social psychology understanding ourselves and others
TRANSCRIPT
Social PsychologySocial Psychology
Understanding Ourselves Understanding Ourselves
and Othersand Others
Social PsychologySocial Psychology
Study of people’s interpretations of and Study of people’s interpretations of and reactions to their social world.reactions to their social world.
Chapter 13: Social CognitionChapter 13: Social Cognition• The self—our sense of who we are and how we The self—our sense of who we are and how we
differ from others.differ from others.• Impression and attitude formationImpression and attitude formation
Chapter 14: Social InteractionChapter 14: Social Interaction• Impression managementImpression management• Influencing others.Influencing others.• Helping others.Helping others.
The SelfThe Self Very important concept in social Very important concept in social
psychologypsychology• The essence of us, what we are, what makes The essence of us, what we are, what makes
us different from others.us different from others.• Affects how we perceive others.Affects how we perceive others.
Minimal selfMinimal self: Recognition of our : Recognition of our difference from the environment—many difference from the environment—many animalsanimals
Objectified selfObjectified self: Seeing self as an object: Seeing self as an object—non-human primates, dolphins, humans—non-human primates, dolphins, humans
Symbolic selfSymbolic self: An abstract concept of : An abstract concept of self, seems language related—only self, seems language related—only humans.humans.
Objectified SelfObjectified Self
More activity in More activity in medial frontal medial frontal lobe when looking lobe when looking in mirror.in mirror.
4/5 patients did 4/5 patients did not recognize self not recognize self when right when right hemisphere hemisphere anesthetized.anesthetized.
Self recognition Self recognition seems to be a seems to be a right hemisphere right hemisphere frontal lobe frontal lobe function.function.
The SelfThe Self
Self-recognitionSelf-recognition• Recognition of objectified self in Recognition of objectified self in
pictures, mirrors, videos.pictures, mirrors, videos.• Develops over 1Develops over 1stst two years. two years.• Accompanied by development of Accompanied by development of
emotions such as guilt and shame.emotions such as guilt and shame. Self-awarenessSelf-awareness
• Leads to comparisons with others and Leads to comparisons with others and affects our behaviour—self-discrepancy affects our behaviour—self-discrepancy theory.theory.
The SelfThe Self
Self conceptSelf concept• All the learned beliefs, attitudes and All the learned beliefs, attitudes and
opinions that we hold to be true about opinions that we hold to be true about our personal existence.our personal existence.
• The image we have of ourselves, good The image we have of ourselves, good or bad.or bad.
• Directs what we pay attention to and Directs what we pay attention to and affects how we interact with others.affects how we interact with others.
Self-ConceptSelf-Concept Self-concept is built through all the Self-concept is built through all the
interactions and experiences we have.interactions and experiences we have. We also recognize and make use of the We also recognize and make use of the
cultural patternscultural patterns of our society. of our society. This is how we "know who we are," that This is how we "know who we are," that
is, each of us acquires a is, each of us acquires a self-conceptself-concept. . Our self-concept affects how we respond Our self-concept affects how we respond
and interact with others.and interact with others.
The SelfThe Self Self-schemaSelf-schema
• Our understanding of our self-concept.Our understanding of our self-concept.• Everything about yourself that is important to Everything about yourself that is important to
you,you, e.g., loving your parents, being loyal, being e.g., loving your parents, being loyal, being
honest, supporting your friends, being a good honest, supporting your friends, being a good student.student.
• Affects our processing of information in relation Affects our processing of information in relation toto ourselvesourselves——self-referentialself-referential processingprocessing..
• Determines ourDetermines our working self-conceptworking self-concept, what we , what we consider makes us distinct (and importantconsider makes us distinct (and important) at ) at any given point in time.any given point in time.
The SelfThe Self
Self-complexitySelf-complexity• We define ourselves in different ways, e.g., We define ourselves in different ways, e.g.,
student, child, parent, athlete, teacher, boss, student, child, parent, athlete, teacher, boss, employee, etc.employee, etc.
• Emphasize different aspects of our self-concept Emphasize different aspects of our self-concept in each of these roles, and change our in each of these roles, and change our behaviour with each person we interact with.behaviour with each person we interact with.
• The more complex the self, the less damaging The more complex the self, the less damaging is a threat to one aspect of the self. is a threat to one aspect of the self.
The SelfThe Self
Self-construalSelf-construal• A construal is an interpretation.A construal is an interpretation.• Self-construal is how we interpret Self-construal is how we interpret
ourselves in the context of our culture.ourselves in the context of our culture.• Two key self-construals:Two key self-construals:
Independent self-construalIndependent self-construal: Western : Western cultures, which value individuality.cultures, which value individuality.
Interdependent self-construalInterdependent self-construal: Collectivist : Collectivist cultures, which value collectivist views, cultures, which value collectivist views, stressing that each individual is only a part stressing that each individual is only a part of the greater society. of the greater society.
The SelfThe Self
Self-esteemSelf-esteem• The value we place on ourselves.The value we place on ourselves.• A judgement that we make about our A judgement that we make about our
worth.worth.• How much we like ourselves.How much we like ourselves.• Level relates to the difference between Level relates to the difference between
our ideal self and the ‘real’ self, based our ideal self and the ‘real’ self, based on our self-concept.on our self-concept.
The SelfThe Self
Self-esteemSelf-esteem• Self-serving biasSelf-serving bias
An innate tendency to want to see ourselves An innate tendency to want to see ourselves positively.positively.
Tend to ignore negative feedback—”junk Tend to ignore negative feedback—”junk mail metaphor”.mail metaphor”.
• Both high and low self-esteem Both high and low self-esteem individuals hold positive illusions:individuals hold positive illusions:
Overestimate own skills and abilities.Overestimate own skills and abilities. Overestimate level of control over eventsOverestimate level of control over events Unrealistic predictions of future successUnrealistic predictions of future success. .
Maintaining Self-EsteemMaintaining Self-Esteem
Maintaining Self-EsteemMaintaining Self-Esteem Self-evaluative MaintenanceSelf-evaluative Maintenance
• We act to support our self-esteem.We act to support our self-esteem. Social ComparisonsSocial Comparisons
• Compare our performance with others.Compare our performance with others.• The standard then affects our self-esteem.The standard then affects our self-esteem.
Use Self-serving BiasUse Self-serving Bias• Interpret success and failure in the context of Interpret success and failure in the context of
our self-esteem.our self-esteem. High self-esteem: Credit self for success and blame High self-esteem: Credit self for success and blame
failure on outside circumstances.failure on outside circumstances. Low self-esteem: Credit outside circumstances for Low self-esteem: Credit outside circumstances for
success and blame failure on self.success and blame failure on self.
AttitudesAttitudes• Beliefs, feelings and judgments about Beliefs, feelings and judgments about
situations, ideas and objects.situations, ideas and objects.• Formed over time.Formed over time.• Based on direct experience, therefore Based on direct experience, therefore
learned, i.e., conditioned.learned, i.e., conditioned.• Mere exposure effectMere exposure effect..• Genetic physiological makeup may Genetic physiological makeup may
create a predisposition to acquire create a predisposition to acquire certain attitudes. These are more certain attitudes. These are more resistant to change.resistant to change.
AttitudesAttitudes• Components of attitudes include Components of attitudes include
emotional evaluation (affect), cognitive emotional evaluation (affect), cognitive evaluation, and behaviour.evaluation, and behaviour.
• These components are not necessarily These components are not necessarily in agreement.in agreement.
Behaviour does not always reflect our Behaviour does not always reflect our expressed attitudes.expressed attitudes.
• Attitudes can be explicit or implicit.Attitudes can be explicit or implicit. Try the Implicit Attitudes Test (IAT) Try the Implicit Attitudes Test (IAT)
http://www.wwnorton.com/psychsci/activity/http://www.wwnorton.com/psychsci/activity/ch1_activity.htmch1_activity.htm
Influences on AttitudesInfluences on Attitudes Shared PerceptionsShared Perceptions
Social comparison: Asch’s (1955) research.Social comparison: Asch’s (1955) research.• Leads to reevaluation of our beliefs.Leads to reevaluation of our beliefs.• Increases media influence.Increases media influence.
Consistent InformationConsistent Information Inconsistent information makes us Inconsistent information makes us
uncomfortable.uncomfortable. Must be consistent across different Must be consistent across different
modalities and time.modalities and time. Tend to be much influenced by first Tend to be much influenced by first
impressions (primacy effect in social impressions (primacy effect in social perception).perception).
• Reinterpret later experience to fit with first Reinterpret later experience to fit with first impression.impression.
Attitude ChangeAttitude Change
Attempts to influence our attitudes Attempts to influence our attitudes are very prevalent in our society.are very prevalent in our society.• PolicitiansPolicitians• GovernmentsGovernments• AdvertisersAdvertisers• Sales personnelSales personnel• And many more examples.And many more examples.
Social Cognition Social Cognition Persuasive CommunicationPersuasive Communication
Central Route: We focus on the Central Route: We focus on the message.message.• Reasoned, rational arguments are more Reasoned, rational arguments are more
effective.effective. Peripheral Route: We are distracted Peripheral Route: We are distracted
by noise, other thoughts, etc.by noise, other thoughts, etc.• Personality and credibility of messenger, Personality and credibility of messenger,
appeal to emotions are more effective. appeal to emotions are more effective.
Cognitive DissonanceCognitive Dissonance State of tension when two or more State of tension when two or more
cognitions are psychologically cognitions are psychologically inconsistentinconsistent..
Competing cognitions.Competing cognitions. • Internal conflict between values, attitudes and Internal conflict between values, attitudes and
beliefs (Festinger, 1957).beliefs (Festinger, 1957).• Entirely subjective.Entirely subjective.• Makes us uncomfortable.Makes us uncomfortable.
Can lead to attitude or behaviour Can lead to attitude or behaviour change.change.• Act to relieve the discomfort of the dissonant Act to relieve the discomfort of the dissonant
cognitions. cognitions.
Cognitive DissonanceCognitive DissonanceExampleExample
High school senior believes use of High school senior believes use of illegal drugs is physically harmful and illegal drugs is physically harmful and morally wrong.morally wrong.
Attends party with a group of Attends party with a group of students she admires.students she admires.
These students smoke pot and These students smoke pot and persuade her to join them.persuade her to join them.
She now experiences cognitive She now experiences cognitive dissonance, a conflict between her dissonance, a conflict between her beliefs and her behaviour.beliefs and her behaviour.
Social Cognition Social Cognition Types of Cognitive DissonanceTypes of Cognitive Dissonance
Post decisional dissonance.Post decisional dissonance. Dissonance from wanting what we can’t Dissonance from wanting what we can’t
have.have. Dissonance from investment of resources.Dissonance from investment of resources. Dissonance from inconsistencies of Dissonance from inconsistencies of
attitude and behaviour.attitude and behaviour. Dissonance from inadequate justification.Dissonance from inadequate justification. Dissonance from inconsistencies between Dissonance from inconsistencies between
commitment and attitude.commitment and attitude.
Person PerceptionPerson Perception
Infer causes for other’s behaviour.Infer causes for other’s behaviour. Make attributions to some surface Make attributions to some surface
factor.factor. Remember the inferred Remember the inferred
characteristics, not the situation or characteristics, not the situation or the behaviour.the behaviour.
Person PerceptionPerson Perception Limited informationLimited information Surface characteristicsSurface characteristics
• Appearance is very important in our Appearance is very important in our judgements.judgements.
Situation specificSituation specific• One or two settingsOne or two settings• Behaviour may be different in other Behaviour may be different in other
settingssettings
Attribution TheoryAttribution Theory Attributions based on perceived Attributions based on perceived
disposition (personality) and the disposition (personality) and the situation.situation.
Kelly:Kelly:• ConsistencyConsistency: Behaviour occurs : Behaviour occurs
regularly.regularly.• ConsensusConsensus: Lots of people behave this : Lots of people behave this
way.way.• DistinctivenessDistinctiveness across situations: across situations:
Behaviour tends to only happen in Behaviour tends to only happen in certain situations. certain situations.
Attribution TheoryAttribution Theory Fundamental Attribution ErrorFundamental Attribution Error: :
Judging othersJudging others• It must be their personalities that made It must be their personalities that made
them do it.them do it.
Self-Serving Attributional BiasSelf-Serving Attributional Bias: : Judging ourselvesJudging ourselves• If it’s good, it must be our personalities.If it’s good, it must be our personalities.• If it’s bad, it must be the situation that If it’s bad, it must be the situation that
influenced us.influenced us.
Social InteractionSocial InteractionChapter 14Chapter 14
AffiliationAffiliation Reading Nonverbal Behaviour.Reading Nonverbal Behaviour. Self Presentation (Impression Self Presentation (Impression
ManagementManagement Influence of OthersInfluence of Others Helping or Hurting OthersHelping or Hurting Others Liking and Loving OthersLiking and Loving Others
Social InteractionSocial InteractionChapter 14Chapter 14
A different structure:A different structure:• Will cover many of the topics in the Will cover many of the topics in the
chapter under these headings.chapter under these headings. One-on-one interactionsOne-on-one interactions Many-to-one interactionsMany-to-one interactions One-to-many interactionsOne-to-many interactions Many-to-many interactionsMany-to-many interactions
One-To-One InteractionsOne-To-One Interactions Compliance principles (Cialdini, Compliance principles (Cialdini,
1975): How to influence others: 1975): How to influence others: • Foot-in-the-door techniques—once they Foot-in-the-door techniques—once they
agree to a small request . . .agree to a small request . . .• Door-in-the-face technique—start big Door-in-the-face technique—start big
and back off (reciprocity principle).and back off (reciprocity principle).• Four walls technique—once they say Four walls technique—once they say
“yes” a couple of times . . . “yes” a couple of times . . . (telemarketing).(telemarketing).
• Low ball techniques—once they’re Low ball techniques—once they’re committed . . . (car sales, bait and committed . . . (car sales, bait and switch).switch).
One-To-One InteractionsOne-To-One InteractionsCompliance PrinciplesCompliance Principles
Comparison of FID and DIF Comparison of FID and DIF techniques (Harrari et al., 1980)techniques (Harrari et al., 1980)• Study of students making requests of Study of students making requests of
facultyfaculty• FID group—Small (15 minutes help), FID group—Small (15 minutes help),
then moderate (2 hours of help).then moderate (2 hours of help).• DIF—Moderate (2 hours of help), then DIF—Moderate (2 hours of help), then
small (15 minutes).small (15 minutes).• Control group—Moderate (2 hours of Control group—Moderate (2 hours of
help).help).
One-To-One InteractionsOne-To-One InteractionsCompliance PrinciplesCompliance Principles
Comparison of FID and DIF techniques Comparison of FID and DIF techniques (Harrari et al., 1980)—all significantly (Harrari et al., 1980)—all significantly different:different:• FID—33.3% complianceFID—33.3% compliance• DIF—78.0% complianceDIF—78.0% compliance• Control—56.8% compliance.Control—56.8% compliance.
Among college faculty, starting larger and Among college faculty, starting larger and reducing request (DIF) works best. reducing request (DIF) works best.
Faculty respond least well to the moderate Faculty respond least well to the moderate request when it’s preceded by a smaller request when it’s preceded by a smaller one. Better to just ask for the larger.one. Better to just ask for the larger.
One-To-One InteractionsOne-To-One InteractionsObedience and ConformityObedience and Conformity
Social conformitySocial conformity Milgram’s famous experiments (early Milgram’s famous experiments (early
1960s)1960s)• ““Just following orders.”Just following orders.”• Ethical issues.Ethical issues.• Applications to real world situationsApplications to real world situations
Hofling, et al. (1966)Hofling, et al. (1966) Rank & Jacobson (1977)Rank & Jacobson (1977)
Many-To-One InteractionsMany-To-One InteractionsExisting within Social ForcesExisting within Social Forces
We act differently with others than we We act differently with others than we would alone.would alone.
Kurt Lewin (1Kurt Lewin (1stst social psychologist) social psychologist)• Behaviour is the function of the person Behaviour is the function of the person
interacting with the environment. interacting with the environment. • Developed Social Field Theory based on Developed Social Field Theory based on
physics.physics. We exist in a field of forces that act to move us in We exist in a field of forces that act to move us in
many different directions.many different directions. Internal forces—desires, goals, abilities.Internal forces—desires, goals, abilities. External forces—pressure from others, responsibility, External forces—pressure from others, responsibility,
obligations.obligations.
Many-To-One InteractionsMany-To-One InteractionsExisting within Social ForcesExisting within Social Forces
• Bibb LataneBibb Latane Social Impact Theory—We can measure the Social Impact Theory—We can measure the
effect of forces that act on an individual effect of forces that act on an individual (pulse, blushing, beliefs, values, attitudes, (pulse, blushing, beliefs, values, attitudes, cognitions).cognitions).
The impact is multiplicative and depends on:The impact is multiplicative and depends on:• Strength of the force—importance to individual.Strength of the force—importance to individual.• Immediacy of the force—how close, either Immediacy of the force—how close, either
physically or psychologically.physically or psychologically.• Number of forces, including those at a distance.Number of forces, including those at a distance.
Social Impact TheorySocial Impact Theory
• More forces, more total impact but each individual force has less influence.
• Distance diminishes influence of source.
Social Impact TheorySocial Impact Theory
Blah, blah, blah.
More targets, less influence on each one: diffusion of social impact.
Many-To-OneMany-To-OneEffect on PerformanceEffect on Performance
Effect of an audienceEffect of an audience• Social facilitation—improved Social facilitation—improved
performance of simple tasks or when performance of simple tasks or when highly skilled.highly skilled.
• Social inhibition—impaired performance Social inhibition—impaired performance of complex tasks or when unskilled .of complex tasks or when unskilled .
Presence of others is arousingPresence of others is arousing• Yerkes-Dodson: optimal level of arousal Yerkes-Dodson: optimal level of arousal
for each individual. Performance peaks for each individual. Performance peaks at optimum level of arousal.at optimum level of arousal.
Many-To-OneMany-To-OneEffect on Behaviour Effect on Behaviour
Social LoafingSocial Loafing• May work less hard in a group (Latane’s May work less hard in a group (Latane’s
shouting study).shouting study).• Tend not to pull our weight in a group if Tend not to pull our weight in a group if
individual performance cannot be individual performance cannot be identified.identified.
Many-To-OneMany-To-OneEffect on Behaviour Effect on Behaviour
Bystander ApathyBystander Apathy• Bystander Effect: Reluctance to come to Bystander Effect: Reluctance to come to
the aid of someone in trouble when the aid of someone in trouble when there are others around. Like social there are others around. Like social loafing.loafing.
• Affected byAffected by Diffusion of responsibilityDiffusion of responsibility Social inhibitionSocial inhibition AmbiguityAmbiguity Pluralistic ignorancePluralistic ignorance
Many-To-OneMany-To-OneEffect on Behaviour Effect on Behaviour
Factors that reduce the bystander Factors that reduce the bystander effecteffect• Bystanders know one another.Bystanders know one another.• Witnesses have special bond to the Witnesses have special bond to the
victim.victim.• Bystanders think that the victim is Bystanders think that the victim is
especially dependent on themespecially dependent on them• Bystanders have considerable training in Bystanders have considerable training in
emergency intervention.emergency intervention.• Witnesses have knowledge of the Witnesses have knowledge of the
bystander effect.bystander effect.
Many-To-ManyMany-To-ManyHow We Behave in Crowds How We Behave in Crowds
People in crowds do things they People in crowds do things they would not do when alone.would not do when alone.
Social restraint--conforming to social Social restraint--conforming to social norms.norms.
DeindividuationDeindividuation• Lose self-awareness, individualityLose self-awareness, individuality• Zimbardo’s prison studyZimbardo’s prison study• Mob mentalityMob mentality
Social PsychologySocial PsychologyOne-To-Many: LeadershipOne-To-Many: Leadership
Many areas where leadership occurs: Many areas where leadership occurs: politics, military, business, politics, military, business, academia, sports teams, social clubs, academia, sports teams, social clubs, families.families.
Affected by many things:Affected by many things:• Size and formality of groupSize and formality of group• Leader’s authorityLeader’s authority• Path of leader’s influence Path of leader’s influence
Social PsychologySocial PsychologyOne-To-Many: LeadershipOne-To-Many: Leadership
History argues whether the individual or History argues whether the individual or the circumstances determine the the circumstances determine the leadership. leadership.
Social psychology tries to study leadership Social psychology tries to study leadership objectively:objectively:• Surveys of subordinates, peers, and Surveys of subordinates, peers, and
supervisors on quality and effectiveness of supervisors on quality and effectiveness of others—common in Industrial/Organizational others—common in Industrial/Organizational Psychology.Psychology.
• Small groups given a task to be solved by Small groups given a task to be solved by discussion. Makes it possible to rate both the discussion. Makes it possible to rate both the perception of leadership and the actual perception of leadership and the actual performance.performance.
Social PsychologySocial PsychologyOne-To-Many: LeadershipOne-To-Many: Leadership
Social psychology tries to study Social psychology tries to study leadership objectively:leadership objectively:• Studies of the personal characteristics of Studies of the personal characteristics of
people perceived as strong leaders.people perceived as strong leaders.• Some commonalities. Good leaders are Some commonalities. Good leaders are
perceived as:perceived as: More intelligent.More intelligent. More outgoing.More outgoing. More dominant.More dominant.
Social PsychologySocial PsychologyOne-To-Many: LeadershipOne-To-Many: Leadership
Social psychology tries to study leadership Social psychology tries to study leadership objectively:objectively:• What does the situation contribute to good What does the situation contribute to good
leadership?leadership? Leader has considerable authority.Leader has considerable authority. Task is clear cut, no ambiguity.Task is clear cut, no ambiguity. Group is cohesive, get along with each other and the Group is cohesive, get along with each other and the
leader. leader.
• Good leadership in one group may be different Good leadership in one group may be different from good leadership in another.from good leadership in another.