spintronics: materials and applications
TRANSCRIPT
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SpintronicsSpintronics: : Materials and ApplicationsMaterials and Applications
Kelly M. WhitakerKelly M. WhitakerGamelinGamelin Research GroupResearch GroupUniversity of WashingtonUniversity of WashingtonDepartment of ChemistryDepartment of Chemistry
June 9, 2008June 9, 2008
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Spin + Electronics = Spintronics Spin + Electronics = Spintronics
• Present day electronics: Transport of electric charges
• Spintronics (Spin-Electronics): Electronics based on thespin degree of freedom
e-e-e-
e-e-
e-
eUltrafast optical control!
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SpintronicsSpintronics: An introduction: An introductionWhat is spinWhat is spin--based electronics?based electronics?
What are the advantages?What are the advantages?
What are the challenges?What are the challenges?
Spin-based electronics (spintronics) uses the spin of the electron in addition to the charge of the electron to carry information.
Increased data processing speedDecreased power consumptionIncreased data storage densities
Optimization of spin lifetimesDetection of spin coherenceTransport of spin-polarized carriers across long enough length scalesManipulation of spins on fast enough time scalesMaterials with high enough curie temperatures (Tc)
“If we can understand and control the spin degree of freedom in semiconductors, the potential for high-performance spin-based electronics will be excellent”
-Wolf et. al. Science 2001, 294, 1488-1495
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SpintronicsSpintronics“…the impact of these semiconductors for spintronics applications is restricted by a relatively low Curie temperature.”
- Dietl, Nature Materials, 2003, 10, 646
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What is a Quantum Dot?What is a Quantum Dot?Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle: Both the position and momentum of
an object cannot be simultaneously known to an arbitrary precision.
Quantum Confinement increases the precision to which the position of an electron can be known, increasing the range of possible momentums that
the electron can take on.
“quantum well”
“quantum wire”
Atkins, P.; de Paula, J., Physical Chemistry. 7th ed.; W.H. Freeman and Company: New York, 2002
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Electronic Band StructureElectronic Band Structure
The band structure effects the degree of conductivity a material has
E
Metal Insulator Semi-conductor
Valence band
Conduction band
Band Gap
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Quantum confinementQuantum confinement
In quantum dots,electronic structure is governed by size.
Smaller size = Larger band gap
Size‐tunable emission in CdSe QDs
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Ferromagnetic DopingFerromagnetic DopingWhat do we mean when we say a semiconductor is What do we mean when we say a semiconductor is ‘‘dopeddoped’’??
Unmagnetized Material Magnetized Material
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Diluted Magnetic Semiconductors
Adapted from Ohno, Science 1998, 281, 951
Nonmagnetic Semiconductor
Magnetic Semiconductor
Diluted Magnetic Semiconductor
Open Shelltransition metal ions
Host LatticeZinc Ions
Host Oxygen Ions
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What are DMSWhat are DMS--QDs used for?QDs used for?
““SpintronicsSpintronics””: spin: spin‐‐based based electronicselectronics
Phosphor TechnologiesPhosphor Technologies
BioBio‐‐labelinglabeling
Studying fundamental Studying fundamental synthetic and physical synthetic and physical inorganic chemistries inorganic chemistries
nucleation and growth in the nucleation and growth in the presence of impuritiespresence of impurities
Secret to great hair!Secret to great hair!
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Quantum Computing: Theory to PracticeQuantum Computing: Theory to Practice
Electron spins in Quantum Dots is the workhorse for
proposed quantum computers… …but, not much is known
about how these spins behave under quantum confinement.
Cerletti, V.; Coish, W. A.; Gywat, O.; Loss, D., Nanotechnology 2005, 16, R27-R49Petta, J. R.; Johnson, A. C.; Taylor, J. M.; Laird, E. A.; Yacoby, A.; Lukin, M. D.; Marcus, C. M.; Hanson, M. P.; Gossard, A. C., Science 2005, 309, 2180-2184.
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SpintronicsSpintronics for Quantum Computingfor Quantum Computing
Engel, Recher, Loss, Sol. State Comm., 2001, 119, 229
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Example Example SpintronicSpintronic DevicesDevices
Ohno et. al., Nature, 1999, 402, 790
The downside: This device operates most efficiently at 6 K and stops working all together at 50 K.
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Examples of Examples of SpintronicsSpintronics DevicesDevices
Uses magnetic Uses magnetic hysteresis/magnetoresistance to hysteresis/magnetoresistance to write/readwrite/readFunctions like semiconductor RAM Functions like semiconductor RAM ANDAND would retain data with the power would retain data with the power off.off.→→ 1000x faster with no wearout1000x faster with no wearout→→ low cost/powerlow cost/power
Datta, S.; Das, B. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1990, 56, 665.Awschalom, D. D.; Flatté, M. E.; Samarth, N. Sci. Amer. 2002, 286, 66-73.Pearton, Norton, Frazier, Han, Abernathy, Zavada IEE Proc.-Circuits Devices Syst. 2005, 152 (4), 312-322
4 Mb MRAM – Now Available!!
PrinciplePrinciple –– electric field from gate causes electric field from gate causes spins to precess. Channel impedance spins to precess. Channel impedance depends on extent of spin rotationdepends on extent of spin rotation
AdvantageAdvantage –– much less energy and time much less energy and time required to flip spins than to depopulate required to flip spins than to depopulate channelchannel
Small or no effect when metallic contacts Small or no effect when metallic contacts are used because of conductivity are used because of conductivity mismatch mismatch –– NEED MAGNETIC NEED MAGNETIC SEMICONDUCTORS FOR SPIN SEMICONDUCTORS FOR SPIN INJECTION!INJECTION!
Spin Field-effect Transistor
semiconductor channel
antialigned electrons are rejected!
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Current Problems with Current Problems with SpintronicSpintronicDevicesDevices
What are the problems with these devices?What are the problems with these devices?Only work at LTOnly work at LT‘‘TheoreticalTheoretical’’Detection/optimization of coherence timeDetection/optimization of coherence timeEfficiency of spin injectionEfficiency of spin injectionCompatibility with current electronicsCompatibility with current electronics
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Nobel Prize in Physics 2007Nobel Prize in Physics 2007Giant Giant MagnetoresistanceMagnetoresistance
Albert Albert FertFert and Peter and Peter GrGrüünbergnberg
Electrical resistance from electrons scattering against irregularities in a material so that movement is obstructed.
Magnetic resistance from opposing directions of electron spins.
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2007/index.html
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GMR for Data StorageGMR for Data Storage
Magnetization can change the resistance/conductivity of semiconductor materials.
Data can be stored on hard disks in the form of differently magnetized areas.
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2007/index.html
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What comes next?What comes next?
How do we make the jump to the next level How do we make the jump to the next level and overcome some of these problems? and overcome some of these problems?
Our approach Our approach –– developing, chemically developing, chemically synthesizing, and characterizing new synthesizing, and characterizing new materials designed for these applications: materials designed for these applications: diluted magnetic semiconductors.diluted magnetic semiconductors.
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High High integrationintegration densitiesdensities, , nonvolatilitynonvolatility
Incompatible technologies in present day electronics:Incompatible technologies in present day electronics:
LogicLogic: semiconductors: semiconductors Data storageData storage: : ferromagnetsferromagnets
Ferromagnetic semiconductors ?Ferromagnetic semiconductors ?
Single Chip ComputerSingle Chip Computer
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Vacuum Deposition MethodsVacuum Deposition Methods
Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)
Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD)
Instruments of Scott Chambers, PNNL
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Synthesis of TMSynthesis of TM2+2+:ZnO :ZnO QDsQDs2
2 2 4 2 4(1 ) ( ) ( ) 2 : 2x Zn OAc xCo OAc NMe OH Co ZnO H O NMe OAc+− + + → + +
Hiltunen, Leskela, Makela, Niinisto, Acta.Chem.Scand.A 1987, 41, 548 Schwartz, Norberg, Nguyen, Parker, Gamelin, JACS 2003, 125, 13208Basic Zinc Acetate Cluster
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Transmission Electron MicroscopyTransmission Electron MicroscopyA focused electron beam is bombarded and transmitted through
the sample and an image of the sample is projected onto the phosphor screen.
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Characterization of TMCharacterization of TM2+2+:ZnO:ZnO
What we learn: Particles sizes, shapes, and morphologies.
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SpectroscopySpectroscopy
We can get different info based We can get different info based on what kind of light/detectors we use.on what kind of light/detectors we use.
Spectroscopy is the interaction of radiation with matter as a function of energy or frequency
Ground State
Excited State
cE h
hcE
λνν
λ
==
= Energy of radiation must equal the energy level
difference. We are measuring some property of
this energy difference (energy to absorb, emit, etc.)
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Electronic Absorption SpectroscopyElectronic Absorption SpectroscopyUV/visible light source, detect energies of light being absorbed.
E
Semi-conductor
Valence band
Conduction band
Band Gap
Electron
Hole
+ = Exciton
http://www.varianinc.com/cgi-bin/nav?/
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Characterization of TMCharacterization of TM2+2+:ZnO:ZnO
What we learn: local environments of dopant ions, band gap, etc.
1st Excitonic Transition (Band Gap)
Ligand Field Transitions (signature of dopant ion)
Schwartz, Norberg, Nguyen, Parker, Gamelin, JACS 2003, 125, 13208
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Luminescence SpectroscopyLuminescence SpectroscopyUV source, detect energies of light being emittedUV source, detect energies of light being emitted
Ground State
Excited State
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Characterization of TMCharacterization of TM2+2+:ZnO:ZnO
Visible ‘green’ trap emission UV Excitonic emission
What we learn: defects, surface effects, etc.van Dijken, A.; Meulenkamp, E. A.; Vanmaekelbergh, D.; Meijerink, A. J. Phys. Chem. B 2000, 104, 1715
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ZeemanZeeman EffectEffect
E = hν
H=0 H>0
MS = +
S = ±12
12MS = -
Energy1
2
Magnetic energy levels are degenerate with no applied field. The energy levels split linearly with applied magnetic field.
This results in the splitting of spectral lines.
f
H > 0H = 0
a, b, c
d, e, fd
e
ab
c
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7 Tesla 7 Tesla MagnetoMagneto‐‐opticaloptical
CryostatCryostat DetectionDetectionOpticsOptics
Field andField andTemperatureTemperatureControllersControllers
MMagnetic agnetic CCircular ircular DDichroism Spectroscopyichroism Spectroscopy
Source,Source,Monochromator,Monochromator,Polarization OpticsPolarization Optics
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MCD Selection Rules:
Ener
gy
H
0
-1+1
Ψg (J = 0)
Ψe (J = 1)
MJ
LCP, σ-RCP, σ+
∆ΑMCD = ΑLCP - ΑRCP
∆MJ = ±1
0hν
∆MJ = +1
RC
P ∆Α
LCP
∆MJ = -1
0hν
Close-up
∆Α
geff μΒH
MMagnetic agnetic CCircular ircular DDichroism ichroism SpectroscopySpectroscopy
Zeeman Zeeman EffectEffect
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Characterization of TMCharacterization of TM2+2+:ZnO:ZnO
What we learn: interactions between dopant ions and host lattice
Use UV/Vis source, measure difference between left and right circularly polarized light
Schwartz, Norberg, Nguyen, Parker, Gamelin, JACS 2003, 125, 13208
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ElectronElectron Paramagnetic ResonanceParamagnetic Resonance
Selection Rule (transverse mode):
∆MS=±1hν=gβH
H=0 H>0
MS = +
S = ± 12
12
12
MS = -
Energy
The derivative signal is detected by locking onto the oscillating magnetic
field that is superimposed on the static sweeping
field. Absorptive Mode
Derivative Mode
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Microwave radiation, detect resonance signal of Microwave radiation, detect resonance signal of unpaired electronunpaired electron
What we learn: environment of electrons, coherence times
ElectronElectron Paramagnetic ResonanceParamagnetic Resonance
Diamagnetic: No unpaired electrons
Paramagnetic: Unpaired electrons
http://www.bruker-biospin.com/
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Spin CoherenceSpin CoherenceMagnetization as superposition of parallel and antiMagnetization as superposition of parallel and anti--parallel parallel
states: how long will it stay between the two states?states: how long will it stay between the two states?
The processing of quantum information based on the electron spin degree of freedom requires fast and coherent
manipulation of local spins.http://www.physics.ucsb.edu/~awschalom/http://www.bruker-biospin.com/epr.html
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Relatively long spin dephasing times (~1ns) have been Relatively long spin dephasing times (~1ns) have been measured recently on bulk materials and measured recently on bulk materials and epitaxialepitaxial films, but films, but
no work has been done on ZnO quantum dots.no work has been done on ZnO quantum dots.
Spin Dephasing in ZnOSpin Dephasing in ZnO
Ghosh, Sih, Lau, Awschalom, Bae, Wang, Vaidya, and Chapline, Applied Physics Letters, 86, 232507, 2005
Three main mechanisms contribute to spin dephasing times in QDs:
Electron spin - electron spin interactions
Electron spin - phonon interactions
Electron spin - nuclear spin interactions
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Photochemical Reduction: Photochemical Reduction: experiments and expected results experiments and expected results
Donor+
Donor
Band gap bleaching
hν
CB
VB
e-
e-
Intraconductionband transition
2
33
3232323
2323
2 HH
HCHOCHCHOHCH
CHOHCHOHCHCHOHCHCHOCHCH
HOCHCHhOHCHCH VB
→
+→
+→+
+→+
•
••
••
+•+
Shim, M.; Guyot-Sionnest, P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2001, 123, 11651.
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hv
Liu, W.K., Whitaker, K.M., Smith, A.L., Kittilstved, K.R., Robinson, B.H., Gamelin, D.R. Phys. Rev. Lett., 2007, 98, 186804 .
Photochemical Charging Results Photochemical Charging Results in in UndopedUndoped ZnOZnO
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Photochemical Charging Results in Photochemical Charging Results in UndopedUndoped ZnOZnO
ZnO = Zn2+ : 3d10
O2- : 2p6
No unpaired electrons in ZnO as-prepared
96.1* ≈g
g* is proportional to field, frequency and energy. It gives information on the local environment of the
electron.Liu, W. K.; Whitaker, K. M.; Smith, A. L.; Kittilstved, K. R.; Robinson, B. H.; Gamelin, D. R. Phys. Rev. Lett.2007, 98, 186804.
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Measuring Coherence Times by EPR
g* (frequency) can be transformed into the time domain to get coherence times.
Times of ~25 ns are measured (compared to 0.19 ns before)Liu, W. K.; Whitaker, K. M.; Smith, A. L.; Kittilstved, K. R.; Robinson, B. H.; Gamelin, D. R. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2007, 98, 186804.
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SummarySummary
Semiconductor Semiconductor QDsQDs have are great have are great candidates for future candidates for future spintronicspintronic and and quantum computing devices.quantum computing devices.
Long spin coherence times have been Long spin coherence times have been measured by EPR on these materials.measured by EPR on these materials.
Much more work is needed to gain a full Much more work is needed to gain a full understanding of how these materials can understanding of how these materials can be used in be used in spintronicspintronic device application.device application.