Some thoughts onSome thoughts onmusical similaritymusical similarity

Lawrence ZbikowskiLawrence ZbikowskiDepartment of MusicDepartment of Musiclarry@uchicago.eduhttp://zbikowski.uchicago.edu/http://zbikowski.uchicago.edu/

Reflections on music similarityReflections on music similarity

similarity as an aspect of musical organization, similarity as an aspect of musical organization, shaped by human cognitive capacitiesshaped by human cognitive capacities

““similarity relations” in post-tonal music theory similarity relations” in post-tonal music theory (Robert Morris, Eric Isaacson, John Rahn)(Robert Morris, Eric Isaacson, John Rahn)

Ian Quinn, “Listening to Similarity Relations,” Ian Quinn, “Listening to Similarity Relations,” Perspectives of New MusicPerspectives of New Music 39/2 (Summer  39/2 (Summer 2001): 108–58.2001): 108–58.

objective similarityobjective similarity—based on objectively —based on objectively observable properties of entities or phenomenaobservable properties of entities or phenomena

Dedre Gentner and Arthur B. Markman, “Structure Mapping in Dedre Gentner and Arthur B. Markman, “Structure Mapping in AnalogyAnalogyand Similarity,” and Similarity,” American PsychologistAmerican Psychologist 52, no. 1 (January  52, no. 1 (January 1997): 45–56.1997): 45–56.

notion of notion of alignable differencesalignable differences

perceptual similarityperceptual similarity

perceptual similarity?perceptual similarity?

Functional similarityFunctional similarity

two or more entities or phenomena are two or more entities or phenomena are judged to function in similar ways in a judged to function in similar ways in a given contextgiven context

related to judgments of category related to judgments of category membershipmembership

Jerome Kern’s “The Way You Look Jerome Kern’s “The Way You Look Tonight” (from the 1936 film Tonight” (from the 1936 film Swing TimeSwing Time))

Processes of CategorizationProcesses of Categorization

Categorization occurs in all sensory modalities Categorization occurs in all sensory modalities and throughout the range of mental activities: we and throughout the range of mental activities: we categorize smells and sounds, thoughts and categorize smells and sounds, thoughts and emotions, skin sensations and physical emotions, skin sensations and physical movement.movement.

Categories with a Categories with a graded structuregraded structure—some —some members are “better” members of the category members are “better” members of the category than other members.than other members.

cf. Zbikowski, cf. Zbikowski, Conceptualizing MusicConceptualizing Music (2002), (2002), chapter 1.chapter 1.

The Graded Structure of Everyday The Graded Structure of Everyday CategoriesCategories

Membership in the categories humans use in Membership in the categories humans use in daily life is graded through a dynamic daily life is graded through a dynamic process in which the attributes of potential process in which the attributes of potential category members are compared with the category members are compared with the attributes most typically found within the attributes most typically found within the category.category.

The result is what are called “typicality The result is what are called “typicality effects”: some members of the category are effects”: some members of the category are regarded as more typical of the category regarded as more typical of the category than others.than others.

Graded Structure among Members of Graded Structure among Members of the Category the Category BirdBird (U.S. participants) (U.S. participants)E. Rosch, “On the Internal Structure of Perceptual E. Rosch, “On the Internal Structure of Perceptual and Semantic Categories,” 1973.and Semantic Categories,” 1973.

robinsrobins sparrowssparrows

owls

eaglesemus

ostriches

penguins

Conceptual models and Conceptual models and categorizationcategorization

Conceptual models are relatively basic Conceptual models are relatively basic cognitive structures that act as guides for cognitive structures that act as guides for reasoning and inference; each model reasoning and inference; each model consists of concepts in specified consists of concepts in specified relationships, and pertains to a specific relationships, and pertains to a specific domain of knowledge.domain of knowledge.

cf. Zbikowski, cf. Zbikowski, Conceptualizing MusicConceptualizing Music (2002), chap. (2002), chap. 3; Zbikowski, “Modelling the Groove” (2004).3; Zbikowski, “Modelling the Groove” (2004).

Conceptual models provide a guide for the Conceptual models provide a guide for the judgments that yield typicality effects.judgments that yield typicality effects.

Another version of “The Way You Another version of “The Way You Look Tonight”Look Tonight”

a recording of a live performance that the a recording of a live performance that the jazz guitarist Jim Hall made in June of 1975 jazz guitarist Jim Hall made in June of 1975 with bassist Don Thompson and drummer with bassist Don Thompson and drummer Terry ClarkeTerry Clarke

Hall’s solo chorusHall’s solo chorus

Frame structuresFrame structures, , which are typically which are typically implemented as a implemented as a system of nodes system of nodes linked by relations, linked by relations, provide one way to provide one way to explore the graded explore the graded structure that structure that characterizes characterizes everyday everyday categories.categories.

A possible methodology . . .A possible methodology . . .

select repertoire (i.e., corpus)select repertoire (i.e., corpus) interview participants familiar with the corpus interview participants familiar with the corpus

about judgments of similarity (aim is to about judgments of similarity (aim is to extract relevant attributes on which extract relevant attributes on which judgments are made)judgments are made)

build conceptual model/framebuild conceptual model/frame develop algorithms to test structure of framedevelop algorithms to test structure of frame test algorithms/frame with novel exemplarstest algorithms/frame with novel exemplars

ConclusionsConclusions

objective similarityobjective similarity—based on objectively —based on objectively observable properties of entities or phenomenaobservable properties of entities or phenomena

perceptual similarityperceptual similarity—reflects both the —reflects both the resources and the limitations of human resources and the limitations of human perceptual systemsperceptual systems

functional similarityfunctional similarity—reflects a judgment that —reflects a judgment that two or more entities or phenomena function in two or more entities or phenomena function in similar ways in a given context similar ways in a given context

ConclusionsConclusions

Functional similarity can be productively thought of Functional similarity can be productively thought of in terms of processes of categorization.in terms of processes of categorization.

L. Barsalou, “Perceptual Symbol Systems,” L. Barsalou, “Perceptual Symbol Systems,” Behavioral and Brain SciencesBehavioral and Brain Sciences 22 (November  22 (November 1999): 577–660.1999): 577–660.

It also seems to be the case, however, that analogical It also seems to be the case, however, that analogical processes, such as those that I mentioned earlier, are processes, such as those that I mentioned earlier, are important for judgments of functional similarity.important for judgments of functional similarity.

Douglas Hofstadter and Emmanuel Sander’s Douglas Hofstadter and Emmanuel Sander’s Surfaces Surfaces and Essences: Analogy as the Fuel and Fire of and Essences: Analogy as the Fuel and Fire of ThinkingThinking (New York: Basic Books, 2013). (New York: Basic Books, 2013).