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Figure 3-11. Location of the Andalusia region (studied area) within Spain, and the highlighted province (Seville) within Andalusia, which was studied in more detail in the topographic transects analysis.

3.2 ANDALUSIA, BIOPHYSICAL BASELINE The Andalusia region is roughly situated between coordinates 36° 00’ - 38° 44’ N

and 1° 30´ - 7° 45´ W, to the south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and the

Mediterranean Sea, by Portugal to the west, and by the autonomous communities

of Extremadura and Castilla-La Mancha to the north and Murcia to the east

(Figure 3-11). Andalusia consists of eight provinces. Currently, about half of the

region is natural areas and between 40 and 45% is used for agriculture. Urban

areas and open water surfaces each cover approximately 3% of the area

(Figure 3-5; Bermejo et al., 2011). Most of natural vegetation is Mediterranean

forest which is dominated by trees such as oaks, pines and firs, with dense

riparian forests, and Mediterranean shrub land. Agriculture in Andalusia has

traditionally been based on cereals, olive trees and vineyards but in modern

decades, traditional crops have been replaced with various intensive and

extensive crops (e.g., , sunflower, rice, cotton and sugar beet).

3.2.1 CLIMATE Andalusia is one of the warmest parts of Europe, with an average temperature of

16 oC and monthly temperatures varying between January (6.4 oC in Granada) and

July and August (28.5 oC in Córdoba and Seville). Figure 3-12 shows the climate

zones.

SPAIN

Mediterra

nean sea

Po

rtu

ga l

France

Marrocos

Jaen

Sevilla

Cordoba

Granada

Huelva

Cadiz

Almeria

Malaga

2°0'0"W

2°0'0"W

3°0'0"W

3°0'0"W

4°0'0"W

4°0'0"W

5°0'0"W

5°0'0"W

6°0'0"W

6°0'0"W

7°0'0"W

7°0'0"W

39°

0'0

"N

39°0

'0"N

38°0

'0"N

38

°0'0

"N

37

°0'0

"N

37

°0'0

"N

36°

0'0

"N

36°

0'0

"N0 30 60 90 12015km

1:1,400,000

±

Portugal

Extremadura

Castilla-La Mancha

Murcia

Andalusia Mediterranean sea

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62

Figure 3-12. Climate type according to De Martonne (1926), Andalusia region.

In Andalusia, as classified by De Martonne (1926; Table 3-3), it shows that the

general climate of Andalusia is a Mediterranean climate type even though it varies

depending on the specific climatic parameters of the 62 weather stations. Almería

province (in the south east of Andalusia) has arid and semi-arid climate

conditions, while Málaga and Cádiz (in the south) have semi-humid, humid and

very-humid climate types. The data used for calculation of climate areas show

limited variation of average temperature, as recorded in weather stations (varying

between 14,2 and 17 oC). In contrast, there is a significant variation in annual

mean precipitation (varying between 275 and 1074 mm).

According to climatic calculations using the climate data base of MicroLEIS DSS

(CDBm), Huércal Overa station (AL02), Almería is the most arid location in the

study area, with an annual rainfall of 275 mm, a mean temperature of 17 oC, and

potential evapotranspiration of 882.9 mm which results in an average of 10 arid

Climate type

Arid

Semi-arid

Mediterranean

Semi-humid

Humid

Very humid

Jaen

Sevilla

Cordoba

Granada

Huelva

Cadiz

Almeria

Malaga

0 30 60 90 12015km

1:1,400,000

±

Portugal

Extremadura

Castilla-La Mancha

Murcia

Andalusia Mediterranean sea

AL02

MA05

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63

months (in which the potential evapotranspiration exceeds the actual

precipitation) per year. The most humid area, on the other hand, is Gaucín

(MA05) in Málaga, with an annual rainfall of 1170 mm, a mean temperature of

14.9 oC, and potential evapotranspiration of 771.7 mm, which results in, on

average, 5 arid months per year (Figure 3-13).

Table 3-3. Classification of climate types according to the aridity index by De Martonne (1926): I = P / (T+10) with I: index, P: annual rainfall (mm), and T: mean temperature (

oC).

Climate type Aridity index

Arid 0 - 10

Semi-arid 10 - 20

Mediterranean 20 - 24

Semi-humid 24 - 28

Humid 28 - 35

Very humid 35 - 55

Extremely humid ˃ 55

Figure 3-13. Graphical representation of climate conditions of weather stations MA05 (Gaucín, Málaga) and AL02 (Huércal Overa, Almería). (P) precipitation; (Tm) monthly mean temperature; (ET0) potential evapotranspiration; (ARi) arid months in which the actual precipitation is lower than the potential evapotranspiration. Source: Spanish Meteorological Agency (AEMET, 2011).

CHAPTER 3

64

3.2.2 GEOLOGY According to Vera, (1994), Andalusia is divided into three main geological units

(Figure 3-14). First, the northern part consists of Sierra Morena, a crystalline

massif which is very ancient (Paleozoic), that was part of the Armorica continent.

The second part is represented by the Neogene tectonic basin of the Guadalquivir

(formed from the Langhian until present day). The third geological feature (in the

south east) is the Baetic cordillera (Triassic-Lower Miocene), which is the

westernmost part of the European Alpine chain.

Figure 3-14. Classes of lithology synthesis in Andalusia.

0 30 60 90 12015km

±

Portugal

ExtremaduraCastilla-La Mancha

Murcia

Andalusia

Mediterranean sea

Guadalquivir basin

Sierra morena

Baetic cordillera

ClassesEstuary deposits (Quaternary)

Aeolian deposits (Quaternary)

Recent fluvial deposits (Quaternary)

Old fluvial deposits (Plio-Pleistocene)

Sandstones (Pliocene)

Basic igneous rocks

Limestone (Miocene-Pliocene Sup)

Marl rocks (Paleogene-Miocene)

Undifferentiated metamorphic rocksAcid igneous rocks

Undifferentiated igneous

Sedimentary igneous rocks (Precambrian-Paleozoic)

Limestone, dolomite, greywackes, sandstones and conglomerates (Precambrian-Paleozoic)

Argillite, marls, sandstones, turbidites,dolomite and limestone (Triassic-Juras-Cretaceous-Paleogene)

Sedimentary and metamorphic rocks (Precambrian-Paleozoic)

Sandstone,Argillaceous rocks and marl (Cretaceous-Paleogene-Miocene)

Slate, sandstones and quartzites (Paleozoic-Triassic)

Variegated clays,marl,sandstone,conglomerates,gypsum and limestone (Triassic)

Schists (Precambrian-Paleozoic-Triassic)

Limestone and carbonate eminently rocks (Jurassic-Cretaceous-Paleogene)Reservoirs,ponds,marine areas and bays (Current)

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65

This mountainous area is the result of a series of tectonic movements of the

African and Eurasian plates and continues to be an active seismic zone (Garcia-

Castellanos et al., 2002).

The geological map of Andalusia (Project SIMANCTEL, 2006) includes 20

lithological classes (Figure 3-14), distributed within the three large units at

regional scale. The Iberian Massif (Sierra Morena) is constituted by: marginal

recent fluvial deposits (Quaternary); ancient fluvial deposits in the northern part

(Plio-Pleistocene); limestone, dolomite, greywacke, shale, sandstone and

conglomerate (Precambrian-Paleozoic); sedimentary and metamorphic rocks

(Precambrian-Paleozoic); sedimentary and igneous rocks (Precambrian-Paleozoic);

acid igneous rocks; basic igneous rocks; undifferentiated igneous rocks; slate,

sandstone and quartzite (Paleozoic-Triassic); schists (Precambrian-Paleozoic-

Triassic); undifferentiated metamorphic rocks.

The Guadalquivir basin is primarily constituted by recent sedimentary rocks:

estuarine deposits (Quaternary); aeolian deposits (Quaternary); recent fluvial

deposits (Quaternary); old fluvial deposits (Plio-Pleistocene); sandstone

(Pliocene); limestone (upper Miocene-Pliocene).

The Betic Range is constituted by: recent fluvial deposits (Quaternary); ancient

fluvial deposits (Plio-Pleistocene); sandstone (Pliocene); limestone (upper

Miocene-Pliocene); marl rocks rocks (Paleogene-Miocene); sandstone,

argillaceous rocks and marls (flysch and turbidites) (Cretaceous-Paleogene-

Miocene); limestone and carbonate eminently rocks (Jurassic-Cretaceous-

Paleogene); variegated clays, marl, sandstone, siltstone, conglomerate, gypsum

and limestone (Triassic); argillite, marl, sandstone, turbidite, dolomite and

limestone (Mesozoic-Paleogene); limestone, dolomite, greywacke, shales,

sandstone and conglomerate (Precambrian-Paleozoic); sedimentary and

metamorphic rocks (Precambrian-Paleozoic); sedimentary and igneous rocks

(Precambrian-Paleozoic); acid igneous rocks; basic igneous rocks; undifferentiated

igneous rocks; slate, sandstone and quartzite (Paleozoic-Triassic); schists

(Precambrian-Paleozoic- Triassic); undifferentiated metamorphic rocks.

3.2.3 TOPOGRAPHY In general, Spain is a very mountainous country, with an average elevation of 660

meter above sea level (masl) (the second highest in Europe after Switzerland;

Benet, 2006). As a result of the geological history of Andalusia, topography is one

of the major factors shaping the natural environment and land use.

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66

Figure 3-15. Elevation map of Andalusia. (ICA, 1999).

According to the digital elevation model, the elevation values vary from 0

(coastline and Guadalquivir River basin) to 3478 masl (Baetic Range and Sierra

Morena; Figure 3-15).

Slope gradients affects degradation processes as soil erosion rate through many

morphological characteristics. Two examples of morphological characteristics are

gradient and slope length (Torri, 1996). As shown in Figure 3-16 the slope gradient

in Andalusia ranges from <3 to >50 %. The effect of slope aspect on insolation (sun

exposure), which may vary between south-facing sunny, and north-facing shaded,

slopes. Higher energy inputs in sunny slopes affects the rate of decomposition of

organic matter, the thawing rate of snow, potential evapotranspiration and the

soil salinity (mostly in arid regions).

0 30 60 90 12015km

1:1,400,000

±

Portugal

ExtremaduraCastilla-La Mancha

Murcia

Andalusia

Mediterranean sea

Elevation (m, MSL)

0 - 200

200 - 400

400 - 600

600 - 800

800 - 1000

1000 - 12000

1200 - 1400

1400 - 1600

1600 - 1800

1800 - 2000

2000 - 2200

2200 - 2400

2400 - 2600

2600 - 2800

2800 - 3000

3000 - 3200

3200 - 3478

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Figure 3-16. Slope map of Andalusia.

Figure 3-17. Slope aspect in Andalusia.

0 30 60 90 12015km

1:1,400,000

±

Portugal

ExtremaduraCastilla-La Mancha

Murcia

Andalusia

Mediterranean sea

Slope, %

< 3

3- 10

10 - 20

20 - 30

30 - 50

> 50

0 30 60 90 12015km

1:1,400,000

±

Portugal

ExtremaduraCastilla-La Mancha

Murcia

Andalusia

Mediterranean sea

Slope direction

Flat (-1)

Northeast (22.5 - 67.5)

East (67.5-112.5)

Southeast (112.5-157.5)

South (157.5-202.5)

Southwest (202.5-247.5)

West (247.5-292.5)

Northwest (292.5-337.5)

North (337.5-360, 0-22.5)

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68

Aspect also indirectly affects erosion processes due to decreased vegetation cover

in dry, sun-exposed, slopes (Zachar, 1982). Slope aspect in Andalusia is shown in

Figure 3-17.

3.2.4 GEOMORPHOLOGY Ten main morphogenesis types are found in Andalusia: fluvio-colluvial, tidal-

fluvial, aeolian, denudation, karst, structural, periglacial, volcanic, coastal and

submarine.

The Iberian massif is generated by the collision between Laurasia and Gondwana

plates since the Late Paleozoic. In the Mesozoic Era, this area was dominated by

intense erosion, which led to the development of extensive planation surfaces.

Indeed one of the most characteristic features is the presence of extensive

piedmont of alluvial deposits composed of siliceous clasts with a reddish

argillaceous matrix.

The most striking geomorphologic features in the Iberian Massif are related to the

underlying lithology and structure. Particularly, in Sierra Morena mountains, the

differential erosion of folded Paleozoic rocks with a contrasting resistance to

erosion (e.g. quartzite and slates), has produced a distinctive ‘Appalachian-type’

topography (Gutiérrez et al., 2013).

The Baetic Range represents a mountain belt with high peaks. This chain is

affected by considerable convergence (4mm/yr) and tectonic activity. The Baetic

may be divided in two principal zones, the inner and the outer zones. The inner

zone is dominated by a structurally complex and metamorphosed basement and

rocks forming an anticlinal stack. The outer zone is formed by allochthonous

south-verging structural units made up of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary

sequences detached from the Paleozoic basement. The Betics chain also includes

numerous postorogenic Neogene and Quaternary basins. Most of these basins are

related to the north-south compression vectors, currently affected by tectonic

inversion. In this area, the main geomorphic factor is tectonic activity, which

affected the landscape. The Eastern Betic Range shows examples of fault-

controlled mountain front and alluvial fan system. The development may be

affected by tectonic activity, climate variability and base level changes. In this

area, the evolution of the drainage network, largely guided by postorogenic

basins. The study of this basins is important for understand long-term changes in

fluvial systems. Limestone karst is well-developed, mostly in the Outer zone,

controlled by active faults, karren fields and cave system (Gutiérrez et al., 2013).

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The Sorbas basin presents landforms related to Messinian gypsum dissolution, but

are also developed on Triassic evaporite.

Evidence of Quaternary glaciations is restricted to the Sierra Nevada. These

mountains represent the southernmost glaciated area in Europe, which probably

occurred before the global Last Glacial Maximun. The spatial distribution of large

landslides in the Betics is mainly controlled by litho-structural factors, active

tectonics and fluvial incision (Gutiérrez et al., 2013).

The morphological depressions control the path of the main fluvial system. The

most important depression in South Spain is the Guadalquivir basin. This basin

represents a foreland basin of Baetics chain. The East/Northeast, West/Northwest

Guadalquivir basin has been open to the sea during its entire evolution. The

southern half of the basin is dominated by olistostromes, whereas the northern

half is mainly underlain by autochthonous soft marl sediments. The upper and the

middle reach of the valley, currently show the rectilinear northern margin of the

basin, displays an extensive terrace sequence on the southern margin. In the

lower reach, the river splits into several anostomosed channels flowing through

marshland separated from the sea by a long spit bar with a large superimposed

dune field (Gutiérrez et al., 2013). The Iberian Peninsula shows a very extent and

diversity of the coastal environments. The main factors that control the

geomorphology and Quaternary geology of the Spanish coasts include: Eustatic

changes, Litho-structural factors (neotectonic deformation); Geographic location

between Europe and Africa continents (Straits of Gibraltar); Tidal range; the

prevailing winds respect the coastline and Human activity. Generally, the coasts

have been affected by uplift, which has produced marine terraces.

The Geomorphic features of the Atlantic coast in the Gulf of Cadiz are largely

controlled by the different geological units and the presence of active faults. In

the Guadalquivir basin, the low relief coast has extensive estuaries and marshes

associated with the lower reach of the main river, partially closed by a large dune

fields. The Atlantic coast developed in the Strait of Gibraltar has a strong

structural control and shows a good sequence of raised marine terraces and cliff,

interrupted by small bay and caves. The geomorphology of the coasts in the

Mediterranean is largely dominated by distribution of area affected by positive

and negative tectonics and micro tidal regime.

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70

Figure 3-18. Principal rivers and basins in Andalusia.

3.2.1 HYDROLOGY Figure 3-18 shows that in Andalusia there are four main basins, Guadiana in the

northwest, Guadalquivir in central Andalusia, Segura in the southeast, and Sur in

the south. The most important river is the Guadalquivir and its main tributaries:

Guadalimar, Guadiana Menor, and Genil.

3.2.2 SOILS De la Rosa et al (2009) stated that using soil type information in decision-making is

at the heart for sustainable use and management of agricultural land.

Typical soils of Andalusia compose an exceptionally diverse sample of the diversity

of Mediterranean soils (De la Rosa, 1984). According to FAO classification (FAO-

UNESCO-ISRIC, 1988), the main soil orders are Cambisols (33%), Regosols (20%),

Luvisols (13%) and Leptosols (11%) (CSIC-IARA, 1989). Figure 3-19 shows the most

typical soils of Andalusia and Mediterranean region and Figure 3-20 shows the

dominant soil sub-group and land use in the 62 natural regions of Andalusia.

Sur

Guadalquivir

Guadiana

Guadiana

Segura

Segura

Segura

Rio Genil

Rio Guadalquivir

Rio

Odie

l

Rio Guad

elete

Rio T

into

Ra de Huelva

Rio V

iar

Rio Almanzora

Rio

Gua

dalé

n

Rio Guadiato

Rio Nacimiento

Rio

de

Gua

dal

quiv

ir

Rio Barb

ate

Rio Bem

bezar

Rio Chanza

Rio Guadalimar

Rio Guadiana Menor

Rio

Gua

rizza

s0 30 60 90 12015

km

1:1,400,000

±

Portugal

ExtremaduraCastilla-La Mancha

Murcia

Andalusia

Mediterranean sea

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Figure 3-19. Typical soils of Andalusia, and the Mediterranean region in general (De la Rosa el al., 1984). Codes indicate location province (Al, Almería; CA, Cadiz; CO, Cordoba; GR, Granada; HU, Huelva; JA, Jaen; MA, Málaga; SE, Seville) and number in the SDBm database, followed by comarca (landscape unit).

CHAPTER 3

72

Figure 3-20. The dominant soil sub-group and land use in the 62 natural regions of Andalusia. Modified from De la Rosa et al. (1984).

3.3 EL-FAYOUM PROVINCE, BIOPHYSICAL BASELINE El-Fayoum province is located in the northern part of Egypt, approximately 90 km

south of Cairo, and includes six districts with a total area of 6086 km2,

approximately between coordinates 29° 02´-29° 35´ N and 30° 23´-31° 05´ E

(Figure 3-21). It offers a great potential for agriculture, thanks to the water supply

from the River Nile. The area selected for this study is the El-Fayoum depression,

which excludes the desert part of the province.

Land use

Agriculture zones Forest zones Pasture zones

THXV

LHXI

THXU

THXI

THXI

CHXI

LHXI

LHEM

THXATHXA

TRXA

TXTE

TXTE

THXV

CHXV

TXTE

TXTE

FDUI

TPXA

THXM

THXI

THXV

THXV

VPXA

AXFE

THXV

CHXI

THXI

TDUI

THXI

CHXI

EHXV

UHUM

TXFE

LXTE

VHAR

THXV XHCR

LRXA

TFAE

LHXI TFAE

TXTE

TXFE

LHEM

TXTE

AHXATXFE

TRXA

TRXA

TXTE

LHXI

THXAAPXA

HUAE

EHXVTRXA

EHXM

CRXA

CRXA

CRXA

TFAE

TXFE

CHXA

0 30 60 90 12015km

±

Portugal

Extremadura

Castilla-La Mancha

Murcia

Andalusia

Mediterranean sea

Soil sub-group (USDA, 2010)Aquic Haploxeralfs (AHXA)

Aquic Palexeralfs (APXA)

Calcic Haploxeralfs (CHXA)

Calcic Rhodoxeralfs (CRXA)

Lithic Rhodoxeralfs (LRXA)

Typic Haploxeralfs (THXA)

Typic Palexeralfs (TPXA)

Typic Rhodoxeralfs (TRXA)

Vertic Palexeralfs (VPXA)

Vertic Haplargids (VHAR)

Xeric Haplocambids (XHCR)

Aquic Xerofluvents (AXFE)

Haplic Udarents (HUAE)

Lithic Xerorthents (LXTE)

Typic Fluvaquents (TFAE)

Typic Xerofluvents (TXFE)

Typic Xerorthents (TXTE)

Calcic Haploxerepts (CHXI)

Typic Dystrudepts (TDUI)

Typic Haploxerepts (THXI)

Fluventic Dystrudepts (FDUI)

Lithic Haploxerepts (LHXI)

Entic Haploxerolls (EHXM)

Lithic Haprendolls (LHEM)

Typic Haploxerolls (THXM)

Udic Haplustolls (UHUM)

Typic Haploxerults (THXU)

Chromic Haploxererts (CHXV)

Entic Haploxererts (EHXV)

Typic Haploxererts (THXV)