its intended application. The successful matches continue to mutate and
improve. The computer search can be compared roughly to the process of natural selection.
Once evolved, the robots build themselves using the same methods that 3-D printers use to construct
a prototype from a digital model. For this operation, Pollack and his team use rapid manufacturing
technology from Stratasys Inc. of Eden Prairie, Minn.
Bowyer at the University of Bath said he has always believed that taking 3-D printing to its logical
conclusionthat is, creating a printer that can print its own doublecould revolutionize the
marketplace. Now he'd like a chance to prove that.
Bowyer said RepRap will be a self-replicating printer that can make a 3-D part from any digital
model.
"If it could only make copies of itself, it'd just be an interesting curiosity, of course," Bowyer said.
"But we intend it to also be able to manufacture a wide range of consumer goods, from coat hooks to
MP3 players."
He added that, because RepRap will be able to create copies of itself, it will essentially give the
means of production to the masses. RepRap, which was discussed in an article in the March issue,
"The Free Range," is offered on an open-source basis through the World Wide Web, at reprap.org.
Working Out the Bugs
The University of Bath printer is still in the early stages of development. Bowyer's team is not yet
two years into the four-year development project. The group expects to have the first demonstration
machine ready in about a year, although that model won't be able to print its own electrical circuits,
which are so vital to the machine's functioning. Circuit-printing capability should be included by the
time the project is complete, Bowyer said.
If it is to print copies of itself, the little machine can't rely on a laser to fuse layersas the laser can't
be copieda problem Bowyer has yet to address. Material choice is also an issue. The parts must bemade of a sturdy material yet one simple enough to be fabricated by the small machine, Bowyer said.
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Most 3-D parts, preliminary parts, or prototypes, like
this one, can be printed in less than a day on a
machine that attaches to a desktop computer.
To further borrow an analogy from the natural world,
Bowyer expects the machine to evolve, much as plants and animals do, over time. He'll make the
software behind the self-replicator open source for that reasonso that it, too, can evolve and
become more user-friendly. He expects that, as more and more people download the freely available
software and tinker with it, making necessary improvements, they drive software development.
Bowyer expects the printer to eventually retail for $500, including a few components commonly
available that would have to be purchased separately. The printer would be affordable even in the
developing world. For the professor, RepRap holds out hope that impoverished people can at leastget a foothold on the manufacturing ladder.
"Indeed, in my more fanciful moments, I like to imagine it ultimately making money itself
redundant," Bowyer said. "But I rather think that's unlikely."
Decades Away
Consultant Terry Wohlers said that RepRap's realization is still decades away. He follows the rapid
prototyping industry closely as head of the rapid prototyping consulting firm Wohlers Associates ofFort Collins, Colo.
"The way it was presented initially is that it can build itselfelectronics, circuit boards, everything,"
Wohlers said. "But I had an extensive e-mail conversation with the creator, and we're really talking
about a plastic shell; the standard parts would still be bought and assembled."
As the device stands currently, Wohlers said, users who are seeking to print in three dimensions
could purchase the RepRap's components separately and assemble them for much less than it would
cost to have the replicator print a copy of itself.
"Still, it's an interesting concept, and maybe in 20 to 50 years we'll have something like that," he
said.
The 3-D printing industry has grown quickly in the past decade. Now researchers are trying to
take the technology several steps farther like designing a printer that prints itself.
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If the RepRap were to mimic the surge in popularity 3-D printers have seen since their introduction,
there'd be self-replicating printers in high schools in the not-too-distant future.
"The companies initially buying these machines were Fortune 500 companies or service providersthat served large groups of people," Wohlers said. "Whereas now we're seeing companies that you
and I have never heard of with them. And a lot of schools and high schools."
The 3-D printing industry saw revenues double in 2004, while unit sales grew by 91 percent,
Wohlers said.
Companies like Z-Corp. of Burlington, Mass., which sells 3-D printers, attributed increased sales to
printer price, which has dropped by more than half in five years, and to better resolution and quality.
A unit that sold for $55,000 in 2000 now goes for around $20,000, said Tom Clay, the company's
chief executive officer.
"The customer wants the part to look exactly as it does in their mind's eye," Clay said. "It's a constant
battle for us to make the part look like that and to factor in ease of use. That's an important factor."
Previously, to use one of the expensive printers, customers needed a special room with a controlled
environment and a dedicated operator. No more, Clay said.
"Now you can buy a small printer and generally plug it into a work station," he said.
Terminator Too?
But with all this talk of evolving machines that can replicate themselves aren't we blatantly
overlooking another obvious sci-fi scenario? Robots run amok? Terrorizing the very humans who
started them on their path of mad spawning?
If you consider it logically, Pollack said, such a scene couldn't happen without a great deal of
funding.
"I make fun of the fear of out-of-control robotics," he said. "If you thought about it, you'd need a
corporation with the resources of Exxon for energy, of General Motors for manufacturing, of Sony
for electronics, and of Windows for software.
"And Microsoft is not going to let robots control that much software property any time soon," he
added.
Of course, neither the self-replicating printer, nor the Golem robots will come to fruition any time
soon. Still, Pollack and Bowyer say we can look one day for such means of manufacturing to be as
commonplace, as non-sci-fi, as 3-D printing has become today.
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Strain (materials science)
In any branch of science dealing with materials and their behaviour, strain is the geometrical
expression of deformation caused by the action of stress on a physical body. Strain therefore
expresses itself as a change in size and/or shape. In the case ofgeological action of the earth, if the
release of stress through strain in rocks is sufficiently large, earthquakes may occur.
If strain is equal over all parts of a body, it is referred to as homogeneous strain; otherwise, it is
inhomogeneous strain. In its most general form, the strain is a symmetric tensor.
Quantifying strain
Given that strain results in the deformation of a body, it can be measured by calculating the change
in length of a line or by the change in angle between two lines (where these lines are theoretical
constructs within the deformed body). The change in length of a line is termed the stretch, absolute
strain, or extension, and may be written as . Then the (relative) strain, , is given by
where is the original length of the material. The extension ( ) is positive if the material has
gained length (in tension) and negative if it has reduced length (in compression). Because is
always positive, the sign of the strain is always the same as the sign of the extension.
Strain has no units of measure because in the formula the units of length are cancelled. Dimensions
ofmetres/metre orinches/inch are sometimes used for convenience, but generally units are left
off and the strain sometimes is given as a percentage.
Engineering strain vs. true strain
The above definition (known technically as engineering strain) is not linear, in that strains cannot
be totalled. Imagine that a body is deformed twice, first by and then by (cumulative
deformation). The final strain
is slightly different from the sum of the strains:
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and
As long as , it is possible to write:
and thus
True strain, however, can be totalled. This is defined by:
and thus
The engineering strain formula is the series expansion of the true strain formula.
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Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics (from the Greek thermos meaning heat and dynamis meaning power) is a
branch ofphysics that studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, andvolumeon physical systems at the macroscopic scale by analyzing the collective motion of their
particles using statistics. Roughly, heat means "energy in transit" and dynamics relates to
"movement"; thus, in essence thermodynamics studies the movement of energy and how energy
instills movement. Historically, thermodynamics developed out of the need to increase the
efficiency of early steam engines.
Typicalthermodynamic system - heat moves
from hot (boiler) to cold (condenser) and work is
extracted.
Overview
The starting point for most thermodynamic
considerations are the laws of thermodynamics,
which postulate that energy can be exchanged
between physical systems as heat orwork. They also
postulate the existence of a quantity named entropy,
which can be defined for any system. In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of
objects are studied and categorized. Central to this are the concepts ofsystem and surroundings.
A system is composed of particles, whose average motions define its properties, which in turn arerelated to one another through equations of state. Properties can be combined to express
internal energy andthermodynamic potentials are useful for determining conditions for
equilibrium andspontaneous processes.
With these tools, thermodynamics describes how systems respond to changes in their surroundings.
This can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science andengineering, such as engines,
phase transitions,chemical reactions, transport phenomena, and evenblack holes.
The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of physics and for chemistry,
chemical engineering, cell biology (cytology),biomedical engineering, and materials
science, to name but few.
History
Sadi Carnot(1796-1832): the "father" of thermodynamics
A short history of thermodynamics begins with the German scientist Otto
von Guericke, who in 1650 built and designed the world's first vacuum
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pump and created the world's first evervacuum known as theMagdeburg hemispheres. He
was driven to make a vacuum in order to disprove Aristotle's long-held supposition that 'Nature
abhors a vacuum'. Shortly thereafter, Irish physicist and chemist Robert Boyle had learned of
Guericke's designs and in 1656, in coordination with English scientist Robert Hooke, built an air
pump. Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed the pressure-temperature-volume correlation. Intime, the ideal gas law was formulated.
Later designs implemented a steam release valve to keep the machine from exploding. By watching
the valve rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a piston and cylinder
engine. He did not however follow through with his design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papin's
designs, engineerThomas Savery built the first engine. Although these early engines were crude
and inefficient, they attracted the attention of the leading scientists of the time. One such scientist
was Sadi Carnot, the "father of thermodynamics", who in 1824 published Reflections on the
Motive Power of Fire, a discourse on heat, power, and engine efficiency. This marks the start of
thermodynamics as a modern science.
Classical thermodynamics
Classical thermodynamics is the original early 1800s variation of thermodynamics, concerned with
thermodynamic states, and properties as energy, work, and heat, and with the laws of
thermodynamics, all lacking an atomic interpretation. In precursory form, classical thermodynamics
derives from physicist Robert Boyles 1662 postulate that the pressurePof a given quantity of
gas varies inversely as its volume V at constant temperature; i.e. in equation form: PV = k, a
constant. From here, a semblance of a thermo-science began to develop with the construction of the
first successful atmospheric steam engines in England byThomas Savery in 1697 andThomas
Newcomen in 1712. The first and second laws of thermodynamics emerged simultaneously in
the 1850s, primarily out of the works ofWilliam Rankine, Rudolf Clausius, and William
Thomson (Lord Kelvin). The latter coined the term thermodynamics in his 1849publication An
Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat. The first thermodynamic textbook was
written in 1859 by William Rankine, a civil and mechanical engineering professor at the
University of Glasgow.
Thermodynamic systems
An important concept in thermodynamics is the system. A system is
the region of the universe under study. A system is separated from theremainder of the universe by a boundary which may be imaginary or
not, but which by convention delimits a finite volume. The possible
exchanges of work, heat, or matter between the system and the
surroundings take place across this boundary. There are five dominant
classes of systems:
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1. Isolated Systems matter and energy may not cross the boundary.
2. Adiabatic Systems heat may not cross the boundary.
3. Diathermic Systems - heat may cross boundary.
4. Closed Systems matter may not cross the boundary.
5. Open Systems heat, work, and matter may cross the boundary.
For isolated systems, as time goes by, internal differences in the system tend to even out; pressures
and temperatures tend to equalize, as do density differences. A system in which all equalizing
processes have gone practically to completion, is considered to be in a state ofthermodynamic
equilibrium.
In thermodynamic equilibrium, a system's properties are, by definition, unchanging in time. Systems
in equilibrium are much simpler and easier to understand than systems which are not in equilibrium.Often, when analyzing a thermodynamic process, it can be assumed that each intermediate state in
the process is at equilibrium. This will also considerably simplify the situation. Thermodynamic
processes which develop so slowly as to allow each intermediate step to be an equilibrium state are
said to be reversible processes.
Thermodynamic parameters
The central concept of thermodynamics is that ofenergy, the ability to do work. As stipulated by
thefirst law, the total energy of the system and its surroundings is conserved. It may be transferred
into a body by heating, compression, or addition of matter, and extracted from a body either by
cooling, expansion, or extraction of matter. For comparison, in mechanics, energy transfer results
from a force which causes displacement, the product of the two being the amount of energy
transferred. In a similar way, thermodynamic systems can be thought of as transferring energy as the
result of a generalized force causing a generalized displacement, with the product of the two being
the amount of energy transferred. These thermodynamic force-displacement pairs are known as
conjugate variables. The most common conjugate thermodynamic variables are pressure-
volume (mechanical parameters), temperature-entropy (thermal parameters), and chemical potential-
particle number (material parameters).
Thermodynamic instruments
There are two types of thermodynamic instruments, the meter and the reservoir. A thermodynamic
meter is any device which measures any parameter of a thermodynamic system. In some cases,
the thermodynamic parameter is actually defined in terms of an idealized measuring instrument. For
example, the zeroth law states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they
are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. This principle, as noted by James Maxwell in
1872, asserts that it is possible to measure temperature. An idealizedthermometer is a sample of
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an ideal gas at constant pressure. From the ideal gas lawPV=nRT, the volume of such a sample
can be used as an indicator of temperature; in this manner it defines temperature. Although pressure
is defined mechanically, a pressure-measuring device, called a barometer may also be constructed
from a sample of an ideal gas held at a constant temperature. A calorimeter is a device which is
used to measure and define the internal energy of a system.
A thermodynamic reservoir is a system which is so large that it does not appreciably alter its state
parameters when brought into contact with the test system. It is used to impose a particular value of a
state parameter upon the system. For example, a pressure reservoir is a system at a particular
pressure, which imposes that pressure upon any test system that it is mechanically connected to. The
earth's atmosphere is often used as a pressure reservoir.
It is important that these two types of instruments are distinct. A meter does not perform its task
accurately if it behaves like a reservoir of the state variable it is trying to measure. If, for example, a
thermometer were to act as a temperature reservoir it would alter the temperature of the system being
measured, and the reading would be incorrect. Ideal meters have no effect on the state variables of
the system they are measuring.
Thermodynamic states
When a system is at equilibrium under a given set of conditions, it is said to be in a definite state.
The state of the system can be described by a number of intensive variables and extensive
variables. The properties of the system can be described by an equation of state which
specifies the relationship between these variables. State may be thought of as the instantaneous
quantitative description of a system with a set number of variables held constant.
Thermodynamic processes
A thermodynamic process may be defined as the energetic evolution of a thermodynamic system
proceeding from an initial state to a final state. Typically, each thermodynamic process is
distinguished from other processes, in energetic character, according to what parameters, as
temperature, pressure, or volume, etc., are held fixed. Furthermore, it is useful to group these
processes into pairs, in which each variable held constant is one member of a conjugate pair. The
six most common thermodynamic processes are shown below:
1. Anisobaric process occurs at constant pressure.
2. Anisochoric process, orisometric/isovolumetric process, occurs at constant volume.
3. Anisothermal process occurs at constant temperature.
4. Anisentropic process occurs at constant entropy.
5. Anisenthalpic processoccurs at constant enthalpy.
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6. Anadiabatic process occurs without loss or gain of heat.
The laws of thermodynamics
In thermodynamics, there are four laws of very general validity, and as such they do not depend on
the details of the interactions or the systems being studied. Hence, they can be applied to systemsabout which one knows nothing other than the balance of energy and matter transfer. Examples of
this include Einstein's prediction of spontaneous emission around the turn of the 20th
century and current research into the thermodynamics ofblack holes.
The four laws are:
Zeroth law of thermodynamics, stating that thermodynamic equilibrium is an
equivalence relation.
If two thermodynamic systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
First law of thermodynamics, about the conservation of energy
The increase in the energy of a closed system is equal to the amount of energy added to the system
by heating, minus the amount lost in the form of work done by the system on its surroundings.
Second law of thermodynamics, about entropy
The total entropy of any isolated thermodynamic system tends to increase over time, approaching a
maximum value.
Third law of thermodynamics, about absolute zerotemperature
As a system asymptotically approaches absolute zero of temperature all processes virtually cease
and the entropy of the system asymptotically approaches a minimum value.
Thermodynamic potentials
As can be derived from the energy balance equation on a thermodynamic system, there exist
energetic quantities called thermodynamic potentials, being the quantitative measure of the
stored energy in the system. The four most well known potentials are:
Potentials are used to measure energy changes in systems as they evolve from an initial state to a
final state. The potential used depends on the constraints of the system, such as constant temperature
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or pressure. Internal energy is the internal energy of the system, enthalpy is the internal energy of the
system plus the energy related to pressure-volume work, and Helmholtz and Gibbs free energy are
the energies available in a system to do useful work when the temperature and volume or the
pressure and temperature are fixed.
Urban planning
Urban planning is concerned with the ordering and design of settlements, from the smallest towns to
the world's largest cities.
Urban, city, ortown planning is the discipline of land use planning which explores several
aspects of the built and social environments of municipalities and communities. Other professions
deal in more detail with a smaller scale of development, namely architecture, landscape
architecture and urban design. Regional planning deals with a still larger environment, at
a less detailed level.
In the nineteenth century, urban planning became influenced by the newly formalised disciplines of
architecture and civil engineering, which began to codify both rational and stylistic
approaches to solving city problems through physical design. However since the 1960's the domain
of urban planning has expanded to include economic development planning, community social
planning and environmental planning.
In the 20th century, part of the task of urban planning became urban renewal, and re-invigoratinginner cities by adapting urban planning methods to existing cities, some with much long-term
infrastructural decay.
History
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Excavated ruins ofMohenjo-daro.
Tenochtitlan, looking east. From the mural painting at the National Museum of
Anthropology, Mexico City. Painted in 1930 byDr Atl.
Examples of deliberately planned, or at least managed cities and settlements permeate antiquity:
By 2600 BC, some Harappan settlements of the Indus Valley civilizationhad grown into cities
containing thousands of people. Some of these cities appear to have been built based on a well-
developed plan. The streets of major cities such as Mohenjo-daro andHarappa were paved and
laid out at right angles (and aligned north, south, east or west) in a grid pattern with a hierarchy of
streets (commercial boulevards to small residential alleyways), somewhat comparable to that of
present day New York. The houses were protected from noise, odours, and thieves, and had their
ownwells, and sanitation. And the cities had drainage, large granaries,water tanks, and well-
developed urban sanitation[2]
The GreekHippodamus (c. 408 BC) is often considered the father of city planning in the West,
for his design ofMiletus.[citation needed] The ancient Romansused a consolidated scheme for city23 | P a g e
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planning, developed for military defence and civil convenience. The basic plan is a central plaza
with city services, surrounded by a compact grid of streets and wrapped in a wall for defence. To
reduce travel times, two diagonal streets cross the square grid corner-to-corner, passing through the
central square. A river usually flows through the city, to provide water and transport, and carry away
sewage, even in sieges.[citation needed] Effectively, many European towns still preserve the essence of
these schemes, as inTurin.
Muslims are thought to have originated the idea of formal zoning (see haram and himaand the
more general notion of khalifa, or "stewardship" from which they arise),[citation needed] although
modern usage in the West largely dates from the ideas of the Congrs Internationaux
d'Architecture Moderne.
Many cities in Latin American civilizations also engineered urban planning in their cities including
sewage systems and running water. Mexico-Tenochtitlan, was the capital of the Aztec empire, built
on an island in Lake Texcoco in what is now the Federal District in central Mexico. At its height,
Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities in the world, with close to 250,000 inhabitants. [citation needed]
During the last two centuries in the Western world (Western Europe, North America, Japan and
Australasia) planning and architecture can be said to have gone through various stages of general
consensus. Firstly there was the industrialised city of the 19th Century, where control of building
was largely held by businesses and the wealthy elite. Around the turn of the 20th Century there
began to be a movement for providing people, and factory workers in particular, with healthier
environments. The concept of garden cities arose and some model towns were built, such as
Letchworth and Welwyn Garden Citythe world's first garden cities, inHertfordshire, UK.
However, these were principally small scale in size, typically dealing with only a few thousand
residents.[3]
It wasn't until the 1920s when modernism began to surface. A modernist city was to be a sort of
efficient, workable utopia. There were plans for large scale rebuilding of cities, such as Paris in
France, though nothing major happened until the devastation caused by the Second World War.
After this, some modernist buildings and communities were built. However they were cheaply
constructed and became notorious for their social problems.
Modernism can be said to have ended in the 1970s when the construction of the cheap, uniform
tower blocks ended in many countries, such as Britain and France. Since then many have been
demolished and in their way more conventional housing has been built. Rather than makingeverything uniform and perfect, planning now concentrates on individualism and diversity in society
and the economy. This is the post-modernist era.
Planning and aesthetics
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Towns and cities have been planned with aesthetics in mind, here in Bristol (England), 18th century
private sector development was designed to appear attractive.
In developed countries there has been a backlash against excessive man-made clutter in theenvironment, such as signposts, signs, and hoardings. Other issues that generate strong debate
amongst urban designers are tensions between peripheral growth, increased housing density and
planned new settlements. There are also unending debates about the benefits of mixing tenures and
land uses, versus the benefits of distinguishing geographic zones where different uses predominate.
Successful urban planning considers character, of "home" and "sense of place", local identity,
respect for natural, artistic and historic heritage, an understanding of the "urban grain" or
"townscape," pedestrians and other modes of traffic, utilities and natural hazards, such as flood
zones.
Some argue that the medieval piazza and arcade are the most widely appreciated elements of
successful urban design, as demonstrated by the Italian cities ofSiena andBologna.
While it is rare that cities are planned from scratch, planners are important in managing the growth
of cities, applying tools like zoning to manage the uses of land, and growth management to
manage the pace of development. When examined historically, many of the cities now thought to be
most beautiful are the result of dense, long lasting systems of prohibitions and guidance about
building sizes, uses and features. These allowed substantial freedoms, yet enforce styles, safety, and
often materials in practical ways. Many conventional planning techniques are being repackaged
using the contemporary term,smart growth.
There are some cities that have been planned from conception, and while the results often don't turn
out quite as planned, evidence of the initial plan often remains.
Cells
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piazzahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piazzahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sienahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolognahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolognahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_growthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_growthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piazzahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sienahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolognahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_growth -
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I N S T I T U T E O F F O R E I G N L A N G U A G E S
Some of the most successful planned cities consist of cells that include park-space, commerce and
housing, and then repeat the cell. Usually cells are separated by streets. Often each cell has unique
monuments and