soil survey - agriculture and agri-food canada

SOIL SURVEY OF DURHA COUNTY

BY

K.. R. WEBBER and F. F. MDRWICK

ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

AND

N. R. RICHARDS EXPERtMENTAl FARMS SERVICE

GUELPH, ONTARIO DECEMBER I946

REPORT No. 9 OF THE ONTARIO SOIL SURVEY

EXPERIMENTAL FARMS SERVICE, DOMINION DEPARTMENT OF

AGRICULTURE AND THE ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

PREFACE

The soils of Durham County were surveyed during the summer of lQ@. During the same season a detailed Soil Erosion and Land Use Survey was made of part of Hope Township, which is in the eastern part of the County. This has been published as a separate report.

are Other counties as .follows:

and districts surveyed and maps published

1. Norfolk.. . .Map only

2. Elgin Map only

3. Kent. . . Map only

4. Haldimand.. Map only

5. Wellund.. _. Map only

6. Middlesex. _. . . Map only

7. Carleton.. . .Map and Report

8. Parts of Northwestern Ontario... . . . . Map and Report

In addition to the above, the following counties have been surveyed and maps have been prepared for the respective county o@es of the Ontario Department of Agriculture:

Essex Brant Oxford Waterloo Wentworth Lincoln Halton Peel York Du$erin Peterborough Northumberland Prince Edward Grenville

ONTARIO SOIL SURVEY COMMITTEE

ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

DR. G. I. CHRISTIE PROF. G. N. RUHNKE

PROF. F. F. MORWICK MR. L. R. WEBBER

MR. A. L. WILLIS

DOMINION DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

DR. E. S. ARCHIBALD DR. E. S. HOPKINS

DR. A. LEAHEY MR. P. C. STOBBE

MR. L. E. WRIGHT MR. N. R. RICHARDS

A4CKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Dominion Department of Mines and Resources, Surveys and Engineering Branch, Hydrographic and Map Service supplied the base maps and supervised the drawing of the final copy of the map for lithographing.

The physical and chemical analyses were done by Mr. A. 1,. Willis.

Mr. C. ,4. Nichol assisted with the field work; Mr. P. C. St)obbe and Dr. P. 0. Ripley critically reviewed the manu- script; and Miss G. V. Palmer assisted in proof-reading both t’he map and report.

Helpful suggestions throughout the course of this work regarding classification and correlation of the soils and their use have come from the following and others: Mr. P. C. Stobbe and Dr. A. Leahey of the Dominion Department of Agriculture, Mr. G. A. Hills now with the Ontario Depart- ment of Lands and Forests, Mr. L. J. Chapman, Ontario Research Foundation, Dr. D. F. Putnam of the Department of Geography, University of Toronto and Mr. E. A. Summers, Agricultural Representative for Durham County.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Part I. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Location and Area.. . . . . . . . 9

County Seat and Principal Towns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Population and Racial Origin.. . . . . _. 10

Transportation and Markets.. , . _. 10

Part II. FACTORS AFFECTING THE FORMATION OF THE DURHAM

COUNTY SOILS ....................... . ............. ......... .....

The Geological Materials from which Durham County Soils Have Been Formed ...................... ........ ......

Relief. ................................. .... .... ...... ....... ............

Natural Vegetation .................. .............. _, . .

Climate ....................... ...... ........ ........... ... ...

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12

15

18

19

Part III. THE CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF DURHAM COUNTY

SOILS ................... ...................................................................... 23

The Soil Profile ........................................................... .............. 23

Profile Variations ................................................................ 24

Regional Soil Profile-Grey-Brown Podsolic ....................... 24

Soil Series, Types and Phases ............................................... 26

Key to the Classification of Soils and Acreages of Soil Types. 27

BONDHEAD Series ........ .... ............................. ....... . 28

OTONABEE Series.. ............... ........ ....................... 30

DUNDONALD Series.. ........................ ............... 31

DARLINGTON Series ............... ............. ........ 32

GUERIN Series.. . . . . . . . . . . . . ._.. .._._. 34

LYoNs Series... _, . . . 35

PONTYPOOL Series.. . . . _. _. _. . . ._ ._. , . 36

BRIGHTON Series.. . . . . . ._ . . . . , __ . . ._ . . 38

TECUMSETH Series.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. ._. . 40

GRANBY Series.. . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . 41

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont’d)

PAGE

Part III. THE CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF DURHAM COUNTY

Soms- (Continued)

NEWCASTLE Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..f....... 42

SCHOMBERG Series.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

PERCY Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

SMITHFIELD Series.. . . . . . . , ,.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

BRIDGMAN Sand. .,.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

BOTTOM Land.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

MUCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

MARSH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Part IV. AGRICULTURE AND LAND USE... __. . . ,...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Earls- Settlement and Agricultural Development.. . . . . . . . .

Present Agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Management of Durham County Soils ,, .,, t.. .

Light Textured Soils. . . . . .

Intermediat’e Textured Soils. . .

Heavy Textured Soils.. . . . . . . .

Crop ,iidaptabilities and Product,ivit,y Ratings for Durham County Soils .

51

51

52

54

54

56

58

59

Part V. !iNALYTICAL 1),4T:i. ,.... . . . . 63

APPENDIX. SOIL SURVEY MW~HODS ._......... . . . 65

MAP-Soil Map of Durham Count\F. in pocket at back of report

Ta4BLES

so. PAGE

1. Populatjion of Durham County.. 10

2. Slope Groups in Relat,ion t,o Topography.. . . . ._. 16

3. Mean Monthly Temperatures for Several Selected Points.... ._.___ . 21

4. Mean Monthly Precipit,ation in Inches for Several Selected Points.... 21

5. Port Darlington Exports ............. ............................ 51

6. Comparat’ive Vnluc of Farm Products in Durham County ................. 52

7. Present Land Use (1941 Census) ........................................................... 53

8. Acreages of Principal Crops (1945 Statistics Publication) ................... 53

0. Soil Rating for General Farm Crops ..................................................... 62

10. Chemical and Physical Analyses of Samples of Surface Soils from IIurham County.. ..................... Y.. ....................................................... 66

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGIJRE PAGE

1. Outline map of Ontario showing the other areas for which soil maps

location of Durham County and have been published. 8

2. Outline map of Durham Count,y showing the location of Towns, Villages, and Railways . _. _. . 9

3. Olltline map of Durham County showing the Physiographic Divi- sions.. . . . . . . . . . . 13

.t. Outline map of Durham (lount)y showing the Topographic Regions 15 c n . Outline map of Durham (kmty showing the Natural Stream

Courses . . . . . . . . ‘I ri

ti. Outline map of I)urham (‘olmt~ showing the Natural Drainage Cond&ions of t’he soils I 7

7. Outline map of Southern Ontario showing the location of several representative weather st)ations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Y L. Chart showing the Mean XIonthly Temperatures and Precipitation at Orono, Ontario (I 5 year period) ,,,,,. ,_ ., ,.. .,. 20

9. ,4 tliagrammatic vertical cross-section of a well-drained natural soil . . . 23 showing the naming of horizons . . . . . . .

FIG. L-Outline map of Ontario showing the location of Durham

County and other areas fOF which soil maps have been published. (Z-6 map only; 7-9 map and report.)

PART I

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF AREA

Location and Area

Durham County is located in central Ontario on the north shore of Lake Ontario. Adjoining counties include, Victoria on t>he north, Peterborough and Northumberland on the east and Ontario on the west. The town of Port Hope situated in the southeast corner is 53 miles from Toronto, 242 miles from Ottawa and 286 miles from Montreal.

The area of the county is approximately 402,560 acres (1941 Census of Canada), with about 371,000 acres of assessed land. The difference in acreage is accounted for by road allowances, bodies of water and areas of marsh.

County Seat and,Principal Towns

Some time after the original land surveys were made, Durham and North- umberland were unitled for the purposes of municipal government. The two counties are served by one county council which meets in Cobourg in North- umberland County. The ofice of the agricultural representative for Durham is located in Rowmanville.

The location and population of the principal towns and villages are shown in Figure 2.

OS1 l i-i.

FIG. f-outline map of Durham County showing the location of towns, villages and railways.

Population and Racial Origin

The 1941 census figures give the population of the county as 25,215 persons, of whom 14,554 or 57.3 per cent are classed as rural residents. Except for less t)han 500 people, largely of French, German, Polish and Ukrainian origin, British are, by far, the dominant racial class.

The populat,ion of Durham County reached a peak of 39,115 in 1861 according to the Dominion Census of that year, Table 1. From that time until 1921 there was a marked decline but the increase from 1921 to 1941 has been relatively small. The present population of five townships Cartwright, Cavan, Clarke, Hope and Manvers is less than half the 1861 figure. Generally, the sharp decline in population around the turn of the century is associated with t,he depletion of the lumbering resources and the short period that the lighter soils could support a sust,aining type of agricult~ure.

TABLE I

POPULATION OF DURHAM COUNTY (CENSUS DATA)

1851 1861 1871 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941

I<IJRAL..... . . . . . 28,256 31,203 Cartwrigh t 1,756 2,727 Cavan.. : 4,438 4,901 Clarke... 6,190 6,575 Darlington . . . . . . 8,005 6,912 Hope.. . . . . . . 5,299 5,883 Manvers 2,568 4,205

IJRBAN... Bowmanville ‘1

2,476 7,912

Port Hope . . Millhook..... Newcastle Y_:.. 1

ToTAI, ., 30,732 39,115

28,123 24,968 22,250 19,089 17,057 15,664 15,656 2,514 2,357 2,02G 1,768 1,584 1,399 1,395 4,761 3,479 3,106 2,729 2,499 2,188 2,106 5,728 .5,16!) 4,427 3,788 3.375 3,039 2,974 5,931 5,465 4,757 4,174 3,682 3,780 3,915 5,075 4,522 3,887 3,273 3,115 2,754 2,776 4,114 3,976 4,047 3,3*57 2,002 2,504 2,490 0,257 11,297 10,177 8,481 !I,354 8,965 10,126 3,034 3,504 3.377 2,731 2,814 3,233 4,080 5,114 5,585 5,042 4,188 5,092 4,456 4,723

1,100 1,148 971 917 793 717 663 1,060 787 645 655 550 660

37,380 36,265 32,427 27,570 26,411 24,629 25,782

14,554 1,273 1;844 2,814 4,159 2,494 1,970

10,661 4,113 5,055

;z 25,215

‘l‘he 1941 Census records the population of Durham County as 25,215 persons with 10,661 or 42.2 per cent living in ISowmanville, Port Hope, Mill- brook and Newcastle. The remaining 57.8 per cent of the population represents farm folk and those living in small communit,y centres. Undoubtedly a large percentage of the rural populat,ion are actively engaged in agriculture whether they liI,e on farms or in the unincorporated villages.

Transportation and Markets

The agricultural communities in the county are well provided with good transport8ation facilit,ies in highways and railroads. The Toronto-Montreal lines of the C.N.R. and C.P.R. pass through t’he county along the lake shore while the Toronto-Ottawa C.P.R. line is located in the northern townships. The Port Hope-Peterborough line of t,he C.N.R. connects several smaller communities along the eastern boundary.

Provincial highway number 2 closely parallels t!he main railway lines in the soutJh and is joined by ot’her highways or count,y roads serving the remainder of the county. Principal roads through the central and northern areas include the Bowmanville-Caesarea, Newcastle-Lindsay, Port Hope-Peterborough and Port, Hope-Millbrook systems. Highway 7A is confined t(o the northerly townships.

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I’ort) Hope and Bowmanville are the principal industrial towns of the county. Many Durham County residents are employed in Oshawa in the automobile industry. Slightly more than half the residents are classed as

rural dwellers mostly engaged in agriculture. As the name implies, Port Hope was once a large and busy lake port

through which passed lumber and farm produce from several nearby counties. The present industries include the manufact,ure of chemicals and plumbing equipment ancl the refining of radium. In Bowmanville, the rubber industry employs a large number of residents as do several smaller enterprises. In days gone by, the town was a great milling ccntrc and supported important wood-working shops.

PART II

FACTORS AFFECTING THE FORMATION OF DURHAM COUNTY SOILS

The soil occupies a layer on the surface of the earth varying in depth from less than an inch to several feet. Soil is a natural body and the medium in which plants grow. It is a mixture of minerals, water, air and organic matter which occur in varying proportions. These four constituents exist in a soil in a finely divided and int,imately mixed condit)ion. The factors which are largely responsible for the occurrence, composition and mixture of the constituents, include the geological materials as a source of soil-forming materials. In addition the differences among soils and their ability to support the growth of many plants are attributed to landscape relief, climat)ic conditions and the natural vegetation. The length of time a soil has been in the process of formation will account for certain differences as well as the use or misuse of land by man.

THE GEOLOGICAL MATERIALS FROiM WHICH DURHAM COUNTY SOILS ARE FORMED

The first step in the development of soil is the formation of parent material largely from the disintegration and weathering of rocks. Parent material may be shallow or deep. It may consist of coarse rock fragments alone or mixed w&h finer materials; it may consist of single grain minerals high in silica as in coarse sands; or it may consist of very fine clays and silts. The parent material may be relatively uniform in chemical composition or may be particularly lraried. Some materials are weathered more easily to form soils than are other materials.

The parent materials of Durham County soils may be grouped into three main classes according to the influence of their chemical composition on soil development: (a) Calcareous materials rich in lime as are found in limestone, etc. ; (b) ‘3’1’ c I lceous materials originating from granite, etc.; (c) Argillaceous or calayey materials derived from shales, etc. The physiographic divisions of surface materials in the county are based largely on land form and characteristics of the parent materials.

South-central Ont,ario was I\-it,hin the area covered by the glacier in the Pleistocene period. The late Wisconsin drift resulted from the glacial act,ion on the Trenton and Black River limestone series and some Precambrian material. In the south-west corner of t$he county appreciable amounts of Titica shale were deposited. The drift iy relatively deep over the bedrock of limestone. Exposures of bedrock occur in the bed of the Ganuraska River near Port Hope and in some stream beds near Bowmanville. ,

The continental glacier advanced from a north-easterly direction. As the great sheet of ice retreatbed by melting, the margins assumed lobate forms. The juncture of two lobes extended east and west across the middle of the count)y. The sandy and gravelly mat,erials were deposited by the water flowing through the outlet formed by the two lobes. Local bodies of water were formed by obstructing masses of ice. The recession of the ice mantle continued in the two-lobe formation and laid down the t,ill in various formations

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or hemmed in meltwater that deposited lacustrine materials. Streams into these glacial lakes formed deltas of stratified sand and gravel.

flowing

The physiographic divisions of Durham County may be outlined as follows: 1. Drumlinized limestone till plains. 2. Smooth limestone till plains. 3. Plains of fine-textured water-laid sediments. 4. Smooth sandy plains. 5. Sandy and gravelly ridges.

FIG. 3-Outline map of Durham County showing the Physiographic Divisions.

1. Drumlinized Limestone Till Plains

The drumlinized plains occupy the largest area of any physiographic division in Durham County. The areas immediately north and south of the central belt of gravel and sand ridges are well drumlinized. Drutilins are well- formed oval hills, a mile or less in length, a third or quarter mile in width and ranging up to a hundred or more feet in height. Their longest axis is roughly parallel to a north-east and south-west line. These distinctive oval hills were formed during the time of glaciation.

The materials within a drumlin are commonly referred to as till or boulder clay. The till is composed of limestone from the Trenton and Black River series with varying amounts of Precambrian rocks. Boulders and stones, some of which are a foot in diameter and of limestone or granite origin, are

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associated with a loamy matrix and numerous small rounded stones. The pressure created by the ice has compacted these stones and finer materials to such an extent that soil water moves freely but a droughty condition is not common.

Some variation in the composition and condition of the till is found throughout the area. Gravelly depositIs are often located at one end of the drumlins. In other places there are fewer large boulders and stones and the till is more compact and slightly heavier. The occurrence of Precambrian materials on the surface is also variable. The depth of the till over the bedrock is generally quite deep.

2. Smooth Limestone Till Plains

The smooth undulating limestone till plains are found in the extreme southern part of the county. In general this physiographic division is located south of the old gravelly beaches marking the borders of glacial Lake Iroquois. In this position the limestone materials have undergone some reworking b3 the action of water at the time Lake Iroquois was in existence.

The composition of the till is dominated by the limestone content despite the occurrence of some of the dark greyish Utica shale. The till contains fewer large stones and boulders than is characteristic of the drumlinized plains. The matrix is generally heavier as it consists of more silt and clay from the weathering of the shale and small depositions of water-laid materials. The occurrence of Precambrian rocks is not as noticeable as in the limestone till soils to the north. The depth of the till is shallower over most of the area but bedrock is rarely exposed. Frequent’ly the till is underlain by heavy compact lacustrine deposits as found in exposures along the lake shore.

3. Plains of Fine Textured Water-Laid Sediments

Water-laid sediments or lacustrine deposits are characterized by fine textured materials like silts and clays and typically stone free except for some gritty material. In many lacustrine deposits alternate layers of dark and light silts and clays are common. These varves are destroyed by the weathering processes but are found intact in the unweathered parent material.

The parent materials in the lacustrine deposits are relatively high in lime and are often referred to as ground limestone flour. These materials were carried in by water moving slowly and having much silt and clay in suspension or finely dispersed. In most areas especially in the southern parts, the text’ure of the surface soil is lighter than the parent material.

4. Smooth Sandy Plains

The smooth sandy plains include well-sorted deltaic and outwash deposits as well as low gravelly beaches. The deltaic plains occupy a considerable area around Osaca where the sandy materials were carried into bodies of water and allowed to settle out. The relief is typically nearly level but subsequent water erosion has dissected the area by numerous gullies and channels. The shoreline of glacial Lake Iroquois is prominently defined in some areas by gravel beaches.

The lime content of the material of the sandy plains is relatively high despite the siliceous nature of the sand particles. The texture of the parent

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mut,erial is rather coarse, grading in size from small cobbles and gravel stones to coarse and fine sands and a small percentage of silt and clay. The depth of the sandy materials is variable; in some places the material is quite deep and uniform while elsewhere compact till or lacustrine deposits are within a fen feet of the surface.

5 e . Sandy and Gravelly Ridges

The sandy and gravelly ridges are occasionally referred to as fluvio- glacial or interlobate deposits of unassorted gravel, sand and till. This group occupies a broad area in the central region with an area northward neal IMhany. In many cases these ridges represent the height of land with the streams flowing north or sout’h depending on which side of the ridge the) originate.

This physiographic division is characterized by light soil materials high in lime. The texture of the materials is quite variable ranging from limestone and igneous boulders to fine sands and silts. The inclusion of small till deposits is recognized. The area is marked by a strongly rolling to hilly topography and numerous glacial pot holes which have no other drainage than clown through the soil materials. The materials are relatively deep and lack uniformity in the size of particles throughout their depth.

EEI LEVEL 10 NEARLY LEVEL

m UNDULATING

cl UNMJCATING TO ROLLING

Ezl ROLLING

ROLLING TO tULLY

ggraphic regions.

Relief

The elevation of the land in Durham County is given on the topographical sheets published 1,~ the Department of National Defence. There are three

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nat,ural separations for describing the altitudes. From Lake Ontario northward to the fluvio-glacial deposits, t,he elevation ranges from 245 feet to approximat,ely 1,000 feet above sea-level. The fluvio-glacial area represents the height of land in t’he count/y. Elevations in this section reach 1,200 feet, From here the land slopes toward Lake Scugog whose elevation is 820 feet above sea-level.

One of the more important factors related to soil formation and soil management is the t!opography or relief of the land. The degree of slope influences drainage, run-off of surface water and erosion while in actual farming the slope often restricts the use of certain farm machinery. In Table 2 the t’opography classes are expressed as slope groups.

TABLE 2 SLOPE GROUPS IN RELATION TO TOPOGRAPHY

SLOPE GROUP ,

t (-’ D E F

PER CENT SLOPE

o-374 S--870 8-15y~

15-25% 25-35 (2 35’jl, and over

1 TOPOGRAPHIC TERM

level to nearly level undulating rolling hilly very hilly steep

FIG. 5-OutZine map of Durham County showing the natural stream courses.

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Rolling and very hilly topography is found in the broad central area of light textured soils. The slopes are frequent and comparatively short. Small depressions are characteristic of the relief. The areas where drumlins occur are considered to be strongly undulating to rolling. In some areas particularly \vhere the Otonabee type is mapped the topography may be hilly. The slopes of the drumlins are long and gentle occurring less frequently than in the hillier soils.

With the height of land across the middle of the county, the drainage system is naturally divided into two parts. The northerly flowing streams (Figure 51, drain into the Trent system. East)cross Creek and two branches of t)he Pigeon River are slow sluggish streams with Gde courses of marsh, muck and swamp. The channels change very little and stream erosion is not a serious problem. The four creeks flowing eastward are less sluggish with smaller areas of adjoining w&land. Those streams emptying into Lake Ontario differ in several respects from t,he northern syst,em. With a greater drop to an outlet the southern creeks and rivers flow relatively fast. The usual adjacent flooded land is missing; the stream courses are deeper and erosion is severe. The friable till and lacustrine materials are rapidly cut into, leaving deep gullies with barren slopes. Several large ravines appear at the outlets of the smaller streams.

gj EXCESSIVE

El GOOD

El FAIR

H POOR

VERY POOR

Natural Vegetation

In Southern Ontario most of the original forest cover has been removed, lealving only occasional woodlots that, can be used in reconstructing a picture of the original vegetation. The occurrence of pine stumps in stump fences give evidence of t)he occurrence of large pines in the former forest on the sandy soils.

Halliday* includes Durham County in the Huron-Ontario section of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Forest Region. The prevailing association is composed of broad-leaved trees, particularly sugar maple and beech. Basswood, white elm, birch, white ash and several oaks occur in the association as well as a scattered distribution of hemlock, white pine, hickory, ironwood, butternut and black cherry.

The common forest association in Durham, County comprises the sugar maple and beech. These broad-leaved, hardwood trees are generally associated wit,h the till soils of the drumlinized and smooth limestone plains. (Figure 3.) This variety of soils is characterized by good drainage, medium texture and adequate amounts of lime. Local differences in drainage, particularly poorly drained soils, can be spotted by the presence of white cedar, species of elm, tamarack, alders and willows. The broad-leaved association includes ironwood, basswood, white spruce and white pine. There is a great vatiet,y of shrubs, including choke cherries and species of hawthorn. The concentration of buckthorn in the vicinity of Nestleton is quite noticeable.

The soils on the sandy and gravelly ridges are droughty and the topography is hilly and steep. The principal tree growth on these soils is composed of red and white pine, red oak, hickory and white birch. Cut-over and burned- over areas have a large proportion of pines and poplars. Many cleared and cultivated areas have been planted with pine.

The heavy and intermediate textured soils, largely of water-laid sediments are cleared of t’heir forest cover. There are indications that hardwoods and some pine once grew on these soils.

The folio\\-ing quotation from the Townships of Darlington and Clarke by ,John Squair is included at this time, since it gives a broad picture of forest conditions and of the lumbering business during the last century:

“On the best clay loam soils itI was essentially a beech and maple forest . . . wit>h some admixture of other deciduous lvoods and some white pine and hemlock. On the lighter sandy soils there was often a fine growth of hardwood with a larger mixt)ure, however, of pine and hemlock than on the heavy land. . . . On both higher and lower land there was some oak but that valuable kind of wood was found in greater abundance on the ridges to the north.

LL,4s early as 1830 anxiety was expressed over the rapid disappearance of woodlot,s. Pinch was in particular demand for tghe steamboats plying between Toronto and Quebec. From 1841 to 1842, 1,002 masts and 900 immense sticks of squared oak and pint \vcrc sllpplietl to the English shipyards. From 185(j on, Nt~~~cast lc I\~;IS thy c*hicf ( : .‘l‘. I<. I\-ood tl(lpot on the Montreal-Toronto rrln; bccc*h and mal)lc \YPI*O t ho chichf’ types of \\.ood. Perhaps 1880 might8 1~ taken as the date of the end of the WINCES\-oocl trade at Newcastle.”

* A Forest Classification for Canada by IV. E. D. Hallida,v.

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Climate

The climate of Southern Ontario is usually stated to be of the modified humid continental type*. The variations in climate are generally attributed t>o t,he presence of frequent storm paths across t’he area and the modifying effect of the Great Lakes. Physiographic features tend t,o effect climatic variations through the modification of wind and changing temperatures.

The climate of Durham County is relatively cool and humid. The location with respect to Lake Ontario tends to make the climate somewhat warmer than areas lying in Eastern Ontario or immediately north. The mean annual temperature is 42” to 44” F. The average annual precipitation ranges from 26.5 to 33 inches with about half the amount, falling in the growing season. The frost free period ranges from 120 to 140 days with a growing season of 188 to 195 days.

The only meteorological station within the county is a station at Orono, providing 15 years of records. Figure 7 shows the location of several other stations whose records are included here. The data from the other stations will give a general picture of the climate of the region. The Simcoe station is included, since it lies in an extensive and older tobacco growing region.

The mean annual temperature at Orono over a period of I5 years has averaged 43.7” which is not greatly different from the -13.4” at Peterborough mcl only slightly lower than an average of 44.1’ for Bellevillc. The mean

* The Climate of Southern Ontario by Putnam, D. IT. and Chapman, L. J. Scientific Agriculture. Volume 18, No. 8, April 1938.

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annual at Uxbridge, northwest of Orono in Ontario County and located on slightly higher land, was a little lower. The 2” higher mean for Toronto may be due in a large part to the station’s proximity to Lake Ontario. The differences as compared with the more distant stations are attributed to geographical locations north or south of Orono. See Table 3.

An average wint’er temperature for December, January and February is about 21: as compared \vith a mean of 14” at Ottawa or 21” at Guelph. .January and February are the coldest months with February having a slightly lower average over the 15 years. The spring mean temperature of 40” at Orono is about the same as at Guelph and Ottawa. The mean temperature at Simcoe

65

e 65

IL’

.

45 w a

3

t 35 4

a

W

h 25

I

W

c 15

V

P

m c)

V

4.0 r, P -I

0

3.0 2

2.0 : T m v)

1.0 -

JfMAMJJASONN

FIG. (I-Chart showing the mean monthly temperature and precipitation at * Orono, Ont. (IS-year period).

for the same period is 43”. A summer average of around 66’ is common to much of Southern Ontario except’ in the more southerly count8ies where slightly higher averages arc recorded. The mean fall temI,eratures at) Guelph and Orono arc arolmd 47” \\-hilt at8 Simcboc t>hc a\‘c’rage is slightly higher at, 50”.

Most of I>urhnm (:ollnty lies \vithin t#\vo c~lim:~tic regions --- Simcoe- Ka\vsrtha l,akes and thcl SolIt 11 Slopes as definrhtl 1)s l’utnam and (Ihal)man. ‘1’1~~ gro\\.ing season in t ho SirncIo~~-Ii:~\~:lr,tlt:l region r:lngcs 1’ro11~ 188 t 0 19.5

clays \vhich is abollt fi\rc tl:l,s sllort (‘1’ t haI1 t hc Sollt Ii Slopes. In calclllating the length of the growing season, a me:Ln of 42” F. \vas cbhosen as the beginning of the season. For each species and variety of plant there is a temperature

20

c-00 coccr3

Kid=n& odldodd

wr-w

w

WW

WW

.:

I :

I :

below which growth is not possible. With such cool-season crops as oats, rye, wheat and barley the minimum is 32” to 41” F. and the optimum 77” to 87” F.* From the many species and varieties of hay and pasture plants, a selection or combination can usually be made that provides ample forage for various lengths of growing seasons. Winter killing of alfalfa is often associated with lack of sufficient moisture during the preceding summer and fall by which the vigor of the plants has been reduced to such an extent that they arc unable to endure low temperatures. Apples, sour cherries and American plums under some conditions usually stand temperatures as low as -30” F. without severe injury. Heavy losses of fruit trees have occurred at warmer temperatures than -30’ F. under various combinations of humidity, ground moisture conditions and sharp freezing. Peaches and apricots are likely t,o be injured at -15” F.* In Durham County, the fruit growing area is largely concentrated along the Lake Ontario shore where the extreme low was -30” F. The lowest temperature recorded in the South Slopes is -39” F. and -42” F. in t,he Simcoe-Kawartha region.

The mean annual rainfall at Orono has averaged slightly over 34 inches for a 15-year period. This figure is somewhat higher than recorded at the stations at Belleville, Peterborough or Uxbridge. The rainfall for the growing period, approximately May to September, has averaged 13 inches. At Ottawa where t)he total is nearly identical, the rainfall for the growing season has averaged slightly under 16 inches. For the same period at Simcoe the figure is almost, 14 inches. Snowfall varies from 50 t’o slightly over 100 inches for the whole county with a 15-year average at Orono of 59 inches and nearly 70 inches at Peterborough for 61 years. See Table 3.

In general, the climate of Durham is characterized by moderately cold winters and warm summers. The temperature ranges do not limit the growing of most common farm crops like cereal grains, roots, ensilage corn and many hay and pasture plants. Farmers located in the fruit belt on the lake shore specialize in apple growing, while near Osaca flue-cured tobacco has developed in recent years into a successful vent,ure. The distribution of rainfall is favourable to farming; the frequency of droughts does not reach a critical point in regularity nor in severity.

* Climate and Man4J.S.D.A. Yearbook. 1941.

22

PART III

THE CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF DURHAM COUNTY SOILS

Soil is a complex body formed by the interaction of many forces. It has developed through the operation of climatic agencies on various kinds of parent mat,erials and modified by such factors as vegetation, relief, drainage and use. To attempt a classification of soils, the interaction of all forces must bc capable of being appraised. The effect of a single force is frequently difficult to ovnluatc but the sum total of several forces is expressed in the soil profile.

If a hole is dug in a well drained soil, one can see a series of horizontal lagers of soil of varying thickness. (Figure 9.) These layers are called horizons and differ from one another in such properties as colour, t,exture, structure, thickness and clarity of demarcation. The succession of layers from the sirrface down to and including the parent material is called t,he soil profile.

A El

Al Organic material, pertially decomposed.

A dark coloured horizon containing mixed with mineral matter.

organic matter

1 A 2 A light coloured horizon representing the region of

/ maximum leaching.

, A3

BI

B2

83

Cl

Transitional horizon, sometimes absent.


A deeper coloured horizon representing the region of maximum accumule t i on.


Transitio.,al horizon, partially weathered parent material.

LA Parent material, only slightly weathered.

FIG. 9-A diagrammatic vertical cross-section of a well-drained showing the naming of horizons.

natural soil,

The Soil Profile

For convenience, the soil layers or horizons are grouped under three headings-A, B, and C. The A horizon includes the various layers in the upper llart of the profile where soil forming processes are most active. Under forested conditions the A, exists in the form of organic materials-leaves and decaying wood; the A, is the layer in which the mineral particles are covered with a (boating of humus which gives the soil a dark colour; the A, horizon has little

23

or no organic coating and present)s a leached appearance and t,he A, in this region usually has a still lighter and more.greyish appearance. In general the ,4 horizons include that part of the profile from which some materials have moved downward by leaching.

The B horizons are identified by deeper colours, heavier texture and blocky or angular structure. Some of t,he materials which have leached out of the A horizon have accumulated in the I3 horizon, particularly the iron and alumina compounds and some of t>he fine clay. The H, horizon is the area of maximum accumulation and the B, and B, arc transitional horizons. (See Figure 9.)

The C horizon consists of parent material from which the soil is developed. The upper part of the C may be slightly influenced by soil-forming processes but usually the finer differentiations are not attemptSed.

Profile Variations

The diagrammatic profile, Figure 9, represents the normal tJrpe of development associated with forest vegetation and good drainage. The indicat,ed horizons do not alivays occur in sufficient clarity of demarcation t,hat they can be ident,ificd and adequaMy described. Varia-ttions can be at)tributed to differences in geological parent materials, drainage conditions, relief, texture, <brosion, vcget)ation, climate and land use. Various combinations of these factors account for t,he identifiable differences in profiles. The presence of a deeply weathered profile on t,he droughty sands having a thin A, and little or no B horizon largely represent the effects of parent materials, drainage and texture. On poorly drained soils, the -4, becomes rclati\Tcly deep and high in organic matter while the B, if present, is usually an arca of rusty blotches. TJndel cultivation t]he ploughed layer of a soil includes all or part, of the A, and where the profile is very shallow may include all the A and 13 as well as the Tipper C. While the interaction of the soil forming ~IWWSVS tchnd to produce a great number of individual conditions that can bo rccognizcd in soil classification, t hertl is an overall t,ype of soil devc:lopment particular to the region of Ontario which includes Durham County.

Regional Soil Profile

Durham County soils halwe developed under a forest vegetation domin- atted by broad-leaved trees principally maple and beech and in a relatively cool, humid climate. Thcsc Grey-Brown Podsolic soils have several characteristic features that differentiate this zone from others. The A, layer is usually a greyish brown colour with organic matter mixed and incorporated into the mineral fraction. The A, is a light, greyish or yellowish brown loamy layer, while the B is of brownish hcarrier materials with a characteristic striictural dt>vclopment.

24

01 The following description of a Bondhead

the development on a well-drained site. fine sandy loam profile is typical

Location: Lot 13, Cont. VIII-Manvers Township. Site: South easterly exposure on a large drumlin; slope 13 per cent. l’egetation: Sugar maple, beech, ironwood; heavily forested; little or no

grass but a forest mat of leaves.

-A,, and AOO horizons (O-l inch). A covering of recent leaves mixed with and grading into a shallow layer of leaves partially decomposed; pH 5.8.

-A, horizon (6 inches), dark grey brown fine sandy loam; porous crumb structure; pH 6.3.

--4, horizon (13 inches), light grey brown sandy loam; approaching a single grain structure; pH 6.2.

--4, horizon (l-2 inches), yellowish grey sandy loam; weak platy structure; bleached appearance; pH 6.8.

-B, horizon (1 inch). A shallow layer, slightly mottled and transitional to B,; pH 6.8.

--R, horizon (2 inches), brownish loam; small angular, nutlike structure of soft aggre- gates; pH 6.8.

-(‘, horizon (3 inches), greyish calcareous till; indication of some weathering; stony sandy loam; pH 7.2.

--C, horizon a grey stony, highly calcareous till; sandy loam texture; pH 8.0.

Because of the coarse nature of the materials of the light textured soils in the central part of the county, a dry azonal podsolic type of profile commonly occurs. The coarse nature of the materials and t’heir light texture limit the profile development. The A, is normally a thin layer relatively low in organic matter; the A, occurs generally as a structureless sand and deeper than the A, of the other local soils; the B, where present, occurs as a weak accumulation of a colloidal material eluviated from the A horizons.

25

The following description of a Pontypool sand illustrates the degree and t’ype of development.

Location: Lot 2, Cont. IV-Cavan Township. Site: Northerly exposure on interlobate materials; slope 12 per cent. Vegetation : Sugar maple, beech, white birch, some white pine and bass-

wood; thick growth of poverty grass, bracken and poison ivy.

-A, and A,, horizons (O-l inch). A shallow layer of leaves and twigs in various stages of decomposition.

-A, horizon (3 inches), coarse sand mixed with decaying leaves, etc., no aggregation of sand particles; lower part of layer somewhat greyish in colour; pH 6.6.

-A, horizon (22 inches), light yellow brown structureless sand; pH 6.4.

-B horizon (O-l inch), weak development; largely a concentration of faintly mottled materials; pH 6.4; a colour horizon more strongly developed than a textural horizon.

-C horizon grey poorly sorted calcareous sand; a few small rounded stones; pH 7.4.

u

Soil Series, Types and Phases

The term soil series is used to designate a group of soils whose profiles are alike in general character and appearance and developed from similar parent materials. The effect of climate and vegetation may alter profiles even though parent materials resemble one another. While any given area may be labelled as one soil series, deviations and variations do occur but the dominant profile, the one occurring most frequently, is taken as representative of the area. The soil series is usually given a geographical name from a town, village, township, etc., where the soil was first identified. Thus, the Newcastle series was first mapped in the Newcastle area and all soils mapped as Newcastle should have similar profiles.

While the profiles of a soil series are alike in their general characteristics, they frequently differ in texture. This textural difference constitutes the basis for subdivision into soil types. The name Newcastle clay loam as applied

26

to a soil would infer t,hat t,he soil was of the Newcastle series and a clay loam surface layer.

Variations other t,han surface t,exture frequently occur in a soil series and are t,ermed phases. Variations from the normal in topography, erosion, shallowness, stoniness, etc., are accounted for by phases. A Bondhead loam, bouldery phase would indicate that the soil is considered to be a member of the Bondhead series wit,h a loam surface soil but abnormally stony and bouldery.

KEY TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE SOILS IN DURHAM COUNTY

A. SOILS FORMED FROM LIMESTONE TILL

I. Good drainage (a) Drumlin-like topography

(i) Normal profile 1. Bondhead loam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Bondhead fine sandy loam _... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Bondhead fine sandy loam, bouldery phase . . . . .

(ii) Shallow profile 1. Otonabee loam.. . . . . . . . . . _, . . _. . _, . _. . . . . . . 2. Otonabee loam, steep phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(b) Morainic slopes with an outwash covering 1. Dundonald sandy loam... . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . .

(c) Undulating till plain 1. Darlington loam.. .................... ............................................. 2. Darlington sandy loam ................................................... ......

35,700 acres 74,900 acres

1,700 acres


30,100 acres


II. Imperfect drainage 1. Guerin loam ..................................................... ...... .......... 1,600 acres 2. Guerin sandy loam.. ...................................... .......................... 1,100 acres 3. Guerin sandy loam, bouldery phase .................................... 3,600 acres

III. Poor drainage 1. Lyons loam .................................................... .......................... 5,400 acres

B. SOILS FORMED FROM FLUVIO-GLACIAL MATERIALS

(Eskers, Kames and Interlobate Moraines)

I. Good to excessive drainage 1. Pontypool sandy loam . _. _, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,900 acres 2. Pontypool sand .,_, . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38,000 acres 3. Pontppool gravelly sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,200 acres

C. SOILS FORMED FROM DELTAIC OR OUTWASH MATERIALS

1. Good to excessive drainage 1. Brighton sandy loam... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._......................_............... 9,500 acres 2. Brighton sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,100 acres 3. Brighton gravelly sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,600 acres 4. Brighton sandy loam, bouldery phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 acre8

II. Imperfect drainage 1. Tecumseth sandy loam.. . . . . __ _. _. _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,000 acres

III. Poor drainage 1. Granby sandy loam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,700 acres 2. Granby sandy loam, bouldery phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,300 acres

27

Il. SOILS FOKMEI) FROM LACUSTKLNE MATERIALS

I. Good drainage

(i) Normal profile 1. Sewcastle loam . . . . ..__. 2.’ Ne,wcastle clay loam... .,. ”

17 300 acres 6:OOO acres

(ii) ShalS?w profile 1. Schomberg clay loam . . .._ ,. ,, ., 5,300 acres 2. Schomberg silt loam. 2,900 acres 3. Percy loam . . . . . . . . . ,. ., 4.000 acres

II. Imperfect drainage 1. Smithfield clay loam.. . . acres

E. MISCELLANEOUS SOILS

Bridgman sand.. . ,.. 4 000 acres Bottom land. _.

‘: .’ ‘._. I:.‘:. . . . . . . . 19: 100 acres

Muck . . . . . . . . hlarsh . .::..

,.. . . . :.

22,100 acres _:- __ 2,200 acres

DESCRIPTION OF DURHAllI COUNTY SOILS

A. SOILS FORMED FROM LIMESTONE TILL

Soils formed from limestone till correspond to the soils likely to be found in the two physiographic regions, drumlinized limestone till plains and smooth limestone till plains. The well drained series included in this group are Bond- hea’d, Otonabee, Dundonald and Darlington. The imperfectly drained member is the Guerin series and the poorly drained associate is the Lyons loam.

The parent1 materials of these soil series are a mixture of Trenton and Black River limestones with smaller yet recognizable amounts of Precambrian rocks. In the south-western corner of the county these materials contain relatively small amounts of the greyish black Ut,ica shale. The till is a compact unassorted mixture but dominated in chemical properties by the limestone. Partical sizes range from a small percentage of fine clay to greater percentages of pebbles, large stones and boulders. The degree of compaction permits the soil wat,cr to move freely through t)he normal well drained profile.

Bondhead Loam (35,700 acres) cc Fine Sandy Loam (74,900 acres) LC Fine Sandy Loam-Bouldery Phase (1,700 acres)

The Bondhead series display those characteristics that are common to the Grey Brown Podsolic soils. The topographic position is favorable for the maximum amount of profile development resulting from the influence of soil forming factors in Durham County.

28

The folloij\-ing is a profile description of a cultivated soii:

A,--&6 inches of a grey-brown loam or fine sandy loam; friable crumby structure; few stones; weakly alkaline; pH 7.2.

A,---%12 inches of a greyish brown sandy loam or loam; tending to weak platy structure; pH 6.8.

A,-2 inches brownish grey sandy loam or loam; slightl\ cemented and pH 7.6.

compacted;

I3 -2-4 inches of a brownish loam; weak blocky tructure; pH 7.2.

(’ -A grey calcareous till dominat,ed by limestone materials and containing some fragments from Precambrian rocks; freqltent stones and boulders; pH 8.0.

The tjopography of the Bondhcad series is characterized by drumlins or elongated hump-backed hills. Long and gentle slopes form a part of each drumlin but 011 the sides and near the top, steeper slopes are common. The topography is considered rolling \\-ith slopes generally ranging from 5-25y0. The drainage is good.

The natural \*cgetwtion includes sugar maple, beech, basswood, some elm and ash. The areas of lighter soils support appreciable amounts of white pine.

Bondh,cud loam occurs in relatively large t,racts near Millbrook and in scattered locations south of the height of land.

Bondhead jine sandy loam is the major type in the northern parts of Cart- wright and Manvers Townships, while other areas of the type are distributed t,hroughout the county. The loam and fine sandy loam are among the better agricultural soils of the county.

Bondhead fine sandy loam (bouldery phase). The areas mapped as a bouldery phase are recognized by the numerous boulders and stones on the surface soil. The stoniness is a limiting factor in the agricultural development of the type. Generally, this soil is left in pasture.

Agriculture

The Bondhead types (except the bouldery phase) are good soils for general farming which includes grain growing, hay and pasture, and the raising of livestock.

29

The greater part of the series is used for this purpose but some dairying, apple growing and canning crops are featured in the southern townships. Over most of t,he area an increased acreage of alfalfa would assist in maintaining the fertility and provide excellent hay or pasture. Where commercial fertilizers are used, phosphorus and potassium are particularly recommended. The steeper slopes of the drumlins should be left in hay, pasture or bush as long as possible. Methods that retard soil erosion must be considered and used on the Bondhead types.

Otonabee Loam (22,800 acres) 66 Loam-Steep Ph ase (13,500 acres)

The Otonabee loam is mapped entirely in Cavan Township, while the steep phase is found in small areas through the county.

The following is a profile description of a cultivat’ed soil:

A,-4-6 inches dark grey brown loam; crumb, A,-4-6 inches dark grey brown loam; crumb, structure; structure; moderately stony; free car- moderately stony; free carbonates; pH 7.8. bonates; pH 7.8.

AZ-O-4 inches greyish brown loam; more open AZ-O-4 inches greyish brown loam; more open and incoherent than A,; pH 7.8. and incoherent than A,; pH 7.8.

B -0-3 inches brownish loam or clay loam; nut- B -0-3 inches brownish loam or clay loam; nutlike structure; pH 8.0 like structure; pH 8.0

C -A grey limestone till containing some frag- C -A grey limestone till containing some fragments of Precambrian rocks; compact; ments of Precambrian rocks; compact; frequent st,ones and boulders; pH 8.2. frequent st,ones and boulders; pH 8.2.

The Otonabee series has been separated from the Rondhead on the basis of a shallower profile that has developed from similar parent materials. The greyish parent material is frequently turned up when plowed.

The Otonabee series is included with the Grey-Brown Podsolic soils, the characteristics being less well defined than in the Bondhead series. It may be

The Otonabee series has been separated from the Rondhead on the basis of a shallower profile that has developed from similar parent materials. The greyish parent material is frequently turned up when plowed.

The Otonabee series is included with the Grey-Brown Podsolic soils, the characteristics being less well defined than in the Bondhead series. It may be better correlated with the Brown Forest soils.

The topography of the Otonabee loam is recognized by numerous well- formed drumlins. In some instances the topography approaches the hilly

30

better correlated with the Brown Forest soils. The topography of the Otonabee loam is recognized by numerous well-

formed drumlins. In some instances the topography approaches the hilly

30

condition where steep slopes are more common. The drainage, internal and external, is good but considerable runoff of the rainfall occurs. In the narrow t,roughs between the drumlins, imperfectly drained areas too small to be delineat’ed at the inch to the mile scale of mapping, are included.

The hard woods, sugar maple and beech pine, elm and ash occur less prominent1 Y*

are the common trees. White

Otonabee loam (steep phase) is mapped throughout the county. Due to the excessive runoff on these slopes, the profiles are even shallower than the normal. The type includes any very steep till soil that should be left in permanent pasture or bush. Generally, the slopes are above 30 per cent.

Agriculture

The agriculture differs very little from the general type of farming on the Bondhead types. Cereal grains, hay, clover, ensilage corn and pasture represent the important land uses. Livestock raising and some dairy farming provide a large portion of the sources of farm income. The high lime soil is well adapted to growing alfalfa and clovers. Suitable fertilizers generally contain a high percentage of phosphorus and potassium. There are some general soil conserving. practices that could be applied t,o t!he Otonabee loam; pasturing or using the steep slopes as hay fields, cultivating and plowing “around the hill” rather than up and down the slope and using a longer rotation with more grass or legumes.

Dundonald Sandy Loam (30,100 acres)

Dundonald sandy loam is the only member of the series mapped in Dur- ham County. The greater areas of the type are found adjacent to the Ponty- pool series. In Darlington and Clarke Townships t’he Dundonald is located on the southern slopes while smaller areas are found on the northern slopes. For the most part the profile is developed on stonefree outwash sandy materials carried from the interlobate moraine that! traverses the central part of the county. This sandy overburden was deposit,cd on the high lime till parent material similar to t,hat of the Otonabee and Bondhead series. Thus, the Dundonald series may be said to consist of the sandy materials of the Ponty- pool series washed over the stony parent material of the high lime till soils.

31

The following is a profile description of a non-eroclcd cultivated soil.

-4,-4-G inches grey-brown sandy loam ; approaching a single grain structure; generally lo\\- organic mattclr content; stonefree; pH 6.8.

A,--10-15 inches of light brownish sand; single grain structure; open and porous; pH 6.4.

I3 -2-3 inches bron-nkh loam; soft friable struc- turc; pH 6.8.

C -Grey calcareous till with frequent stones and boulders in some areas; very compact till; pH 7.8.

The Dundonald profile is generally developed in the sandy materials that are underlain by limestone till. The B horizon occurs at the juncture of the sandy outwash deposit and the till.

Drumlin formation is less distinct but lo-25% slopes are common. The topography is strongly rolling. The drainage is good with tlhe lighter materials occasionally permitting an excessive rate of percolation.

Coniferous and hardwood trees are about equally distributed over the type. A shallow eroded profile and proximity to the till are often associated with the presence of hardwoods.

Agriculture is general in nature with some orchards and canning crops in the southern townships. Special practices are used in some localities to increase the organic matter content of the surface soil by ploughing down green manuring crops. Erosion is common where the soils are cultivated up and down the slopes and when the surface is left unprotected for long periods of time.

Darlington Loam (15,400 acres) bb Sandy Loam (2,700 acres)

Most of the Darlington series is found in the south-western part of Darlington Township. In Cartwright and Cavan Townships small areas of similar soils are mapped in association with the Bondhead series. The parent

32

material, although high in lime, contains a fair proportion of grey-black Utica shale thus tlif’ferentjiating it from that of the Bondhead and Otonabee soils. The profile is slightly less well-developed than the zonal type of the region.

The following profile description is fairly t,ypical of the development of the loam type in Darlington Township:

-4,-G inches moderately dark grey-brown loam; crumb structure; relatively stonefree with occasional boulders; pH 7.6.

,4,---l-8 inches of light brown loam; mottling may occur immediately above the B horizon; pH 7.3.

B -1-d inches light brownish loam or clay loam; small blocky structbre; fairly compact. The B layer reflects the series immatur- ity by the insistent and spotty development ; pH 7.8.

C‘ ---ii greyish calcarco~rs till ; dominantly limestone in origin but containing some grey- black I’tica shale; moderately compact and imper\vious ; pH 8.0.

is moderately undulating n-ith slopes ranging from 3 to 870. Generall>~, the drainage is good but,locations with a gentle relief are l~antlic:apped l)y inadequate facilities for removing excess surface water.

Elm, sugar maple and beech are t,he common trees found on the loam type, while white pine is not,iceable on the lighter textured soils.

Darlington loam is the more important type of the series. The undulating topography and associated areas of smoother tleposit,s are typical of a re- worked ground moraine. Some of the larger lacustrine deposits have been mapped as Sewastle but nrrmerous smaller areas have been included in this type.

Darlington sandy loam occurs mainly near C’ourtice and north of Bow- man\rille. The lighter surface soil and deeper profile permit better drainage conditions than exist in the loam type.

Agriculture

Well The loam type represents located for transportation

an excellent soil for and marketing of fa

33

general agriculture and is rm products. Soil erosion

is less severe than on some other soil types; the generally accepted practices of good management reduce erosion to a minimum. The compact parent, material handicaps optimum root development of apple trees. Some areas within the sandy loam type are devoted to special farming, particularly truck crops.

Guerin Loam (1,600 acres) 66 Sandy Loam (1,100 acres) 66 Sandy Loam-Bouldery Phase (3,600 acres)

hlt~ml)c~rs of the Guerin series are principally located in the three soutJhern townships with isolated areas throughout the county. Formed on high lime matc~rials, the series represents the imperfectly drained associate of the limestone till soils.

Thr profile horizons are less distinct t,han in the well drained soils, due in large part) to the imperfect drainage.

A,--5-7 inches of dark loam or sandy loam; somewhat above average in organic matter; relatively stony; pH 7.4.

A,-5-10 inches greyish brown mot,tled loam; pH 7.4.

13 -Relatively indistinct and not always present; pH 7.8.

C -Greyish calcareous stony till; moderately compact; pH 8.0.

ll‘he Guerin series frequently occupies small depressions in the limest,one t,ill plains. The topography is nearly level to undulating.

The srnoot!h relief, depressional location, compact parent material and the difficulty of obtaining adequat,e outlets are the chief causes of the imperfect drainage conditions.

White cedars, hemlock, tamarack and some white birch are the principal trees found growing in this soil series.

34

Guerin loam as mapped near Hampton is the imperfectly drained associate of the Bondhead loam. These areas are under regular cultivation and represent some of the better soil conditions found in the series.

Guerin sandy loam is principally located near Frazerville and Cavan. Some areas are under farm crops but much is in permanent pasture.

Gucrin sandy loam (bouZdery phase). This type is frequently found adjacent to poorly drained outwash or deltaic soils in the Iake Iroquois plain. Most of the finer soil materials were washed awa?; by wale action at the time of Lake Iroquois leaving the surface heavily coated with stones and boulders.

Agriculture

Under present farming conditions, the Gucrin series is used mainly as a semi-permanent pasture to provide grass during the dry summer months. Where local drainage conditions are better, particularly near Hampton, the Guerin loam with favourable weather at seeding time, does support some spring grains. Buckwheat is well adapted to the type.

Lyons Loam (5,400 acres)

Lyons loam is the poorly drained associate of the limestone till soils. The type represents poorer drainage condit,ions than the imperfectly drained Glicrin.

The profile horizon5 are poorly defined except the A,;

A,---&8 inches dark stony loam; high in organic matter and alkaline; pH 7.8.

A,-%12 inches mottled grey stony loam that grades into the parent material; pH 7.8.

C --Greyish calcareous stony till; pH 8.0.

35

Most of the Lyons occurs in depressions where t’he relief is very poor. On some hillsides larger seepage areas are mapped as Lyons.

The natural drainage is poor because of the depressed location or being a ,secpage spot.

White cedar is the principal tree growt,h.

Agriculture

The stony and bouldery surface and poor drainage restrict the use of Lyons loam as a type for general farming. The cost of inst,alling an artificial drainage system and the removal of stones, boulders and tree growth are almost prohibiti1.e when the soil is t,o be used for general farm crops. The present land trse is largely pasturage which is generally the best use.

B. SOILS FORMED FRO_11 FLUVIO-GLACIAL 3IATERIALS

(Eskers, Kames and Interlobate Moraines)

The fluvio-glacial materials occupy a posit’ion roughly corresponding to the location of a great ice crevice that formed following a split in t,he main ice lobe, during the time of the melting-back of the glacier. Through this crevice a grea,t volume of meltwater found an outlet and deposited the materials from which the present soils were formed. The materials are predominantly poorly sortJet sand, gra\vel and boulders; isolated till deposits occur but are of a minor concern. The nature, mode of deposition and coarseness of these materials together II-it h the hilly relief provide difficult circum&ances for general farming conditions.

Pontypool Sandy Loam (8,900 acres) ii Sand (38,000 acres) 66 Gravelly Sand (16,200 acres)

The series occupy a large tract of land extending east an(l \\rest across the middle of the county. A narrower tract is mapped from Hcthany to the nort hem boundary. As a series they are fairly well centrnlized and do not occur in small isolated areas as do other soil types.

36

The well-drained till soils support a tree growth of hardwoods. Maple and beech usually

d o m i n a t e .

This prof i le of the Bondhead

fine sandy loam is typical of thethe regional well-drained soils.T h e p i c k m a r k s i n d i c a t e t h e

m a t e r i a l .

T h i s c l o s e - u p o f a S c h o m b e r g

c l a y l o a m p r o f i l e s h o w s t h e

c r u m b s t r u c t u r e o f t h e A 1 a n d

t h e b l o c k y s t r u c t u r e o f t h e Bh o r i z o n . N o t e t h e g r e y b l e a c h e d

l a y e r a b o v e t h e B h o r i z o n .

T h e P e r c y l o a m i s d e v e l o p e d o n

m e d i u m - t e x t u r e d l a c u s t r i n e

m a t e r i a l s . I t o c c u r s l a r g e l y i nt h e s o i l s o u t h - c e n t r a l s e c t i o n o f

t h e C o u n t y .

Prof i le of Br ighton sandy loam. The Br ighton i s deve loped on wel l - sor ted ca lcareouss a n d .

T h i s p r o f i l e o f t h e G r a n b y s a n d yl o a m s h o w s t h e d e e p , d a r k s u r -

f a c e l a y e r a n d t h e d u l l g r e y a n dmottled subsoil.

T h e s m o o t h r e g u l a r s l o p e s o f t h e D a r l i n g t o n l o a m a r e w e l l - s u i t e d f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o no f m o s t c r o p s c o m m o n l y g r o w n i n D u r h a m C o u n t y .

T h e O t o n a b e e l o a m p r o f i l e i s s h a l l o w e r t h a n t h e

B o n d h e a d t y p e s . I n t h e c u l t i v a t e d s o i l s t h e h i g h -l i m e g r e y p a r e n t m a t e r i a l i s o f t e n t u r n e d u p b y

t h e p l o w .

T h e p l o w i n g d o w n o f l e g u m e s f o r g r e e n m a n u r e i s a c o m m e n d a b l e p r a c t i c e t o h e l pm a i n t a i n t h e s u p p l y o f s o i l o r g a n i c m a t t e r .

I n t h e D u n d o n a l d s o i l s t h e B h o r i z o n f r e -q u e n t l y o c c u r s a t t h e j u n c t u r e b e t w e e n t h e

s a n d y o u t w a s h a n d t h e u n d e r l y i n g t i l l .

F l u e - c u r e d t o b a c c o g r o w i n g i s a c o m p a r a t i v e l y n e w i n d u s t r y i n D u r h a m C o u n t y .

I t i s g r o w n m o s t l y o n t h e B r i g h t o n s a n d .

T h e P o n t y p o o l s e r i e s i n c l u d e s a r a n g e o f t o p o g r a p h y . T h e u n d u l a t i n g a r e a s a r e l e s s

s u s c e p t i b l e t o s h e e t e r o s i o n t h a n t h e h i l l y a r e a s s h o w n i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h i s

p i c t u r e . S u c h a r e a s a r e u s e d f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a w i d e r a n g e o f f a r m c r o p s .

T h e c r o p o n t h e e r o d e d k n o l l s i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d s i s h a r d l y w o r t h c u t t i n g . S o m e s o i l -b u i l d i n g p r a c t i s e s a r e n e e d e d o n t h i s f i e l d

W i n d a n d w a t e r e r o s i o n f o l l o w i m p r o p e r l a n d u s e a n d d e p l e t e d s o i l f e r t i l i t y .

M a n y o f t h e h i l l y a r e a s o f t h e P o n t y p o o l s e r i e s h a v e s u f f e r e d e x t e n s i v e l y f r o m t h e r a v a g e s

o f w i n d e r o s i o n . W h e n s e v e r e l y w i n d - e r o d e d a r e a s o c c u r i n m a p p a b l e s i z e , t h e a r e

c a l l e d B r i d g m a n s a n d .

T h e s o i l i n t h e f o r e g r o u n d i s m a p p e d a s B r i d g m a n s a n d . T h e r e a r e m o r e s t o n e s o n

t h e s u r f a c e i n t h i s v i e w t h a n i s c o m m o n . A b o u t 4 , 0 0 0 a c r e s o f t h i s w i n d - e r o d e d s o i lw e r e m a p p e d i n t h e C o u n t y

The profile is almost featureless but examinations of non-eroded sites indicate extensive weathering.

A,---2-3 inches light grey brown sand or sandy loam; coarse single grain structure; low in organic matter; slightly acid to slightly alkaline; frequently stony; pH 6.8.

AZ--IO-30 inches yellowish sand; in the sandy loam profile an incipient B horizon generally exists but it is usually absent in, the sand. When present it displays’more of the characteristics of a ‘colour B iayer than a textural horizon; pH 6.4.

C -Grey coarse calcareous s&d ; pdorlj; ‘sb;&ed; numerous cobbles sand igravelly stones; pH 7.4. <

The topography is hilly with frequent steep sldpes and sk&i depresaio@ areas, a “knob and basin” relief, Generally, the sandy loam type is strongly rolling with slopes that are longer and less abrupt. The topography varies from small areas of undulating deposits to areas that are very hilly with a common slope range from 8 to 35 per cent. In view of the coarse nature of surface and parent materials, low organic matter content of the topsoil and the hilly terrain, the drainage is rapid and excessive.

The vegetative growth normally varies with the soil type in the Pontypool series. The sand is most favourable to growing white pine with smaller proportions of red, jack and Scotch pine and hardwoods. The natural grasses on abandoned farms are usually Redtop and Canada Blue. The gravelly type is broadly associated with sugar maple, red oak, beech, hickory and white pine; Canada Blue grass is common on this type.

Pontypool sandy loam. A rather small percentage of the series is mapped as a sandy loam. Such areas are usually local conditions where a type of general farming is fairly successful.

Pontypool sand. More than one-half of the series is mapped as a sand with the variations to be expected for such rough topography. The type represents a poor soil for agricultural purposes. Erosion is severe; the natural fertility is low.

37

Pontypool gravelly sand. The gravelly sand differs from the other types by having large deposits of gravel in the parent material. In many areas the gravel appears in the surface soil. Near Pontypool, farming is more successful on the gravelly sand than on the sand.

Agriculture

Undoubtedly, a large portion of the series is not adapted to general farming and some areas now under cultivation should be retired from agriculture. There are other land uses for which the series is suitable; large permanent and improved pastures, reforestation, game preserves and recreational areas. Pontypool sandy loam offers the best in the series for farming but even then, conservation farming and heavy applications of manure and fertilisers and plowed in green crops are necessary to maintain adequate fertility levels. The coarse nature of the sandy materials, low organic matter content and generally lower natural fertility along with a strong topography and erosion are the principal factors limiting the agricultural possibilities of the Pontypool series.

C. SOILS FORMED FROM DELTAIC OR OUTWASH MATERIALS

The parent material of this group of soils was carried by streams of water from melting ice and dropped as the streams slowed up or emptied into large

I bodies of still water or spread out over level land. The topography is normally smooth and undulating but is frequently cut up by recent gullying. In Durham County the outwash materials are well sorted coarse sands and gravels mainly of limestone origin.

Brighton Sandy Loam (9,500 acres) Lb Sand (11,100 acres) Lb Gravelly Sand (6,600 acres) CL Sandy Loam-Bouldery Phase (600 acres)

The eerier occ,urs largely within the area once covered by &her depoeita are mapped in isolated areas over the county.

Lake Iroquois ;

38

The profile development bears out the relative youthfulness of soils within the Iroquois basin.

While the Brighton series were undoubtedly deposited in nearly level relief, stream gullying and erosion have effected noticeable changes in the topography. Except for isolated areas and near stream courses most of the slopes range from 3 to 8 per cent. The drainage conditions are good; the coars’e materials promote rapid and in some cases excessive removal of soil water.

A,-3-4

A-l

inches of sand or sandy loam organic matter stonefree; pH

l low in ‘6.6.

5-20 inches of a coarse yellowish grain structure; pH 6.4.

sand . 8 single

B -2-4 inches of brownish loam; structure poorly developed; in the sand type the colour layer is much better developed than the textural horizon; pH 6.6.

C -A grey calcareous stratified sand and gravel; pH 7.6.

The dominant vegetation is white pine, especially in the Osaca district, while near Orono the alkaline gravel supports pines, hardwoods and some cedar.

Brighton sandy loam. The sandy loam type is more suitable for general farming than the remainder of the series. The slightly heavier texture and better fertility are the principal differences.

Brighton sand. The sand is located mostly in the Ginaraska Valley. The coarse sand is low in fertility, excessively drained, subject to severe erosion and poorly adapted to general agriculture. A small acreage is producing tobacco.

Brighton gravelly sand. The type exhibits a very shallow profile over the. calcareous stratified gravel. Most of the type indicates the location and extent of the beaches of Lake Iroquois. The deposits are usually low rounded ridges of gravel or appear as broad fans as found near Orono.

Brighton sandy loam (bouldeby ph,ase), is mapped to indicate extremely

39

stony, light-textured soils that are well drained. The total acreage of the bouldery phase is small and occurs for the most part northwest of Newcastle.

Agriculture

Excepting the sandy loam, very little of the series is adapted to general agriculture. Heavy applications of manure and fertilizers are necessary to produce farm crops satisfactorily. The organic matter content of the surface soil must be increased to prevent excessive drainage and leaching of plant nutrients. Tobacco appears to thrive on the sand, providing the profile is of a fair depth and not eroded. Isolated orchards are in good condition but the success is largely one of excellent management. The gravelly sand supports fair stands of grass, particularly Canada Blue, in seasons with favourable distribution of rainfall.

Tecumseth Sandy Loam (4,000 acres)

Tecumseth sandy loam is the imperfectly drained outwash soil frequently occurring in association with the well drained Brighton series. The greater part of the type is mapped east of Cavan and in Hope Township while other isolated areas were separated out.

The profile development is fairly typical for soil materials with a moderately high water-table.

.’ * * ’ *, .’ I _ * . . . . .

*. *. * /;;...: .

‘. , ..* .:*. . . *

. . l - 3

’ -* .

. , - . . l - v- *

* 8 . ’ . 8. .- ;: .

..‘._ ..o

. . -- -a. -, - - , I. : ;. v

-. *. : - : . l . 0. . . .‘

A,-5-7 inches of dark sandy loam; fairly high in organic matter; weak crumb structure; pH 7.4.

A -5-10 inches of mottled yellowish sand; inten- sity of mottlings increase with increase of depth; pH 7.0. (B rarely identifiable except under local conditions of improved drainage.)

C -Greyish calcareous sand which may be underlain at varying depths by gravel; pH 7.6.

The Tecumseth sandy loam is located in areas with very smooth or level topography.

40

The natural drainage is imperfect. Where the type occurs in relatively broad tracts and suitable outlets can be established, artificial draining may be profitable. Small areas are frequently surrounded by morainic soils through which it is difficult to secure outlets. Occasionally the sandy materials are underlain by heavy clay and silt materials which increases the problem of artificial drainage.

Tamarack and white cedar trees are commonly found on the Tecumseth sandy loam. A variety of grasses adapted to soils with a high water-table are common on pastured areas.

Agriculture

A fair acreage with better than average drainage conditions is under regular cultivation and supports some spring grains, particularly buckwheat. The general adaptability of the type depends a great deal on the type of weather at seeding. Permanent unimproved pastures are fairly general.

Granby Sandy Loam (6,700 acres) cc Sandy Loam - Bouldery Phase (1,300 acres)

The poorly drained associate of the sandy outwash soils is mapped as Granby sandy loam. The larger and more important locations of the series occur north of Courtice and south of Starkville and Osaca.

The following description is fairly representative of the type of development: ’

A,-6-8 inches of very dark sandy loam; high in organic matter; soft and porous; pH 7.6.

A,-6-10 inches light grey coarse sand; pH 7.2.

G -8-12 inches greyish brown and yellowish brown sand with rusty mottling; pH 7.4.

.

C -Greyish calcareous sand underlain in some instances by gravel or heavy till; occasional strata of silt and clay; substratum of clay at 3 feet or lower in included areas; pH 7.6.

41

0

Granby sandy loam is found in areas with level and depressional topography. The natural drainage is poor but the cost involved in improving it by artificial means usually is not warranted.

The series supports a type of vegetation adapted to an abundant supply of water. White cedars, tamarack and alders are the common trees and shrubs.

’ Granby sandy manent pasture.

loam is typically stonefree and is commonly used for per-

Granby sandy loam (bouldery phase), is mapped on some areas near New- castle and Courtice. Very little of the area is cleared of stones but is left as permanent pasture land. ti

Agriculture

A relatively small percentage of the series is used for general farm crops other than pasture grasses. The Granby soils are late in the spring but are sometimes used for short season crops such as buckwheat. Perhaps the more profitable land use is to seed the areas with suitable grasses to provide forage when upland pasturage is suffering from drought.

D. SOILS FORMED FROM LACUSTRINE MATERIALS

During the recession of the ice lobes, bodies of water were hemmed in by the ice masses or by deposits of glacial drift. These glacial lakes were fed by streams of melt-water from the ice. The streams carried fine-textured soil- forming materials that slowly settled out in the still water, the finer materials remaining in suspension longer than the coarser particles. This sediment occurs as alternate layers of coarser and finer textured layers, which are commonly referred to as varves.

The main characteristics of the lacustrine soil-forming materials in Dur- ham County are the intermediate or heavy texture and the freedom from stones. The topography varies from level to undulating. The depth of the lacustrine materials shows some variation being shallow in the Schomberg and relatively deep in the Newcastle series.

The well-drained series are Newcastle, Schomberg and Percy. The principal difference between the first two is the shallower profile frequently underlain by heavy morainic deposits of the Schomberg. The Newcastle series has probably developed on materials not so high in lime. The Percy is a well- drained loam soil on undulating to rolling topography and underlain at varying depths by Morainic materials. The Smithfield is the imperfectly drained associate of the well-drained soils.

Newcastle Loam (17,300 acres) cc Clay Loam (6,000 acres)

The Newcastle series is mapped within the area covered by glacial Lake Iroquois. This plain extended over a portion of the three southern townships. The beaches of the lake are marked by Brighton gravelly sand and are about 450 feet above sea-level and 200 feet above Lake Ontario.

42

The following is a profile description of a cultivated soil:

A,-47 inches of a moderately dark grey brown loam or clay loam; crumb structure; friable under optimum conditions; stonefree; pH 7.2.

A,-%15 inches of greyish brown loam; nut structure; pH 6.6.

AS--1 -2 inches drab grey loam; slightly compacted; pH 6.8.

B -4-10 inches of brownish sticky clay; when dry breaks into nutlike structure; pH 7.0.

C -Greyish calcareous stonefree lacustrine silts and clays; very compact and frequently varved; pH 8.0.

The areas of Newcastle loam and clay loam are considered to be undulating in topography marked by gentle slopes of about 5%. In some instances steeper slopes are found that are the result of recent stream erosion; bluffs are common along the lake shore providing excellent gocations for examining the varves.

There are some areas where the drainage is only fair; water accumulates between the swells of land after heavy rains and in the spring. Generally the drainage is fair to good.

The woodlots are scarce but those remaining are composed of sugar maple and beech; elm is frequently found in the areas with only fair drainage.

Newcastle loam is generally considered the better orchard soil because of the adequate drainage, fewer low areas and more friable consistency allowing deeper root penetration. The natural fertility is above average excepting the supply of available phosphorus. The loam type is well suited for the growing of canning and general farm crops.

Newcastle clay loam. The heavier type in the series is a productive soil for general farm crops. This soil generally has the highest natural fertility of any type in the county hut like all the others, requires phosphatic supplements. The areas of fair drainage are more common in the clay loam type.

43

Agriculture

The orchards are pretty well confined to the Newcastle loam since it is generally better drained in the upper soil layers. The loam type is underlain by silts and clays very similar to the parent material of the clay loam type. The Newcastle series is well adapted to general farming and dairying, and produces excellent crops of cereal grains, legumes, ensilage corn and other intertilled crops. The lower swells or small depressions could be improved by artificial drainage. The clay loam type is more susceptible to erosion on the slo’bes, which requires some consideration as to applicable control measures to prevent the removal of the topsoil by washing.

Schomberg Clay Loam (5,300 acres) Cb Silt Loam (2,900 acres)

The Schomberg soils are located almost entirely north of the height of land and out of the Iroquois plain. Several small areas east of Canton are included.

The profile is’ relatively shallow, frequently eroded and exhibits slightly better developed ‘characteristics than the Newcastle series.

A.-4-6 inches moderately dark grey-brown silt loam or clay loam (a greyish surface indicates severe sheet erosion) ; crumb structure; nearly stonefree; free carbonates; pH 7.8.

A-6-10 inches greyish silt loam; sharp demarcation; platy structure; pH 7.2.

13 -3-6 inches brownish sticky clay; blocky nutlike structure; pH 7.6.

C -Dull grey or greyish si1t.s and clays; lacustrine origin; highly calcareous; usually varved; till occurs where the lacustrine veneer is shallow; pH 8.0.

The dominant slopes measure about S%, while near Bethany in the silt loam some 2-3% slopes occur.

The internal drainage is good; the rapid runoff of excessive surface water frequently causes sheet erosion.

44

Hardwoods, including maple, beech, ash and some elm are common trees associated with the series.

Schomberg clay loam is developed in this area on a lacustrine veneer underlain by till. The profile is formed in the water-laid sediments with the stony materials occurring at variable depths. Where the sheet erosion has been severe some stones may appear on the surface soil.

Schomberg silt loam. This type is mapped in the vicinity of Bethany. The topography is somewhat smoother than in t,he clay loam type. The lacustrine deposit is generally deeper with the till occurring less frequently.

Agriculture The undulating slopes ‘of a lacustrine soil are very susceptible to sheet

erosion unless control measures are empioyed. Such soils respond to long rotations wit!h a minimum of cultivated crops. The Schomberg series is a high lime soil well suited to clovers and alfalfa. Commercial fertilizers should con- t,ain relatively high p:rcentages of phosphorus and potassium. The use of improved pastures on slopes now showing the effects of erosion is strongly recommended. Areas likely to erode badly should be dealt with according to soil conservation plans.

Percy Loam (4,000 acres) The only member of the series is the Percy loam that was mapped near

Xorrish and Campbellcroft. The Percy series is the light textured associate of the heavier lacustrine soils, Newcastle or Schomberg. Fine sands and loams over heavier materials is the general condition as mapped in Durham County.

A normal non-eroded profile shows a moderately good development.

-;_ -- _- =

v- ,-- _---- -34

-- ~ -- - - --- -

-.- --- e---w

-- ----E---Z--

-- - --- - .-- c___ .-r _-

A,---4-6 inches grey-bro\;n loam or fine sandy loam; crumb structure; generally stonefree; pH 7.2.

A,-6-8 inches greyish fine sandy loam; weak platy structure; pH 6.6.

B -1-4 inches brownish loam; weak nut structure; pH 6.8.

C --Greyish calcareous fine sands, silts and clays; may be underlain at varying depths by till; pH 7.4.

45

The topography is generally strongly undulating with relatively short slopes lacking uniformity in any general direction but making the type fairly susceptible to sheet erosion.

The natural drainage conditions are good. Sugar maple, beech and the occasional elm are the main trees associated

with the type.

Agriculture

The Percy series was first mapped in Northumberland County where it was considered an excellent soil for general farming. The Percy loam near Norrish in Durham County has been subjected to considerable sheet erosion which has removed much of the topsoil. The other areas included as Percy are more adapted to general farming. Where climatic conditions are favourable the type is well suited to the growing of fruit and canning crops.

Smithfield Clay Loam (18,000 acres)

The Smithfield clay loam represents the imperfectly drained associate of the heavier lacustrine soils. The areas mapped as Smithfield occupy small depressions lacking adequate drainage facilities. Formed from high lime parent material, free carbonates commonly occur in the surface soil.

The profile horizons are often difficult to identify but may be generalized as indicated in the following descriptions:

. A,--5-7 inches of dark greyish brown clay loam; stonefree and alka.line; crumb structure; pH 7.8.

AZ---6-10 inches greyish silty loam, marked by a rusty brown mottling; tending t.oward massive structure; pH 7.6.

B -Generally occurs as a stronger accumulation of mottling in the lower part of the A, and immediately above the parent material; structure coarse blocky to massive; pH 7.8.

C -Greyish, calcareous clay; moderately compact and impervious; varves may be found in the deeper deposits; pH 8.0.

46

The topography ranges from level to gently undulating. The natural drainage is inadequate for growing most farm crops, especially

fall wheat and clovers. Elm is the chief tree growth associated with the series.

Agriculture

Where the drainage has been artificially improved, the type is fairly well adapted to general farming. The higher organic matter content in the surface soil holds considerable moisture as well as improving the workability of the heavy surface layer. Artificial drainage .by tile or open ditches should be a worthwhile practice to improve the productivity and usefulness of the type.

E. SOILS DEVELOPED FROM ERODED SANDS Bridgman Sand (4,000 acres)

Bridgman sand may be found in areas of the Pontypool or Brighton series 1 where the dark surface soil has been entirely removed by wind and water

erosion. It is not unusual to find the sand drifting. Bridgman sand includes the eroded areas and the places where the eroded materials are accumulating.

Loose, incoherent, coarse sand with gravel stones and some boulders, very droughty, and contains little or no organic matter.

Bridgman sand is a non-agricultural soil. In its present condition the sand is drifting and accumulates on cropland, pastureland or woodland and even barricades some road allowances. The area mapped as Bridgman sand and many other small “blow-outs” too small to indicate on the map should be reforested and fenced from livestock.

47

F. SOILS DEVELOPED ON FLOOD LANDS ALONG STREAM COURSES

Bottom Land (19,100 acres)

Bottom land should be considered as a complex soil condition adjoining stream courses. These areas are subject to flooding and surface-depositions of materials carried by the streams, Under these conditions a variety of soil materials is to be expected.

Frequently some form of layering appears that marks the yearly depositions. In other places the surface is well covered with gravel, stones and boulders. The underlying material at greater depths is usually a compact heavy till.

L4reas of Bottom land often provide good areas for permanent pastures with water close at hand. The pastures are seldom of the improved type and are often looked upon as waste land. There is little agricultural development of the type beyond the use of the areas for grazing.

48

G. SOILS DEVELOPED ON ORGANIC MATERIALS

Muck (22,100 acres)

ing Muck soils generally occur in

in a northerly direction. depressions or along the slow streams flow-

A blackish layer ranging in depth from one foot to several feet composed of organic material fairly well decomposed. Frequently underlain by clay, till or greyish marl. The water table is high.

At the present time muck soils are not used in Durham County for general crops. Some areas provide a little pasture but nearly all is left in a wooded condition. Tamarack and white cedar are the common trees along with numerous grasses and sedges adapted to soils with a high water table.

49

Marsh (2,200 acres)

Approximately two thousand southwestern end of Lake Scugog.

acres of marsh were mapped largely in the

The areas of Marsh are continually under water. Cattails and other water plants grow under these conditions with some of their roots anchored in a floating mass of raw organic material that accumulates with the dying down of the vegetation.

The agricultural possibilities of this water-logged soil amount to very littIe. The chief agricultural function would be the supplying of water to livestock and the storing of water to supply the underground systems for wells or springs. Marsh could be developed into a reserve for water fowl and animals.

PART IV

AGRICULTURE ‘AKD LAND USE

EARLY SETTLEMENT AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

The settlement and agricultural development of Durham County pro- ceeded from the lake-shore townships towards the interior. Settlers arrived by boat, the only means of travel for many years in the young communities. Their exports were moved by lake boats and barges until roads and railways were established.

Shortly before 1800 land grants were made to families in Clarke and Darlington townships to be followed by grants under Lieutenant-Governor Simcoe’s plan. The war of 1812-1814 retarded settlement but a period of considerable expansion followed. In this new country the cropping and soil management methods of Europe were not always practical. The soil exhibited considerable variation and the judgment of settlers had a great influence on what was to be grown. The general idea was to judge land by the quality and yields of wheat. produced. The inadequate preparation of the soil for seeding and the lack of good rotations precipitat,ed widespread beliefs that the soils were exhausted. Coincident with the raising of cattle a marked improvement in soil fertility was noticed.

The early type of agriculture may be gathered from the following list of exports from Port! Darlington for the years 1844 and 1850.

TABLE 5

PORT DARLINGTON EXPORTS

1844 1860 gnrK!r. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254,000 bd. ft.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?z% %k3f”- Oatmeal.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0,9&z; p;;. ‘910 bbls:

Whiskey.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1: ;g: 188 bbls. Pork.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 bbls. Potatoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 bus.’ 5,830 bus. Wheat . . .._. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,300 bus. 27,880 bus. Other exports included butter, potash, ashes, barley, etc.

Before grist mills were built the wheat was ground by hand using hand- mills, wooden mortars or flat stones. Some farmers took the wheat to mills as far away as Kingston. The first mill in Bowmanville was in operation around 1824. From 1830 to roughly 1875 the milling business was enormous. At one time during this period there were 13 mills within 8 miles of Bowman- ville having an aggregate capacity of 700 barrels per day from wheat grown locally. In 1851 at the World’s Exhibition in London, England, two Darling- ton citizens received medals for their produce, one for flour from Durham County wheat and the other for native oatmeal.

In Hope township, settlement commenced at an Indian trading post, “Cochingomink,” which was later called Toronto and still later Port Hope. Here, Elias Smith was offered a tract of land by the government providing he built grist and saw mills. These mills were in operation by 1798 to serve settlers as far north as Lindsay. The Midland railway which terminated at

51

Port Hope was completed in the 1850’s. In 1866 over 50 million feet of lumber left Port Hope by lake steamer.

The development and settlement of Cartwright, Manvers, and Cavan t,ownships soon followed that of the lake-shore counties. The building of a roadway to Port Perry aided greatly in the expansion of the northerly townships. At one time there were 25 steamships and numerous barges working between Lindsay and Port Perry on Lake Scugog.

14round 1840 threshing machines were advertised as being manufactured near Oshawa but little reference is found of any machines being used prior to 1850 or 1860. The early machines required 8 or 10 horses to supply the power and a staff of men to operate the machine, move up sheaves, cut bands, move straw and handle the grain. The reaping machines came into use about 1855. These contrivances required three men to operate the reaper and four or five binding the grain. In 1852 Daniel Massey and his son in Newcastle distributed a hay-cutting machine to be followed by a reaper and finally a combined reaper and mower. Massey’s first rake appeared in 1862 and the ‘I Massey Harvester” in 1878. This machine was very popular until it was replaced in 1884 by a self-binder from the Massey factory in Toronto.

For a more complete account of the early history of Durham County the reader is referred to the following:

The Townships of Darlington and Clarke by John Squair-courtesy of the Bowmanville Statesman,

The Province of Ontario-A History, Vol. I, by Dominion Pub- lishing Company.

On the Shore of Lake Scugog-by Samuel Farmer. Early Life in Upper Canada-by Guillet. Historical Atlas of Northumberland and Durham Counties-by

H. Belden and Company, Toronto.

PRESENT AGRICULTURE

Throughout previous discussions under soil series the term “general farming” has been freely used to describe a common type of agriculture where most of the home grown grains are fed and the livestock marketed largely as beef, pork and dairy products. Specialized farming, as the name implies, refers to the growing of crops that require special attention in their production and marketing. For the Durham County area fruit, potatoes, canning crops and tobacco are considered to be in the specialized class.

The following table compiled from 1941 Census figures indicates the percentage of the gross value of farm produce for each of several farm products.

TABLE 6

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FARM PRODUCTS IN DURHAM COUNTY

Field crops.. ................................................. 44.3 per cent of the gross value Animal produce.. .......................................... 20.5 per cent of the gross value Livestock alive and slaughtered.. .............. Vegetables, fruits (nursery and

27.8 per cent of the gross value

greenhouse). ....................................... 5.0 per cent of the gross value Forest ............................................................ 2.4 per cent of the gross value

52

These figures indicate that field crops and livestock account for nearly 90 per %ent of the gross value of farm produce. The field crops like oats, barley, mixed grain and hay are grown largely for consumption by the farm livestock. Some grains, particularly wheat, rye, buckwheat, peas and beans are marketed largely as cash crops, the remainder being fed. Legumes and grasses are used as summer pasture or cut as hay for winterfeed. The production and consumption of crops on the farm provides a system whereby soil-building materials are returned to the soil. In addition to this, a proper balance should be maintained between soil-depleting and soil-building crops.

Specialized farming has concentrated on three principal crops, apples, tobacco and canning crops. In 1941 Durham had the seventh largest acreage of orchards of all counties in Ontario, according to the Annual Report of the Statistics Branch. The tobacco industry centred around Osaca on the sandy soils has shown considerable development in recent years. No figures on acreage, yield or gross value of t,obacco are included.

TABLE 7

PRESENT LAND USE (1941 CENSUS)

Total land area.. . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Area of occupied land.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Area of improved occupied land. . . . . . . . . . . . . ,. . . Area of unimproved occupied land . . . . . . . . . . .

Including: Woodland... ._. . . . . . . Natural pasture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I. :.I.:,:::: .:.:I. ,, Marsh or waste land.. . . . . . . . . . .’ ‘1

No. occupied farms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. Average area per farm . . . . . . _. ._ _::

ACRES 402,560 352,616 238,520 155,622

43,139 66,097

4,860 2,769 127.3

Of the total land area in Durham County, 87.6 per cent is classed as occupied land with approximately 88 per cent cleared. There is a county average of 15 acres of woodland for each of the 2,769 occupied farms.

TABLE 8

ACREAGE OF PRINCIPAL CROPS (1945 STATISTICS PUBLICATION)

Hay and clover. _. . . . . . . . . . . . .._. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oats. . . .._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “‘I

49,784 acres

Mixed grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._... 29,158 acres

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wheat.. . . . . . . . . . .

24,565 acres .

Alfalfa., .__.........................,.,...._,..............._,...... 15,558 acres

. . . . Buckwheat...

13,271 acres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _,

Ensilage 5,185 acres

corn.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. ._. Rye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,......,... ._................_. . . . . ..

6,668 acres

Sweet clover 4,727 acres

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. Barley.. . . ,

3,710 acres . . . . .

Potatoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._.................................... 3,874 acres ’

Peas. . 2,185 acres

. . . Alsike..

1,834 acres . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . 980 acres

Other field crops (beans, flax, turnips, mangles, etc.) . . . . 2,626 acres ---- _~---- All crops . . . . . . . .._.__. . . .._._. .._. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., ,. . . . . acres Cleared pasture . . . . . . . . . . . _. . .

164,125 77,319 acres

The above field crops occupy 164,125 acres or about 69 per cent of all th& improved land in t!he county. By grouping the acreages of hay and clove’r, alfalfa, sweet clover, alsike and 77,319 acres of cleared pasture, the total

53

would be slightly more than 50 per cent of all improved land. From Table 6 the gross values of field crops, vegetables, fruits, etc., was approximatbly 49.3 per cent of the total gross value. These comparisons indicate that mixed farming is the dominant type of agriculture which includes the growing of cereal grains and such row crops as ensilage corn and potatoes with a considerable acreage devoted to hay and pasture grasses and clovers. As mentioned before, fruit growing is pretty well concentrated along the north shore of Lake Ontario.

MANAGEMENT OF DURHAM COUNTY SOILS

The maintenance of a profitable and enduring soil productivity is complex and difficult on some soils. It is strongly influenced by the inter-relationship of! such factors as climate, moisture, organic matter, texture, topography, tilth, fertility, etc. While a perfect scheme of soil management is not likely to be found there are several guiding principles that can be applied and that are recognized as contributing much toward good soil management practices.

A good system of soil management should consider the tilth of the soil. The soil should be plowed at the proper time and to proper depth and cultivated so as to promote a desirable tilthy condition. The working of the soil to improve its physical condition hinders the growth and reproduction of weeds. In cultivated fields or pastures weeds compete with the farm crops for sunlight, plant food and moisture.

Soil management systems strive to provide an adequate supply of available plant food. If the soil fertility is naturally high and other factors like texture, organic matter, are such as to aid in maintaining fertile soils, the management problem is less complex. Frequently the soil requires additions of organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, potash and, in some instances, lime.

Light Textured Soils

Light textured soils include the sand and gravelly sand types of the Brighton and Pontypool series. From previous series descriptions the main characteristics are the smooth undulating Brighton topography and the rough hilly terrain associated with the Pontypool. Both series are excessively drained, have a low natural fertility and are subject to wind and water erosion.

While not adapted to the production of general farm crops, other land uses may be successful. Tobacco grows very, well on the Brighton sand where the highly calcareous or lime materials are at, least 2% or 3 feet from the surface layer. To attempt tobacco growing on the hilly or rolling Pontypool may not be as successful for two reasons: the erosion inducing tendencies of the crop and the slight climatic differences. At one time in the agricultural development of Durham County these soils were cultivated and good yields received, but the natural fertility and the dark surface soil including most of the organic matter soon disappeared. Under careful management and soil- building practices, these soils provide fair pasture. The grazing season is short, limited to periods when the rainfall is plentiful and frequent. It is generally agreed by local farmers and others that a large part of the Pontypool sand should be reforested.

Much of the light textured soil has been retired from cropland due, no

54

doubt, to a combination of factors that tend to make it unsuitable for successful crop production. However, it is well to bear in mind that in the occasional isolated case ve’ry worthwhile agricultural enterprises are to be found on the Brighton and Pontypool soils. Such successful endeavours are found only when the farmer has a complete appreciation of the inherent potentialities of his soil and uses adequate fertility building practices and sound rotation systems to produce satisfactory yields. From a detailed Soil Erosion and Land Use Survey * conducted in a sample area of the county in 1942, the following observations on land use were made:

SOIL TYPE yO CROPLAND % PASTURE % WOODLAND % IDLE LAND LAND

Pontypool sand ......................... Pontypool sandy loam.. ............ Brighton sand ............................ Brighton sandy loam.. ..............

--- 23.7 42.6 28.5 5.2 36.0 55.0

1% ........

25.6 49.5 10.3 47.8 36.2 * 13:o 3.0

It is interesting to note from the above figures the large percentage of the sand types that are in pasture land at the present time. Low fertility levels, as reflected in low crop yields account for part of the retirement from cropland. Because of steep slopes and rather scanty vegetative cover, the Pontypool series has suffered extensively from the ravages of both wind and water erosion. The following table illustrates the extent to which erosion has affected the light textured soils:

Pontypool sand ............... Pontypool sandy loam .... Brighton sand.. .................. Brighton sandy loam.. ......

11

438.32 42:2

33.0 41.3 10.9 3.8 42.2 31.1 21.7 26.7 11.9 ii-;: 37.7 13.2 36:‘: 3:s

The above table indicates that the Pontypool series has suffered to a much greater extent from erosion than has the Brighton series. This is to be expected because almost 40% of the Pontypool sand mapped had slopes greater than 15% while the Brighton sand had less than 20% of the area in this slope group. The areas of Brighton sand with slopes greater than 15% were adjacent t’o drainage channels where the streams had become deeply entrenched.

The essential requirement of most upland, well-drained soils and especially all the Brighton and Pontypool types is the incorporation of more organic matter in the surface or plow layer. An adequate supply of organic matter becomes the most important factor in maintaining the proper amounts and the availability of plant food. This plant food is released by the decay of the organic matter in the soil. Besides acting as a storehouse of plant food, the humus of the topsoil holds the moisture required by growing plants. In general farming considerable barnyard manure is added to the soil and other additions

* Richards, N. R. and Morwick, F. F. Soil Erosion and Land Use Survey Hope Township Project Area, Durham County, Ontario.

55

are made by plowing under unpastured clovers or the aftermath. Some orchards located on the sandy soils receive quantities of cut hay, grass or straw which is spread around the trees. When relatively large quantities of raw organic matter are plowed under or spread on the surface, special consideration must be given to applying some special fertilizers to aid in the rotting down of the organic material.

The Tecumseth and Granby series are sandy soils with imperfect drainage conditions. Since the water is not removed from these soils as quickly as on the well-drained series, the task of holding t/he soil fertility is less difficult. Water does not move through the soils freely enough to cause serious losses of plant food by leaching. Once these soils are drained artificially, the normal high organic matter content of the surface soil disappears quickly with the improved conditions of drainage and aeration.

Intermediate Textured Soils

The loam and fine sandy loam types of such series as Bondhead, Otonabee, Dundonald, Darlington, Lyons, Guerin, Newcastle and Percy are included in this group of intermediate textured soils. All the series except Lyons and Guerin are well-drained. Bondhead, Otonabee and Dundonald series are associated with rolling to hilly relief and varying susceptibilities to erosion.

Slightly over 4,000 acres of Bondhead fine sandy loam were examined in detail in a sample area of Hope Township, Durham County and an inventory made of the physical factors that affect t’he use of this soil type*. A summary of this survey is presented here to illustrate t,hose factors that play an important part in the use of the intermediate text’ured soils of Durham County.

Slope affects the rate of runoff and consequently the susceptibility of a soil t,ype to erosion. Six slope classes were established to express this factor in the Bondhead fine sandy loam with the following results:

SLOPE CLASS AREA OCCUPIED IN '% A-O-3%. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-3-8yc 4;*: c-815% 43:2 D-15-25%. E-25-35%... F-35% and over. . . ‘.‘. . . . .

;*i 1:9

The following table indicates the distribution of the slope classes according to present land use. About half the cropland area is located on slopes greater than 8%. Because of steep topography and susceptibility to erosion there has been a tendency to retire a large proportion of the steep slopes to permanent cover of woodland or pasture.

DISTRIBUTION OF PRESENT LAND USE ACCORDING TO SLOPE GROUP

-

1 O-3% ( 3-8% 1 8-15% 1 15-25% / 25-35% 1 37&4;D ASLOPES B SLOPES CSLOPES D SLOPES E SLOPES FSLOPES

PRESENTLANDUSE

Cropland (2,892 acres), Pasture Land (932 acres) Woodland (132 acres)...... Idle Land (54 acres). . .

% % % % % 2.1 48.0 43.9 1.9 %3 1.7 35.6 40.8

17.:

41.2 3214 . 1E i-t : 3::: 61.6 7.6 0’ 0’

* Richards, N. R. Physical Factors Affecting Land Use in a Common Soil Type in Canada. Sci. Agric. 25:5, January 1945.

56

The Bondhead fine sandy loam is a soil type well suited to, and used extensively for the production of agricultural crops. About 72% of this type in the sample area was found to be in cropland. Because of the suitable inherent qualit,ies it possesses for crop production, it has been subjected to rather short rotations and frequent cultivation. The rolling topography of the type, along with the type of farming commonly practised in the area, has resulted in considerable sheet erosion. On the cropland area erosion has affected the 4,000 acres examined to the following extent:

EROSION ON CROPLAND OF BONDHEAD FINE SANDY LOAM

Little or no erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9% Slight erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.4% Moderate erosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._........... . 44.1% Severe erosion.. . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7% Very severe erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I..: . . . . . . :.::..I 4.1%

Assuming that the four factors soil type, present land use, degree of slope and erosion have been measured, they form the basis for developing a plan of improved land use on the surveyed area. Each factor is important in itself but in an effort to express the capabilities of the Bondhead fine sandy loam for use they have been grouped into a simple classification. Five categories were established in which Classes I, II, III included land that is suitable for the regular use of growing crops that require tillage. Classes IV and V are considered to be best adapted for permanent cover of pasture or forest land. Based on the physical characteristics which determine the capability of the soil type for use, the following classes were recognized:

LAND CLASS PERCENTAGE OF AREA I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6

II . . .._ _..,_ . . . .._._...._.._......._._._........_.....__........... 41.8 III... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.2 Iv.. . . . . ..,....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1

Land Class I and II require good soil management practices, satisfactory rotations and the continued application of soil conserving principles if this land is to serve its most useful purpose. Because of advanced erosion, slope or other reasons, Land Class III requires intensive soil conserving practices. Longer rotations to lessen runoff, contour strip cropping to reduce the amount of cultivated land exposed to moving water, diversion ditches to break and reduce the length of slope may separately or collectively be employed to prevent sheet erosion.

The results of this detailed investigation on a common soil type in Durham County indicate that if the Bondhead fine sandy loam is to serve its greatest use capability, erosion control and sound soil conserving measures should be employed. These measures should be incorporated into an acceptable farm plan and cropping system based on a suitable long term use of the land. The results of the detailed survey on this soil type should be applicable in a large part to the Dundonald and Otonabee series.

The management and handling of this large group of soils should be guided by the suitability of the land to produce particular crops that give high yields of good quality. In meeting these requirements, the effect on the soil must not be overlooked. The farming practices should be controlled to such an extent that the soils are not eroded by water or wind and that the rainfall

57

soaks into the ground rather than running off the land. To meet these requirements of a soil management plan, attention will centre around the selection and rotation of crops adaptable to the land on each acre of a farm. In a general way, any part of a farm that is too steep or eroded to produce an adequate permanent pasture should be reforested. Land with less slope but susceptible to erosion when planted to cereal grains should become the permanent pasture areas. The balance of the farm which is smoother and is not eroded as severely would be considered suitable for rotational cropping. The length of time the cropland should remain in hay depends to some extent on the steepness and danger of erosion. Even on gently sloping land, row crops like corn, potatoes, tobacco and roots, afford very little protection for the soil often resulting in serious erosion.

Under any type of farming the supply and availability of necessary plant foods must be kept at optimum levels. The organic matter supply is a storehouse for the nitrogen, phosphorus, potash and other plant foods. Maintaining plenty of humus in these soils is a management problem slightly less than on coarse droughty sandy soils. Applying barnyard manure and plowing under clovers and grasses and hay aftermaths are the usual methods of adding organic matter to the soil. For many crops applications of commercial fertilizers, based on soil test recommendations, improve the quality and quantity of produce.

Heavy Textured Soils

The heavy textured soils in Durham County occupy a small percentage of the total area. The Newcastle, Schomberg, and Smithfield series are the heavier textured soils considered under this grouping. The series include clay loam and silt loam types.

The Smithfield clay loam under natural conditions is a dark fertile soil but its suitability for some crops, especially alfalfa, is limited by imperfect drainage conditions. Where this type occurs over large enough areas and suitable outlets can be established, artificial drainage would improve the general usefulness of the type.

The Schomberg clay loam and silt loam are alkaline well-drained soil types. The topography is usually strongly undulating to rolling, which encourages the erosion hazards. In laying out or developing land use plans for the individual farm the same general procedure outlined for the intermediate textured soils should be followed. These types contain more silt and clay which makes the soils slightly more compact, less ready to absorb rainfall with the result that erosion is often severe on fairly smooth slopes. The areas that have eroded but are capable of supporting grasses and clovers should be returned to pasture.

The Newcastle clay loam is mapped in the southern parts and is well adapted to general farming, dairying and some fruit growing. The natural fertility is generally higher than most soils in the county. Good cultural practices, that maintain the supply of organic matter and provide other plant foods, are recommended to retain the productivity. In dairying districts there is generally a large percentage of hay and as the slopes on the Newcastle are not steep, erosion is not as serious a problem as in many other soils. Where clean cultivation in orchards is practised and large acreages of row crops are grown, the sides and tops of the knolls are often grey in colour indicating an erosion problem.

Maintaining a good tilthy condition may be a problem on some of these heavier soils. When a well drained soil becomes hard or sticky and can be worked only under ideal moisture conditions, the fault is often found in the lowered content of soil humus. This organic matter acts as a binder to hold lighter soils together and reduce their droughtiness while in clay loam soils the sticky clay is mixed with the humus to give a more tilthy friable soil. Under some conditions imperfectly drained soils lack organic matter, especially where row crops and cereal grains have been grown extensively and no grass or clover included in t)he rotation.

CROP ADAPTABILITIES AND PRODUCTIVITY RATINGS FOR DURHAM COUNTY SOILS

To successfully grow such general farm crops as fall wheat, spring grains, ensilage, corn, roots, hay and pasture, a fertile well-drained soil located in a favourable climatic zone is essential. Having equal access to these two requirements, the degree of success among farmers is explained in terms of management, marketing facilities and local conditions of soil and climate. The production of general farm crops is governed by the inherent characteristics of t,he soil and the climate which are not as liable to the changes or fluctuations as found in management or markets.

Throughout this report the potentialities and limitations for crop production of the soil types of Durham County have been discussed. Recom- mendations for soil improvement have been suggested. Reference has been made to those crops for which some types are especially suited.

Now consideration is given to the soil type-crop relationship with particular reference to the comparative suitability of individual soil types for specific crops. Hence, a soil rating for a number of crops is presented which is an attempt to give a crystallized expression to all those factors that influence the productiveness of a soil type.

Various methods have been used for making soil ratings. It is not the intention of the writers or the purpose of this report to appraise such methods. Suffice to say that in this rating the characterist,ics of a soil are weighed in relation to their effect upon the production of a particular crop. If a method were involved whereby one could manipulate the various phenomena that. influence production and measure the effect exercised, then a rating could be made on a fairly scientific basis. It is indeed difficult to conceive a means whereby such an evaluation could be reached.

Ratings assigned according to yield data considered representative of the production of a specified crop on a particular soil have limitations. Yields: collected by interviews will only be as good as the memory of the man inter- viewed. It is rather doubtful if a man can remember yields from individual fields for more than a year or two without the aid of records. Yields from any geographic4 unit larger than a farm carry only slight significance in estimating; the productive capacity of individual soil types.

Probably the soundest basis for rating would be tb collect yields under specific management from sample areas well distributed over a soil type area. and for a sufficient number of years to eliminate differences due to climate- Yield data collected on such a scale is costly and time consuming to obtain.

’ 59

No scheme of productivity indices can be looked upon as carrying an implication of mathematical precision. They are, however, a means of stating that one soil type is better suited for the production of certain crops than is another. The bases upon which they are formed depends upon the judgment ,of those individuals charged with the responsibility of making the rating.

It is well to keep in mind that the ratings are made for crops commonly grown in the area and under prevailing conditions of management. With the introduction of new varieties, new systems of soil management and other unforeseen factors, the ratings may of necessity be adjusted and changed.

Good Cropland

The types listed under good cropland soils represent about 47 per cent of the land in Durham County. These soils are well adapted to general farming when those cultural practices are followed that maintain the soil at optimum levels of fertility. Some of the types are suitable for the production of special- iced crops chiefly fruits and potatoes.

On rolling types like the Schomberg, Otonabee and Bondhead, practices to conserve soil and water should be followed. Cultivation up and down the slope increases the loss of topsoil and surface water. The Schomberg series because of texture and slope is particularly susceptible to water erosion.

Good to Fair Cropland

About 11 per cent of the soils in Durham County are placed in this broad grouping. Generally speaking each type is characterized by one dominant feature that restricts the adaptibility for general farming. Local areas occur in any one type that would be included in good or fair cropland. The more important limiting features are:

Smithfield clay loam ,..... . _. . im erfect Brighton sandy loam.. . . _.

drainage _, lig % t texture and moderate fertility

Tecumseth sandy loam.. . . . . . . . Dundonald sandy loam.. . . _. . . . . . . .

imperfect drainage susceptibility to erosion

Fair Cropland

These soils represent about 9 per cent of the area. For general farm crops these soils are less suitable than those of the preceding groups. To restore, develop or maintain the proper soil condition necessary for general farm crops intensive and costly practices are involved. The principal limiting factors :tlF:

Guerin loam . . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . Guerin sandy loam.. . . . . . ._. . . .

imperfect drainage

Pontypool sandy loam.. . . . . . . . . imperfect drainage

Granby sandy loam.. . . . . . . . light texture, steep slopes, erosion

Brighton sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . poor drainage

. . . .._. . . . . . Brighton gravelly sand., _. _.

low fertility and erodibility . . . . . low fertility

Fair to Poor Cropland

A wide variety of soils and soil conditions is included in this grouping. These soils represent approximately 32 per cent of the area. Generally these soils are looked upon as marginal for general farming but some parts of the arm are adapted to specialized crops. For the most part they serve their greatest usefulness as forest land or under a controlled system of grazing. ‘These soils, with their limitations and recommended uses, are given as follows:

60 *

1‘Y 13 LI~~~ITATIONS HECOMMENDATIONS ______-____--_ ___--

Otonabee loam, steep phase Steep topography, erodihilit> Permanent pasture, woodland -- -___

Pontypool gravelly sand Low fertility, steep topog- General reforestation except- Pontypool sand raphy, erodibility ing certain local areas

‘- - Bottom Land Overflow and flooding hazard Permanent pasture, some crop-

land and woodland --____

Bondhead loam, bouldery Stoniness phase

-~- Woodland, pasture and some

cropland where stones are removed

- -- ----~~ Guerin loam, bouldery phase Imperfect drainage, stoniness Permanent pasture and wood- Lyons loam land Granby sandy loam,

bouldery phase - I------ Brighton sandy loam, Stoniness and low fertility

bouldery phase Pelrmnent pasture and wood-

Muck Very poor drainage Woodland and water reser- voirs

Bridgman sand Drifting sand Reforestation

61

TABLE 9

SOIL RATiNG FOR GENERAL FARM CROPS

The crop adaptability rating for each soil type is indicated as follows: G - Good; G-F - Good to Fair; F - Fair; F-P - Fair to Poor; P - Poor.

GOOD CROPLAND

Newcastle loam.. . . . . Newcastle clay loam.. Percy loam. . . . . ._ . . Schomberg silt loam.. Schomberg clay loam Darlington loam. . . . . Bondhead loam.. . . . . Otonabee loam ,... . . . . . Darlington sandy loan Bondhead sandy loam

GOOD TO FAIR CROPLAND

Smithfield clay loam.. Brighton sandy loam.. Tecumseth sandy loan Dundonald sandy loan

FAIR CROPLAND

Guerin loam.. . . . . Guerin sandy loam.. Pontypool sandy loam Granby sandy loam . . Brighton sand.. . . . . . . . . Brighton gravelly sam

FAIR TO POOR CROPLAND

Ot;;;iF loam, steep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Posnatyrl gravelly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pontypool sand.. . . . Bottom Land . . . . . . . . . Bondhead loam,

bouldery phase . . . . . Guerin loam,

bouldery phase . . . . . Lyons loam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Granby sand loam,

bouldery K p ase . . . . . . . . , Brighton sand,

bouldery phase . . . . . . Muck ,.......,....,......, . . . . . . Bridgman sand.. . . . . , . . .

G-F G-F

GFF G-F G-F

;I:: F-P

F-P

;I; . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . . . . .

..* . . . . .

. . . . . . .

W

--

G-F

E

: G

G-F G

:

E

G-F

E

: G

GFF

F-P G-F

GTF

FFP F F

FTP F-P F-P F-P F-P

P

E . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

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FTP . . .

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P P

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z o# v --

G-F

GTF

:

F

G-F G-F

G

GEF G-F

:I; G-F

F”

G-F G-F

GrF F F F

F-P G-F F-P

FFP F-P

F-P

F P

P

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Pp . . . . . . .

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G-F G-F

E

:r

G-F

E G-F

G-F

z T

; P

F

; F

. .

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; F

G-F

i

F P

F

F F-G

F

F

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; . . . . . .

GFF G-F

F-P G-F

G_FF

F-P P

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: F-P

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F-P F-P

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62

PART V

ANALYTICAL DATA

The chemical and physical analyses of 75 samples of surface soils taken in Durham County during the survey are shown in Table 10. The chemical analyses indicate the levels of some of the plant nutrients in the soil. The physical analyses record the relative amounts of sand, silt and clay in the soils that were analysed.

Sampling

The samples were taken after the area had been mapped. The number and distribution of samples taken from the county generally depended on the extent and importance of the soil t’ypes. In an attempt to avoid the effects of different cultural and management pract,ices, the samples were taken from pasbure fields that appeared to have been pastured for several years without recent applicat8ions of manure or fertilizer.

Reaction

The soils of Durham County are mostly in the neutral to mildly alkaline range, Only 3 samples out of 75 were below a pH of 6.0 and 10 samples were above a pH of 8.0.

Only local areas on the well-drained non-eroded sands are sufficiently acid to indicate a need for liming. Samples from individual fields should be t’ested before applying lime extensively.

Phosphorus

The supply of phosphorus in Durham County soils is much higher than in most of the counties farther west. However, with the alkaline reaction and high calcium content on many of the soils, the phosphorus is not as available to the plants as it would be if the soil were slightly acid.

In describing the method used in the determination of readily soluble phosphorus Lohse and Ruhnke state that soils containing less than 60 pounds of phosphorus per acre appear to indicate very marked phosphate deficiency. No figure however is proposed that would indicate an adequate supply but some later work on Carleton County soils would indicate that 200 lbs. might be accepted as a tentative figure for soils near neutral or acid. For the more alkaline soils some additional phosphorus in the form of phosphatic fertilizers usually gives good crop response, even though the soil contains a fair amount.

In plants, phosphorus is largely concentrated in the seeds; in animals phosphorus and calcium are important elements in the bones. A low phosphorus content in the soil is reflected in a delayed maturity of the plant, poor plant growth and root development.

Potassium

The figures for the replaceable potassium (K) indicate the supply of this element that is available to growing plants. The total amount in a soil is generally much greater but becomes available slowly through various soil reactions. The necessary amount of replaceable potassium for most general farm crops is approximately 167 pounds of potassium (K) per acre, with somewhat larger amounts for crops like potatoes or tobacco.

63

The heavier textured soils, clays, clay loams and silt loams, in a general way, have a greater supply of replaceable potassium than the sandy loam soil t,ypes. This is borne out by the greater supply in the Schomberg and New- castle clay loams. Most of the medium and lighter textured soils are deficient in potassium supply and should benefit by the application of potash fertilizers.

,4n adequate supply of available potassium in a soil promotes the growth of a healthy plant of good quality. Potassium is essential in the production of starch and sugar in plants, assures plump, well-developed kernels and in general increases the resistance of plants to disease.

The liquid portion of manure normally contains more than half the total amount of potassium, nearly half t,he nitrogen and a trace of phosphorus. Care should be taken in handling and storing manure to conserve this liquid portion.

Calcium

The soils of Durham County are well supplied with calcium for normal and continued plant growth. In discussing soil reaction it was suggested that soil tests be made before calcium (lime) was added for the purpose of correct- ing an acidic or sour condition. Since most of the subsoils contain an excessive amount of calcium for best plant growth it is particularly important to protect these soils from erosion.

Magnesium

Magnesium deficiency may occur when the water-soluble supply is less than 40 pounds per acre. It would appear that the soils in Durham County are adequately supplied. The sandy soils are more likely to be deficient than the heavy textured soils.

Organic Matter

The amounts of organic matter in soils are lowest in the well-drained sandy types like Pontypool and Brighton, intermediate in the loam series, Bondhead and Otonabee and highest in poorly drained soils like the Granby. The organic matter content varies with the management and cultural practices that are used on each farm but since the samples were taken from areas pastured for several years, the figures should be comparative.

It is particularly important that a good supply of organic matter should be maintained in the soil. It not only supplies nutrients for the growing plants as it decomposes, but also serves as a storehouse for plant nutrients. It greatly assists in forming a friable crumb structure in the surface soil so that the rains will soak in readily and not wash off taking part of the soil with it.

The most economical sources of organic matter are barnyard manure, crop residues, cover crops, spoiled hay or straw, etc. When coarse strawy material is used in fairly large quantities, such as straw left after a combine for example, some additional nitrogen fertilizer should be applied to help the straw decompose more rapidly.

64

APPEISDIX

SOIL SURVEY METHODS

The purpose of a soil survey is essentially to establish an inventory of the soil resources and to record the information on maps and in a written report. The soils are studied, classified, ?-napped and described by men who are specially trained in soil science. They are examined in depth as well as on the surface, and such factors as texture, stoniness, structure, colour, organic matter content, etc., are noted. The topography and drainage, native vegetation, crops grown and amount of erosion are also noted and correlated.

Before starting the field work a study is made of any general information available in the literature concerning the formation of soils in the area. This may include reports on the surface geology, physiography; climate, natural vegetation, type of agriculture, etc. When the field work starts, one of the first objectives is to make several cross-section tours to study the general soil profile development and determine the main soil types in the area.

The soil survey conducted in Durham Count,y may be classed as a detailed reconnaissance type of survey. ‘Traverses were made along all roads passable by car, and extra traverses were made on foot wherever necessary, in order to obtain the required amount of detail. Wherever available, cross-sections along road-cuts were studied, and elsewhere the soil was examined in depth by making a boring with a one-and-a-half-inch auger, or by digging a pit with a

spade or shovel. Kotes were taken continually during the survey, and the locations of

boundaries between soil types were plotted on base maps with a scale of one inch = one mile, as supplied by the Hydrographic and Map Service, Ottawa.

Several representative samples of the surface soil were taken from each of the more important agricultural types. These sa.mples were taken from fields which had been in sod for at least two or three years and which had not been recently manured or fertilised. The results of t.he analyses of these samples are reported elsewhere in this report.

65

TABLE 10

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF SURFACE SOILS FROM DURHAM COUNTY

ANALYZED BY A. L. WILLIS

So1r. TYPE

______---___- Rondhead loam __ ._...

g Hondhead sandy loam

Brighton sand

Brighton sandy loam

SavPI SO.

,I3

-- Ton NBHIP co\. LOT

2 3

3.5 36 38 39 40 57

--~- ---_

Darlington 9 Darlington 8 Csvan 5 Darlington 5 Darlington 6 Darlington 7 Darlington 5 Clarke 5

1 Cartwright 4 4 Cartwright 1 5 Cartwright, 5 7 Manvers 11 8 Manvers 9 9 Manvers 6

11 Cartwright 8 13 Hope 7 23 Cavan 3 28 Cavan 12 29 Manvers 12 -55 Clarke 2 59 Hope 4

49 Darlington 67 Hope

52 Clarke 64 Hope 69 Hope 70 Clarke

LOCATIOS

l.O- .05biM

--

.05- .002MM

,ESSTHA?

.002bfM i

--

PHOS- PHORUS

READILY SOLUBLE

LB& P/ACBE

.- 34s 45.8 42.4 11.8 3oc 38.2 51.6 10.2 5s 30.2 52.8 17.0 12c 64.6 31.0 4.4 22c 42.6 44.6 12.8 31s 42.6 47.2 10.2 3oc 51.6 38.8 9.6 25X 50.4 41.0 8.6

_-

7.95 7.58 7.95 6.27 7.18 7.70 7.80 7.60

POTAS- SIUM

REPLACE- ABLE LBB.

K/ACRE --_-_-

94 90 97

127 96 71 86

120

I_--

160 170 392

88 248 176 172 196

8,952 40 8,640 40

10,560 40 2,568 40

7,200 50

6,696 45

9,648 50 6,120 56

6C 9N 15s 6NW

EC 12w

2 16s 2s 17s 12N 34s

42.8 49.8 7.4 7.22 132 95 4,872 48 3.24 75.2 38.4 4.4 6.52 122 88 2,712 45 2.60 50.4 38.2 11.4 7.99 196 130 10,536 40 4.38 56.8 29.0 14.2 8.09 232 121 13,440 40 2.84 52.8 33.4 13.8 8.15 184 94 14,13& 45 2.69 46.0 45.8 8.2 8.10 108 80 12,600 45 4.09 81.6 15.6 2.8 6.88 62 130 2,784 45 2.36 53.2 39.2 7.6 7.03 316 121 3,072 50 1.86 77.2 17.0 5.8 6.33 128 47 2,064 40 1.48 65.2 28.8 6.0 7.81 324 67 10,416 40 2.50 42.0 47.2 10.8 7.92 220 73 9,600 40 4.07 56.2 34.4 9.4 7.73 352 77 6,336 40 2.36 49.6 40.8 9.6 6.60 122 56 3,096 40 2.66

1s 80.1 14.4 5.5 7.49 172 86 3,072 21N 90.3 6.8 2.9 5.83 70 35 1,056

21c 91.6 5.1 3.3 5.90 54 42 696 1oc 74.8 18.4 6.8 7.11 158 62 2,448 22N 70.2 25.0 4.8 6.53 20 56 4,752

69 63.0 33.6 3.4 6.45 36 69 3,624

PER PER PER CENT CENT CENT SAND SILT CLAY

--

REACTION

(pH) GLASS ELEC- TRODE

CALCIUM REPLACE-

ABLE LB&

CA/ACRE

MAGNE- SIUM

WATER SOLUBLE

LB& MG/ACRE

50 40

40 40 40 50

ORGANIC MATTER

%,CCAHBOX x 1.724

___-

2.98 5.43 2.72 2.66 3.66 3.45 2.10 3.48

1.91 1.57

1.10 1.76 5.07 3.98

SOIL TYPE

Darlington loam

Darlington sandy loam

Dundonald sandy loam

Granby sandy loam

Guerin sandy loam. (bouldery phase.)

Newcastle loam

Newcastle clay loam

I- f

.-

SAMPLE NO.

PER PER PER CENT CENT CENT SAND SILT CLAY

-

.-

-

.-

l.O- .05M%l

--

59.8 42.8 64.2 54.0 49.6

-

-

I

I

_-

.05- ESSTHAK .002MM .002MM

REACTION

WV GLASB ELEC- TRODE

TOV,~NSHIP CON. LOT

PHOE- PHORUB

READILY SOLUBLE

LRS. P/ACRE

1

.-

CALCIUM REPLACE-

ABLE LBB.

CA/ACRE

RIAGNE- SIUM

WATER SOLUBLE

LBS. RIG/ACRE

ORGANIC MATTER &CARBON

x 1.724

6 Cartwright 7 14s 10 Manvers 8 15N 37 Darlington 6 15s 41 Darlington RF. 24N 45 Darlington 1 19c

31.2 9.0 8.10 128 50.2 7.0 7.32 176 29.6 6.2 7.10 44 30.6 15.4 7.88 172 35.8 14.6 7.73 108

POTA EIUM

REPLACE- ABLE LBS.

K/ACRE -____

98 209

68 98 55

11,040 45 3.56

11,928 50 6.58

5,184 40 4.35

12,336 50 3.72

10,986 50 7.05

43 Darlington 2 24C 56.6 32.4 11.0 8.09 188 79 13,128 50 5.21

16 Hope 7 18s 77.4 20.2 2.4 6.43 122 124 1,536 45 1.48

17 Hope 9 ION 39.6 49.0 11.4 7.45 296 133 5,280 40 2.72

30 hlanvers 4 21c 51.6 43.2 5.2 6.57 112 71 4,056 45 3.83

60 Hope 4 30C 71.2 23.6 5.2 5.91 36 58 2,232 40 3.40

71 Darlington 8 17c 40.8 48.2 11.0 7.78 116 71 7,584 25 4.40

73 Clarke 7 35N 46.6 47.6 5.8 7.38 264 126 6,720 56 4.42

74 Clarke 7 20N 43.4 41.0 15.6 7.93 308 332 9,888 40 3.36

15 Hope 6 11N 35.4 56.2 8.4 8.00 236 98 18,288 45 9.22

44 Darlington 4 23s 68.4 26.0 5.6 7.92 188 117 8,784 50 2.64

56 Clarke 4 9c 46.2 40.8 13.0 7.95 400 + 94 16,080 56+ 5.86

54 Clarke 61 Hope

1 2

RF. 1 2 2 3

R.F. 2 4

18C 56.2 31.2 12.6 7.74 80 150 7,032 45 4.45

26C 66.6 25.6 7.8 6.48 104 49 2,280 40 1.86

47 Darlington 51 Clarke 62 Hope 63 Hope 65 Hope

46 Darlington 48 Darlington 50 Clarke

4c 3oc 2oc 2c 15c

13C 2c 33c

58.0 31.4 10.6 7.13 190 68 3,456 40 1.67

39.8 39.8 20.4 6.08 292 159 4,104 56 3.52

40.4 45.2 14.4 6.33 196 161 4,584 50 4.71

48.2 39.0 12.8 7.19 192 105 5,304 50 3.40

41.8 44.2 14.0 6.68 96 94 6,816 50 5.65

33.6 45.8 20.6 7.40 248 133 7,632 56 4.17

36.2 42.6 21.2 6.44 184 132 4,512 56+ 3.45

39.2 46.0 14.8 7.25 252 71 6,960 45 4.38

I>OCATION

Sort TYPE

Otonabee loam

Percy loam

Pontypool sand 32 Manvers 33 Clarke 34 Manvers 72 Darlington

Pontypool sandy loam ._ . . 31 Manvera

Schomberg clay loam

Schomberg silt loam 27 Cavan

Tecumseth sandy loam

T SAiMPLE NO.

PER CENT SAND

-__-

l.O- .05UM

__--

44.6 33.2 34.6 46.0 46.6

PER CENT SILT

-

19 21 22 25 26

TOWNSHIP CON. --- -_

Cavan 4 Cavan 4 Cavan 7 Cavan 13 Cavan 11

I,OT __--

19s 16N 12s 78 1x

.-

1

.-

.05- .002MM

__-

43.2 42.0 38.3 38.8 43.0

PER CENT CLIY

-----

,Et38THA> .002MM

--___

12.2 24.8 26.6 15.2 10.0

REACTION

(pW GLASS ELEC- TRODE

PHOS- POTAS- PHORUS SIUM

READILY REPLACE- SOLUBLE ABLE

LBS. LBR. P/ACRE h'/.4CRE

CALCIUM REPLACE-

ABLE 1~x4.

CA/.~CRE

,\I.IoNE- SIUM

W.4TER SOLUBLE

LBS. lIG/ACRE

(hWA;vIC FLATTER

To CARBOX x 1.724

-----

8.08 7.96 7.40 7.90 7.83

-- 276 102 332 161 324 197 240 170 240 112

-~-

10,824 13,968

9,984 13,536

9,096

40 40 4.5 40 40

___--

3.32 3.71 4.54 5.00 3.80

53 Clarke 1 25C 59.4 28.2 12.4 7.25 128 77 4,344 40 2.78 58 Clarke RF. 75 38.6 50.0 11.4 7.64 120 97 5,808 40 2.81 75 Hope 8 14s 34.8 44.2 21.0 7.91 204 126 14,400 50 3.72

3 10

2 9

4

7 1 4 4

9

7 9 1 4

21N 74.8 19.0 6.2 7.74 244 65 6,528 40 2.60 19N 86.7 9.2 4.1 7.37 170 50 2,400 40 1.21 16s 84.4 11.1 4.5 7.88 288 55 4,704 40 1.21 4c 79.6 16.1 4.3 7.46 142 35 3,120 40 1.64

186 GO.8 36.0 3.2 6.01 154 58 1,440 45 1.01

12 Hope 18 Cavan 20 Cavan 66 Hope

1s 35.0 44.6 20.4 7.98 252 135 12,744 45 3.91 20s 33.2 41.8 25.0 7.54 272 188 10,560 56 5.12 228 27.6 45.0 27.4 7.84 340 221 16,560 56 6.31 7s 46.4 40.4 13.2 8.04 172 114 15,648 56f 5.05

4s 35.6 42.6 21.8 7.84 276 135 11,736 56 3.80

14 Hope 24 Cavan 42 Darlington 68 How

SC 51.4 41.8 6.8 5.96 66 265 2,362 40 3.69 22N 61.0 27.0 12.0 8.04 212 73 13,296 40 3.80 24N 55.8 33.0 11.2 8.01 172 62 11,928 50 5.40 30N 69.6 24.4 6.0 7.02 32 56 7,080 35 6.41

.

T LOCATION

-

Analytical Methods:

Mechanical Analysis-Bouyoucos Hydrometer Method. Phosphorus-Lohse, H. W., and Ruhnke, G. N.-Soil Science 35:6, 1933. Reaction-Glass Electrode. Potassium-Volk, N. J.. and Truog, E.-Jour. Amer. Sot. of Agron. 26, 537-46, 1934. Calcium-The replaceable calcium was determined on the same extract that was used in the determination of potassium, Magnesium-Spurway, C. H. -Mich. State College Technical Bulletin 132. Organic Carbon-Allison, L. E.-Soil Science, Oct. 1935, p. 311.

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