Sports Facilities and Technologies

Developers, designers and operators increasingly need to create safe, versatile sports amenities that are of lasting value to local and wider communities. Successful sports and leisure facilities have to be user-friendly and operate efficiently. The design process involves many disciplines which are interdependent and mutually supportive, using a holistic approach to achieve the appropriate controls, simplicity, efficiency and economy.

This guide covers planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance criteria, including:

buildings for indoor and outdoor sports; •building regulations and health and safety; •structure and facades;•heating and ventilation;•acoustics and lighting;•infrastructure;•communications and security;•stairways and elevators;•sustainability;•sports-led urban regeneration.•

Containing most types of sports building, this book uses examples from around the world to develop a definitive reference for practitioners, researchers and students in the areas of sport, leisure, the built environment, building design and facilities management.

Peter Culley is an independent engineer whose work ranges from housing to closing-roof stadiums. His specialist experience in sports facilities design dates back to 1990 when, as a Structural Advisory Engineer with British Steel, he was asked to take a lead-ing role in marketing the steel industry’s products to developers and designers of the new generation of all-seater stadiums.

John Pascoe is a content editor (electromechanical) with Electro-components plc. He previously worked with Arup (1979–2002), Constrado (1978–79) and British Steel (1972–77).

Peter and John co-edited the award-winning book Stadium Engineering (2005).

Cover photoTime Warner Cable Arena, City of Charlotte in North Carolina, USA, is the home of the National Basketball Association’s (NBA) Charlotte Bobcats and a premier host venue for concerts and other arena events. The dominant visual element in the arena’s seating bowl is the centre-hung state-of-the-art video display and score-board. It is the most technologically advanced scoreboard and sound system in the country and features the largest video screen in use in any NBA facility. Full-screen LED technology allows an unlimited configuration of live and recorded video, scores, anima-tion and graphics. A unique, three-dimensional backlit cityscape above the scoreboard features the Charlotte skyline. This uses a 360° projection system which allows the skyline to change and feature graphics such as airplanes and fireworks, and night-time or daytime skies. Photograph by Mark Steinkamp, courtesy Daktronics.

To those who advocated publication of the book –

Jaime Aldaya, Eddie Hole, Geraint John, Caroline Mallinder,

Ian Mudd and Eric Taylor

And to those who inspired us to write it –

Colin Dexter, Les Hackett, Kisho Kurokawa, Peter Rice,

Ron Taylor and David Whyte

Sports Facilities and Technologies

Peter Culley and John Pascoe

First published 2009 in the USA and Canada

by Routledge

270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA

Simultaneously published

by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2009 Peter Culley & John Pascoe

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised

in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or

hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information

storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the

accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal

responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Culley, Peter.

Sports facilities and technologies / Peter Culley & John Pascoe.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Sports facilities. 2. Physical fitness centers. 3. Recreation centers. 4. Public

architecture. I. Pascoe, John, MCAM

II. Title.

GV405.C85 2009

725’.8043—dc22

2008052779

ISBN10: 0-415-45868-4 (hbk)

ISBN10: 0-203-87602-4 (ebk)

ISBN13: 978-0-415-45868-9 (hbk)

ISBN13: 978-0-203-87602-2 (ebk)

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2009.

To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’scollection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.

ISBN 0-203-87602-4 Master e-book ISBN

Contents

Preface vii

Foreword by Professor Geraint John viii

The authors ix

Acknowledgements ix

Introduction 1

Part One

Sports and Facilities 3

1 Sports halls 5

2 Squash courts 15

3 Gymnasiums 23

4 Dance studios 31

5 Swimming pools 39

6 Ice rinks 49

7 Integrated sports facilities 57

8 Sports-led urban regeneration 69

9 Stadiums 79

10 Indoor facilities for outdoor sports 93

Part Two

Facilities Development 99

11 Building regulations 101

12 Health and safety 107

13 Feasibility, site selection and investigation 111

14 Masterplanning, transportation and infrastructure 119

15 Building form, structure and facades 127

16 Indoor sports surfaces 137

17 Heating, ventilating and air-conditioning 147

18 Electrical installation 155

19 Facilities management 161

20 Continuous improvement 167

vi

c o n t e n t s

Part Three

Technologies 175

21 Materials 177

22 Acoustics 187

23 Lighting 193

24 Communications 201

25 Safety and security 209

26 Accessibility 215

27 Controls and automation 221

28 Sustainability 227

29 Refurbishment 235

30 Recycling 239

Conclusion 243

Appendix I

Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) MasterFormat 244

Appendix II

Indoor sports: space planning drawings 246

References 257

Index 267

Image credits 278

vii

We’ve written this book for everyone who shares our enthusiasm for the universal language of sport and its power to break down barriers. We have also written it specifically for professionals, researchers and students in the fields of sports development, sport engineering and technology, sports management, sport history, architecture, the built environment, construction and building engineering design.

Sport is global, so we’ve written for a global audience. To demonstrate points that we make we have, however, had to refer to specific regulations, codes of practice, standards and specifica-tions and to their implementation in specific projects. In such cases we’ve quoted attribute units and values in local use, with common equivalents in brackets, for example ‘1in (25.4mm)’. Project examples which are valid for a particular application in a specific time and place are not, of course, necessarily appropri-ate or even legal in another time and place.

Each of the following chapters could be a book in its own right. So we’ve compiled a chapter-by-chapter References list (printed at the end of the book) to help readers pursue their further interests in each chapter’s theme.

This is a big book which covers a wide range of subjects. We have checked and cross-checked its content continuously. We apologise in advance for any errors. If you should see an error then please do let us know. We will be very grateful to you and will make the correction for any future editions.

Finally, one of the advocates of publishing this book said, ‘Hopefully it will be readable’. This is what we want too, and what we have striven to achieve. Whether or not we have suc-ceeded is for you to judge.

Peter and JohnApril 2009

Preface

viii

Foreword by Professor Gera int John

I have been asked to write a foreword to this book, and I am pleased to do so.

The range of the work is enormous, witnessed by the long list of references at the end of the book. It is a kaleidoscope of simple explanations, contrasted with detailed technical information, early historical background leading to present and future trends, and small facilities contrasting with large scale Olympic develop-ments. It is clearly strong on engineering and material matters, bearing in mind the background of the authors.

I asked myself which readership will find this book the most valuable: I think the answer is that there is something to learn here for all those interested in sports facilities. It is a book to both be useful for reference and also to dip into.

Peter Culley and John Pascoe are to be commended on the work they have produced.

Geraint John*

* p r o f e s s o r g e r a i n t j o h n

Senior Advisor to Populous (formerly HOK Sport Architecture)Honorary Life President of the International Union of Architects

(UIA) Programme Sport and Leisure Visiting Professor at the University of HertfordshireVisiting Professor to the Universidad Camilo Jose Cela, Madrid Former Visiting Professor: Sport Building Design at the University

of LutonCouncil Member of the RIBA (Royal Institute of British Architects)Former Chief Architect and Head of the Technical Unit for Sport

at the GB Sports Council Member of the UKTI Global Sports Projects Sector Advisory

Group

ix

Peter Culley is an independent engineer whose work ranges from housing to closing-roof stadiums. His specialist experience in sports facilities design dates back to 1990 when, as a structural advisory engineer with British Steel, he was asked to take a lead-ing role in marketing the steel industry’s products to developers and designers of the new generation of all-seater stadiums. This involved him in most of the stadium and sports ground redevelop-ments in the UK during the 1990s. It also made him a valued member of the international stadium design community. Before joining British Steel in 1978, Peter worked with British Rail. Here, he is best known for the reconstruction of London Bridge Station in the 1970s, with its then innovative NODUS space frame roof structures. Before London Bridge, Peter had, since 1958, designed, detailed and supervised road and rail bridges in concrete and steel, including major bridge and retaining wall works for the new M25 motorway.

John Pascoe is a content editor with Electrocomponents plc, responsible for thermal management, lighting, heatsinks, develop-ment hardware, electrostatic, cleanroom and test and measurement products. He previously worked with Arup (1979–2002), Constrado (1978–79) and British Steel (1972–77). John is the former editor of the magazines Tubular Structures, Corus Group/British Steel 1977–2002, Profils Creux en Acier – The Hollow Section – Stahlhohlprofile, CIDECT 1979–86 and Building with Steel, Constrado – BCSA 1978–79. He worked with Frank Pyle, Trevor Slydel and other members of the team which produced the CAD Good Practice Guide (1994). His additional published works include papers and publications on cladding systems, space frames and stainless steels. John is a member of the Construction Writers Association, Illinois, and the Council for British Archaeology. As a member of Hercules Wimbledon AC, he qualified for and competed in the European and Commonwealth Games Trials held at the Gateshead International Stadium in June 1982.

Peter and John co-wrote more than 30 publications on stadiums and sports facilities in the 1990s. In 2002 they assembled, from friends and colleagues, some of the world’s leading specialists in key aspects of stadium design to work together to produce the first book on stadium engineering. That book, Stadium Engineering, was published in 2005 and was the winner of a 2005 Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) Award, 2005 Communicator Award and 2005 Society for Technical Communication (STC) Trans-European Award (sole UK winner).

This book is the result of inputs from hundreds of people. Most organisations and individuals involved are named in the text, photo credits or copyright references. Additionally, the authors and publisher would like to thank the following: Richard Hughes (Archaeologist – Mohenjo-Daro Site), Daniel Imade, Pauline Shirley (Arup), Cindy Carrasquilla (Charlotte Bobcats), Michelle Wright (Corus Group), Kathryn Harvey (Dalhousie University), John Martin (De Montfort University), Michael Burns, Mike Butt, John Evans, Peter Hare (Electrocomponents), Peter Milburn (Griffith University), Kerry Slatkoff (Ketchum Sports Network), Julie Atkinson (Marl), Terry Paine (Monodraught), Judy Nokes (Office of Public Sector Information), Mark Magner (Queensland University of Technology and Griffith University), Sally Graham, Marcus Kingwell (PMP Consult), Laura Whitton (RIBA), Craig Braham, Carl Chambers, Shereen Roache (Serco), Josh Wheeler (Wheeler Electric).

The following firms made substantial contributions to the book content:

Arup (www.arup.com)•Corus Group (www.corusgroup.com)•Electrocomponents plc (www.electrocomponents.com)•

Commissioned photographs: Simon J Atkinson www.sjatkinson.com

Original drawings: Peter Culley

The authors Acknowledgements

‘Sport is a universal language. At its best it can bring people together, no matter what their origin, background, religious beliefs or economic status. And when young people par-ticipate in sports or have access to physical education, they can experience real exhilaration even as they learn the

ideals of teamwork and tolerance.’

Kofi Annan, New York City, 5 November 2004

1

The book is divided into three parts. Part 1 covers different types of sports facilities, sports provision within buildings, the signifi-cance of sports facilities in urban developments and the exciting possibilities of sports-led urban regeneration. Part 2 covers sports facilities planning, design, construction, operation and mainte-nance. Part 3 is about the technologies that are making such facilities increasingly desirable places to be. While Part 1 is sports-specific, the content of Parts 2 and 3 is of wider application and implication.

The book is written against a background of major and rapid changes – in the UK alone during the period 2006–08 new build-ing regulations, wiring regulations and construction (design and

management) regulations were implemented. In addition to meet-ing new requirements, sports facilities designers and managers everywhere are taking advantage of emerging and developing technologies to achieve comfort and delight for building users, while at the same time working to achieve ever-more stringent energy-efficiency targets.

This book is about sports facilities and their adaptation to the needs and aspirations of modern societies. We have chosen to use local examples from different parts of the world, to demon-strate ways of addressing global issues, rather than incorporate in our content sports facilities project case studies of a general nature.

In t roduct ion

Part ONE

Sports and Facilities

1.1

Western High School, Washington DC: girls’ basketball (circa 1899)

5

Western High School and Warfield Gymnasium

Basketball was known as ‘basket ball’ – two words – until 1921. It was designed to meet the need for an indoor sport that would help male athletes keep fit through the winter months. Its inventor James Naismith, a Canadian by birth and a man of strong religious convictions, devised the sport to ‘assist youth to discover moral as well as physical strength through education’. The first game was played between two nine-man teams using a soccer ball at Springfield, Massachusetts, on 12 December 1891. Features of basket ball included passing the ball (rather than dribbling), tar-geting high-level goals (to prevent collisions) and using peach baskets for the goals (which necessitated the use of ladders to remove the ball from them). Containment baskets were replaced by metal rings with drop-through netting and, when basketball became an arena sport, the backboard was introduced to prevent delays in play due to over-thrown balls landing in the first tiers of spectator seating. Today’s rings are often powder-coated solid steel and backboards may be in plywood or in newer materials, such as reinforced polypropylene resin.

Soon after Naismith invented the game for men, Senda Berenson, Director of Physical Training at Smith College, Massachusetts, introduced it to women. The first women’s game was played at Smith College on 22 March 1893. The nine-woman teams wore heavy woollen uniforms covering all of their bodies except for the face, neck and hands. On the day of the game, the armory (drill hall) windows were guarded by women wielding sticks (to keep men away). The only two men present were Walter E Magee, a physical education instructor who had seen basket ball played at

Springfield, and Dr Thomas Wood, Director of Women’s Physical Education at Stanford. Female spectators were also discouraged because doctors said they could be rendered hysterical by seeing women exerting themselves playing a men’s sport.

The earliest photograph of a women’s basket ball game that we know of was taken by Frances Benjamin Johnston (1864–1952) at Western High School, Washington DC, around 1899.

Chapter 1

Sports ha l l s

1.2

Naval Base Ventura County, Port Hueneme, California:

Warfield Gymnasium (2005)

6

Indoor sport Playing area (m) Playing area (ft) Ht min.: m (ft) Ht max.: m (ft)

Aikido 9 × 9 29’6” × 29’6” 7 (23’) 7.5 (25’)Archery (six archers) 22 × 7.5 72’2” × 24’6” 3.6 (11’8”) 4.6 (15’1”)Athletics (200m track) 87.65 × 43.18 287’6” × 141’8” – –Badminton 13.4 × 6.1 44’ × 20’ 7.6 (25’) 8.4 (27’5”)Baseball 8.2 × 8.2 (11.6 across) 27’ × 27’ (38’ across) – –Basketball 26 × 14 85’3” × 46’ 7 (23’) –BMX (track Length) 300 to 400 984’ to 1312’ – –Bocce 3–4 × 23–30.5 10–13’ × 76–100’ – –Bowls: carpet 9.1–10.1 × 1.83–1.98 29’10”–33’1” × 6’–6’6” – –Bowls: indoor level green 36.5 × 4.6 min. 119.7’ × 15’ min. – –Bowls: short mat 12.2–13.75 × 1.83 40’–45’ × 6’ – –Bowling: 10-pin 22.9 × 1 (lane) 77’10” × 3’3” (lane) – –

Boxing 6.1 × 6.1 20’ × 20’ 7 (23’9”) –Cricket (six-a-side) 29.12–33.12 × 7.32–8 95’6”–109’ × 24’–26’2” 4.5 (14.8’) 5 (16’5”)Curling 44 × 4.3–4.75 146’ × 14’2” –15’7” – –Cycling (track length) 133 to 500 436’ to 1640’ – –Fencing 14 × 2 46’ × 6’6” – –Football (soccer) five-a-side 25–50 × 16.5–35 82–164’ × 54’1”–114’10” – –Futsal 25–31 × 15–16 82’–101’7” × 49’–52’2” – –Go-kart 30.5 × 30.5 min 100’ × 100’ min – –Gymnastics 32–36 × 22.5–26 105’–118’1” × 73’8”–85’3” 6.7 (22’) 7.6 (25’)Handball 40 × 20 131’2” × 65’6” 7.6 (24’9”) 9 (29’6”)High jump (pit) 3 × 4.3 10’ × 14’ – –Hockey 40 × 20 131’2” × 65’6” 7.6 (25’) –Ice hockey/ice skating 61 × 26 200’ × 85’3” – –Jai alai 54 × 15.24 176’ × 50’ 12.2 (40’) –Judo 16 × 16 52’2” × 52’2” 7 (23’) 7.5 (25’)Karate 8 × 8 26’1” × 26’1” 7 (23’) 7.5 (25’)Kendo 11 × 10 36’ × 32’9” 7 (23’) 7.5 (25’)Korfball 31–40 × 16–20 101’7”–131’2” × 52’4”–65’7” 7 (23’) 9 (29’6”)Lacrosse (men’s) 46–48 × 18–24 150’11”–157’6” × 59’1”–78’9” – –Lacrosse (women’s) 29–42 × 15–21 95’2”–137’10” × 49’3”–68’11” – –Netball 30.5 × 15.2 100’ × 50’ 7 (23’) 7.6 (25’)Pool 2.7 × 1.4 8’9” × 4’4” – –Pole vault (pit) 3.7 × 4.3 12’ × 14’ (min) – –Rackets 9.14 × 18.28 30’ × 60’ 9.14 (30’) –Rowing (tank) 13–18 approx 42’8” × 59’1” 9 (29’6”) –Small-bore pistol shooting 25 × 6.4 82’ × 21’ 3.6 (11’8”) 4.6 (15’1”)Small-bore rifle shooting 25 × 4.2 82’ × 13’ 8” 3.6 (11’8”) 4.6 (15’1”)Snooker and billiards 3.7 × 1.9 12’ × 6’ – –Squash: hardball 9.7 × 5.6 32’ × 18’5” 5.49 (18’) 5.49 (18’)Squash: softball 9.7 × 6.4 32’ × 21’ 5.4 (17’7”) 5.7 (18’7”)Squash: doubles 13.7 × 7.6 45’ × 25’ 5.49 (18’) 5.49 (18’)Swingball and tetherball 6 diameter 20’ diameter 3 (pole) 10 (pole)Table tennis 7–14 × 5–7 22’9”–45’9” × 16’4”–22’9” 2.7 (8’8”) 4 (13’1”)Tchouk-ball 20–40 × 15–20 65’7”–131’2” × 49’–65’7” 15 (49’2”) 20 (65’7”)Tennis 23.8 × 8.2 78’ × 27’ 9 (29’)* 10.67 (35’)*Trampolining 5.2 × 3 17’ × 10’ 6.7 (22’) 9.1 (29’8”)Triple jump (from take-off) 21 (min) × 2.75 68’10” (min) × 9’ – –Volleyball 18 × 9 59’ × 29’6” 7 (23’) 9.1 (29’8”)Volleyball: beach (indoor) 16 × 8 minimum 52’4” × 26’1” minimum 7 (23’) –Weight training 4 × 3 or more 13’ × 10’ or more 3.5 (11’6”) –Wrestling 12 × 12 39’4” × 39’4” 7 (23’9”) –

* Tennis court: height 9m (29’) at net (club) and 10.67m (35’) at net (championship); 5.75m (18’10”) at baseline; 4m (13’1”) minimum at back.Note: the table is a simplification so there are inconsistencies and omissions, e.g. in some cases playing areas only are quoted and in some cases playing areas plus mandatory run-off areas are quoted. For cue sports the critical issue of the height of the lighting over the table is not addressed. The References section at the end of the book includes sources of detail on sports playing areas.

Table 1.1 Playing areas of popular indoor sports

s p o r t s h a l l s

7

Interestingly, in the 1920s, Johnston would go on to photograph architecture, driven by a passion to document buildings and gardens which were falling into disrepair or were about to be redeveloped and lost. (Johnston was made an honorary member of the American Institute of Architects for her work in preserving old and endangered buildings.)

What intrigues us about the Western High School photograph is that the girls of 1899 are enjoying a virtually identical sport-ing experience to that of the girls in the second photograph, taken in 2005, where All-Marine Telita Huffman (left) goes up high with Army’s Chelsea Bryant. Major developments in cloth-ing and footwear have clearly taken place in the intervening 100 years and you may have spotted a significant difference in the two venues – Western High is of conventional construction and Warfield Gymnasium has an all-steel structure because it is on board Naval Base Ventura County, Port Hueneme, California.

These two photographs demonstrate the universality and exhilaration of sport, which Kofi Annan articulates in the quota-tion in the prelim pages (see p. x). They also give an inkling of the importance of sports facilities and technologies to sports development, which is the theme of our book.

Indoor sports facilities

The authors define a sports hall as an enclosure capable of con-taining a designated indoor sport or permutation of indoor sports. The size of a sports hall will be arrived at by balancing the aspira-tion (for sports and users to be accommodated) with the budget. Because sport is a fast-growing and fast-changing business, designers of sports facilities have to consider flexibility in use and potential for future extendibility. Table 1.1 gives the playing areas of some popular indoor sports that the client may wish to accom-modate. Heights quoted are clear heights. Although maximum clear heights may be specified by sports governing bodies, in practice they may usually be greater, determined by the need of principal height-critical sports hall activities (such as badminton, tennis and gymnastics).

Towards enclosure

Most of the sports listed in Table 1.1 were conceived as outdoor sports. Badminton is now one of the world’s most popular indoor sports. The modern indoor game was launched in 1873 at Badminton House in Gloucestershire, home of the Duke of Beaufort, after having gained popularity as an upper-class, English country house amusement in the 1860s. The 19th century game derived from the 18th century games of poona (British India) and battledore and shuttlecock (England), but similar games were played in the ancient world in Greece, Egypt, India, China, Japan and Siam.

The other principal indoor court sports are basketball and vol-leyball and these sports, amazingly, were invented within 16km (10 miles) of each other. Basketball, we have seen, was invented in Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1891, and volleyball (then known as Mintonette) was invented in Holyoke, Massachusetts, in 1895. There is a saying in the UK that ‘things happen in threes’ and it is interesting to note that, although squash in the USA is generally accepted to date from 1891 in Philadelphia, America’s first squash court was built by St Paul’s School at Concord, New Hampshire, in 1883. It is also interesting to note that Mintonette (volleyball) was so named because of its association with badminton, which was designed to be a game involving less physical contact than basketball and incorporated not only aspects of badminton and basketball but also elements of baseball, tennis and handball. (Mintonette became Volleyball when the ball was perceived to be ‘volleyed’ back and forth over the net.)

Enclosing volumes for individual court sports has a much longer tradition than enclosing volumes for multifunctional sport-ing use. The King George VI Sports Hall at Lilleshall was built in 1955 and acclaimed as the first indoor sports hall in the UK. The first community sports hall in the UK was opened at Harlow, Essex, in 1964. School sports halls were integral to the UK school building programme of the 1960s and more than one-third of the programme’s expenditure was on consortium-based, industria-lised school-building systems. This placed a large proportion of the new UK schools and their sports halls among the first non-industrial buildings to express all the character and virtues of structural steel; a fact which was recognised internationally. The design of steel framed schools in the UK in the 1960s was on a par with the beautiful but austere works of Mies van der Rohe and his architectural school at the Illinois Institute of Technology.

8

Many of the world’s finest sports halls are the focal points of schools and colleges in North America. At Berkeley High School, California, sliding glass walls open between the sports hall and the student union to create a quality space capable of hosting com-munity and school-wide events. At Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, the Ralph S O’Connor Recreation Center has a multi-use sports hall for basketball, volleyball and badminton with a 165m (541’4”), four-lane jogging track, 30ft (9.144m) climbing wall and four racquetball courts (two of which are convertible to squash courts) together with weight room, fitness centre and three multi-purpose rooms. The National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) recognises outstanding sports facilities in the USA through its annual awards scheme. Winners in recent years have included Western Washington University, Wade King Student Recreation Center, which has a three-court sports hall with elevated running track, multi-purpose activity court, locker rooms and multi-purpose rooms for aerobics, martial arts, yoga and fencing.

Today a typical ‘standard’ sized sports hall is approximately 33m (108’3”) long × 18m (59’) wide × 7.6m (24’11”) high (594m2/6387ft2) and can accommodate four badminton courts in parallel. Badminton courts have traditionally been used as a modular yardstick because of the popularity of the sport and its demanding functional requirements, which include lighting, roof

structure and height, background wall and roof colours (to aid shuttle visibility) and air velocity. A large sports hall would be considered to be in the order of 36.5m (119’9”) × 32m (105’) × 9.1m (29’10”) high (1168m2/12,574ft2).

Roof structure

Sports halls are built in a wide variety of materials and configura-tions. Materials include structural steel, concrete, prestressed concrete, timber and membranes and cables (in lightweight structure solutions). Configurations include beams and trusses, space frames, stressed skins, rigid frames, folded plates, shells, arches, vaults and domes, cable-stayed structures and other types of lightweight structure.

While arches and domes are appropriate for the hosting of stadium and arena-type events, a rectangular or square plan sports hall is likely to be more efficient for accommodating permutations of the rectangular and square plan playing areas listed in Table 1.1. A constant height, capable of accommodating planned activi-ties with the greatest clearance requirements, will also optimise flexibility in use. The box-like, repetitious solution has led to the

1.3

Hillsborough Leisure Centre (1991)

s p o r t s h a l l s

9

widespread use of structural steel for sports hall roof structures over the past 40 years. Such structures are workshop-prefabricated for bolting or welding together quickly on site. They offer not only the means of creating the requisite flexibility in use, but also inherent extendibility.

The main factors affecting sports hall cost are shape, size and standard of finishes. Large halls cost more because they have greater height and wider spans, and use more construction mate-rial. Sometimes, the seemingly prohibitive costs of larger struc-tures merit closer scrutiny. For example, high strength steels can be used to create wider spans. These steels derive from the devel-opment of micro-alloy theories in modern metallurgy, combined with advanced controlled-rolling practices in the steel industry. The benefits of using such steels can be dramatic. Let us take, as an example, an increase in yield strength from 355MPa to 460MPa (steel grades S355M and S460M as defined in European Structural Steel Standard EN10025:2004), see Table 1.2.

In the above example, a weight saving of 30% and an overall cost saving of 14% are achieved by choosing the higher grade steel over the lower grade steel to perform the same function (current calculations suggest that material savings in the range 23.3–40% are achieved by specifying high strength steels as opposed to low alloy steels and carbon steels). Higher grade steels

are widely used in the constructional steelwork industry. Their use reduces energy inputs and increases the value in service of each unit of output, placing these steel products at the forefront of global initiatives in sustainable building development. Unprecedented demand for sports and leisure centres coincided with the development of computerised analytical techniques in structural engineering design and the introduction by steel manu-facturers of high yield strength structural steel sections. The conjunction of these three factors promoted a rapid growth of interest in the development of two-layer grid space frame systems for sports hall developments. These systems can transmit the forces resulting from roof dead weight and superimposed loading out of the roof structure, not in the usual single direction (normally along the shortest span) but in two directions. Because of this ability, such space frames can be used to create efficiently the types of wide-span roofs necessary to produce large column-free floor areas. Reducing or eliminating the need for intermediate building columns increases the flexibility and utility value of space within leisure centres. From the 1960s steel space frame roofs have been used to cover many physical activities requiring large areas (and often large associated volumes) of uninterrupted space.

Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922), the inventor of the telephone, experimented with space truss structures made of octahedral and tetrahedral units in the early years of the 20th century. The first commercially available space frame system was MERO, introduced in Germany in the 1940s. Subsequent systems included TM Truss (Japan), Abba Space (South Africa), Octetruss

Steel grade S355M S460M

Quantity 1000 tonnes 700 tonnes

Materials cost, US$ 660,000 610,000

Fabrication cost, US$ 1,100,000 875,000

Anti-corrosion treatment, US$ 260,000 260,000

Construction cost, US$ 175,000 175,000

Total cost, US$ 219,500,000 192,000,000

Saving in materials quantity 30%

Saving in total cost 14%

1.4

Clydebank Leisure Centre (1994)

Table 1.2 Steel grade cost and strength comparisons

s p o r t s a n d f a c i l i t i e s

10

(USA), Triodetic (Canada), Tridirectionelle SDC, Tridimatic, Pyramitic, Unibat (France) and Space Deck (UK). More recently developed systems have included the Conder Harley System 80 and Space Deck ‘Multiframe’. These systems comprise specially developed joints used in combination with metal connectors. The NODUS system, using cast joints and structural hollow section connectors, was introduced in the UK in the 1970s. It was used to roof many sports and leisure facilities. The authors have chosen the NODUS joint as their demonstration space frame joint (Chapter 7) because one (JP) was once the NODUS Marketing Planner and the other (PC) used NODUS in his best-known

project, the redevelopment of London Bridge station. Because space frames have two-layer grids, lighting, heating and ventila-tion systems can readily and accessibly be supported within the roof depth. They have also been used very successfully with space partitioning systems to isolate different playing areas under the common ‘umbrella’.

1.5

Sports Hall for Acrobats, Berlin (2007)

s p o r t s h a l l s

11

Walls

External wall claddings for sports halls may include colour-coated steel. Where profiled metal is used, it looks better when run hori-zontally. Cedarboard cladding is cheaper than metal cladding and requires no maintenance. External windows and door frames should be in powder-coated aluminium, galvanised steel, UPVC or hardwood.

Internal wall surfaces should be flush and without projections or sharp corners. They must be capable of withstanding impact from building users’ bodies, sports equipment and projectiles. They must be able to support any sports hall equipment that may be installed at the outset or that could be introduced in the future (sports hall fittings include wall-mounted or ceiling-mounted hinged basketball goals, roof-mounted spotting rig for gymnasts, tracked division netting, sockets with flush-fitted cover plates, pulley-mounted net bags and spotting rig ducts). Wall finishes should be matt, easily cleaned and non-abrasive to a height of at least 3m above the floor (above 3m a sound absorptive material capable of withstanding ball impact may be used). Higher standards of material and acoustic quality may be necessary if the facility is to perform wider amenity or assembly functions.

Floors

Commonly used flooring materials for sports halls include semi-sprung hardwood, PVC carpet with chipboard or plywood underlay, PVC with foam backing and rubbers or plastics in sheet form or laid in situ. Semi-sprung beech, beech veneer and various composition and synthetic surfaces meet impact and energy absorbing criteria defined in British Standard 7044 (Part 4). The choice will depend principally on the nature of the activities involved. For example, the surface must offer true and predictable bounce (joints will not be permissible if they affect playing performance – hardwood sur-faces must be laid with support under all board joints). Surfaces should generally be non-slip, but the designer should beware because some sports, such as football and tennis, require a degree of ‘slide’. All floors should be wear-resistant and easy to maintain. Some will have to cater for localised heavy loading and the move-ment of heavy equipment across them. Floor colour should contrast with the walls and be of 40–50% reflectance value.

No official sports flooring standards currently exist in North America. The German DIN series is the most widely used sports flooring standard in the USA (DIN V 18032-2, now superseded by EN 14904: 2006), see Chapter 16.

Heating and ventilating

Heating and ventilating requirements vary according to activity and season. Winter temperatures of 13–22°C are suitable for most activities. Air renewal should be four times per hour with a per-formance of at least 50m3 per hour (comparatives are three changes per hour for a storeroom and 10–12 changes for changing and shower rooms). Sports halls may use warm air or radiant heating, or a combination of both. Warm air heaters are well-suited to low air change rates. Radiant heaters provide instant heat at the point of need, without having to raise the ambient temperature. This makes them suitable for localised heating or for overall heating in those parts of a sports centre with high ceilings or high ventila-tion rates. Ventilation openings such as windows, louvres, fans and mechanical inlets/outlets must be located in order to avoid draughts on sports participants and other building users.

Lighting

The New Buildings Institute has established some excellent fun-damental approaches to achieving energy-effective sports hall design:

‘Use daylight as a primary light source. There is ample evidence •that daylight makes people happier, healthier and more produc-tive. It’s also free and environmentally friendly. Diffuse skylights, monitors and north-facing clerestories are good choices.Use light-reflective surfaces to maximize brightness perception •while minimizing glare and energy use. In a good design, the building should generally be the light fixture. In other words, paint the ceiling and walls white. Use colour bands for school colours.Select appropriate target light levels. High school facilities •require higher light levels during competitive events than those of elementary or middle schools.

s p o r t s a n d f a c i l i t i e s

12

Use luminaires with some uplight to provide some brightness •on the ceiling.Light the competition area to a higher level than the spectator •areas.Use occupancy sensors to ensure that lighting is not energized •except when needed.Provide manual bi-level switching capacity, at a minimum, in •all areas. This is a requisite criterion in the USA to qualify for

energy-efficiency (Energy Policy Act 2005) tax deductions. This will also facilitate multiple uses within the space, ranging from basketball tournaments to the school sock hop.Use automatic daylight harvesting controls that either switch •some lighting off or continuously dim as daylight becomes available.’(New Buildings Institute 2006)

1.6

Indoor triple jump

s p o r t s h a l l s

13

Equipment storage

Planners and designers of sports halls should allow a minimum of 12.5% of the floor area for sports equipment storage. If the hall has to double up as a community resource, then the additional need to store furniture will significantly increase the proportion of the building that must be allocated to storage. Mats require a separate one-hour fire-rated storage enclosure, vented to the external air and equipped with a smoke detection system.

Upgrading existing sports halls

The success of sports halls depends on their ability to successfully accommodate specific sports or permutations of sports. Where the current need is for a multifunctional facility, an existing sports hall may be considered inadequate. It may be possible to extend the length of an existing facility to increase its capacity, but it is not often possible to increase building width or height economi-cally. Adding ancillary buildings to an inadequate principal building simply multiplies the number of inadequate buildings on site.

Essentially, if existing facilities are too small, then they need to be replaced. In 2006 sportscotland published The National Audit of Scotland’s Sports Facilities, a review of 6000 facilities, which concluded that changing patterns of demand suggested facilities should be replaced rather than refurbished. Maintenance of the country’s stock of indoor sports facilities was calculated to be costing £78 million per annum.

Back to square one

On 25 June 2008 we were chatting with our publisher, Fran Ford, about sporting derivations of phrases like ‘for love or money’. Fran said that the phrase ‘back to square one’ had a sporting derivation too. As we had thought it derived from board games like ‘snakes and ladders’ we were intrigued, especially as this is a phrase in common use in the construction industry. ‘Back to square one’ pre-dates the TV era, going back to early BBC radio commentaries. It refers to the division of a sports pitch into eight notional squares, which enabled radio commentators to convey more clearly to listeners the progress of the ball around the field of play. The Radio Times referred to the practice in an issue dated January 1927 and prints of the pitch diagram still exist. Sound recordings also survive, in which a second commentator calls out square numbers as the ball moves from square to square. There is, however, no surviving recording in which the phrase ‘back to square one’ is actually spoken, but we like to believe it was.

1.7

Listeners’ plan for first live radio commentary on a football match

2.1

Jai Alai Hall, Havanna, Cuba (circa 1904)

15

Introduction

The ancient and universal practice of hitting a ball with a closed fist, as in Fives, was developed by the Aztecs into the sport intro-duced by Hernan Cortés into Andalucía as pelota (ball), which became known by the Basques as jai alai (pronounced ‘high lie’). Jai alai spread subsequently to Mexico, Cuba and the USA, gain-ing a reputation as the fastest game in the world. Other variations of ‘handball’ had evolved by the mid-12th century in France into ‘le paume’ (the palm of the hand), which developed into jeu de paume, real tennis, royal tennis and – well – tennis. In the early 19th century a variation of racket sport was invented in the Fleet Prison, London, when the inmates – mainly debtors – began using their limited space to hit balls against the prison’s walls, of which there were many. This new game, rackets, found its way into the English public school system. Pupils at Harrow discovered that a punctured rackets ball ‘squashed’ on impact with the wall. The resulting ‘slow ball’ meant that the players had to run faster and harder to return the bouncing ball to the front wall, producing a more energetic game with a greater variety of shot-making oppor-tunities. It is this further variation on rackets that led to the world’s first four ‘squash’ courts being built at Harrow School in 1864. The standard size of squash court was adopted from the dimen-sions of a beautiful 32ft (9.75m) × 21ft (6.4m) court built at the Bath Club, London, for Lord Desborough in the 1920s.

England was, at that time, a perfect launching pad for squash since the British Empire provided the means for the new sport to spread around the globe, often in rather mysterious ways. In British East Africa in the 1930s, at Handeni in Tanzania, a colonial administrator gained authorisation to commission a new ‘court’, knowing that it would be assumed that the application was for a

law court when he was, in fact, building a local squash court. A new squash court at Sumbawanga, Tanzania, lay unfinished until the colonial administration arrested a known criminal, who was also a mason, and set him to work on the plastering. The birth of squash in the USA is normally dated at 1891, when the Philadelphia Racquet Club built a court and instituted a championship. However, in the USA a harder rubber ball had been developed to cope with local low or rapidly dropping temperatures, and this was found to be better suited for use on a narrower 18½ft (5.6m) court. Squash played on the 18½ft wide court with a hard ball was the only form of squash played in the USA until the mid-1980s, when growth of the sport internationally led to some 21ft courts being built in the USA and to the ‘international’ soft ball being used on both types of court.

Chapter 2

Squash cour ts

This chapter is dedicated to Raju Chainani, the leading

and irreplaceable squash journalist, who died suddenly

in Mumbai on 31 August 2001, aged 49

2.2

San Diego Squash, Sorrento Mesa, California: Junior Squash Clinic (2007)

16

Squash is an exceptional promoter of cardio-respiratory fitness, muscle endurance, strength and speed, flexibility and a low per-centage of body fat. Heart rate rises in the first few minutes of play to 80–85% of maximum. The sport is today played in 140 countries by more than fifteen million people on more than 50,000 courts. The sport’s governing body, the World Squash Federation (WSF), has 118 national associations in membership.

The court

The WSF publishes a specification which ‘defines recommended standards for Singles & Doubles Squash courts for the International Game of Squash; referred to in North America as “Softball” Squash’. The aims of the specification are:

to ensure compatibility of recommended standards for courts •from one country to another, andto guide manufacturers, builders and designers as to suitable •standards of squash court construction and design.

The specification defines the basic characteristics of squash courts without reference to materials or methods of construction.

Heating, ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC)

Air-conditioning provides air circulation, cooling and dehumidi-fication appropriate to playing squash, but whether air-condition-ing or mechanical ventilation is used, HVAC equipment should be fitted flush so that there are no intrusions of fans, thermostats or ducts into the playing volume.

Court ceiling and lighting

The court ceiling should be made of an impact-resistant and sound-absorbent material to take the force of stray balls and to reduce reverberation. It should have a plain matt finish and be white or a light colour against which the players can sight the ball easily.

All lighting should be flush with the ceiling and no part of any lighting fixture can be lower than 5.64m (18ft 6in) above court floor level. Shadows are unacceptable, so lights should be dis-persed throughout the ceiling in order to illuminate all parts of the court equally. Many squash courts are lit by fluorescent tubes, which have a tendency to flicker. Other options include incan-descent bulbs and metal halide lights.

2.3

Yale University, New Haven: Payne Whitney Gymnasium –

Brady Squash Center (2005)

17

s q u a s h c o u r t s

The court floors

Floors must be hard, smooth, true, non-slip and able to absorb moisture. A lightly sprung timber floor is appropriate. It should be constructed of light-coloured wood of, or similar in hue to, English beech or Canadian rock maple. Boards should be tongue-and-groove, in the maximum possible lengths, and laid parallel to the side walls (not transversely). Floors should be sanded but, ideally, not painted, varnished, oiled or polished (which can cause players to slip). They should be swept regularly using a V-mop, which has an impregnated cotton head that attracts dust and rubber particles from the squash balls. Rubber or other flexible material is used under the timber to give the floor the ‘spring’ or ‘give’. The playboard or ‘tin’, which extends across the bottom of the front wall, may be of metal or metal-faced plywood.

The court walls

In squash, the court wall surface is crucial. It must be true, hard, smooth and plumb. It must be able to withstand impact and to absorb some condensation. Walls can be constructed in brick or concrete block, or in other solid and non-yielding material such as plastic or reinforced panels. The most common construction is brickwork, carefully bonded to white plaster that is finished with special squash court paint. The wall has to be able to cope with both ball and racket impacts. A squash ball may weigh only around 24g but it can reach speeds of up to 160km/h (99.4mph), imposing considerable force on the wall construction.

The court back wall is preferably made of glass, with a door in the centre of the wall. Such glass is a special product and should be sourced from a recognised supplier. The back wall does not have to be in glass but this is preferred in order to enable spectators to watch the game. If the back wall is in plas-ter, then the door should be set flush with the plaster. Door handles and hinges should be recessed to eliminate protrusions. For match play there should be provision for a referee to stand above the centre of the back wall, with an unimpeded view of the court. (It is interesting to note that many early squash courts had no door – they were accessed, usually at the rear left hand corner, by a counter-weighted ladder pivoted at the top. Once on court, players pushed the ladder up, where it stayed because of the counterweight. After the match, the ladder was lowered

by pulling on a rope hanging down just below the top of the rear wall.)

The critical nature of squash wall construction was demon-strated in the refurbishment of the Royal Automobile Club in Pall Mall, London, which was completed between 2003 and 2004. The RAC Club had been designed by Mewès & Davies, following their design of the Ritz Hotel in Piccadilly. It was built in 1911 and is one of London’s first steel-framed buildings. The consulting engi-neers for the 2003–04 refurbishment, Faber Maunsell, were told that the squash court walls had been in need of constant repair due to cracking. They assumed that there was a problem with plaster and backing brickwork. What they found was that the build-ing’s original engineer, Sven Bylander, whose firm would become Bylander Waddell, had designed the courts for fives, with brick walls faced in voided concrete and lined with teak. This wall design eliminated noise from the adjacent shooting gallery. At some point in the building’s history, the teak linings were removed to facilitate change in use of the courts from fives to squash. As a result the courts were being used for a purpose for which they had not been designed and, consequently, they were taken down and rebuilt (with the exception of one wall which English Heritage wished to retain in the reconstruction). It is interesting to note that teak court linings of the RAC Club’s original type probably derive from the use of teak-lined courts by British expatriate rackets and squash enthusiasts working in the timber trade in northern Thailand.

Glass walls

The problem with squash as a sport was that, despite its player appeal, it had very limited spectator appeal. A reasonable crowd for a squash match was around 25–30 people. That changed completely and forever when, in 1977, the UK firm Prospec of Sheffield (now based in Rotherham) developed the world’s first squash court glass wall and installed it – under the name Ellis Pearson – at Sheffield’s Abbeydale Club. This innovation opened up the sport to spectators while retaining the existing levels of playability and safety. Prospec has since installed more than 30,000 Ellis Pearson glass walls around the world for squash, racketball and pelota (which in Europe is another ball and wall sport deriving from jeu de paume).

Prospec went on to develop the world’s first all-glass tourna-ment squash court, which had its inaugural use at the French

18

Open in 1984. The design and construction materials of this court facilitate its erection almost anywhere. One of the most spectacu-lar backdrops has been the pyramids at Giza, near Cairo, where a court was erected for the World Open in 1999. The first English Open squash tournament was held at the Crucible Theatre, Sheffield, from 13–17 August 2003. For this event the Prospec all-glass court provided an unimpeded view of the court, from all around the Crucible auditorium, while at the same time using colour-surface-treated glass and a coloured floor to create opti-mum playing conditions.

Convertible courts

In 2004 McWil Courtwall announced the availability of a new type of glass-walled court with a movable side wall to allow both singles and doubles to be played on the same structure. This development was stimulated by demand from events such as the Commonwealth Games and Asian Games, which wanted to stage singles and doubles on the feature court on the same day. The participation of glass fabricator Glaverbel Hardmaas in this initia-tive helped to reduce development time to just six months.

Glass courts

In 2006 Horst Balinsky, founder of the squash court construction company ASB, designed and developed an all-glass squash court floor. Its inaugural use was in an all-glass ASB court erected in

front of the Falaknuma Palace, Hyderabad, for the final rounds of the Qatar Airways Challenge (4–9 July 2006) on the Women’s International Squash Players Association (WISPA) World Tour. Some of the world’s top players were involved in testing the new floor at the ASB headquarters in Germany. The colour of the floor is determined by the colour of the surface under the glass, which creates an advertising opportunity for sponsors.

In 2007 ASB launched – literally – the first all-glass court designed for use on modern cruise ships. This was installed on the uppermost deck of the cruise liner AIDAdiva belonging to AIDA Cruises of Germany, which operates passenger voyages in northern Europe, the Mediterranean and beyond. The court’s glass walls and double-layer, anti-skid, safety-glass floor are mounted on a sprung aluminium base using rubber bearing connections. This solution reduces stress on the players’ joints, while further demonstrating the ‘anytime, anywhere’ advantage that squash can have over other sports. In this case, the transparent enclosure enables passengers to exercise safely while still being part of the ocean-going sightseeing experience. The AIDAbella subsequently became the second of four AIDA line cruise ships to be fitted with an ASB All-Glass-Court.

Squash at sea has, in itself, an intriguing history worthy of greater study. In 1912 the ill-fated Titanic had a squash court located below the bridge at G Deck (court floor) and F Deck (upper court/viewing gallery). The Queen Mary, as originally constructed in 1936, had a gymnasium and squash court on her Sun Deck, to the rear of the vessel. The Queen Mary ’s full-size court was sound-proofed from adjacent areas and designed to prevent vibration affecting the deck below. A skylight with dif-fused glass beneath was designed to eliminate the possibility of shadows on court. The spectators’ balcony had a bronze balus-trade, sycamore wall panelling and walnut mouldings.

2.4

Grand Central Station, New York:

Bear Stearns Tournament of

Champions (2008)

19

Safe-screen

In 1977 BBC TV’s Tomorrow’s World programme featured in model form a transparent-walled squash court developed by the British consulting engineers Campbell, Reith Hill (CRH). In 1982 the partners of CRH decided to design, develop and own a prototype ‘Safe-Screen’ squash court, constructed using Perspex (ICI’s acrylic sheeting) which they believed would provide a preferable material to glass for demountable courts. This innova-tion paved the way for squash to become a ‘fishbowl’ event, with unique one-way viewing. Its use attracted record crowds for the British Open and World Masters tournaments in 1983. Continuous improvements in the Safe-Screen court included a transparent ‘tin’ and transparent ‘cutline’, introduced for the Patrick International Squash Festival in 1983, and the introduc-tion of a yellow ball and blue floor for the Davies & Tate British Open in 1984.

Essentially, the Safe-Screen court has four walls of transparent material unobstructed by the steelwork frames along each wall. At some venues, slender corner columns are required but at others it is possible to suspend the ceiling structure from the roof of the spectator hall, allowing all-round clear vision into the court. The opaque pattern of dots on the Perspex wall material (white dots inside and black dots outside) creates one-way vision, whereby the inside of the court is illuminated and the outside is relatively dark – spectators and TV cameras can see in, but players cannot see out. This combination, together with a uniformly illuminated ceiling and 2000 lux (186 foot-candles) lighting to the court, optimises playing conditions and television coverage. Court ven-tilation is via a perforated membrane located between the top of the court walls and the illuminated ceiling.

A panel floor system was developed for speed of erection. Floor panels run the length of the court, to avoid unacceptable lateral joints, and are fully sprung. The floor appears to be and performs as a conventional first-grade maple spanning floor (that can be supplied in a colour such as blue if required). A clear volume of 12.53m × 9.8m × 7.2m (41’ × 32.1’ × 23.6’) is required in which to erect a court measuring 10.73m × 7.38m × 6.9m (35.2’ × 24.2’ × 22.6’).

Mini squash

Mini squash was introduced at the International Squash Rackets Federation (now World Squash Federation) Annual General Meeting in Helsinki in November 1991. It was developed in Australia and New Zealand to introduce the game to youngsters aged from four upwards. It is played with a coated foam ball one-and-a-half times the size of a standard squash ball. The racket is lighter and shorter than standard, with a large face and smaller-diameter grip. Mini squash can be played on a squash court and against any suitable indoor or outdoor wall. Demountable mini courts with clear plastic walls have also been developed for quick erection on flat surfaces.

Beach squash

Beach squash is another variation on the ‘anytime, anywhere’ theme. A beach squash court can be erected on an area 10m ×

2.5

Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth

Games: Scotstoun Stadium

s p o r t s a n d f a c i l i t i e s

20

7m, with the requisite 6.5m available height. This type of court is designed to enable it to be easily set up, dismantled and driven to new locations.

Brady Squash Center, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut

In the early 1990s the leaders of amateur squash in the USA adopted international standards of play. US colleges and universi-ties started building international courts for their intercollegiate programmes. The international game necessitated playing to new rules, with a softer ball, on a court wider by 2.5ft (0.762m) and with a tin higher by 2in (50.8mm). At Yale, the main squash facility at Payne Whitney, in the east wing of the fourth floor, had been built to US specifications and lacked space and amenities for spectators of the increasingly popular sport.

Yale alumnus Theodore P Shen ’66 made a donation that enabled a Phase 1 renovation of six new international-standard courts, including one court with three glass walls. In 1997 President Richard C Levin called upon the Skillman Associates, a volunteer organisation of Yale squash, to help raise funds for Phase 2. Fundraising was led by Henry (Sam) Chauncey ’57 and Skillman Associates’ president, William T Ketcham Jr ’41, ’48 LL.B. Their fundraising efforts were completed when alumnus Nicholas F Brady ’52 announced a landmark $3million gift. Nicholas Brady had lettered in both tennis and squash during his undergraduate years and, as captain of the 1952 varsity squash team, had led Yale to a national championship. Mr Brady went on to receive an MBA from Harvard in 1954 and became Secretary of the US Treasury during both the Reagan and Bush Snr presidencies.

The Brady Squash Center was designed by Ellerbe Becket of Washington DC, working with engineers Flack & Kurtz. Contractor Whiting Turner completed court demolition and reconstruction works by the autumn of 1999. The new squash centre has 15 international singles courts, all with glass back walls and viewing galleries. Three of the courts are exhibition courts. Two of these have three glass walls and the centrepiece of the development – Brady Court – has four glass walls. The first six of the new courts make up the Theodore Shen Wing. The development now includes new coaches’ offices and a team room with video viewing

facilities. It is one of the best squash court centres in the world. The refurbished facility was officially inaugurated at dedication ceremonies on 22 January 2000. On 18 March 2006, Brady Squash Center also became the permanent home of the newly launched US Squash Hall of Fame.

Squash Tournament of Champions, Grand Central Terminal, New York

The Squash Tournament of Champions at Vanderbilt Hall, Grand Central Terminal, New York City, is an annual event that has been held for 14 years (interrupted only by the terminal’s renovation, 1996–98). The tournament was sponsored for five consecutive years, 2004–08, by Bear Stearns (which was sold to JP Morgan Chase in March 2008). In 2008 the Professional Squash Association Tour Super Series Silver event took place 10–16 January. This is the biggest squash spectator event in the world by virtue of its combination of reserved seating (for 500) and free public viewing

2.6

Royal Tennis Court, Falkland Palace, Fife

21

s q u a s h c o u r t s

(by around 150,000 Grand Central commuters during terminal week). John Nimick, president of tournament promoter Event Engine, said, ‘Vanderbilt Hall is a spectacular physical setting and, equally importantly, provides the players with the rare opportunity to showcase their sport to the public spectators who pass through Grand Central Terminal’.

Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games

Squash is one of 17 sports chosen for the Games, to be held between 23 July and 3 August 2014. Scotstoun Stadium, which regularly hosts athletics events, will be significantly modernised to host the squash and table tennis events. Scottish Squash, established in 1936, was a strong supporter of Glasgow’s Games bid, seeing success as the opportunity to create a planned and funded legacy which ensures increased and sustained participation in sport.

Historical note: real tennis

The world’s oldest real tennis court still in use is the Falkland Palace Royal Tennis Court, Kingdom of Fife, which was built for King James of Scotland between 1539 and 1541. Masons W & A Allerdice were paid £70 for their construction work. Carpenters under Richard Stewart built the penthouses. James V had limited opportunity to use the new facility because he died, at Falkland Palace, in December 1542.

The oldest enclosed real tennis court still in use is in Manchester. The Manchester Racquet Club opened in May 1876 in Miller Street, on the corner of Blackfriars Road. In the following year the London and North West Railway Company obtained a com-pulsory purchase order on the new club so that they could build the approach road to Exchange Station. The club formed a limited company, the Manchester Racquet and Tennis Courts Ltd, which built the present club in Blackfriars Road with a real tennis court, racquets court and skittle alley. The new club opened in 1880 and was let to the Manchester Tennis & Racquet Club in return for the net income of the club. In 1914 the shareholders sold the premises to the club for £3000 and the ownership was vested in trustees acting on behalf of the club (an arrangement which con-tinues in 2009). A squash court was added to the facilities in 1926. The 1880 redbrick building, by George T Redmayne, has many original features, including its wooden skittles alley, wine cellar and workshop for the resident professional to make real tennis balls (a skill which originated in 16th-century France).

2.7

Real tennis: 19th century print

2.8

Manchester Tennis and Racquet Club

22

3.1

Western High School, Washington DC: boys’ physical education

(circa 1899)

23

Introduction

The Latin and English word ‘gymnasium’ is a form of the Greek noun γυμναστήριο ‘gymnasion’, which derives from the Greek adjective γυμνόσ ‘gymnos’ (naked) and the related verb γυμνάζω

‘gymnazein’ (to do physical exercise). The ancient Greeks exer-cised and competed in athletics events naked. This is why ‘gym-nasion’, which would logically have meant ‘place to be naked’, actually meant ‘place for physical exercise’. Because the Greeks appreciated the links between exercise, education and health, their gymnasiums developed into more than places for physical exercise. They became places where boys would do physical education and take instruction in morals and ethics. As the pupils completed their education, they used the gymnasium not only to maintain fitness but also to assemble for less structured intellec-tual and social pursuits. Philosophers would come to speak to the ready-made audiences – Plato lectured at the Academy in Athens and Aristotle spoke at the Lyceum. These world-famous centres of culture were actually gymnasiums.

In the modern world, the gymnasium reverted to its principal role of fitness venue. Fitness is big business. It is a $14.8 billion industry in the USA, where 39.4 million people are health club members. However, the club membership drop-out rate is big too. If, like the authors, you’re a member of a UK gym, then you’ll know that club membership peaks and facilities are used most during January, coinciding with New Year resolutions to ‘get fit’ or ‘lose weight’. As the daylight hours increase, outdoor activities begin to compete and gym usage tapers off. In the USA the drop-out rate at fitness venues is around 30%. Club membership drop-out is not a critical issue because the industry is growing, but it would be better still if the industry could continue growing gym

membership while retaining a high proportion of existing mem-bers. So the question is, ‘What can gyms do with their facilities to maintain public appeal?’. The answer may be that the industry needs to take on some of the ‘wider mantle’ of health and educa-tion adopted by the ancient Greeks.

Chapter 3

Gymnas iums

3.2

Western High School, Washington DC: girls’ physical education

(circa 1899)

24

Gymnasium enclosure

The modern gymnasium is a building enclosure designed to protect exercisers and equipment against the weather. Whatever happens in any building, whether due to static or dynamic force actions (including an estimate for furniture and equipment), a static, uniformly distributed load is taken over the whole floor area within the perimeter walls. Gymnasiums have a higher uni-formly distributed load (UDL) than many other types of building, typically 5kN/m2 (0.1kip/ft2) compared with 3kN/m2 (0.06kip/ft2) for a classroom and 1.5kN/m2 (0.03kip/ft2) for a house.

Structural steel is widely used for creating the common form of gymnasium building frame. Such structures are ‘braced’ or ‘framed’ boxes, with the columns designed for wind loading. The cladding or walling may span either horizontally, giving a uniform loading, or vertically onto a purlin or beam, which gives point loading to the column. The leaves of a brick wall can easily be built around the steel frame in a variety of positions.

Brick walls may also determine the column spacing because the slenderness ratio (SR) of a wall is limited to 40, where wind

loads only are resisted. For example, with a single leaf of 100mm (4in) the column spacing cannot be greater than 40 × 0.10m = 4m (40 × 4in = 160in = 13.3ft). The wall leaves must be securely tied to the columns. For further information see BS 5628-1, DD140, BS EN 845-1 and authors such as Kicklighter on modern masonry.

Sports building roofs and floors are incorporated in the content of Chapters 15 and 16. The gymnasium designer will be particu-larly interested in using daylight as a primary light source because daylight is natural, preferred by people, cost-free and environ-mentally friendly. These positive aspects promote the use of gymnasium roof designs which incorporate – if feasible – sky-lights, monitors or north-facing clerestories. Regarding floors, designers have a vast selection of specific ‘gymnasium floor cov-ers’ (recommended search engine keywords) to choose from for new-build and refurbishment projects, which come in different materials, textures, shapes and edge types (e.g. butting or interlocking).

3.3

Lodge Park Sports Centre, Corby:

multigym (l–r) Rob Purdie, Helen Dibble, John Pascoe (1977)

25

Gymnasium space

In a gymnasium people of different genders, ages and levels of fitness are working out on different types of equipment at different intensities over different durations of time. These variables alone would make the gymnasium a challenge in terms of environmen-tal control. But the situation is even more complex than it at first appears. For example, sweating is an essential part of the tem-perature regulatory system in humans and sweat glands are everywhere on the body except on moist surfaces such as the lips. Older people sweat less than younger people, partly because changes to the central nervous system reduce its sensitivity to temperature fluctuations and partly because sweat glands dimin-ish in number as the circulation to the skin deteriorates and the skin loses elasticity. There are also racial variations in how much people sweat and the number of sweat glands they have. Those who have evolved from a northern European climate have about 550 sweat glands per square centimetre of finger skin; Indians have about 740 and Africans 950. The amount of sweating is determined by external influences such as temperature and

humidity, by physiological influences such as disease and debility, and by psychological influences such as anxiety. The more people exercise, the better their bodies cope with the heat, but it is clear that what will be a comfortable environment for one gym user will be uncomfortable for another.

Some new commercial office buildings offer individual mem-bers of staff the facility to control their own microclimates from their workstations. Achieving this is a much greater challenge in the gymnasium, where building users make multiple location changes between very different machines operating in very dif-ferent ways. Air within buildings is generally at least seven times more polluted than air outside buildings, so there is plenty of scope for getting the basics right in the gymnasium environment. Airflow velocities and patterns, air quality, humidity control, thermal comfort, ventilation and energy-efficiency are covered in Chapter 17

3.4

Harborough Leisure Centre (2008)

26

Gymnasium layout

In the 1960s in the UK the school sports hall usually doubled as the school gym. Timber wall bars could be swung out at 90° and fixed to concealed, predetermined boltholes in the floor, and could also be used to help create obstacle courses. Portable timber gym equipment such as horses and balance rails could be brought out from an adjacent store room as required. This dou-bling up in use created confusion in the meaning of the terms ‘sports hall’ and ‘gymnasium’ which is still apparent in sports literature today. The authors apply the distinction, admittedly not a mutually exclusive distinction, that a gymnasium accommo-dates gym equipment but does not require the height or column-free area that a sports hall needs to accommodate court sports such as basketball and badminton.

Stand-alone gymnasium buildings have conventionally been designed using short-span beams and columns, but there is every reason to pursue a building design solution free of internal col-umns. The Calipatria Unified School District, California, wanted a 104ft (31.7m) × 96ft (29.3m) gymnasium. Simon Wong Engineering of San Diego created a column-free facility by span-ning the building width using open-web, long-span steel trusses

supported by masonry pilasters. The gymnasium roof consists of a 3in (76.1mm) exposed metal deck, which adds to the open ambience of this building. The gymnasium designer has created a gymnasium with the flexibility to accommodate court sports, thus making it even harder to distinguish between a gymnasium and a sports hall.

Clear floor areas maximise the flexibility in use of a facility, but the gymnasium in a leisure centre can function around inter-mediate columns in ways that competition pools, basketball courts and squash courts cannot. This, of course, increases the chances that the gym will be planned into an area of the building where intermediate columns are located. When this happens, it should be seen as an opportunity rather than a constraint. Electrical con-duit can be fixed to the intermediate column, a simple way of keeping wiring away from the thoroughfares that people use to move from machine to machine. The faces of the intermediate column can also be used for health and safety purposes (such as displaying signage or siting fire extinguishers), in-gym entertain-ment (via wiring and fixings for LCD or plasma screens) and gym-user facilities (such as fixed paper towel dispensers).

Before computers, a gym layout was produced by drawing the gymnasium floor area to scale on graph paper.

3.5

Harborough Leisure Centre (2008)

27

Scale drawings of the base dimensions of each piece of gym equipment to be accommodated could then be positioned and re-positioned to arrive at the optimum equipment layout. This system still works in the same that it always did, but graphic representations of plan areas taken up by the different types of gym equipment can now be input into CAD and stored on CD-ROM to facilitate space planning. A wide variety of propri-etary software is now available to create a scaled version of how a gym space will look. Some software allows the gym operator or supervisor to click onto a scaled graphic of a piece of gym equipment and drag it into the desired position on the repre-sentation of the gym floor, enabling the different categories of equipment such as cardio (cross trainer, exercise bike, rowing machine, stepping machine, treadmill), strength (bench, multi-gym) and accessories (dumbbell station, exercise ball pick-up point, mat) to be grouped most effectively. Such software can be used to locate or relocate existing equipment in a new, refurbished or existing facility, or to populate an empty or virtual gym as a basis for procurement (the electronic layout can be emailed to equipment suppliers as a basis for quotation).

Equipment

By the 1970s gym equipment had evolved out of its timber era and into a bright new world of steel and chrome. The Nissen Poly-Gymn Conditioner had a robust frame, built-in transporter and 12 stations, including leg press, leg curl and thigh machine, abdominal conditioner, chest press and shoulder press. At that time there was no interactive communication between gym user and machine, so it was very difficult to determine whether routines were being carried out too fast or too slowly, and whether too much or too little weight was being pushed or pulled. It was crucial to know what you were doing with equip-ment like the Poly-Gymn, but too few people had sufficient knowledge at the time. Gym users would try to push or pull a bit more weight than their mates, regardless of their relative size, strength and fitness. Much of today’s equipment has preset and pulse-driven programs, and is capable of transmitting digi-tal cues to regulate workouts according to professionally designed schedules. It may feature LED display feedback on, say, calorie count, speed, distance, time, calories burned and pulse.

Brunswick Corporation, founded in 1845, is a company famous for many leisure industry products (including the large, ornate, neo-classical saloon bars of the type seen in Western films). In the late 1970s, Life Fitness, a division of Brunswick, brought out as its first product the Lifecycle® exercise bike, the first-ever piece of electronic fitness equipment. More than 30 years later, the Life Fitness gym innovation is an application and user interface named VIVO. Gym users are given a personal identification number that they tap into the touch screen on the fitness equipment console. A customised workout, based on the user profile, is then wire-lessly downloaded to the equipment. The VIVO Virtual Coaching System on each piece of resistance equipment displays the user’s workout schedule, real-time repetitions and weight-lift statistics, together with on-screen guidance on range and speed of motion. If required, a video training clip can be viewed. On completion of a workout, the results are displayed so that the exerciser can review progress. VIVO self-service kiosks are located within the gym to enable users to access information, update programmes and manage the fitness experience. Users can also log on to their personal VIVO web page from home or the workplace to review schedules, view progress against targets and make changes. Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) functionality and wireless con-nectivity enable gym staff, trainers, coaches and instructors to

3.6

Power Plate (2007)

28

add, edit or review the content of a workout programme with the user. VIVO can convey the news that a user arriving at a facility needs attention by triggering the instructor’s handheld PDA. The VIVO system can be retrofitted to Life Fitness weight resistance equipment that has already been installed. The retrofit, including networking, takes about 48 hours.

Another success story in the use of gymnasium equipment is Curves. Gary and Diane Heavin introduced this fitness concept for women into USA in 1992. The idea was to use hydraulic resistance techniques to create a safe and effective 30-minute workout combining strength training and sustained cardiovascular activity. Importantly, this exercise training would take place in a comfortable and supportive environment. The Heavins developed plans for franchising the concept. The first Curves club opened in Paris, Texas, in 1995. There were 1000 clubs in the year 2000 and 9000 in 2005. By 2008 Curves had encouraged more than four million women to take up exercise at more than 10,000 locations in 44 countries. It had become the world’s biggest fitness franchise and the world’s tenth largest franchise company.

My Gym similarly features fun and fitness in a controlled and safe gymnasium environment, but for a client base ranging in age from a few months up to 13. The physical early-learning and pre-gymnastics classes are associated with other activities such as birthday parties and camps. The aim is to inspire children to learn about health early in life and to use and build on that knowledge throughout their lives. By 2008, My Gym had more than 140 centres in 30 American states and in Asia.

These initiatives did not address the fitness needs of a teenage America that was becoming more inactive due to cuts in physical education programmes and the attractions of sedentary pursuits, such as playing video games and surfing the net. On Saturday 23 September 2006, the USA’s first teenagers-only Overtime gym opened at Mountain View, California. This gym appeals to teenag-ers’ interest in technology to encourage workouts on high-tech equipment such as virtual reality bikes that simulate the experi-ence of racing around an apple orchard. To enter the gym, teenag-ers are identified by thumbprint using a biometric reader, which calls up an image of the member on a PC screen, then unlocks the door. Overtime was initially restricted to 13–18-year-olds but parents, who were formerly restricted to the lobby, can now work out with their teenaged sons and daughters.

The above examples show how converts to the pursuit of fit-ness and well-being have been won from all sectors of society. To meet the new demands, and thereby aid the fitness processes, equipment manufacturers have extended their ranges of specialist machines, introducing new machines of both specialist and uni-versal appeal. An example of the latter is the Power Plate®, a gentle-exercise machine that nevertheless gives a high-speed workout by using vibrations to contract and relax the body’s muscles from their normal state at a rate between once or twice a second to 30–50 times a second. The manufacturer claims that a 15-minute session on the vibrating platform offers the same benefits as an hour-long gym workout. In 2003 the Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine published the results

3.7

Harborough Leisure Centre: firing up the Wii (2008)

29

g y m n a s i u m s

of a study at Leuven University, Belgium, which concluded that Power Plate ‘elicits involuntary muscle contraction and induces strength gain within a short period of time without much effort’. The study suggested that Power Plate has ‘great potential in a therapeutic context where it may enhance muscular performance in patients and the elderly, who are not attracted to, or who are not able to perform, standard exercise programs’. Dutch Olympic trainer, Guus van der Meer, developed the machine for the health and fitness sector in 1999. He drew on the invention of Russian scientists working with Russia’s highly successful Olympic ath-letes of the 1970s, the work of Vladimir Nazarov, whose vibration training prevented astronauts’ muscles and bones wasting while in space, and the experience of Russian ballet dancers who dis-covered that vibration could help to heal injuries by increasing muscle strength. What the machine does is to boost muscle power, improve circulation, strengthen bones (giving it special appeal to post-menopausal women), improve flexibility (giving it special appeal to injury-prone sports professionals) and break down fatty cells (reducing cellulite and improving mobility of tissue layers). What it does not do is confer any significant cardiovascular heart–lung benefits, which means that it is not, and never can be, the complete fitness solution. Power Plate is, however, said to be responsible for the finely-honed bodies of Madonna, Claudia Schiffer and Natalie Imbruglia. It was used by host nation Germany in its preparation for the 2006 Football World Cup and is used by English football league clubs, including Manchester United FC. The University of Houston, Clear Lake, is a primary research hub for NASA and has been testing the Power Plate to identify its potential applications within the US space programme.

The gymnasium in outer space

Market research carried out in the USA and Japan showed that demand for space tourism renders it financially viable and that space tourists want to stay in orbit for several days or longer. Consequently, the need for ‘space hotels’ was established. The first building in space to be associated with the space hotel is likely to be the space gymnasium, where hotel guests can enjoy zero-gravity activities. Such a gymnasium might take the form of a spherical aluminium alloy shell receiving electric power, HVAC and ‘station-keeping’ services from the hotel via a flexible con-nection which isolates vibrations. The gymnasium thermal control system could incorporate passive design, using multi-layer insula-tion and heaters attached to the external surface, and active systems using cooling water, cold-plates, air-conditioning equip-ment and temperature sensors. The atmosphere in the gymnasium would be monitored and maintained primarily through atmo-spheric exchange with the central hotel system. Electric power for lighting, environmental sensors and control, emergency sys-tems and miscellaneous equipment would be supplied from the hotel’s power system, generated from solar panels. If it were to be designed to operate autonomously in the event of an emer-gency, then solar panels would also be mounted on the outer surface of the gymnasium and interconnected to the power system.

4.1

Western High School, Washington DC (circa 1899)

31

Introduction

Dance outperforms every other activity in this book in terms of diversification and change. It is at once joined up by its universal-ity and fragmented by its geographies, cultures and histories. Its records go back further than anything else in the book – beyond the Tombs of the Pharaohs circa 3000bc to the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, Central India, circa 9000 bc (where dance is portrayed in Stone Age cave paintings).

The different genres of dancing require different amounts of space. South Asian and African genres tend to be centred on one spot while ballet makes frequent use of travelling on the diagonal. Dance technique classes may be largely single spot, but with significant needs for unimpeded travel. Choreographic work has very diverse needs – there may be requirements to split into groups, so that more than one activity can go on simultaneously, so that individuals are able to stand back and have an outside view, or so one group can watch another. The reason for pointing out some of the different genres of dancing is that the space in which they take place must be capable of accommodating the possible permutations.

Dance studio space

In terms of calculating dance studio capacity, a useful rule of thumb is that a minimum of 3m2 (30ft2) per participant is neces-sary for participants of primary school age and 5m2 (50ft2) for participants in the secondary and tertiary age range. But, to achieve flexibility and efficiency in use, the dance area needs to

be column-free. Dance studios have been built in a variety of shapes – including oval or circular on plan with curving walls. Such shapes are limiting. Also, for many dance activities, it is necessary to locate front. For these reasons a rectangular space is the most appropriate.

Suitable dimensions for a dance studio are 15–17m long × 12–17m wide (approximately 50–56ft × 40–56ft). These figures put the optimum plan area at 180m2 (1937.5ft2) to 289m2 (3110.77ft2). The dimensions quoted are for a stand-alone dance studio or a dance studio incorporated within a sports and leisure building. A specialist dance centre will have more studios, usually of smaller plan area. The well-known San Francisco Dance Center, located on Market and Seventh Streets in the heart of San Francisco, has six studios with dimensions of:

52ft (15.8m) × 36ft (11m) = 1872ft• 2 (173.8m²) for each of Studios 1, 2 and 5; 46ft (14m) × 36ft (11m) = 1656ft• 2 (154m²) for each of Studios 3 and 6; 46ft (14m) × 27ft (8.2m) = 1242ft• 2 (114.8m²) for Studio 4.

A dance area of 9m × 9m (29½ft × 29½ft) is adequate for small practice groups. This smaller space has a plan area of 81m2 (871.88ft2). David Henshaw refers to an area of 10m × 9m (32.8ft × 29.5ft) as being sufficient for 18 adults to take part in a modern dance technique class and as providing appropriate dimensions for choreographic work, without a feeling of being cramped. It should also be noted that in the UK ‘A’ Level Dance Examinations require an area 10m (32.8ft) × 10m (a dance space 10m × 7.5m (24.6ft) with 2.5m (8.2ft) additional depth for the examiner to sit back and take a wide view).

Chapter 4

Dance s tudios

32

Rambert Dance Company

Polish dance teacher Marie Rambert established the Rambert Dance Company in 1926. It was for many years an itinerant organisation, performing at halls and studios throughout the Greater London area. At the beginning of the 1970s a grant from

the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation enabled the company to acquire its own headquarters and studio by converting the top floor of a reconstructed furniture warehouse at 94 Chiswick High Road. The dancers needed a greater storey height than the existing 2.7m (8ft 10in). This problem was overcome by replacing the two low-pitched warehouse roofs. Structural steelwork was craned

4.2

Ballet Rambert, Chiswick,

London (circa 1970)

33

d a n c e s t u d i o s

into the top floor, using the fully extended jib (21.3m/70ft) and fly jib of a hydraulic mobile crane parked on the busy main road. Sixteen 4in × 4in (101.6 × 101.6) rolled hollow section (RHS) stanchions were installed and a new roof structure of three 11m (36ft) span RHS plane girders was lifted into position on them. In this way the roof height was increased to the 3.9m (12ft 9½in) required by the dancers.

The Rambert Dance Company is today Britain’s flagship con-temporary dance company. By 2008 it had 22 dancers, considered to be among the finest and most versatile in the world. But the floors of the Chiswick studio, which had not been purpose-built, had become unsafe for the dancers to work on and the rehearsal spaces were no longer large enough to replicate the stage areas on which the company had become used to performing. So the company is moving to new, purpose-built premises to meet its current needs and enable it to realise its future potential.

The purpose of this anecdote is to demonstrate an activity in transition. Dance has developed from its roots in rented, makeshift premises through to reconstructed or remodelled venues and – finally – to the specialised facilities necessary to enable it to move forward.

One of the photographs in this chapter was taken by Crispin Eurich (1935–1976) for Tubular Structures 19 (October 1971 issue). Crispin Eurich was an artist before he became a photog-rapher. This rare image is a fitting tribute to both the photographer and to the late Marion Giordan, who was the first editor of Tubular Structures before becoming Consumer Affairs Advisor to the then European Economic Community. Marion was a great researcher and ‘seeker of the truth’ who knew all the best architectural photographers, commissioned some terrific images and changed people’s thinking about building for sports and leisure.

National Dance Association, USA, 1985

In North America in the early 1980s the National Dance Association drew up guidelines to assist in the development of modern dance and ballet facilities. The NDA recommended a minimum area of 100ft2/approx 10m2 per participant and a ceiling height of 16ft/4.88m (minimum) to 24ft/7.32m (for dance areas of more than 2400ft2/ approx. 240m2). It identified the need for air space between floor and foundation and the use of ‘floating’ and/or spring floors for resiliency. It noted that such floors should

be in hardwood, tongue-and-groove, laid with the grain running in one direction, non-slip, with a smooth finish and constructed for ease of maintenance (and that portable floors might be laid where both ballet and modern dance have to be accommodated). Tung-oil or linseed oil was considered to be an appropriate finish or, alternatively, several coats of wood sealer. The recommended method of cleaning was by damp mop only.

Wide double doors were recommended, to accommodate people surging into and out of the room, and door sills had to be level with the floor to allow the movement of large equipment and accessories (such as a piano). Walls were to be thick (ideally soundproofed), smooth, easily maintained and capable of sup-porting ballet barres and mirrors. Incandescent light was preferred to fluorescent light and it was noted that rheostat lights serving as houselights during performances should be controlled from wall switches as well as from the light control board. The use of natural lighting was advocated, if practical, with a preference for north lighting to avoid direct sunlight. Commonsense but crucial advice on space planning included the need to locate sound equipment for performance and security, and to enable all par-ticipants to hear both music and instruction. The facility optimum temperature range was identified as being 65– 72°F (22– 26°C), with the thermostat located in the studio areas. Requirements were flagged up for adequate air circulation, consideration of the use of natural air, humidity kept at or below 95% and silent or close-to-silent heating and air circulation systems.

National Dance Teachers Association, UK, 2005

In the UK, the National Dance Teachers Association (NDTA) has been drafting guidelines for a dance tuition studio specification. The NDTA makes the correlation between floor requirement and number of participants and points out that: 10m × 9m (32.8ft × 29.5ft) is a typical size providing space for 18 pupils to take part in a dance class and allowing appropriate dimensions for cho-reographic work based on 5m2 (54ft2) per pupil; the recom-mended size in the Education School Premises Regulations is a surface area of 145m2 (1560ft2) for 30 pupils; the most effective teaching space is rectangular in shape, with a designated front. The floor surface is considered the most important aspect of dance

s p o r t s a n d f a c i l i t i e s

34

provision with a fully sprung (ideally) or semi-sprung floor being laid to enable pupils to step, jump and land safely. Studio height must be sufficient to provide a circulation of fresh air and the opportunity to jump and lift.

A vestibule/storage space is considered necessary to:

prevent pupils stepping onto the dance floor wearing inap-•propriate footwear; offer a space for storing personal belongings and making •footwear changes; accommodate learning resources and props for dance; and •secure the information and communication technology (ICT) •and music system.

Accessible and quickly responsive control of ventilation and heating is considered essential:

the heating system should provide an even temperature •throughout; it is recommended that the studio temperature should not fall •below 18.3°C (64.9°F); operating temperature should be maintained around 21– 24°C •(69.8–75.2°F); extractor fans should be fitted to ensure adequate circulation •of fresh air.

Regarding interior decoration and lighting:

use light colours to create a feeling of space; •place the studio wall mirrors and wall-mounted ballet barres •(normal height 36–38in/91.4–96.5cm) opposite the main teaching front; use curtains to cover mirrored walls when mirrors are not in •use; fluorescent tubes will be adequate for general lighting; •place the whiteboard on the wall behind the normal teaching •front, opposite the mirror wall; place display boards around the studio but not behind the •main teaching front; ensure that adequate electrical points are available for audio-•visual equipment (cassette, CD and minidisc players, large screen TV monitor, video recorder, digital camera, camcorder/digital camcorder, CDi player).

Dance studio mirrors

Mirrors at least 6ft 6in (2m) high and as wide as reasonably pos-sible should be mounted flush to the wall, approximately 1ft–1½ft (300–450mm) above the floor. Portable vertical mirrors of approx-imately 4ft (1.2m) × 6ft (1.8m) are also commercially available. Leaf-folded mirrors, which can be folded for protection or cur-tained off during performances, may be installed along two adjoining walls so that dance movement can be analysed from two directions.

Modern alternatives to glass as the mirror material include boPET. Biaxially-oriented polyethylene terephthalate (boPET) is the super-reflective material used in the Hubble Space Telescope. It is better known in the USA and UK by the trade names Mylar and Melinex. The polyester film has high tensile strength, chemi-cal and dimensional stability, transparency, gas and aroma barrier and electrical insulation properties. Metallised boPET plastic film gives a brighter, sharper reflection than plate glass and is a safer material because it cannot shatter.

Ballet barres

Ballet barres should be made of wood, typically oak, and be smooth in texture. If feasible, double barres should be considered: one at a height of 36in (0.914m) and one at 42in (1.067m), extending 6in (152.4mm) to 8in (203.2mm) from the wall. If pos-sible, recessed floor sockets should be incorporated in the floor design so that barre supports can be screwed in and out to facili-tate their relocation (e.g. towards and away from the mirror). Free-standing barres are available. These include models which have independent adjustment to allow dancers on opposite sides to set the equipment to their own preferred height between 31in (787.4mm) and 45in (1143mm). The minimum length of barre to accommodate one dancer is 5ft (1.524m).

Music

The piano is still a popular and versatile instrument for accompany-ing dance, especially ballet and tap dance. Moving affects the tuning

35

d a n c e s t u d i o s

of a piano so it should be placed in a permanent position, ideally alongside an internal wall to reduce temperature variations. It needs, of course, to be covered and locked. If it does have to be moved frequently then it should be located on a heavy-duty dolly.

The studio must be able to accommodate professional sound systems. The San Francisco Dance Center has upright pianos together with sound systems incorporating playback equipment with pitch as well as volume control for cassettes and CDs, cable to connect to either MP3 players or computers, and cable con-nections for microphone or mini-mixers in Studios 3, 5 and 6.

Laban Centre, New Cross, London, 2002

Laban is one of Europe’s leading conservatoires for contemporary dance artist training. The school opened in 1953 and was named after the Hungarian dancer, choreographer and teacher Rudolph Laban (1879–1958). By 1995 its existing building, an extended church in New Cross, had become inadequate. Laban believed that the pre-eminence of its facilities could only be assured by relocating to a high-quality, purpose-built space. It worked with Swiss architects Herzog & de Meuron and UK engineer Whitbybird (now Ramboll Whitbybird) to create an exceptional building design that would help to attract funding assistance. The proposal was awarded £12.5 million of National Lottery funding by Arts Council

England in 1999, the successful bid being one of only five to attract funding awards of more than £10 million in that year.

The new building was completed in 2002 and is the world’s largest purpose-built centre for contemporary dance. It received immediate recognition in the RIBA Awards 2003 when it was named Building of the Year, winner of the Stirling Prize. Also, in 2003, it was named Royal Fine Art Commission/BSkyB Building of the Year – Dance Centre, and was Highly Commended in the British Construction Industry Awards. In 2004 it was the winner of a Civic Trust Award.

Laban has 13 dance studios, a 300-seat theatre, purpose-built for contemporary dance, a video recording and editing suite, offices, study rooms and a dance health centre incorporating therapy and sports injury clinics, together with Pilates facilities to support the organisation’s work in dance science. There are also public spaces including a library and cafeteria.

These diverse spaces are all treated as free-floating volumes encased in translucent skins within a single enclosing structure. The building features two glass-walled courtyards that drop from roof level to different depths. Circulation uses both ramps and spiral stairs. The in-situ concrete frame is complex, incorporating curved walls and ramps.

Activities are based on two main levels: the dance theatre is in the centre of the building, on the first (ground) floor, while the dance studios are dispersed along corridors on the upper floor. Laban’s original church building at Laurie Grove, New Cross, had

4.3

Portable small stage audio amplifier

entertainment system

36

housed the studio spaces, which were restricted in dance area, very reverberant, lacking in sound separation from adjacent areas and subject to noisy ventilation. On the plus side, the building was an exciting place to be. The designers wanted sound from the new studios to spill out into the circulation spaces, to carry across the feeling of vibrancy and community in the building, but they wanted to eliminate music or dance impacts on some new areas, such as the lecture theatre and library.

The 300-seat theatre is used for dance performances accom-panied by recorded music or musicians. Its acoustic design was driven by considerations of control and intimacy. The minimisa-tion of intrusive noise during performances was considered essential to promote dramatic effect. This was achieved by use of a heavy concrete structure for the auditorium shell and a low-noise, underseat displacement ventilation system.

Each of the 13 new studios was designed to have a different form, size, shape, light and music response. The studios all have irregular shapes, with one wall convex, curved or angled in plan (all therefore creating exceptions to this chapter’s guidelines on form and dimensions!). The new ceilings are exposed concrete slabs with a deeply-ribbed profile that, on the first floor, slopes to follow the roof profile. While these features scatter the sound

in the space, the non-parallel walls prevent the ‘flutter echoes’ that dance studios often suffer from. Design of the studio walls and floors was driven by considerations of cost-effectiveness and the fulfilment of as many functions as possible. The walls are deep, twin-walled plasterboard constructions, like those used to divide multi-screen cinemas, but also incorporating ventilation, storage and loads from mirrors and barres. Instead of using high-load, high-cost floating concrete slabs for the floors, only the screeds were floated, to isolate the impacts from the dancers.

A key intent of the building design was that all the dance studios should be naturally lit (for visual interest, quality of the lit environment and economy). Lighting studies on the building facade included computer analysis, scale model tests and a half-scale mock-up of a typical dance studio on site. The resultant lighting solution gives sufficient, but not excessive, daylight in the dance studios and eliminates glare from the incoming day-light. The selection of light-admitting materials took into consid-eration their relationship with the internal spaces, with the aim of achieving good balances of daylight and electric light, without the need for active shading elements. The building facade consists of transparent or translucent glass, with innovative, coloured polycarbonate cladding panels mounted in front of the glass to

4.4–4.5

Laban, Deptford, London (2002)

37

protect against sun, glare and heat radiation. The shadows of the dancers inside the studios fall onto the matt glass surfaces of the interior walls to fascinating visual effect.

Laban now trains some 400 professional dancers and chore-ographers from more than 30 countries. It developed the UK’s first BA (Hons) and MA dance degrees, and has more recently pioneered an MSc in dance science. The organisation’s increased presence in New Cross gives this deprived part of London a grow-ing international profile and outlook. It has also begun an exciting process of local social and cultural regeneration. These benefits are the outcomes of an ambitious urban regeneration project, which created a building of great beauty on the toxic site of a disused waste-transfer station (for which extensive ground decon-tamination measures were carried out prior to construction commencing).

5.1

Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro

39

The ‘Great Bath’, Mohenjo-daro

The earliest known built pool is the ‘Great Bath’ structure at Mohenjo-daro (Mound of the Dead), discovered in 1925 in the south of what is now Pakistan. The city, part of the Indus civilisa-tion, was founded between four and five thousand years ago on the flood plain of the mighty River Indus and had at least 35,000 residents. Mohenjo-daro was a planned city, built of fired brick and set on top of a vast mud-brick platform some 1km (approxi-mately 1100 yards) square and 7m (23ft) high. The buildings and streets were laid out on a regular grid and built with walls often 1–2m (3.25–6.5ft) thick for thermal performance, given summer temperatures reaching 55°C (131°F). Each property consisted of one- and two-storey buildings with courtyards containing washing and lavatory facilities. When the Indus River changed its course around 3700 years ago, the civilisation declined and the city was abandoned. The fired brick was so good that the walls were looted to create the nearby railway embankment, which was constructed in the late 19th century.

The Great Bath measures approximately 12m (39ft) × 7m (23ft) and has a maximum depth of 2.4m (7ft 10½in). It is thought that the pool was for washing, perhaps associated with ritual cleansing for a priest class, rather than being for general recreational swimming; after all, the river was nearby for fishing, normal washing activities and even swimming. The water for the bath, very salty because of the flood plain location, came from wells set in several nearby loca-tions and formed from wedged-shaped fired bricks to distribute the surrounding earth forces. It is also possible that rainwater was har-vested from roofs during the monsoon but there is no archaeological evidence for this. The Bath was emptied through a special under-ground culvert, and was famed for its arched stone roof.

Two wide staircases led down into the tank from the north and south, and small sockets at the edges of the stairs suggest that wooden planks or treads were installed. At the front of the stairs is a small ledge with brick edging that extends the full width of the pool (when the water was shallow, people descending the stairs could move along this ledge without stepping into the pool).

The floor and walls of the tank were made watertight by means of their finely fitted bricks with sand-rubbed surfaces allowing for narrow and highly precise jointing, only 1–3mm (0.04–0.12in) wide. The floor bricks are laid on edge, and those of the walls have well-staggered joints. All of the brickwork appears to be laid in a gypsum mortar, in contrast to mud mortars used in house walls. The Bath walls have an incredibly flat and smooth surface, illustrative of a fine construction art and intended, one assumes, to help limit skin abrasions to frolicking bathers!

To increase the integrity of the tank further, a thick layer of natural black bitumen was imported from open tar pits in what is now Baluchistan. This was placed or cast as a 10–30mm (0.4–1.2in) thick vertical membrane, set within the thickness of the walls and laid beneath the floor. Surrounding the walls of the Bath are soil-filled cellular brick structures which, presumably, helped to resist lateral forces when the tank was empty.

Brick colonnades were discovered on the eastern, northern and southern edges of the tank. The preserved columns have stepped edges that may have held wooden screens or window frames. Two large doors led into the complex from the south and there is additional access from the north and east. A series of rooms is located along the eastern edge of the building.

Chapter 5

Swimming pools

40

Indoor pools development

The Romans were masters of water engineering who built some 640km (approximately 400 miles) of aqueducts to supply water to their cities and towns. Because the lead supply pipes into each dwelling were taxed according to size, most households had only a basic supply. For washing, citizens used local baths, which became places of social interaction. Roman baths were based on the use of a furnace to heat the wter and a hypocaust (space under the floor) for carrying heat around the complex.

Following their invasion of Britain in ad43, the Romans advanced into the west of England. Near to the point at which they crossed the River Avon, they discovered a spring that brought more than a million litres (220,000 gallons) of hot water, at around 48°C (118.4°F), to the surface each day. Around this spring the Romans built the city of Bath, the site of one of the finest examples of a Roman baths complex in Europe. Although some Roman baths complexes were extensive – the emperor Diocletian built one the size of a soccer pitch – they were intended essentially for bathers who might want to swim rather than for swimmers who might want to bathe.

The first indoor swimming pool in the UK was opened in London on 28 May 1742 as the ‘Bagnio’ at Lemon Street, Goodman’s Fields, Whitechapel. For a subscription of one guinea, a gentleman (no ladies allowed) could use a 43ft (13.1m) long, heated pool and could call on the services of ‘waiters’ for swim-ming instruction. The word ‘bagnio’, pronounced ‘ban’yō’ comes from the Italian ‘bagno’ (bath) which derives from ‘balneum’ (Latin) and ‘balaneion’ (Greek). Because ‘bagnio’ also once meant ‘bordello’, there has been speculation that additional services may have been on offer at Lemon Street – but the authors know of no hard evidence of this.

One of the earliest indoor (municipal) swimming pools in North America opened on 21 June 1884 at the intersection of Twelfth Street and Wharton Street, Philadelphia. On the West Coast a very large pool – The Plunge at Santa Cruz – was built in 1907. This offered heated seawater as a welcome alternative to the chilly waters of Monterey Bay, and continued in service until 1963 (when it was converted into a miniature golf course).

The sport of swimming received a massive fillip from its inclu-sion in the 1896 Olympics in Athens (100m, 500m and 1200m freestyle swimming events and a 100m competition for sailors). Women were first allowed to swim in the Olympics in 1912 (Stockholm). The cause of competitive swimming had been advanced by the establishment of the Amateur Swimming Association of Great Britain in 1880, with more than 300 mem-bers. The world swimming association ‘Fédération Internationale de Natation’ (FINA) was formed in 1908.

Pool dimensions

Swimming competition is based on races of multiples of 100m. Swimmers compete in lanes 2–2.5m wide and competition pools are usually of six, eight or ten lanes, with 500mm added to the side of the outside lanes. International standard competition pools are 50m × 21m (25m preferred), national and regional pools are 50m × 13m or 17m and county and club level com-petition pools can be 25m × 13m or 17m (an exception is a 33⅓m long variation in the UK). An Olympic swimming pool is a pool that meets FINA standards for Olympic Games and World Championship events. It must be 50m (164ft) in length by 25m (82ft) wide, divided into eight lanes of 2.5m (8.2ft) each, plus two areas of 2.5m (8.2ft) at each side of the pool. The water must be kept at 25–28°C (77–82.4°F). Depth must be at least 2m (6.5ft) and other regulations must be met, such as colour of lane rope and positioning of backstroke flags. For international and national competition, the pool must be of minimum depth 1.8m through-out. World records are only recognised when swum in 50m pools (because the shorter the pool, the faster the time for the same distance due to speed gains from pushing off the wall after each turn). Pools for regional or local competition usually slope from 0.9m to 1.8m or 2m. Water polo requires an area 30m × 20m for international and national competition, with 1.8m minimum water depth. For club competition a volume 20m × 8m × 1.2m deep is acceptable. Movable bulkheads have been used since the 1970s to create different course lengths (e.g. to convert a

5.2

Santa Cruz Natatorium, California (1908)

41

s w i m m i n g p o o l s

50m pool into a 25m or 25 yard race course). Such bulkheads are usually of fibreglass box girder or stainless steel truss con-struction, with PVC or fibreglass grating. A mechanically or hydraulically driven pool floor can be used to adjust the water depth to meet the needs of different sports and leisure functions. These types of movable floor have been popular in western Europe since the early 1970s. If diving facilities are required, then a separate diving pool should be provided: 10.5m × 10.0m × 3.5m deep for 1m and 3m springboards; 12.0m × 12.5m × 3.8m deep for springboards up to 5m; 12.5m × 15.0m × 4.5m deep for springboards up to 10m. Synchronised swimming events can be accommodated in the main pool, but are well suited to the diving pool, requiring a minimum volume of 12m × 12m × 3m deep (250m2 pool area preferred). Pool surrounds should be a minimum of 2m wide, non-slip and sloping away from the tank to drainage channels.

Approach to swimming pool design

Pools can be sunk into the ground or built above ground, either partially or completely. The ground conditions will help to deter-mine the most appropriate type of pool for the site and will influ-ence choice of materials and construction method.

Tanks can be built using in-situ reinforced concrete, reinforced gunite, precast concrete units, glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), steel or aluminium. Reinforced concrete is normally used for the bigger types of pool, which are the subject of this chapter. Permanent shuttering usually consists of hollow concrete blocks into which reinforcement and in-situ concrete are placed. Continuity between the base and walls of the pool has to be maintained by reinforce-ment. Concrete pools without shuttering can be formed by spray-ing concrete onto a reinforcing mesh, permitting greater flexibility in pool shape, although this technique is less suitable for large pools.

Waterproofing from within and without the pool has to be considered, and concrete blockwork should be back-rendered to prevent damage from sulphate- or acid-bearing soils. Where the water-table is high then, unless the pressure is relieved, ground-water can cause an empty pool to lift. Land drainage measures should be implemented under the pool. In some cases it may be necessary to set hydrostatic relief valves in the floor of the pool.

Pool tanks should be insulated using rigid polystyrene foams, expanded cellular glass or other suitable proprietary materials. Internal finishes available include rendering and paint, Marbelite plaster, flexible heavy-duty plastic vinyl liners, rigid GRP mem-branes and traditional glazed ceramic tiles or ceramic and glass mosaic.

It is important that all inlets, outlets, skimmers, underwater lights and other pool features are considered at project outset, so that they can be incorporated as the pool is constructed. It may be difficult or impossible to accommodate them late in the schedule.

Pool finishes include plastic liners, paints (chlorinated rubber or epoxy-resin based for durability), terrazzo or marble chip, fibreglass reinforced plastics and mosaics. Tiles are among the most durable finishes. Those used for lining pools are of a higher quality than the familiar decorative tile. Tiles should be bedded on a two-coat waterproof rendering, using only adhesives recom-mended by the manufacturer. Special adhesives are necessary for fixing tiles that have been frost-proofed by wax-based

5.3

National Recreation Centre, Crystal Palace: swimming pool (1990)

42

impregnation. Manufacturers of tiles for swimming pool linings also produce special tiles to give non-slip surfaces, recessed steps and skimmer channels (together with accessories such as hand grips and freestanding steps, which must be resistant to corrosion and are often manufactured in stainless steel). If steps are not recessed as part of the tank design then they must be removable for competition.

The pool hall

Roofs over competition-standard swimming pools are usually designed in steel trusses, with the steelwork suitably finished to protect against corrosion due to condensation. Timber roofs are effective, provided that humidity is controlled and air circulation is well-engineered. Concrete roof structures are non-corrosive and durable but cost more than the steel and timber alternatives.

Pool hall lighting

The lighting requirement depends on the standard of pool. It ranges from 300 lux at water level for local and regional recre-ation, training and competition to 500 lux for national competi-tion and diving. The international (World and Olympic standard) requirement is greater than 1500 lux.

Mechanical equipment

Well-managed pool water is odourless, tasteless, clean and clear. Public perception is an important consideration because most people would not want to swim in a pool that looks dirty, even if it were actually hygienic.

Swimming pool water must be maintained with very low levels of bacteria and viruses to prevent the spread of diseases and pathogens between users. Strong oxidising agents are often used, especially simple chlorine compounds such as sodium

5.4

Colne Leisure Centre (1992)

43

s w i m m i n g p o o l s

hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite (‘cal hypo’), cyanurated chlo-rine compounds (‘stabilised’ chlorine) or chlorine gas is dissolved directly in water. Other disinfectants used include bromine compounds and ozone, generated on-site by passing an electrical discharge through oxygen or air. When any of these pool chemi-cals is used, it is necessary to keep the pH of the pool within the range 7.2 to 7.6. A lower pH causes bather discomfort, especially to the eyes. A higher pH reduces the sanitising power of the chlorine due to reduced oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), a factor measured in millivolts with a minimum 650mV considered adequate to achieve the required 1-second kill rate for micro-organisms introduced into the water. ORP test cells are available as handheld instruments and as probes for mounting permanently in the pool circulation plumbing to control automatic chlorine feeders.

Pool water has not only to be cleared and purified, but also to be heated. The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers sets the desirable temperature for swimming pools at 27°C (80.6°F) but the optimum figure will vary, by as much as 5°C (9°F), depending on geographical region of the world and culture. Sizing of the system for temperature and flow rates depends on:

conduction through the pool walls; •convection from the pool surface; •radiation from the pool surface; and •evaporation from the pool surface. •

Essentially, the size and capacity of the equipment needed will increase with the size of the pool and the anticipated intensity of its use. For large pools, equipment may be duplicated to allow for breakdowns and maintenance, and to cater for exceptional loads. Pool hall boiler installations can be based on the use of any of the conventional heating fuels.

The clearing, purification and heating processes require pool water circulation and this is achieved by the use of pumps. Water is drawn off the pool from outlets at high and low level. It is passed through a strainer to remove debris and large particles. Then the water is passed through a filter containing sand or dia-tomaceous (powdery siliceous) earth and a heating unit and chlorinator.

At least two outlets should be provided for every pool. The low level outlet must be located at the lowest point of the pool, because it is also used for drainage, and the other outlets should

be at the water surface level, where the maximum pollution is liable to occur. Surface skimmers should be provided at the rate of one per 40–50m2 of surface area. Surface skimming may also be achieved by connecting an outlet to a continuous channel around the perimeter of the pool. Some skimmer outlets have additional suction points for connection of a vacuum sweeper (as an alternative, an additional outlet can be connected to the strainer inlet by a gate valve). Over-sizing filtration units, in rela-tion to the anticipated throughput, will extend operating life. Plastic pipes are generally preferred to metal pipes for water circulation. Metal fittings should ideally be in stainless steel, chromed brass or an equivalent material.

Waste heat recovery

By the 1980s rising energy and other running costs had adversely affected swimming pools in the UK to the extent that many older local authority pools were being closed or threatened with clo-sure. A major cause of high maintenance costs in swimming pools was attack on their structure, fabric and equipment by condensa-tion that was highly acidic due to residual chlorine from the water purification process. Traditionally, swimming pool hall conditions had been controlled only on dry bulb temperature and pool water temperature. The humidity within the space was, however, related to the amount of evaporation from the pool surface and the quantity and condition of air being introduced. Air distribution systems tended to be at high level and inefficient.

Then, in the early 1980s, a combination of modern energy technology and integrated design created the opportunity to achieve profitability for pool owners and improved internal environments for building users. The new philosophy for supply and extraction of pool air was to create a stream of warm dry air to sweep the structure and to exhaust as close to the source of evaporation as possible. Excess moisture removed in this way provided, via heat exchangers, a source of recovered heat that could be used to promote energy efficiency in the building as a whole. Its removal protected pool hall structure and fabric from surface and interstitial condensation. The importance of this innovation has increased because the trend is for warmer water temperatures and consequent warmer air temperatures (1°C > water temperature) resulting in increasing evaporation rates.

44

Swimming pools became financially viable again through the use of new technologies in combination with established good construction practice:

good ventilation; •adequate insulation of walls; •moisture-resistant acoustic ceilings; •perforated bricks and tiles; and •double glazing for window areas. •

Condensation was brought under control (relative humidity in pool halls is now widely being maintained at the optimum of less than 60%). Wadebridge Leisure Centre, Cornwall, demonstrates the trend with a new air-handling unit installed in 2006 to recover heat from the air around its 25m pool and use it to heat the bath-ing water. This cuts carbon dioxide emission by at least 150 tonnes per annum, cuts running costs by £14,000 per annum and improves air quality for the facility’s customers and staff. Sports and leisure centres everywhere are seeking to achieve similar efficiencies in energy consumption. Waste heat recovery is good news in the battle against global warming. It has also afforded architects and engineers the means of designing pool halls of unprecedented beauty, by creating the freedom to design larger areas in steel and

glass rather than concrete and brick. The result is a new generation of light and airy pool halls which, unlike their often noisy and claustrophobic predecessors, are exhilarating to use.

Manchester Aquatics Centre

This 110m × 55m × 20m (above ground level) natatorium is the first in the UK to incorporate two 50m pools. It is believed to contain the world’s largest area of movable floors and booms. These can be reconfigured to form pools of varying sizes and depths, aimed at maximising flexibility in use and, hence, reve-nue. The diving boards include one of the world’s first 3m wide, 10m boards, to cater for synchronised diving events. The building form was developed to meet the requirements of the diving plat-forms and to control the acoustics. Floodlighting is incorporated and is located in order to avoid unwanted reflections, facilitate maintenance and meet the FINA requirements. Energy conserva-tion measures include small-scale combined heat and power (CHP) and desiccant dryers.

The roof structure spans from masonry-clad concrete towers on the south elevation, over an intermediate support at the rear

5.5

Manchester Aquatics Centre (2002)

45

s w i m m i n g p o o l s

of the spectator seating, and then arches over the pool hall onto thrust blocks founded 5m below ground on the north side. Support to the main roof is by four pairs of main semi-arch ribs, cross-braced across its full width. The form of these ribs changes about the apex of the building from tapered plate girders on the visible north side to truss rafters above the acoustic ceiling.

There are no movement joints within the main roof and con-crete structures. Instead, thermal/shrinkage control joints are provided around all the one-piece concrete pool tanks, which are cast on slip membranes. All pool tanks were designed as water-retaining structures and were cast to a specific design sequence to avoid early shrinkage cracking. The profile of each pool tank is punctuated by recesses for the submersible booms, water supply trenches, windows and ladders.

To permit the thermal and deflection movements of the semi-arch shaped roof, the glazed gable walls are supported from aero-foil mullions restrained laterally at their head. The connection allows both vertical and horizontal movement, with the plane of the mullions stabilised by the circular hollow section (CHS) tie element which follows the roof profile. Under longitudinal thermal movements the glazed wall simply moves out of plumb. The mul-lions also provide support for the external cleaning walkways.

The building design team decided to use the roof deck for acoustic absorption. By perforating the inner liner sheet, the mineral wool for thermal insulation could also be made to absorb sound. However, this solution reduced the structural strength of the liner sheet, which limited the amount of perforation that could be accommodated.

The leisure, competition and diving pool areas are lit by 1000W metal halide and 400W SON floodlights mounted on a central overhead gantry, positioned to avoid specular reflection off the water from the lights. The main metal halide floodlights are fitted with toughened diffused glass lens units to control glare (a design consideration for backstroke swimmers). Each floodlight is mounted on a specially designed, purpose-made retractable arm bracket which allows easy lamp replacement from the gantry. Switching patterns can be controlled to pre-set levels to meet FINA requirements.

To control glare from direct sunlight and daylight entering the pool hall, integral sealed window blinds are provided on the north, west and east facades. Each blind system is operated by protection rated (IP-rated) motorised control units linked to master controller stations located around the pool hall. The rooflights are on the north side of the roof and are opaque.

Beaurepaire Centre Pool, University of Melbourne, Australia

The content of this chapter may give the impression that the only really good pool is a really new pool. However, industries have grown up around meeting needs to repair, refurbish and restore existing facilities (see Chapter 29). In 2004 the Beaurepaire Centre Pool won the RAIA Lachlan Macquarie Award for Heritage, Australia’s top award for conservation architecture. Emeritus Professor Peter McIntyre chaired the RAIA Heritage Award Jury which commented:

‘As a fine and assured example of the so-called Postwar Melbourne regional style, the Beaurepaire Centre is of considerable historical, social and aesthetic/technical importance. Designed by Eggleston, MacDonald and Secomb in collaboration with Bill Irwin in 1954 for the University of Melbourne, it was completed in 1957. The project was part of the university’s 1950s building pro-gramme which resulted in a significant group of Modernist Functionalist buildings. Today it retains all its major ele-ments, which demonstrate its original form and function as a swimming pool and gymnasium complex.

The work by Allom Lovell and Associates spans conser-vation, reinstatement and adaptation. Contemporary uses and modern facilities are accommodated within the origi-nal fabric in a way which celebrates the original structure, materials and surfaces. This is no museum piece.

The conservation team has cleverly inserted new ser-vices without dominating the existing surfaces. New floor finishes that are more appropriate to contemporary activity have been inserted in a way that has neither destroyed nor completely hidden the original. Contemporary building codes, including equity of access, have been managed by the insertion of new elements which look appropriate and hide nothing.

The university and the architects are to be congratulated for choosing to conserve and adapt this building to current usage. This has not only retained a significant piece of architecture from a period which is often looked upon as being unworthy of retention, but also provides a very clear statement that the reuse of existing buildings is often more financially viable than their replacement. In this respect

46

there is the added benefit of reducing the energy input when recycling is undertaken instead of demolition and replacement.

The Beaurepaire Centre project is the successful culmi-nation of conservation ethics and practice. It takes its place as a model for society to rethink its attitude to conserving buildings of significance from our recent past.’

National Swimming Center, Beijing (the Water Cube)

This building was designed to act like a greenhouse, absorbing solar radiation and avoiding heat loss. The double skin facade of bubbles is so well insulated that it has the potential to achieve an annual net heat gain. The principle is to capture the solar radiation in the area of the building where it is most needed – around the pool – and keep it there. The thermal mass of the concrete and the water absorbs and re-radiates this heat at night, when it is most required. To achieve the right balance, the facade

5.6–5.7

Beijing 2008 Olympics:

Water Cube visualisation (2007)

47

of the building has three modes of operation to respond to the summer, winter and mid-season climates. The clear and translu-cent facades allow high levels of natural daylight, which removes the requirement to artificially light the pool during the day. A core feature in the design of the ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) foil skin is the variable shading control system. By modifying the pressures in the cavity, the internal foils can be either ‘open’ or ‘closed’. This allows the light levels to be controlled to create a dappled effect, similar to the light under a tree or deep under water. The light can be controlled to fall only on areas that do not suffer from glaring reflections. Alternatively, the entire roof and wall can be turned ‘off’ to achieve optimal lighting conditions for television cameras. At night the building glows, highlighting the activities within.

World’s biggest swimming pool

The 1000m (3280ft) long pool at the holiday resort of San Alfonso del Mar, Algarrobo, Chile, has been the world’s biggest swimming pool since 2007. It is 8ha (17.6 acres) in surface area, the equiva-lent of 6000 domestic pools. Its volume is 250,000m³ (8,830,000ft³) and it contains 300,000,000 litres (66,000,000 gallons) of sea-water. Revolutionary clear water lagoons are transparent to depths of 35m (115ft) at the pool’s ‘deep end’. A computer-controlled suction and filtration system is used to keep fresh seawater in permanent circulation, drawing it in from the ocean at one end and pumping it out at the other. The sun warms the water to 26°C (78.8°F).

5.8

London 2012 Olympic Games: Aquatics Centre visualisation (2008)

6.1

St Nicholas Rink, New York City (1896)

49

Introduction

The world’s first mechanically frozen ice rink was opened by John Gamgee in Chelsea, London, in January 1876. Two months later he established a bigger, 40ft (12.2m) × 24ft (7.3m), permanent ice rink at 379 King’s Road, Chelsea. This had a concrete surface overlain with earth, cow hair, timber planks and oval copper pipes. The pipes were covered with water and a solution contain-ing glycerine, ether and peroxide of nitrogen was pumped through them (this being a process discovered by Gamgee during his research into methods of freezing meat for import into the UK from Australia and New Zealand). Gamgee operated the rink on a membership basis, appealing to wealthy people who had expe-rienced open-air ice skating during winters in the Alps. He installed an orchestra gallery and decorated the walls with views of the Swiss Alps. Initial success encouraged Gamgee to open additional rinks at Rushholme, Manchester, and Charing Cross in London. The latter ‘Floating Glaciarium’ contained a much bigger rink measuring 115ft (35m) × 25ft (7.6m). But the process was expensive and the club members were put off by mists rising off the ice. All three of Gamgee’s rinks had closed by mid-1878 but the Southport Glaciarium, opened in 1879, perpetuated applica-tion of the invention.

Subsequent developments used chilled fluid pumped through pipes within a bed of sand or slab of concrete to lower tempera-ture so that a covering of water would freeze. The procedure for preparing the surfaces of modern rinks is:

with the pipes cold, spray a thin layer of water on the sand or •concrete to seal and level it (sand) or prevent marking (concrete);

paint the thin layer white, or pale blue for greater contrast, •and mark out as appropriate for ice hockey or curling and to accommodate logos or other decoration; spray on another thin layer of water; •build up the ice to a thickness of 2–3cm (0.8–1.2in) by •repeated flows of water onto the surface.

After the ice has been used it can be resurfaced periodically using a machine called an ice resurfacer (often called a Zamboni, a reference to its invention in 1949 by Frank J Zamboni). This is a

Chapter 6

I ce r inks

6.2

Olympia Arena, Detroit, Michigan: new pipework installation (1967)

50

truck-like vehicle which drags a ‘conditioner’. It uses a very sharp blade to shave the surface off the ice and collects up the shavings. An ice-edger, a machine similar to a rotary lawnmower, is used to cut the edges of the ice rink that are beyond the range of the resurfacer. The Continuous Edging System (Conti-Edger) integrates edging into the general resurfacing process by mounting a second-ary, pneumatically-controlled blade on the side of the resurfacer. Many ice resurfacers are fitted with a board brush, a rotary brush powered by a hydraulic motor, extended and retracted on the left side of the machine on a hydraulic arm. The brush sweeps accu-mulated bits of loose ice along the kick plates below the dasher boards of the rink into the conditioner. Board brushes reduce the need for edging the rink.

Between ice rink events, and if the facility is to be used for alternative purposes, the ice surface may be covered with a heav-ily insulated floor or melted by heating the fluid in the pipes. Examples of dual-function venues include the renovated 13,800-seat Boardwalk Hall in Atlantic City, New Jersey, which hosts ice spectaculars between non-ice events such as boxing matches and concerts (by musicians including rock performers Bruce Springsteen, Paul McCartney and Elton John). The Agganis Arena at Boston University, Massachusetts, has the principal function of supporting the university’s ice hockey and basketball programmes but is also expandable in spectator capacity to 7200 seats for interim concerts, conventions, trade shows and family entertain-ment. In the UK, conversion of the London Arena in 1998 included installation of an ice pad and refrigeration plant, 48 luxury high-level 10-seat VIP boxes, additional seating and a centre ice video scoreboard. This created a multi-purpose enter-tainment arena capable of hosting ice hockey and ice shows as well as the established attractions of concerts, conventions, box-ing and wrestling.

Specialist ice skating facilities: Oxford Ice Rink

Popular interest in ice skating in the UK came with the success of the ice skating partnership of Torvill and Dean and their unfor-gettable ‘Bolero’ routine in the early 1980s. This was different from the concurrent ‘Covett’ effect on participation in athletics because the UK already had athletics facilities – now those who wanted to emulate Torvill and Dean stimulated an unprecedented demand in the UK for ice skating facilities. Oxford City Council captured the mood of the time with Oxford Ice Rink. This was completed on site in September 1984, within a period of 10 months, using a management contract. It demonstrated that new types of building could be created economically to cater specifi-cally for new directions in public demand for sports facilities. The building was constructed close to the centre of the city on a Victorian refuse tip that had been infilled and grassed over to create a recreational area. A simple portal or braced frame solu-tion could have been adopted, but the client wanted not only to avoid the ‘warehouse’ feel that was characteristic of existing ice skating venues but also to acquire a landmark building. A distinc-tive nautical effect was achieved by using stayed steel masts and a central longitudinal steel spine beam. The geometry resulted in a large vertical load (380 tonnes) at each mast position and a smaller uplift at the anchor points. These loads are carried on straight shafted piles bored into the Oxford clay, whereas the perimeter columns, carrying only 20% of the roof load, are founded on shallow footings in the fill, providing the client with a particularly economic foundation solution. The roof is formed with a perforated profiled steel deck spanning between the roof beams, without purlins, and covered with thermal insulation and a single layer PVC waterproofing system. A transparent triple-

6.3–6.4

Oxford Ice Rink (1984)

51

i c e r i n k s

glazed wall, to the Oxpens Road frontage, advertises the ice hall activities and is spectacularly illuminated by disco lighting at night.

Ice hockey

Games between teams striking an object with a curved stick date far back into antiquity – drawings on the tombs in the Valley of the Kings in Egypt depict such sports being played 4000 years ago. Skating on ice, using skates made of smoothed animal bones or wood, was widespread in Scandinavia more than 3000 years ago. The descendant sport of ice hockey has a similarly intriguing and mysterious background. Ice hockey is related to ‘bandy’, which is similar to association football (soccer) but played with sticks and a small ball on an outdoor sheet of ice. Bandy probably originated in the Fenlands of eastern England, where the shallow waters freeze over quickly in winter and form a relatively safe skating surface. The sport has now virtually died out in the UK. It is known that the court of Peter the Great played bandy on the frozen Neva River in Saint Petersburg in the early 1700s, leading to its popular adoption throughout the Russian Empire by the latter part of the 19th century. Today, bandy is played in Belarus, Canada, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Mongolia, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the USA. In Russia, bandy is called xоккей с мячом (hockey with ball) and ice hockey is xоккей с шайбой (hockey with puck). In Finland, bandy is called jääpallo (ice ball) and ice hockey is jääkiekko (ice puck).

European immigrants to the New World brought with them all sorts of hockey-like games, including bandy from England, shinty from Scotland and hurling from Ireland. The Canadian historian and author Thomas Chandler Haliburton (1796–1865) wrote of

‘hurley on the ice’ being played at Windsor, Nova Scotia, around 1800. However, it was not until 1875 in Montreal that the first eye-witness account was recorded of two specific teams compet-ing in a specific place, at a specific time, with a final score (2–1). The venue was the Victoria Rink, designed by Montreal architects Lawford and Nelson as a steel-arch-type structure 250ft (76m) long × 100ft (30.5m) wide, illuminated by mains gaslights and enclosing a 202ft (61.5m) × 80ft (24.4m) naturally frozen ice surface. Meanwhile, in the 1870s, St Paul’s School, Concord, in that extraordinary area of sporting innovation in Massachusetts and New Hampshire (see Chapter 1), was staking a claim as the birthplace of US ice hockey when it established nine hockey rinks on its Lower School Pond and began hosting matches against opponents including Harvard and Yale. Ongoing advances in ice-making technologies and refrigeration techniques, together with the growing use of structural steel for long-span structures, would eventually see ice events accommodated throughout the world, in all climates.

Ice rink design

The standard dimensions of a modern ice hockey rink are a mini-mum 56m (183.7ft) × 26m (85.3ft), with corners 7m (23ft) radius, and maximum 61m (200ft) × 30m (98.4ft), with corners 8.5m (27.9ft) radius – not dissimilar to the dimensions and area of Montreal’s Victoria Rink, which had opened in 1862. An ice hockey rink has to be surrounded by a solid 1–1.22m (3.25–4ft) high continuous fence (the boards), which has access and exit points for skaters and a 3m (9.8ft) wide gate for the resurfacing machine. Gates must open away from the ice surface. A circula-tion space of at least 1.2–1.5m (3.9–4.9ft) must be provided

6.5

Hanley Ice Rink, Telluride,

Colorado: youth ice hockey (2006)

s p o r t s a n d f a c i l i t i e s

52

around the perimeter. Appropriate storage provision within the building enclosure has to be made for goalposts 1.22m high × 1.83m wide × 1m deep (4ft × 6ft × 3.25ft), the line-marking machine, resurfacing machine and any bleacher seating.

Specific criteria to be taken into account in ice rink design include the possibility of heave due to alternate freezing and expansion of the soil under the rink (this may necessitate drainage and/or heating of the sub-soil). The facility’s walls and ceilings should be designed to reduce noise reverberation. A plant room approximately 11m (36ft) × 6m (20ft) × 3.7m (12ft) high will be needed. The temperature of the facility should be maintained at around 10–13°C (50–55.4°F), usually by heating/cooling com-bined with mechanical ventilation. Warm air must not be circu-lated directly above the ice. The designer should consider recycling heat generated by the refrigeration plant and rejected at the condenser. Rink lighting design should allow for variation between 300 lux (27.87 foot-candles) for recreational skaters to 500 lux (46.45 foot-candles) for ice hockey matches and other competitive events.

Among the high-quality ice hockey venues constructed in recent years is the US$52 million TD Banknorth Sports Center at Quinnipiac University in Hamden, Connecticut, which opened in January 2007. This is a dual facility with basketball (3570-seat) and ice hockey (3286-seat) ‘wings’ meeting at an entry court which has large glass walls offering spectacular views into the arenas. The curved arena roofs are supported by custom-made, three-dimensional tubular steel trusses which give the develop-ment its bird-like shape and provide armatures for lighting, sound equipment, scoreboards and banners.

Sledge hockey

Sledge hockey was developed in Norway in the 1960s to enable disabled people to compete in ice sports. It is played on a regula-tion ice surface with regulation nets. Competitors are strapped into low sleds (sledges), which are mounted on 10in (254mm) metal skates. They use short ice picks to move the sled and strike the puck. Sledge hockey is a full contact sport and, because able-bodied people can use the sleds, it offers a level playing field in every sense of the word.

Curling

Curling is a sport of complex stone placement and shot selection played out on a rectangular sheet of ice by two teams, each comprising four players. The teams take turns at sliding heavy (maximum 44lb/19.96kg) polished granite stones, of up to 36in (0.9144m) circumference and 4.5in (11.43cm) height, along the ice to the target ‘house’, a 12ft (3.7m) wide set of concentric rings. The sport is believed to have been invented in late medieval Scotland. The first written reference to a contest using stones on ice comes from the records of Paisley Abbey, Renfrew, Scotland, in February 1541.

For curling, the ice surface is ‘pebbled’ by allowing loose drops of cold water to fall onto the ice and freeze into rounded peaks. The Scottish verb ‘curr’ means ‘to make a rumbling sound’. In Scotland and Scottish-settled regions of the world (e.g. southern New Zealand) curling is still known as ‘the roaring game’ because of the sound the stone makes as it passes over the pebble. Friction between stone and pebble causes the stone to turn to the inside or outside, creating the ‘curl’. The amount of curl can change during a game as the pebble wears. The surface of the ice for curling is maintained at a temperature near 23°F (-5°C). Lighting is a crucial design criterion since areas in shadow could jeopar-dise the players’ assessment of the stones’ positions. The luminous uniformity coefficient must be very high for playing and, as appropriate, broadcasting. The recently inaugurated Pinerola Ice Rink, Italy, has 200 metal iodide spotlights (186 asymmetrical beam and 14 narrow beam), each rated at 1000W, to enhance its curling competition.

6.6

Sun Gro Centre, Beausejour, Manitoba: curling club (2007)

53

i c e r i n k s

Utah 2002: speed skating

Speed skating is considered to be the fastest human-powered, non-mechanically-aided sport on earth. A highly specialised form of rink is used. This is the two-lane oval, similar to an athletics track. Standard speed skating tracks are 400m (437.4 yards) or 333.33m (364.5 yards) long. The curves have a radius of 25m (82ft) to 26m (85.3ft) in the inner lane and each lane is 3m (9.8ft) to 4m (13.1ft) wide. On such specialised tracks, skaters can achieve phenomenal speeds of up to 48kmh (30mph).

There are few speed skating facilities in the world but, where they do exist, they demonstrate the benefits to the skaters of close collaboration between client, architect and sub-consultants. The Oquirrh Park Skating Rink is situated near Kearns, 22km southwest of downtown Salt Lake City, Utah. When the Salt Lake Organizing Committee (SLOC) for the 2002 Winter Olympics selected its speedskating site, it went for the highest altitude (1425m/4084ft) of any indoor skating oval in the world. Thin air is less resistant to skaters, while the dense, hard ice of high altitudes gives faster times. The challenges at Utah were to create the fastest sheet of ice in the world, provide a bright and pleasant training environ-ment, set an example of energy efficiency, accomplish all of this within a limited budget and – not the least challenging – complete the facility a year before the Olympic Games were to begin.

Meeting the aims suggested a utilitarian solution, but SLOC worked with architect GSBS and engineer Arup to create a sig-nature building. The roof was designed as a suspended steel girder system, which reduced the enclosed air volume by 22% over the next best option, a steel truss roof system. The air-handling system is divided into four zones and the use of space is optimised by

placing the air-handling units (AHUs) in the building’s four cor-ners, outside the oval.

There are no established performance design criteria for humidity levels required by athletes so humidity control was initially an issue of preventing condensation on the roof, frost on the ice surfaces and fogging in the arena. To achieve this, the dehumidification capability of the chilled water coils in the AHUs was used, combined with fresh-air control and building pres-surisation. During commissioning, condensation appeared on the perimeter Perspex protective screens around the central hockey fields within the oval. Surfaces adjacent to the ice, with lower temperature than the roof, were especially prone to condensation when the external conditions experienced a spike in wet bulb temperature. There were also issues of restricting infiltration due to heavy traffic in and out of the building. A system of desiccant dehumidification was added to provide background humidity control to 45% RH (relative humidity) set point, a level that gave the operations staff sufficient time to investigate and monitor system response to rising internal humidity.

The preferred temperature for skater comfort is 15.6°C (60°F) but racing conditions require that the space temperature be low-ered to 10°C (50°F), with the ice held at -6.6°C (20.12°F). Maintaining 10°C in the racing zone had proved difficult in some other arenas, principally because of high roofs. In big roof spaces it is desirable to have heat gains rise under buoyancy and form warm upper layers, but in a speedskating arena, where a large floor is held at -6.6°C, it is often necessary to blow hot air to achieve the 10°C above the ice.

This hot air must be forced down into the floor zone – against its natural tendency to rise – without softening the ice. The low

6.7

Lewis Ice Arena, Aspen, Colorado:

National Disabled Veterans

Winter Sports Clinic – curling

(4 April 2007)

s p o r t s a n d f a c i l i t i e s

54

interior height afforded by Utah’s suspended steel girder system made conditioning the space more manageable. Initial plans for the ventilation outlet configuration envisaged motorised nozzle jet diffusers, automatically adjustable to take account of the supply air temperature, but the cost of this option proved prohibitive. The alternative, both innovative and economical, was to configure the nozzles at the required angle for heating, with high-level automatic relief ducts that open during cooling to bleed some of the cold air supply away from the supply jets. Cold draughts are thus avoided during peak cooling conditions. This system also allows the opera-tors a degree of fine-tuning and control over the final system con-figuration, without having to manually adjust each of the 200 nozzle diffusers at ceiling level above the ice. To further discourage strati-fication, this system was combined with placing the AHU return air suction grilles at floor level to remove air from the racing zone.

In tests before the Olympics, the systems maintained design conditions throughout the space with less than 1°F (0.56°C) varia-tion at all locations in the racing zone and less than 2°F (1.11°C) variation between the racing zone and the ceiling condition. In March 2001, the Utah Olympic Oval was among the first 12 buildings to be given LEED™ certification for sustainable design. In the final speedskating event of the 2002 Winter Olympic Games at Utah, Germany’s Claudia Pechstein set her second world record, bringing the event’s aggregate to eight world records set in ten Olympic races.

Turin 2006

Turin’s indoor ice skating venues for the XXth Olympic Winter Games were the 8500 spectator capacity Oval Lingotto (speed skating), 4320 capacity Torino Esposiezioni and 12,350 capacity Palasport Olimpico (ice hockey) and the 10,000 capacity Torino Palavela (figure skating, short-track and speed skating). The Palavela is a striking, reinforced concrete ‘sail’ structure that was modified to host Olympic ice events and, following the Olympics, to serve as a multi-purpose facility capable of division into two parts. Post-Olympic events hosted have included temporary exhi-bitions and an interactive tour of Egypt, created by the Egyptian Museum Foundation. The Palasport Olimpico, completed in 2005, was designed as a multi-purpose indoor sports/concert arena – the biggest in Italy – which has hosted concerts by leading musicians, including Bruce Springsteen, Pearl Jam and Bob Dylan.

Figure skating

The International Skating Union (ISU), founded in 1892, regu-lates international figure skating judging and competitions. Competition skaters aim to perform the most difficult routine possible (technical merit) and present the routine in the best possible way (presentation). The United States Figure Skating Association (USFSA) is the governing body for amateur ice skat-ing in the USA. Its test structure to measure skaters’ achieve-ments comprises essentially:

freestyle – individual skating involving a required number and •type of jumps, spins and other moves; dance – a man and a woman performing a choreographed •dance on ice, with the man ensuring that he does not lift the woman above his waist or throw her; and

6.8

Skatetown, Roseville, California: Ice Skating Instruction (2007)

55

pairs – a man and a woman performing jumps, lifts and throws, •with the man pushing the woman from him.

Up until 1999 USFSA included in its test structure compulsory figures – with the individual skater following a trace on an area, a ‘patch’, of the ice in the form of an 8, or other complex figure. Other disciplines of figure skating include synchronised skating, moves in the field (field moves), fours, theatre on ice (ballet on ice), adagio skating, special figures and acrobatic skating (acro-batics on ice, extreme skating), which offers a spectacle demon-strating the utmost in aesthetic and physical excellence.

Recycling buildings

Many existing buildings are adapted to host ice events and some existing buildings are converted to permanent ice rinks. The Millennium Dome on the Greenwich Peninsula, London, hosted the Millennium Experience exhibitions and arena events in the year 2000. It has subsequently been used for concerts and other events (including sporting events). In September 2007 the Dome

(now known as the O2 Arena) accommodated a sell-out event hosting 17,500 fans for Saturday/Sunday evening back-to-back ice hockey matches between the Anaheim Ducks and the Los Angeles Kings. The teams competed on a 1200m2 (12,917ft²) purpose-built ice rink that was completed in five days using 21.75km (13.5 miles) of underfloor pipes to freeze the surface. Having been frozen, the 2cm (0.8in) thick ice was maintained at a constant temperature of -9°C (15.8°F).

The Anaheim Ducks and Los Angeles Kings were competing for the Stanley Cup, the most prestigious ice hockey trophy, in the first National Hockey League (NHL) season opening match to take place in Europe. The Stanley Cup – also known as The Cup, The Holy Grail and Lord Stanley’s Mug – is the oldest sports trophy in North America. It was originally awarded to Canada’s top-ranking amateur ice hockey club and became the NHL championship trophy in 1926. The Cup was forged in Sheffield and purchased from a silversmith in Regent Street, London, by Lord Stanley in 1892. Lord Stanley had been appointed Governor General of Canada by Queen Victoria in 1888 and became hugely enthusiastic about ice hockey, which he first observed at Montreal’s 1889 Winter Carnival. One of his sons, Arthur, would go on to establish ice hockey in the UK.

6.9

Palavela, Turin: Olympic figure skating (2006)

7.1

National Recreation Centre, Crystal Palace, London (2007)

57

Introduction

This chapter is about providing facilities for different sports within a single building or complex. In the UK the pioneering project was the National Recreation Centre at Crystal Palace, Sydenham Hill, South London. This is a campus-type, greenfield develop-ment incorporating athletics stadium, sports hall and athletes’ hostel tower. The 63m × 63m × 19m (207ft × 207ft × 62ft) high multi-functional sports hall, designed 1953–59 and built 1960–64, accommodates swimming pools and dry sports. Swimming facilities include a 50m racing pool, diving pool with spring-boards and 5m, 7.5m and 10m platforms, 18.28m (60ft) teaching pool and 25m training pool. Sports facilities include squash, basketball, korfball, five-a-side and eleven-a-side football, vol-leyball, trampoline, karate, aerobics, weight training, netball, hockey, tennis, badminton, skiing, gymnastics and a climbing wall. Today Crystal Palace is one of six national centres operated for Sport England. It hosts Grand Prix Athletics every summer and other activities, training sessions and national and regional events throughout the year.

The massive single roof is supported by a concrete A-frame which forms the spine of the building and allows views across the whole of the interior. Swimmers and dry sport participants can interact easily by crossing the aisle created by the A-frame. Innovative use of prestressed concrete made possible the slim and elegant beams forming the facades. The revolutionary flying roof, with underside clad in timber, adds a sculptural quality to the concrete framed building.

The National Recreation Centre was rooted in the architecture of the 1950s, but has all of the social exuberance of the 1960s. It is the forerunner of other concrete-framed sports complexes in

the UK (such as the Swiss Cottage Sports Centre and Coventry Central Baths) and has influenced similarly high-quality sports architecture in North America and West Africa.

The space age

Europe’s first 400m 3M ‘Tartan’ synthetic track was installed at Crystal Palace in 1968. At that time David Bedford was revolu-tionising world distance running with his huge training mileages. On 13 July 1973 Bedford set a new World Record of 27:30.8 for the 10,000m on the Crystal Palace track. In tandem with these revolutionary events, a revolution was taking place in building design and construction as an outcome of contemporary advances in computing technology.

Since about 1945 a new system of metal roof construction was being developed and became known under various names includ-ing three-dimensional frames, space frames, space decks and double-layer grids. The simplest such structure is of two-way intersecting lattice girders, making up a top and bottom layer interconnected by vertical and sloping members. Because the members of the girders are mainly subjected to axial forces (ten-sion and compression) the stress in any member is uniform (and in a grid system compression members extend only from joint to joint, so buckling length is small). Because of this, double-layer grids make more efficient use of material. In the 1960s advances in computing stimulated the design and development of many new space frame systems.

NODUS was one such space frame system, comprising cast joints and tubular steel connectors. It was invented by Hugh

Chapter 7

In tegrated sports fac i l i t ies

58

Walker and his colleagues at British Steel Corporation, developed with Professor Z S Makowski and his team at Surrey University and tested at Cowthwick Quarry near Corby, Northamptonshire. Initial applications were for small car showroom canopy struc-tures in the Newcastle-upon-Tyne area. Then, astonishingly, NODUS was specified for the new National Exhibition Centre (NEC) at Birmingham, one of the biggest building projects ever undertaken in the UK. Steelwork erection of the NEC initial development of six halls (1, 2, 3, 3a, 4, 5), total area 72,400m² (779,300ft²), commenced on site in late 1973 and was completed in 1975. The NODUS space frame system was used for the 93 identical roof structures, each measuring 27.9m × 27.9m (91.5ft × 91.5ft). These contain 45,384 rectangular and circular steel hollow sections (488 members in each space frame). Birmingham International Arena, 10,125m² (108,985ft²), was subsequently built on site in 18 months. This has NODUS roof structures sus-pended from masts to create a clear span multi-purpose area 60m × 60m (197ft × 197ft).

The use of steel space frames for the initial NEC development created the large uninterrupted spans appropriate to the exhibi-tions business, allowed for unimpeded future extensions in any direction and offered the capacity to carry extensive overhead services. The small size components used in the space frame construction enabled fast workshop production, easy transporta-tion to site and quick erection. Because the space frames were identical, high wind conditions did not result in work stoppages

on site – the erection team simply switched from high-level work on the halls to assembly of space frames at ground level, prior to craning into position. Similarly, rain can cause stoppages on site because people cannot walk on wet steel but, in this case, it was possible to switch to the ground level construction. All castings in the NODUS size 35 joint range selected for the NEC project could be handled by one man working alone. Specifically, it was found that one space frame could be assembled on site in four days by a team consisting of a charge-hand and four workers.

The reason for describing NEC is that, apart from hosting exhibitions, it became a significant sporting venue. It has accom-modated mass-participation events such as the Interplas Marathon 1981. Its international arena can be used in ice rink mode to host ice skating events. It was the proposed location in the City of Birmingham’s (unsuccessful) bid for the 1992 Olympic Games and has hosted many major sports-related events such as the BBC Sports Personality of the Year (December 2007). More signifi-cantly, the NEC demonstrated the advantages of using space frames in general, and NODUS in particular, to achieve the wide spans required for sports and leisure facilities.

Sunderland Leisure Centre

An example of the use of the space frame is Sunderland Leisure Centre, completed in 1976 to allow family groups as well as indi-viduals to participate in a wide variety of sports and leisure activi-ties. The 138m × 78m × 15m (453ft × 256ft × 49ft) high building has a plan area of more than a hectare (over 2.2 acres) – almost the equivalent of three soccer pitches. It accommodates: a two-court sports hall; multi-purpose sport area; eight squash courts; a free-form leisure pool; diving pool; two restaurants/cafés; crèche; sauna suite; bars; six-lane flat bowling hall; general purpose and club rooms; ice rink; changing, storage and general circulation areas; shop units; administrative and staff areas; exhibition and display areas; disco-theque; plant and supplementary accommodation. The roof is a single massive 3m (9.8ft) deep space frame supported on twelve groups of four columns, resulting in major support spacing of 48m + 42m + 48m (157ft + 138ft + 157ft) longitudinally and 33m + 36m (108ft + 118ft) transversely. Columns were designed to double up as lifting sticks. The two-layer space frame roof has a 3m square bottom grid with a diagonal top layer grid connected mainly with NODUS size 45 joints. The roof design load (excluding wind) is

7.2

NODUS space frame joint: exploded view (1975)

59

1.7kN/m2 (0.035kip/ft²). Structural analysis of the frame was made on the basis of symmetry and for a quarter of the whole roof. Because of the large number of connecting members and joints involved, it was necessary to expand the computer program to such an extent that the frame analysis had to be handled by the large NASA computer in Houston, transmission being bounced off tele-communication satellites. The 800 tonne roof, containing more than 24km (15 miles) of rectangular hollow sections, was successfully lifted into position in October 1975, using the Lift Slab method. The frame was protected by factory blast-cleaning and 75 microns zinc spray, a wash primer of 13 microns and three coats of chlorinated rubber to 125 microns.

Harrow Leisure Centre

HRH Princess Anne opened this building on Wednesday 11 June 1975 as a multi-purpose centre unique in north-west London for the range of activities that it offered. Wet sports include a main pool 33.3m × 16.7m (109ft × 55ft) and a learner pool 16.7m × 14.4m (55ft × 47ft). Both pools have water up to the level of a tiled surround – the ‘level deck’ system common in Europe and North America. Overlooking the pools are fixed accommodation for 120 spectators, the restaurant and a bar area. The dry sports facilities include: sports hall 38.4m × 33.6m (114.2ft × 110.2ft); weight-lifting training hall 16m × 10m (52.4ft × 32.8ft); small training hall (above) 16m × 10m; range for shooting, golf, archery and cricket; twelve squash courts, three with fixed spectator seat-ing behind glazed rear walls; an external covered area 33.4m × 19.2m (109.6ft × 63ft) for five-a-side football, basketball, hockey, etc.; a bowls hall 43.2m × 43.2m (141.7ft × 141.7ft).

The multi-purpose main sports hall and the squash courts were built using rolled hollow sections (RHS) and the bowls hall was roofed using NODUS. The London Borough of Harrow’s Engineer’s Department chose NODUS for the bowls hall because there was a limit on the depth of roof structure and internal roof supports were not permitted. A square-on-diagonal grid was adopted with a top chord module of 2.4m (7.9ft) and a depth of 2m (6.6ft). Universal columns 4.5m (14.8ft) high, set at 4.8m (15.7ft) centres, were used to support the roof at bottom chord level. Although the grid has a cornice edge, secondary steelwork was used to generate a vertical fascia to suit the curtain walling and drainage requirements. The 55 tonne grid was assembled at ground level in two weeks and the lift, employing eight 15 tonne cranes, was carried out in two hours. No ‘fit’ problems were encountered.

Herringthorpe Leisure Centre, Rotherham

In this project two identical 38.4m × 32m (126ft × 105ft) grids, of square-on-square offset design with a Mansard edge, were used, one for the sports hall and one for the swimming pool. Each roof was assembled offset from the final grid position, to enable the columns to be erected prior to lifting. The swimming pool roof was assembled on scaffolding over the pre-constructed pool and propped to the concrete pool floor, where necessary, using Acrow props. The sports hall roof was assembled on a level con-crete floor. Assembly times were 520 person-hours (0.42 person-hours/m²) for the swimming pool and 300 person-hours (0.24 person-hours/m²) for the sports hall. Erection was carried out using

7.3

Harrow Sports Centre, London (1973)

60

two 25-tonne and two 40-tonne telescopic cranes. The 40-tonne cranes were necessary because the working radius was increased due to a social facility block extending along the side of the sports hall. The sports hall roof was lifted in three hours. Then, at the corner lifting position of the swimming pool roof adjacent to the social block, the crane jib was telescoped through the mansard edge of the grid of the already-erected sports hall roof to overcome the access difficulty at that point. This 32-tonne lift was then completed in 2½ hours.

Back to the future

Back in the 1850s cast-iron and modular construction were used to create a ‘crystal palace’ which would become one of the most influential buildings of the Victorian era. In terms of sports facili-ties, the influence of the crystal palace is clearly seen in space frames, in the UK’s Standardised Approach to Sports Halls (SASH) initiative of the 1980s and in the UK’s big, light, airy, steel and glass sports and leisure centres of the 1980s and 1990s.

The Crystal Palace was designed by James Paxton for the Great Exhibition of 1851 in Hyde Park, London. Paxton was a gardener and landscape designer with experience of large greenhouse construction. He proposed a design for the building for the Great Exhibition after the planners had rejected 220 competition designs and failed to gain support for their own alternative. They were looking for a solution with strength, durability, simplicity of con-struction and economy – pretty much what planners of today are looking for. To these attributes they added speed of erection, as

they began to run out of time. Also, and this had ruled out many of the competition designs, they were looking for a temporary building because they wanted to restore Hyde Park to its original appearance after the Great Exhibition had taken place.

Paxton proposed the world’s first ‘modular’ or ‘prefabricated’ public building and completed his original design within 10 days. The building measured 1848ft (536m) × 408ft (124m) and covered 772,784ft2 (71,794m2), the equivalent of 19 acres (7.6ha). The structure comprised 550 tons of wrought-iron, 3500 tons of cast-iron, 300,000 panes of glass covering 900,000ft2 (84,000m2), 202 miles (323km) of sash bars and 30 miles (48km) of gutters.

Doubts were expressed from the outset and had to be taken seriously because the critics included Sir George Biddell Airy, the Astronomer Royal, and Richard Turner, who had constructed the Palm House at Kew Gardens. Strains on the ironwork were not considered to be a problem because the girders were designed to take several times their anticipated loading. What was seen to be a problem was resonance – the idea that a large crowd, moving regularly inside the building, could cause it to vibrate more and more until it collapsed. This had happened before in bridge structures (and the phenomenon would be encountered in the future by, for example, the designers of London’s Millennium Bridge in the year 2000). In the case of the Great Exhibition, an experiment was set up with a test con-struction on which 300 workmen walked backwards and for-wards, regularly and irregularly, and then jumped simultaneously in the air. Then, to induce the most regular oscillations possible, the army’s Sappers and Miners (now the Royal Engineers) were called in to march ‘at the double’ over a platform erected between the girders. The maximum girder movement was one-

7.4–7.5

Heringthorpe Leisure Centre, Rotherham (1975)

61

i n t e g r a t e d s p o r t s f a c i l i t i e s

quarter of an inch (6.35mm). In further efforts to shake the structure Herr Reichardt, a well-known tenor, was asked to sing at one end of the building. Then a full orchestra was tried, and then the full orchestra with all the bass pipes of the organ groan-ing in discord. But no pane of glass moved or showed any response. Building work would proceed.

Construction commenced in September 1850 and was com-pleted in January 1851, ready for opening on May Day 1851. The Great Exhibition attracted 600,000 visitors in six weeks, which represented a huge success (the population of England in 1851 was 16.8 million compared with 60.9 million in 2007). After the event Hyde Park was restored and the crystal palace was dis-mantled and re-erected as the focal point of a 200 acre (80ha) Victorian theme park established at Sydenham Hill in South London, where it would give its name to the area. Crystal Palace was opened by Queen Victoria on 10 June 1854. It was ultimately destroyed by fire on the night of 30 November 1936. The timeless nature of the Crystal Palace is suggested by the Bromley London Borough Council (Crystal Palace) Act 1990 (c.xvii) which

specified that ‘The principal building to be constructed in any development of the pink land consequent upon the provisions of this Act shall reflect the architectural style of the original Crystal Palace’.

The Crystal Palace of 1851 was, at 71,794m2 (772,785ft²), remarkably similar in covered area to the initial National Exhibition Centre halls development of 1975 which was, at 72,400m² (779,300ft²), one of the major UK building projects of the 20th century. The big and technically challenging Sunderland Leisure Centre covers 15% the area of Crystal Palace. While Crystal Palace was exceptional, this chapter will demonstrate that, far from set-ting an unattainable standard, its design and construction posi-tively informed sports facilities development in the UK.

Standardised Approach to Sports Halls (SASH)

The Sports Council was founded by the Labour Government in 1965. It became the intermediary between government and sport and, in 1972, began distributing the first government funds allo-cated specifically for the development of British sport and its facilities. Funds previously hoarded by cost-conscious local authorities were also suddenly released and spent – in anticipa-tion of local government reorganisation – on sports and leisure centres, swimming pools and golf courses. In 1972 the UK had 27 sports centres. In 1980 there were 770 and the municipal leisure centre had become a focal point of towns and cities throughout the UK.

New estimates indicated that by the early 1990s the UK could support a total of 3000 sports and leisure centres. The Sports Council targeted 800 additional facilities of one type or another by 1987, with 240 of the 800 being entirely new construction. To provide these buildings within the prevailing restricted national budget was a major challenge to politicians and the whole of the recreation management profession.

The Sports Council response was to invest its research and development resources in the development of a standardised sports hall. The Council’s Technical Unit for Sport (TUS) com-prised architects, engineers and quantity surveyors, who worked with local authorities in developing sports facilities. A particular collaboration, over Tamworth Sports Centre in Staffordshire,

7.6

Harborough Leisure Centre: swimming pool overlooked

by gym treadmills (2008)

62

became in many respects the prototype for what came to be known as the SASH Sports Centre Programme.

SASH evolved following a national competition which attracted 122 entries and was won in 1982 by a Bovis-led team comprising Bovis Construction Ltd (Design and Construction Manager), Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners (Architect), Arup (Structural, Mechanical and Electrical Engineer) and Brian Clouston & Partners (Landscape Architect). The programme had two basic objectives – economy and speed of provision. Concomitant requirements were ease and speed of individual projects and completeness, in terms of fitting out and equipment.

The SASH neighbourhood sports centre was designed to com-plement existing facilities, to fill a gap in local sports provision or serve a newly developing community. Each centre would accommodate the needs of a catchment population of between 15,000 and 25,000. The basic layout was a sports hall the size of four basketball courts and a fitness room, together with social and service facilities. To this could be added one or more swim-ming pools, squash courts, a separate multi-purpose hall, addi-tional changing accommodation and more social areas.

In October 1982 the Bovis team was commissioned for its first SASH sports hall, to be built at Eastbourne. The team was on site by March 1983 and the building was completed in December 1983. By that time another seven schemes were under construction. The average time for construction of a basic centre was set at 37 weeks. This imposed a discipline of efficiency and economic per-formance on every building element. Bovis and its design team developed a building fitting a modular grid because the programme constraints meant that many of the building components had to be manufactured and prefabricated off site. This was true not only of

the structure but also of the finishing elements. Products had to be readily available, easily constructed and durable, with low main-tenance requirement. Steel was specified as the principal structural element and was used in many forms throughout the buildings.

A simple pin-jointed steel frame system was selected for ease of fabrication, painting, transportation and erection. Stanchions were erected directly on to foundation pads, beams connected to columns with simple bolted end-plate details and conventional bracing was provided in the perimeter walls. The only mezzanine floor, providing the plant room, was formed using permanent Holorib steel decking with a concrete slab on top. The steel structure supporting this floor was clad in fireproof dry lining which was itself pre-clad in steel to provide a damage-resistant wearing finish. The interior load-bearing walls were designed in 140mm (5.5in) concrete blockwork and offered rigid support for the lightweight steel sections.

In the main hall the roof was supported by three main beams. The introduction of circular holes in the webs gave a light and pleasing appearance when painted white (the Sports Council brief was for no natural light in the sports hall). Arup said that ‘such an opportunity to use a stressed skin roof deck was not to be missed’. Long span (8m, 26.2ft) steel decking was fixed directly to the top flange of the roof beams. This carried the lateral forces to the wall bracing and provided stability to the compression flange of the beams. The roof decking was perforated to permit the thermal insulation to perform the additional function of sound absorption. The roof deck finish was white throughout the sports centre, eliminating the need for a suspended ceiling.

Grimshaw wanted a building which would be attractive and pleasing to approach. High tensile profiled steel cladding was

7.7

Bitterne Leisure Centre, Southampton (1984)

63

used on all external walls, with circular perforations for the bright red steel porthole windows. The cladding was generally in metal-lic silver finish with two bands of red and blue. The main option in the external envelope was the choice between full-height clad-ding and the use of a 1m high brick plinth. A higher-cost alterna-tive of a pre-insulated steel panel was available.

A striking and original use of steelwork within the building was the use of red Nylon-coated sheet steel panels formed to provide four deep bulkheads which enclosed all the piped and electrical services at high level, through the toilet and changing areas to the showers. These epitomised the modular kit form of construction. They provided a ready-made facility for all final fixing of socket outlets, air-conditioning grilles, public address speakers and lights.

Bovis, as team leader, coordinated and programmed the design work. They also developed a method of taking advantage of the modular/kit form of design to maximise economy and efficiency on site.

The target time of 37 weeks for construction of a SASH centre was quickly bettered, with the average being brought down to 35 weeks and then 31 weeks (with an average 16-week lead-in). Structural steelwork usually commenced on site after eight weeks, at which stage the ground floor slab was ready to be cast. The fabricator delivered the steel to site ready painted, erected the steel frame inside one week and included temporary roof bracing prior to the roof skin being fixed. Once the frame was fully erected the roofing works commenced, overlapping with the start of the exter-nal cladding. This provided protection against inclement weather, eliminating interruptions to construction work within the structure. Buildings were usually watertight at or before 18 weeks.

Dubai sports halls

The use of precision-manufactured structural steel was at the same time making feasible some of the world’s biggest-ever sports facilities. In the 1980s HH Sheikh Hamdan bin Rashid Al Maktoum, UAE Minister of Finance and Chairman of Dubai Municipality, granted a donation which enabled Dubai’s four principal football clubs each to receive an indoor sports centre designed to international standards. The four facilities are huge. Each is about three quarters the area of the UK’s National Sports Centre building at Crystal Palace.

The architectural concept called for a column-free area of 62m × 48m (203ft × 157ft) containing a main court area 50m × 42m × 13m (164ft × 137ft × 42.6ft) clear height to cater for basket ball, volleyball, handball, tennis, badminton, gymnastics, weightlifting, boxing, wrestling, bowling, squash and table tennis. Seating for 3000 spectators at each venue is provided mainly on terraces of fixed seating and by retractable bleacher seating.

Four massive reinforced concrete shear walls were designed to support the main roof trusses. Each hall has two 110 tonne, 3.5m (11.5ft) deep main trusses, of hexagonal cross section, fabricated in sizes up to 300 × 300RHS (rectangular hollow sec-tions) (11.8 × 11.8 in). This met the aesthetic requirements and enabled large air-conditioning ducts to be installed at the most energy-efficient locations.

The main trusses span 48m between the shear walls and were designed using principles applicable to bridge structures, with particular attention being paid to provision for thermal movement and rotation at bearing points. Secondary tubular trusses, at 9m (29.5ft) centres, are of triangular section, 1.7m (5.6ft) deep. Main

7.8

Bitterne Leisure Centre, Southampton (1984)

s p o r t s a n d f a c i l i t i e s

64

trusses were pre-assembled at ground level and lifted into position by a 500 tonne capacity hydraulic crane. At the time of construc-tion, the roof steelwork erection was the biggest on-shore lift in the UAE and the completed roofs were the largest clear span structures in the Gulf area. The project was completed, within budget, to a 16-month programme.

The Dome, Doncaster Leisure Park

In the UK in the 1980s building form and materials choice were used to explore the approach to interaction of a sports and rec-reation centre with park landscaping. Architect FaulknerBrowns and engineer F J Samuely & Partners drew on extensive combined sports and leisure building experience to create the largest build-ing of its type in the UK, and one of the largest in the world outside the USA and Germany. The opportunity arose when Doncaster Metropolitan Borough Council wanted to take advan-tage of a national surge of growth in the leisure industry to develop a 130ha (286 acre) disused coalmining site on the eastern edge of the town. This was very much a regeneration project, with establishment of the Dome being seen as the necessary precursor to further development of the park.

The aspiration was for a fun building of the 21st century which would embody the exuberant spirit of sports and leisure. Consideration was given initially to locating the proposed four principal activities of swimming, ice skating, bowling and court sports in four separate buildings linked by walkways. This option was abandoned in favour of a solution in which all the activities would be integrated, at various levels, into one building envelope. Particular attention was paid to the planning of the circulation spine, which expands dramatically at the centre of the building into a 30m × 19m (98ft × 62.3ft) high atrium. It was decided that access to the atrium would be free, to encourage casual visitors to the building. Thus, the central atrium forms a foyer area which opens onto public ‘malls’ which afford ‘shop window’ views of the various sports and leisure activities in progress.

A tubular steel roof structure, 15.5m (50.8ft) at its highest point, was designed to make an elegant transition across consider-able height differences, ranging from the 3m (9.85ft) of the ice rink to the 12m (39.4ft) of the sports hall. Triangulated lattice trusses 2m (6.56ft) deep span a maximum of 45m (147.6ft), at 7.8m (25.6ft) spacing, and are used as steps in the roofing (the

sole break in the structural rhythm is at the forum, which is enclosed by a circular flat roof punctuated by a small glass dome). Circular hollow sections were chosen for the roof members because of their structural efficiency, elegant appearance and ease of jointing, painting and maintenance. The triangular cross-section of the trusses and the lateral and torsional rigidity of the tubes provided a stable structural element for the long spans without the need for additional bracing along the length of the main trusses. High grade steel was used to keep the size of the main boom members to the minimum, meeting a planning con-straint of limited truss depth relative to the longest spans.

In the ice rink/swimming pools area the two-storey high ridged mall frames support the main CHS triangulated roof trusses, which span a maximum 38m (124.7ft) to the curved perimeter on the north elevation. CHS curved edge trusses and a CHS ring beam complete the elevation and provide support for the gutter and lateral support to the masonry walls below. Here the main trusses are supported on CHS columns with specially welded plate col-umn heads set clear of the wall (because the pitched roof intersects a curved edge, the column heights and column head geometries vary). A combination of banded masonry and curtain wall glazing was used in the wall behind the column and column head.

The differential deflections caused by adjacent unequal main truss spans and by unequal snow loadings were studied by F J Samuely, by analysing the interaction between main and second-ary trusses, using grid analysis computer programs. The analyses showed that, in order to control bending stresses in the secondary trusses and torsional effects on the main trusses, it was necessary to connect them using pin-jointed and guided end connections. These joints allowed adjacent main members to move vertically relative to each other. The exception to this arrangement occurs near the outer ends of the main members, where differential deflections are small. Here, rigid connections between main and secondary trusses were introduced to provide torsional stability to the main trusses.

The same basic elements were used on the south side of the building to form a fragmented, informal edge. In this area the main trusses overshoot the external walls and are supported externally to the building envelope by freestanding cantilevered CHS columns clad in banded masonry. Warren braced secondary CHS trusses span east–west between the main trusses, at high or low level, at 4m (13.1ft) centres.

Stability in the north–south direction is provided by the pin-footed mall A-frames. In the east–west direction the latticed

65

bottom chords of the main trusses distribute lateral load to two ‘K’ braced bays along the north edge, via inclined ‘K’ bracing to the diagonally-braced mall frames near the centre and to the reinforced concrete health suite on the south edge. The health suite provides vertical support to the main trusses and to some secondary trusses. Steelwork is attached to the health suite via bearings guided in the north–south direction.

The roof deck is supported on secondary trusses spaced at 4m centres. These are connected to the triangular members at differ-ent levels, to suit architectural and services requirements, and with the air ducts supported beneath the structure.

The bowls hall/sports hall area is of similar construction to the ice rink/swimming pools area. Main air ducts run within the trusses and, in the sports hall, the deck spans directly between the bottom booms to provide a flat soffit. Changing rooms are located in a three-storey steel-framed structure between the bowls hall and sports hall. The east side of the building contains two-storey offices and a single-storey boiler-house, which are steel-framed, and single-storey squash courts, which are of load-bearing masonry.

All steelwork in the roof, and much of the steelwork in the floors, is exposed to view as an architectural feature. Most mem-bers were transported to site in one piece but the larger main triangulated trusses were delivered in sections for welding together on site. All chord members and single tubular members were full strength, full penetration butt welded using backing rings. The CHS member linking the ends of the main trusses together was full strength, full penetration butt welded at every joint to provide

continuity for the transmission of lateral wind loads into the brac-ing systems. Curved beams were formed by first bending the chord members to the correct profile and then holding the chords in a jig to allow welding-in of the diagonals and verticals.

Construction of the 15,100m2 (162,535ft²) building com-menced in November 1986 and the Dome was completed in August 1989. Substructure works included concrete stanchion bases, reinforced in-situ concrete perimeter ground beam and floor slabs and swimming pool structures, all on a bed of granular material, together with a temporary dewatering system. External works included site contouring, topsoiling, grass seeding and planting, creation of a 6400m2 (68,890ft²) plastic-membrane-lined lake, hard paving around the building, tarmacadam entrance, service roads and parking for 600 vehicles, external lighting, surface-water drainage and collecting manholes.

The Play Drome, Clydebank Tourist Village

Clydebank Tourist Village was established to provide sports facilities for a local urban population of 50,000 and a wider catchment area of 125,000. The complex divides into three areas: wet sports pool hall 45m × 45m (147.6ft × 147.6ft) with 25m competition pool, 330m2 (3552ft²) leisure pool, teaching pool, tyre ride, water slide);

7.9

The Dome, Doncaster (1989)

66

dry sports (multi-purpose) sports hall 36m × 32m (118ft × 105ft) and bowls hall 43m × 26m (141ft × 85.3ft), with squash courts, health suite and changing rooms); three-storey link (wet sports changing facilities, gymnasium, management suite, plantroom).

The roof is tension-stayed, being supported primarily by tubu-lar hangers suspended from perimeter masts. This form was selected to meet the need for large clear internal spans, optimise usable space within the building envelope (by minimising the size of the elements of construction, commensurate with struc-tural economy)and to act as a landmark which, appropriately, symbolises the form of the River Clyde’s shipyard cranes.

The roof structure comprises eight pairs of cellular principal rafters with a maximum span of 29m (95ft) radiating out from a central tubular steel tower and supported at the building perimeter by 17m (55.8ft) tall tubular steel masts. Cellular beams are also used for secondary rafters and for purlins. The purlins are spaced at 3.3m (10.8ft) centres, span 6.4m (21ft) and support a high-performance roof cladding system using metal decking and clad-ding, sandwiching 135mm (5.3in) of mineral wool insulation. The cellular rafters are supported from above the roof at approximately one-third points by tubular steel hangers suspended from the perimeter masts. Hangers are each formed from two parallel CHS members spaced 270mm (10.6in) apart.

Hanger loads are resisted by mass concrete blocks. Load transfer to the mass concrete is by a universal column (UC) fab-ricated anchor cast into each mass concrete base. Means of fine adjustment of hanger length were provided at the hanger–rafter connection and at the foundations to cater for fabrication and erection tolerances. The perimeter masts are formed from twin CHS connected by fully welded cross members. This arrangement

provided the required strength and stiffness while achieving a light appearance.

All visible connections between principal tubular members are by purpose-made cast steel forked connectors, joined with steel pins. Connectors were cast with a spigot and shoulder size to suit respectively the internal and external diameters of the tube. The tubes were square cut to length and butt welded to the cast-ings. Cast steel was also used for the purpose-made saddles located where the tubular hangers connect to, and change direc-tion around, mast outriggers.

Pool hall and externally exposed steelwork was protected generally by hot dipped galvanising to a thickness of 140 microns followed, after etch primer, by two coats of chlorinated rubber paint to a total dry film thickness of 100 microns. Components that were too large for galvanising were zinc-sprayed and sealed. Where zinc spray coatings were used, intricate fabricated com-ponents such as forked connectors, which could not be effectively sprayed, were designed to bolt on to the main members and were hot dipped galvanised. All stainless steel components were elec-trically isolated with non-conductive washers and bushes at connections with mild steel.

Changing rooms

If a sports centre accommodates both wet and dry sports, then an early decision must be taken as to whether the changing rooms for the two types of activity will be separated or combined. Changing provision required per person is 0.2m2 (2ft2) excluding

7.10

Clydebank Leisure Centre (1993)

67

i n t e g r a t e d s p o r t s f a c i l i t i e s

circulation. Including circulation, the requirement is 0.7–0.85m2 (7–9ft2). The number of changing room spaces needed equates to roughly twice the number of people using each activity per hour. However, for swimming pools the numbers relate to pool area and are one per 8.4m2 (90ft2) of formal pool area and between 6.5m2 (70ft2) and 4.2m2 (45ft2) of leisure pool area. Shower facili-ties have to be provided and an early decision has to be taken as to whether these will be individual or general. One shower will be required for every seven people using the facility at any one time. Lockers are also necessary. They are available in all sizes but full-height ones may be up to, say, 0.5m × 0.5m (20in × 20in) by around 1.8m or 6ft tall.

Toilet cubicles should be a minimum 1.4m (4ft 7in) × 0.8m (2ft 7in). One should be provided per 15–20 males and one per 7–10 females. One urinal should also be provided per 15 males and the usable space allocated per urinal should be at least 0.75m (2ft 5in) × 0.625m (2ft 1in). One sink should be provided per 15 people and a usable area of 1.1m (3ft 7in) × 0.7m (2ft 3in) should be allocated for washing at a sink. Additional toilet and washing facilities will be required if the sports centre is to cater for specta-tors as well as participants. The requirement for spectators is less intensive than for participants. For example, seven additional toilets would accommodate up to 1000 male spectators or up to 900 female spectators, with an associated requirement of one sink per 60 spectators.

Every public building should incorporate at least one unisex wheelchair-accessible toilet. A single changing unit incorporating toilet and washing facilities for a disabled sports participant will require a minimum of 2.6m (8ft 5in) × 2m (6ft 7in).

Restaurants

Restaurants (including kitchens, counters and seating) are essen-tial support facilities in sports centres. The biggest space-filler is the seating. If the usual table-plus-four-chairs arrangement is adopted, and placed on a diagonal layout, then the space required for the basic table-plus-chairs module is 1.9m (6ft 3in) × 2.2m (7ft 2in) which amounts to 4.18m2 (45ft2) and gives a restaurant density per person of 1.05m2 (11ft2). Allowance must also be made within the building for vending machines. These can be similar in height to a full-height locker (1.8m or 6ft) with plan area of up to around 1m × 1m (40in × 40in).

Circulation

Circulation has to be planned into the sports centre and must be inclusive. Corridors should be a minimum of 1.2m (4ft approxi-mately) wide, although 1.5m (5ft approximately) is preferable. Handrails should be provided on major routes. Otherwise projec-tions from walls, such as litter bins, should be avoided in order to assist building users with impaired vision. Doors should be 0.9m (3ft) wide with minimum 2.3m (7ft 6in) between door faces. They should have levers rather than knobs, kick plates 0.4m (1ft 4in) high and toughened or wire glass vision panels down to approximately 1m or 40in above floor level. Doors should not normally open on to corridors. All door locations should be planned to facilitate wheelchair access.

Wealth of experience

The results of a 2004 survey by the National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) indicated that 333 US universities and colleges planned, between 2004 and 2010, to spend approximately $3.17 billion on new and renovated sports and recreation facilities. NIRSA has, since 1988, been presenting annual Outstanding Sports Facilities Awards for creative, innova-tive designs of new or expanded facilities. It has published details of the award-winning buildings as a resource for campus master planners, recreational sports directors, architects and other con-sultants, contractors and students. Case studies of many outstand-ing North American university and college sports and recreation centres feature in Robert Yee’s book (see References).

8.1

Don Valley Athletics Stadium, Sheffield (1990)

69

Introduction

Sports development was inextricably linked with community development in school-building programmes in the USA from the late 1930s, which, in turn, had a positive influence on school-building in the post-World War II regeneration of the UK. In this regeneration, system-built schools became one of the first non-industrial types of building to express all the character and virtues of steel. This was recognised internationally when the post-war British schools were considered by many architects to be on a par with the beautiful but austere works of Mies van der Rohe and his architectural school at the Illinois Institute of Technology.

Subsequent landmarks of sports-led urban regeneration in the UK are the cases of Sheffield (1991) and Manchester (2002). These city-wide initiatives are different from London 2012 because build-ing for the London Olympics was designed to exert a country-wide influence in sports facilities construction that is closer in concept to the much earlier system-built schools initiative.

School and Community Sports Facilities, USA

In the USA in 1939 the Educational Policies Commission, appointed by the National Education Association and the American Association of School Administrators, published Social Services and the Schools, which reported that:

‘School authorities are now administering programs of public recreation in a number of communities. One reason

for this is that the school is to be found everywhere, even in the most sparsely settled regions. Legislatures of several states have coupled this fact with the universal need for recreation and have empowered boards of education to establish and provide personnel and equipment for com-munity leisure-time programs. Even without legislative authority, people in some rural areas are utilizing school facilities and personnel for recreation purposes because to them the public school is an acceptable channel for the disbursement of tax-monies devoted to activities associated with their education and well-being’.

By the mid 1950s it was possible to say that in the USA the mod-ern elementary school was also designed to function as a neigh-bourhood centre, combining the best features of the school, small park or playground and neighbourhood recreation building. The gymnasium in the modern school-cum-neighbourhood-centre was used for physical education classes during regular school hours, for extra-curricular class groups after school and for the community centre recreation programme in the evening. It was the busiest component of the school development and a focal point for the local community.

School administrators, therefore, continuously wanted more usable floor space for their ‘gym dollar’. The most costly part of the gym was its roof, because the necessary wide spans required support on braced columns rather than bearing walls. Popular solutions of the time included steel or timber bowstring trusses, rigid frame steel construction with intermediate purlins, rigid frame laminated timber construction – if frames were within 6ft (1.8m) apart – or a type of heavy corrugated steel panel arch construction which eliminated the need for built-up roofing.

Chapter 8

Sports - led urban regenerat ion

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Consortium Building, UK

What was happening in the USA would profoundly affect post-World War II school-building in the UK. At the end of World War II the then Ministry of Education in the UK had to face challenges arising from a shortage of school places. Some school buildings had been destroyed. Many others were damaged and in need of repair. At the same time, building materials were in short supply and there was a severe shortage of building manpower. The situ-ation was exacerbated by the raising of the school-leaving age to 15 in 1945. A national programme HORSA (Hutting Operation for the Raising of the School Leaving Age) was initiated to build hutted school accommodation. But the huts had been designed during the war years and had little relevance to schools. However, the Ministry also encouraged individual authorities to find their own solutions. With several New Towns in its area aggravating the problem, Hertfordshire believed that a more satisfactory long-term solution would be to develop a component-based building system using factory-manufactured parts wherever possible, for assembly on site by semi-skilled labour. Pilot projects commenced at Cheshunt and Essendon in 1947. The Hertfordshire system was based on a 99in (2.5m) modular grid. Its steel frame had lattice beams fabricated from top and bottom channels with rod lacings, and stanchions fabricated from four angles, secured with ring battens welded internally. Under its Chief Education Officer John Newsom, Hertfordshire would build 100 new schools by 1954 and another 100 by 1961.

By 1949 school-building was underway throughout the coun-try but often proved to be very expensive and educationally unsuitable. The Ministry decided that its newly-formed Development Group would design building systems, in collabora-tion with specific industrial firms, to better meet the needs. A light hot-rolled steel frame was developed for an initial project at Wokingham and a cold-formed steel frame for a second project at Belper. The Ministry also encouraged the use of privately-sponsored systems, many of which did emerge but subsequently fell away. Sponsors did not have a large guaranteed market and without this they could not afford to study in depth changing educational needs, which might require modifications to their systems. Also, because they did not insist on the use of standard parts, they found themselves manufacturing uneconomic ‘specials’.

In 1955 Nottinghamshire initiated development work on mod-ern building methods to facilitate the Nottinghamshire School Building Programme. It realised that, in the interests of economy, it was necessary to guarantee a construction programme larger than that required for its own use. So Nottinghamshire invited other authorities which were facing similar challenges to partici-pate. Six other authorities accepted the invitation and the Consortium of Local Authorities Special Programme (CLASP) was born. In 1957 the first CLASP school was completed, at Mansfield.

In 1962, again as the result of local initiative, the Second Consortium of Local Authorities (SCOLA) was established. The

System Structure Staircases External walls and roofing Internal components

CLASP Rigidly or flexibly braced frame; box-section columns; lattice floor and roof joists

Channel stringers and tray treads Vitreous enamel infill panelling Stelvetite-faced partitioning and door frames

SCOLA Rigidly braced frame; box-section columns; channel or castellated perimeters; lattice floor and roof joists

Channel stringers Galvanised window walling, with mullions; fixed and opening lights; vitreous enamel infill

Tee suspension bars; ceiling tiles

SEAC Rigid frame; box-section columns; channel perimeters; lattice floor and roof joists

Channel stringers; tray treads; balusters

Galvanised window walling, with mullions; fixed and opening lights; vitreous enamel infill; galvanised roof deck

Tee suspension bars; ceiling tiles

CMB Rigidly braced frame; box-section columns; lattice floor and roof joists

Channel stringers; tray treads; balusters and rails

Opening lights; galvanised roof deck; galvanised box gutters

–

CLAW Box-section columns; space deck roof frame

– Panel units –

MACE Box-section columns; lattice dia-grid roof frame

Folded sheet stringers and treads – Colorcoat-faced partitioning

ONWARD – Channel stringers – –

ASC Lattice roof joists – Opening lights –

Table 8.1 Uses of steel in consortia components

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South-Eastern Architects Collaboration (SEAC) was formed in 1963, based on the systems developed in Hertfordshire. Then came the Consortium for Method Building (CMB), Consortium of Local Authorities in Wales (CLAW), Organization of North Western Authorities Rationalized Standard Design (ONWARD), the Anglian Standing Conference (ASC) and the Metropolitan Architectural Consortium for Education (MACE).

These consortiums ranged from a closed building system (CLASP) to a component approach to building (CMB) and a bulk-buying mission (CLAW). The importance of the consortiums was heightened by another forthcoming increase in the school-leaving age (to 16 in 1972).

CLASP adopted a steel frame because of its need to take into account ground movement due to mining subsidence. Prestressed and precast concrete, being essentially rigid construction meth-ods, were considered unsuitable for subsidence sites. Timber was not a viable alternative because of fire safety issues above a height of two storeys. Lightweight steel frame construction resolved the subsidence issue and facilitated transportation of components to site, handling on-site and lifting into position. The other significant benefit was speed of erection. CLASP found it common practice for the complete steel frame of a primary school to be erected

within four to five days, taking up as little as 1.5% of the total site labour content.

SCOLA wanted quick design and erection, within very strict cost controls, but with freedom of choice in external appear-ance and internal variety. Again, the choice was a steel frame which, because it was quickly erected, allowed a large propor-tion of following work to be carried out under cover. Equally important to SCOLA was the flexibility offered by steel frame construction in terms of internal partition layout, with mini-mum interruption from stanchions. Changing patterns in educa-tion make the ability to change the internal layouts of buildings desirable. This is cheaper and easier with steel than with tra-ditional building types in which load-bearing walls dominate.

The consortiums generally carried the steel theme through into the design of staircase stringers, treads, balusters and rails. CMB had two methods for constructing staircases and both were based on using steel. Either the steelwork fabricator could pro-vide the – usually dog-leg – staircases and erect them with the steel frame. Or a standard dog-leg staircase, using metal trays for steps, was available from the component supplier for comple-tion on site to the particular finish required. The MACE staircase

8.2

Ponds Forge International Sports Centre: Sheffield (1991)

72

was factory prefabricated from folded sheet steel. ONWARD, which did not have a structural steel frame, did have a steel staircase component.

The consortiums made extensive use of steel in external wall-ing. SEAC offered a developed modular range of steel window walling and associated components. These were bolted together according to the shapes and sizes of proposed buildings, without restricting aesthetic criteria. CLASP made use of vitreous enamel panels for their low cost, durability of finished surface and wide colour range.

The roofing of consortium buildings was accelerated by the use of profiled galvanised steel decking, spanning up to 15ft (4.5m) and available in continuous lengths up to 36ft (11m). SEAC pioneered the use of the steel roof deck for educational buildings and demonstrated its cost competitiveness. CMB too, with a preference for non-organic materials, found steel decking cost-effective for the range of spans required on its flat roofs.

The CLASP partitioning components were based on the use of Stelvetite pvc-faced steel panels bonded to plasterboard, sup-ported by steel studs spanning 8ft (2.4m) or 10ft (3m) from cold-

rolled steel channels at the top and bottom. Such a partitioning system, which could contain the columns, gave fire protection of one hour and sound insulation values up to 42 decibels. Steel was also used for associated door frames (Stelvetite cold-formed channels), ceiling tiles and tee-suspension bars.

CLASP found that the cost of the steel frame in a series of primary schools dropped from 8 shillings per square foot (1956) to 5 shillings 2 pence (1969). The cost reduction included 25% attributed to re-design and system development, and 14% attrib-uted to increased production. This cost saving occurred during a period when steel costs increased by 10% on average.

Later systems included Module 2, which derived from study into the use of light-gauge steel for the construction of schools, recreation centres, offices, factories and hospitals. A common theme of Module 2 buildings was maximisation of clear floor space to permit a high degree of flexibility in planning and sub-sequent use. An example of Module 2 is Bridgend Comprehensive School, which was built in the late 1960s. This featured a large communal block with prominent entrance, entrance canopy, decorative mural and spacious hall with administration at first

8.3

Hillsborough Leisure Centre (1991)

73

s p o r t s - l e d u r b a n r e g e n e r a t i o n

floor level. In the original brief the main sports facilities were given as a swimming pool and gymnasium of 1800ft² (167m²). Because of the economic construction it proved possible not only to have the proposed 55ft × 24ft (16.75m × 7.3m) swimming pool but also to replace the gymnasium with a sports hall of 7200ft² (669m²). One end of the sports hall was designed for gymnastics but a much wider range of indoor sports could now be accom-modated. As required, the gymnasium area could be divided from the sports hall as a whole by the use of movable screens.

The flexibility of the consortium school-building programme was demonstrated many times by school extension and refurbish-ment projects of the 1980s and 1990s. The following two exam-ples were by Hampshire County Council. In the 1980s, at Horndean Community School, a 1350m² (14,530ft²) hall – the Barton Hall – was commissioned for shared use between the school and local outside groups. The new-build is a steel-framed structure infilled with glazing and fairfaced concrete blockwork. This integrated with the 1970s’ SCOLA school development while achieving a cost-effective, fast-track construction programme. A barrel-vaulted roof, light timber floor and range of lighting moods help to meet needs ranging from school assembly and examina-tions to sport and dance, while achieving the appropriate acoustic and ventilation standards for all these activities. In the early 1990s, at Fleet, a deteriorating system-built block was given a new shallow-pitched, overhanging roof of insulated steel com-posite panels and a three-storey steel colonnade with sun and rain breakers. By these means the roof was made watertight, its insulation improved and the facades sheltered from the effects of rain and sun. The transformation rendered the refurbished block indistinguishable from adjoining new drama and mathematics blocks, which used a similar form of construction.

XVIth Universiade 1991, Sheffield, UK

Sheffield’s hosting of the XVIth Universiade, the World Student Games, represented one of the most ambitious ventures ever for the regeneration by sport of a major western European city. Principal generating elements of the plan included Ponds Forge International Sports Centre, Sheffield Arena and the Don Valley Athletics Stadium.

Ponds Forge International Sports Centre is located on a disused industrial site at Sheffield’s city centre, locked between the bus

station, shopping centre and landscaped roundabout at Park Square. Within the tight confines of these boundaries, the building design sought to explore and articulate the complex relationships between international sports competition, leisure pursuits and tourist attractions while relating these to the needs of the city community. The result was unarguably the finest swimming pools complex in the UK – one widely considered to be the best facility of its type in the world. The 400 tonne tubular steel barrel vault roof over the main pool area is 54m (177ft) clear span × 84m (275ft) long, designed to appear as if floating overhead. Erection of this complex roof structure was completed without mishap to its planned three-month erection sequence, enabling construction of the main pool to follow to schedule.

Sheffield Arena is arguably the first sports arena of the modern era to be built in the UK. It accommodates audiences from 3500 up to 12,500 for events including sports, ice rink, exhibitions, concerts and theatre-style shows. Its unique corporate hospitality provision includes 32 private suites, each catering for up to 12 people, and the Arena Club, a purpose-built facility which offers the opportunity to enjoy pre-show fine dining for up to 100 guests before taking some of the best seats in the venue. The suites (skyboxes) had been designed to be put in or left out at the last minute since, in 1991, there was no confidence that they could be sold. The positive decision was taken to keep them in and locate them high up along each side of the arena. The original intention was to hang the steel box structures from the roof frame but this proved impractical because of consequent fire protection requirements to the main roof structure. As an alternative, the skyboxes were designed as steel propped cantilevers, supported directly by the concrete frames, with a floor slab cast on perma-nent metal decking. The success of this scheme changed the British way of thinking on the feasibility of premium facilities at stadium and arena venues.

The Don Valley Athletics Stadium is located in the lower Don Valley, at the old industrial heartland of Sheffield. It is the first purpose-built athletics stadium to be built in the UK and was conceived as a generator in the planned revitalisation of the whole area of the lower Don Valley. Its structure combines tubular steel with membrane roof canopies, providing a link with the site’s steelmaking past. Circular hollow sections (CHS) were used throughout for their high multi-directional resistance to buckling.

The inheritor of the World Student Games facilities is Sheffield International Venues (SIV) which incorporates Sheffield City Hall,

74

Sheffield Arena, Ponds Forge International Sports Centre, Don Valley Stadium, the English Institute of Sport, Hillsborough Leisure Centre, the Concord Sports Centre, iceSheffield and four golf courses. This portfolio makes SIV one of the largest sports, leisure and entertainment companies in Europe. The venues are managed on behalf of SIV by Live Nation, the world’s biggest music com-pany (in 2006 Live Nation connected 60 million fans to 26,000 events in 18 countries).

Sportcity, Venue for the 2002 Commonwealth Games, Manchester

Sportcity is the largest concentration of sporting venues in Europe. It is located within the Medlock Valley in east Manchester, just two miles (3km) from Manchester City Centre.

The brief required that the 38,000 seat main athletics sta-dium for the Commonwealth Games be convertible to a 48,000 seat football stadium from 2003, as the new home of Manchester City FC. Phase 1, the athletics configuration, incorporated an international standard athletics track with permanent main

stands and demountable/temporary stands. Phase 2, the foot-ball configuration, included permanent end stands and an excavated lower seating tier. Stadium facilities include cater-ing, VIP accommodation, private boxes, meeting rooms and conference rooms. The stadium roof is a mast and cable struc-ture. Its design reduces bulk and depth while providing long cantilevers for uninterrupted views of the playing surface. The structural plan form of the roof is orthogonal, simplifying con-struction and permitting the possible future incorporation of a structurally separate moving canopy to enclose the stadium during inclement weather. The structural masts (maximum height 64m) also signal the stadium location and, by rising through the main circular access ramps, orientate spectators for safe access to and egress from the areas of seating. A cable-stayed roof is vulnerable to load reversal. There are applied vertical downward loadings arising from snow and positive wind pressure on the upper surface, and applied vertical upwards loadings arising from wind uplift. A key and innova-tive part of the structural design is the grounded catenary tension ring used to preload the tension cables so that they can resist uplift loads without going slack. Approximately 2000 tonnes of steel were used for the stadium superstructure and

8.4

City of Manchester Stadium (2002)

75

the cantilevered roof is aluminium-clad, with its leading edge translucent to increase light.

The other principal components of Sportcity are: Manchester Aquatics Centre (Chapter 5); Manchester Regional Arena (6500 spectator capacity, with eight-lane, 400m track); the English Institute of Sport (medical assistance, rehabilitation, physiother-apy, performance analysis, coaching); Sportcity Fitness Studio (70-station gymnasium, health suite, workout studio); the National Squash Centre (six standard courts and one glass show court, each configurable for singles or doubles play at the push of a button); Regional Tennis Centre (six indoor and six outdoor courts); the National Cycling Centre – Manchester Velodrome – which is acknowledged to be one of the best sporting venues of its type in the world; Philips Park, 31 acres (12.5ha) of woodland, wild grassland, water and rolling hills with facilities including a visitor centre, children’s play area, hardstanding ball court, junior football pitch, bowling green, pavilion and show-field for hosting events. In creating the principal sports facilities of Sportcity the design team had to overcome the constraints of brownfield devel-opment which included:

abandoned recorded mineshafts (but not beneath the stadium •location); mine workings in coal seams; •contaminated ground from previous site usage; •River Medlock culvert; •foundations from demolished buildings; •services (electricity, gas, water, foul water and stormwater) and •electrical sub-stations;

roads, including junctions for limited access off Alan Turing •Way on the eastern site boundary; proposed light rapid transit (LRT) line and two stops to be built •alongside the Ashton Canal, with pedestrian access required along Alan Turing Way to the eastern side.

Site development necessitated substantial land remediation, and the removal/relocation of services and earthworks, which had to be achieved at minimum cost.

London 2012 Olympics and Paralympics

When its core construction work started on site in 2008, London 2012 became the biggest regeneration project in Europe. For the first time in Olympic history, the Games and its legacy formed part of the same overall plan. Following 2012, the Olympic Village becomes affordable housing for key workers, with 9000 new homes created. The Olympic Park is constructed on recycled brownfield land which, after 2012, becomes the Ecopark – the largest new urban park in Europe – with sports facilities set in an attractive environment created by restoring waterways, establish-ing new wildlife habitats and forging efficient transport links. Regeneration for the Games of the Lower Lea Valley, Hertfordshire, and Stratford, east London, was planned to help stimulate the sub-regional development of both east London and the Thames Gateway. International standard sports facilities were established

8.5

London 2012 Olympic Games: Aquatics Centre

76

in the Home Counties and beyond, in the run-up to 2012, for use as training facilities for visiting teams of 2012 competitors and ongoing use by local communities. Some of the structures for the 23 London venues of the Olympic events were designed to be demountable, or partially demountable, so that the concentration of new facilities in the capital could benefit regional sports facili-ties development and regeneration post-2012. Some of the London 2012 Olympic events themselves were allocated beyond London. Examples are sailing (Weymouth and Portland Harbour, Dorset) and the football which takes place in London (New English National Stadium, Wembley), Birmingham (Villa Park), Cardiff (Millennium Stadium), Manchester (Old Trafford), Newcastle (St James’ Park) and Glasgow (Hampden Park).

The 80,000 seat Olympic Stadium for London 2012 is located on former industrial land at Marshgate Lane, Stratford. It is accessed by footbridges across the modified waterways of the Old River Lee, City Mill River, Old Pudding Mill River, St Thomas’ Creek and parts of the Bow Back Rivers. The stadium’s sunken bowl, excavated out of the soft London Clay, brings spectators close up to the action. The bowl contains 25,000 permanent seats, surrounded by 55,000 demountable seats to be taken away after the Games. This is the first Olympic stadium to have such a large proportion of demountable seating and such a mix of permanent and temporary seating. The seating is over-sailed by a 28m (92ft) wide cable-supported fabric roof, which is continuous around the stadium and covers two-thirds of the spectators. Catering and merchandising facilities are grouped into self-contained ‘pod’

structures. Party concourses planned outside the stadium were inspired by the successful ‘fan zones’ of the 2006 Germany World Cup where spectators congregated to eat, drink and watch the action on giant screens. Following the Games, the stadium will be big enough to host grand prix athletics events and national sporting events, but not too big to host local events and/or to attract a lower-league football or rugby club tenant.

Innovative features of London 2012 included its Sustainable Development Strategy (SDS) aimed at setting new standards for the sustainable design and construction of major sports venues and infrastructure. The SDS made initial commitments to:

identify, source and use materials that are environmentally •and socially responsible;ensure that at least 20% of the materials in the permanent •venues and Olympic Village have been previously used else-where or are recycled products;maximise the use of timber from sustainable sources, with all •timber coming from known, legal sources with clear supply chain evidence;achieve 90% reuse or recycling of demolition material.•

8.6

London 2012 Olympic Games: main stadium

77

s p o r t s - l e d u r b a n r e g e n e r a t i o n

Leading the field

We like our political leaders to be sports participants – for the reasons cited by Kofi Annan in the quotation in the prelim pages (see p. x). On 11 May 2005 one of the authors (JP) was privileged to accompany Judy Chong, of construction manager Gilbane, on a Construction Writers Association tour of the newly-refurbished Robert F Kennedy Main Justice Building, Washington DC. One point of interest is no longer there – the top-floor area of the building that Robert Kennedy had marked out as a basketball court so that he and his colleagues could shoot some hoops between meetings. Eight blocks away, at the White House, Franklin D Roosevelt built a pool, Dwight D Eisenhower installed a putting green, Richard Nixon constructed a bowling alley and Bill Clinton laid a running track (on the edge of the south lawn). In 2009 Barack Obama planned to replace the bowling alley with an indoor basketball court.

8.7

Barack Obama: basketball with the US Military, Djibouti (2006)

9.1

Airdrionians FC, Broomfield Park, Airdrie (1959)

79

Introduction

Homer wrote that competitors in the foot-race ran to a mark in the distance, turned around it and ran back to the starting point so the ancient Greeks raced up and down a straight track, not around bends. The ‘stade’ (Greek racecourse) gained its name from the fact that it had a sprinting track which was one stade (600ft/180m) long, with all races being multiples of that . However, the track at Olympia, reputedly stepped out by Herakles, son of Zeus, was 192.27m (630.8ft) long. The track at Epidaurus was 181.3m (594.8ft) and that at Delphi 177.5m (582.3ft). Whoever stepped out the track at Pergamon out-stepped even Herakles – with a whopping 210m (689ft). The ancient Greek stadium was therefore non-standard but in the common form of a long paral-lelogram some 180m long by some 30m (98.4ft) wide. The enclosure containing the stadium would allow approximately 15m (49.2ft) at either end of the track and might be square, as at Epidaurus, or curved, as at Delphi and Athens, hence the deriva-tion of the shape of the modern stadium.

Inside or outside

The Greek stadiums were for outdoor sports. Previous books on sports facilities have tended to exclude stadiums because of their association with outdoor sports. However, this is a difficult distinc-tion to make now because of the new generation of stadiums with closing roofs and the development within stadiums of under-terrace, fully-enclosed sports facilities. Just as the Greek stadiums were marvels of the ancient world, the new closing-roof stadiums are

Chapter 9

Stadiums

9.2

British Steel Wide Span Sports Solutions (circa 1970)

80

among the wonders of the modern world. Closing roofs can prevent inclement weather from spoiling events, put a lid on noise and present the opportunity to control the enclosed environment. The authors’ involvements in these projects have ranged from a single day (PC – Stüttgart, 2007, re Aslantepe Türk Telekom Stadyumu) to more than a decade (PC – Wembley Stadium Redevelopment).

Airdrionians FC, Broomfield Park

Developments at Broomfield Park, Airdrie, at the end of the 1950s comprised concrete substructure and lightweight steel superstructure – which are typical not only of stadium con-struction in the late 1950s but also of stadium construction today. Principal differences between then and now include the standing terraces with their crush barriers (rather than today’s all-seater stadiums), grandstands to the length and side of the pitch – separated by massive floodlighting towers at the four

corners of the ground (rather than today’s continuous, wrap-around-the-pitch style of spectator accommodation) and the incorporation of intermediate roof-supporting columns which interrupt sightlines (and are eliminated in today’s designs). There is also now a wholly different approach to Health and Safety on site.

Wide-span solutions

High strength steel was developed by British Steel in the 1960s specifically for the roof of the BOAC 747 01 Hangar at Heathrow Airport. By demonstrating the wide-span capability of steel to accommodate servicing of the 747 airplane, British Steel demon-strated the viability of business and leisure air travel as we know it today. The 01 hangar was a direct, necessary and urgent response to a global demand created by the introduction of the new wide-bodied generation of passenger aircraft. It was the biggest steel

9.3

Rugby Union Football HQ, Twickenham:

under terrace accommodation (1996)

9.4

Rogers Center (formerly Skydome), Toronto:

Jays v Tampa Bay (30 September 2007)

81

s t a d i u m s

structure of its kind in the world and the world’s largest-ever diagonal steel grid. It posed a unique challenge in the history of construction because of the exceptionally large dimensions and the magnitude of loads supported by the structure. Its success meant that structural steel would thereafter always be the first choice material for aircraft hangar construction globally.

British Steel’s structural marketing manager Ron Taylor said that from now on architects would only be constrained by the limitations of their own imagination. He encouraged architects to think wide span, and then wider and wider span. One of the first sports mani-festations of high strength steel was the 9000-seat Celtic Football Club Grandstand, which was completed in an 18-week contract period, April to August 1971, in readiness for the 1971–72 playing season. In association with Ron and his colleagues, architect James Cunning and structural engineer Vivian Rossi reached the conclu-sion that it would be technically feasible to give the grandstand’s full complement of spectators an uninterrupted view of the playing area from their seats. The proposal which made this possible was for a roof supported by an enormous central spine girder 97.5m (320ft) long × 5.4m (17.7ft) deep, fabricated from circular hollow sections (CHS) to BS4360 in Grades 55C, 50C and 43C. The main chords of the twin top and bottom booms are 406.4mm (16in) outside diameter in Grade 55C in all but the end booms. This was the largest tubular steel girder of its kind in Europe.

Ron Taylor continued to advocate spans greater than 100m (328ft), and up to and beyond 300m (1000ft), to make full use of the high grade steels available. Ron went into private practice when his design development for a Channel Bridge placed him at odds with a British government committed to a Channel Tunnel. He continued to design innovative wide span structures for con-struction throughout the world, including many aircraft hangars and sports facilities.

Millennium Stadium, Cardiff

This is the first closing roof stadium in the UK. It needed to be in the order of 50m (164ft) larger than the pitch in all directions, to accommodate the 72,500 seats required, and the opening had to be at least the size of the pitch. This gave roof dimensions in the order of 220m (720ft) long × 180m (590ft) wide with an opening of approximately 120m × 80m (390ft × 260ft). At an early stage of design it was decided that the following criteria should be adopted:

to keep the roof as low as practicable to reduce the stadium’s •impact on adjoining buildings;

9.5

Millennium Stadium, Cardiff (2000)

82

to keep the structure and edge of the opening as low as pos-•sible to reduce the extent of shading on the pitch; to make the track, for the retractable roof to move along, as •near to flat as possible to simplify the retractable roof mecha-nism and, therefore, make it more cost-effective and less problematic.

These criteria were met in a structural solution which incorporated continuous primary plane lattice trusses over the full 220m (720ft) length of the stadium, rising 35m (115ft) above the pitch.

Miller Park, Milwaukee

In April 2001 Miller Park opened at Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where extremes of heat and cold, with unpredictable snow and rain, had previously resulted in low attendances and lost games. The need for a natural grass playing surface has been met with a 600ft (138m) span retractable roof that opens and closes within 10 minutes. With the roof closed, temperatures for spectators can be raised or lowered by ±17°C (9.54°F). The heating, ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC) design strategy was to introduce air by way of jet nozzles above each seating level to create an envelope of warm air, supplemented at the highest level by jets introducing more warm air into the downdraught from the roof and determin-ing the dominant air movement through the space. Mixing of the two airstreams is sufficient to temper the cold airstream but insuf-ficient to prevent its downward momentum. The airflow then rises due to gains above the seating deck. Air is returned through the concourse and vomitories to the air-handling units (AHUs) which contain indirect gas-fired heaters to provide heating capacity for the bowl and concourses, and smoke control capability. These systems use a minimum outside air quantity of 0.14m³/min per person. The quantity of air equivalent to the ventilation require-ments for the bowl is exhausted by the concession hoods or dissipated through the facades. In 2002 Miller Park was the win-ner of an Excellence in Engineering Award presented by the Structural Engineering Association of California (SEAOC).

9.6–9.7

Miller Park, Milwaukee, Wisconsin: (top) roof closed (2001); and

(bottom) roof open (2001)

83

Name City Country Open Capacity Owner Architect Club

Singapore National Stadium

Kallang Singapore 2012 55,000 Singapore Sports Hub Consortium

DP Architects N/A

Swedbank Arena Solna Sweden 2012 50,000 SFF, Solna Municipality, PEAB, Fabege, Jernhusen

Sweco Swedish National Football Team + AIK

Stade Borne de l’Espoir Lille France 2011 50,186 Urban Community of Lille Métropole

– Lille OSC

Dallas Cowboys New Stadium

Arlington USA 2009 80,000 Arlington, Texas HKS, Inc Dallas Cowboys

Aslantepe Türk Telekom Stadyumu

Istanbul Turkey 2009 52,647 Galatasaray SK Mete Arat Galatasaray SK

Lucas Oil Stadium Indianapolis USA 2008 63,000 Indiana Stadium and Convention Building Authority

HKS, Inc Indianapolis Colts

New English National Stadium, Wembley

London UK 2007 90,000 The Football Association World Stadium Team (Foster and Partners + HOK Sport)

N/A

University of Phoenix Stadium

Glendale USA 2006 63,400 Arizona Sports and Tourism Authority

Peter Eisenman/ HOK Sport

Arizona Cardinals + Fiesta Bowl

Commerzbank-Arena (Waldstadion)

Frankfurt Germany 1925 (rebuilt 2005)

52,300 Waldstadion Frankfurt Gessellschaft für Projektwicklung

Gerkan, Marg ünd Partner

Eintracht Frankfurt

LTU Arena Düsseldorf Germany 2004 51,500 City of Düsseldorf Hascher Jehle and Associates

Fortuna Düsseldorf

Reliance Stadium Houston USA 2002 71,500 Harris County HOK Sport Houston Texans

Veltins Arena Gelsenkirchen Germany 2001 61,482 Schalke 04 Hentrich-Petschnigg ünd Partner

Schalke 04

Ōita Stadium Ōita Japan 2001 40,000 Ōita Prefecture Kisho Kurokawa Ōita Trinita

Toyota Stadium Toyota Japan 2001 45,000 Toyota City Kisho Kurokawa Nagoya Grampus + Toyota Verblitz

Miller Park Milwaukee USA 2001 42,200 Southeast Wisconsin Professional Baseball District

HKS, Inc + NBBJ + Eppstein Uhen Architects

Milwaukee Brewers

Minute Maid Park (formerly Enron Field)

Houston USA 2000 40,950 Harris County – Houston Sports Authority

HOK Sport Houston Astros

Telstra Dome (formerly Docklands Stadium, Victoria Stadium, Colonial Stadium)

Melbourne Australia 2000 53,355 James Fielding Funds Management

Daryl Jackson Architects + HOK Sport

Carlton, Essendon, North Melbourne, St Kilda, Western Bulldogs, Melbourne Victory, Melbourne Storm

Safeco Field Seattle USA 1999 47,116 Washington-King County Stadium Authority

NBBJ + 360 Architecture Mariners

Millennium Stadium Cardiff UK, Wales 1999 72,500 Welsh Rugby Union HOK + LOBB Partnership

WRU + Football Association of Wales

Chase Field (formerly Bank One Ballpark)

Phoenix USA 1998 49,033 Maricopa County, Arizona

Ellerbe Becket Diamondbacks

Gelredome Arnhem Netherlands 1998 32,500 Kjell Kosberg Vitesse Arnhem

Amsterdam ArenA Amsterdam Netherlands 1996 51,628 Gemeente Amsterdam Stadion Amsterdam NV

Bouwcombinatie AFC Ajax

Fukuoka Yahoo! Japan Dome (formerly Fukuoka Dome)

Fukuoka Japan 1993 35,695 Hawks Town Takenaka Corporation + Maeda Corporation

Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks

Rogers Centre (formerly Skydome)

Toronto Canada 1989 31,074 Rogers Communications

Rod Robbie & Michael Allen

Toronto Blue Jays + Toronto Argonauts

Montreal Olympic Stadium

Quebec Canada 1976 (roof 1987)

Régie des Installations Olympiques

Roger Taillibert Montreal Expos

Post-2008 opening dates are best guesses (table produced September 2008)Selected projects are 30,000+ spectator capacitySpectator capacities quoted are for principal sport mode (higher capacities may be achieved for hosting sports with reduced playing areas and for hosting concerts)

Table 9.1 Selected projects – stadiums designed with closing or moving roofs

84

New English National Stadium, Wembley, London, UK

This stadium is signposted from miles around by the iconic 315m (1033ft) ‘Wembley Arch’, a 138m (452.7ft) high, 7m (23ft) diam-eter unclad lattice structure. The arch is formed of 457CHS (18in outside diameter) longitudinal chords with diaphragms at approxi-mately 20m (65.6ft) centres. Alternate diaphragms are primary and support the roof stays. Steel grades are S355 JO or J2 to BS EN 10025. Rolled hollow sections (RHS) are S355 J2H to BS EN 10210. Protection is 400dft micron epoxy primer/buildcoat and a 75dft micron finish coat, over a blast-cleaned surface to Sa 2.5 of BS 7079, giving a period to first maintenance of 30 years. Access to the arch, through its centre, permits structural inspec-tion, lighting maintenance/replacement, repainting (30-year inter-vals), festivity/celebration (e.g. pyrotechnics) and dressing the arch with flags or banners.

The stays are spiral strand galvanised wires grade 1570. The roof plate main structure runs north–south. The roofing material

is a mixture of standing seam aluminium and 30% translucent polycarbonate sheeting (the latter allowing diffused light through the roof leading edges). A moving roof over the whole of the southern side of the stadium was required to provide maximum covered seating for spectators while providing daylight for the turf. The permanent roof structure running north–south provides the runway beams supporting the track for the panels.

The area of roof that moves is split into five bays. The middle section extends the 135m (443ft) length of the pitch and there are two bays at each end which cover the end stands. Each of the two end bay panels is subdivided to enable double-stacking on top of the fixed roof, without projecting over the southern edge of the building. The roof panels are framed by fabricated box sections up to 3m (9.8ft) deep (for the central large cantilever panel) which are connected to the running bogies. Secondary framing universal beam (UB) sections are used with full diagonal rod bracing for each panel, to ensure that racking of the panel does not occur. A full opening or closing cycle for the roof takes 20 minutes.

Bird’s Nest Stadium, Beijing 2008

This is a huge stadium – 230m wide × 330m long × 55m high (755ft × 1083ft × 180ft). Although it will always be thought of in the ‘bird’s nest’ context, its form was actually inspired by ancient Chinese ‘scholar stones’, heavily veined pebbles mounted on small plinths, and by traditional crackle-glazed ceramics. The perforated exterior facade was conceived to enable people to move freely into and out of the stadium, making it part of the city. The geometry of the stadium’s steel superstructure derives from a small patch from the inside face of a vast toroid. At its edges the roof flows into smooth corners. This creates a seamless transi-tion into the facade, which slopes inward at 14° from the vertical. The original stadium design accommodated a moving roof but the Beijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games (BOCOG) dropped this feature (reducing steelwork from 55,000 tonnes to 45,000 tonnes). This design change enabled the opening above the playing area to be enlarged, so drawing in more light and air. Principal structural elements are 1.2m × 1.2m (4ft × 4ft) boxes with plate thickness 15mm (0.6in) to 60mm (2.4in). Depth of the bottom chord box sections reduces towards the centre of the stadium, from 1.2m (4ft) to 800mm (31.5in). Design was to

9.8

Wembley arch erection (2005)

85

Chinese building codes and the computer analysis used CATIA software. The cladding is inset by 800mm within the steelwork grillage and comprises a single-ply ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) skin, with an acoustic lining beneath. To prevent rainwater pooling, each cell of the roof drains into a pipework system run-ning within the primary steel members.

Eric Liddell (Li Airui)

Eric Liddell (or Li Airui as he is known in the Far East) won the 400m at the 1924 Paris Olympics, representing Great Britain by virtue of his Scottish parentage. In so doing, he became the only China-born Olympic gold medalist until Xu Haifeng won the 50m pistol shooting at Los Angeles in 1984. Liddell returned to his home city of Tianjin in 1925, where he worked as a mission-ary and science/sports teacher at the Anglo-Chinese College. He approached the British Embassy about building a stadium at Tianjin and subsequently used Stamford Bridge, his favourite

athletics venue, as a model for the city’s Minyuan Stadium (which continues to host meetings as an 18,000 all-seater stadium). In 1941 Liddell moved to Shaochang to serve the poor. The Sino-Japanese war had broken out in 1937 and reached Shaochang in 1943, when the Japanese incarcerated Liddell at the Weihsien Internment Camp. The British Prime Minister Winston Churchill initiated a prisoner exchange and Liddell was among those due to be released, but he gave up his place in favour of a pregnant woman and died in captivity in 1945, aged 43. China interred his remains in the Mausoleum of Martyrs at Shijiazhuang, 150 miles (240km) southwest of Beijing, where 700 selected individu-als who made the ultimate sacrifice in the liberation of China are honoured. The simple wooden cross which had marked his resting place at Weihsien (now Weifang) has been replaced with a granite gravestone carrying the biblical quotation: ‘They shall mount up with wings of eagles, they shall run and never be weary’.

9.9

Beijing 2008 Olympics: main stadium

s p o r t s a n d f a c i l i t i e s

86

Sightlines

A feature which sets the stadium apart from other sports facilities is the much greater amount of seating incorporated for spectators. The modern stadium has to offer excellent views from quality seating. To achieve this there must be no structural impediments to stadium sightlines and each spectator must be able to see over the head of the person sitting in front. To allow this to happen, a line drawn from the spectator’s eyes to the lowest point of the viewing area has to be at least 100mm above the eyes of the spectator one row in front. This figure is arrived at by using the ‘C’ value, a measurement (120mm or 4.8in) of the distance between the centre of the eye and the top of the head. In some sporting events for which spectators wear hats (e.g. horseracing) the ‘C’ value may be increased to 150mm (6in) or even 200mm (8in). At a cricket ground, where the action seldom comes close to the seating, a ‘C’ value of 90mm (3.5in) may be acceptable

– this is because we tend to tilt our heads backwards slightly as the action moves closer towards us, reducing the distance between the centre of the eye and the top of the head to around 90mm. At a football match the action moves to all parts of the playing surface so, ideally, every football stadium would be designed to provide a ‘C’ value of 120mm to all parts of the playing surface:

The calculation to determine the ‘C’ value for viewing sport is therefore:

C

D N RD T

R

C

20,000mm 365mm 6,000mm20,000mm 800mm

6,000mm

20,000mm 6,365mm20,800mm

6,000mm

127,300mm 6,000mm20,800mm

120mm

C

D N RD T

R

C

20,000mm 365mm 6,000mm20,000mm 800mm

6,000mm

20,000mm 6,365mm20,800mm

6,000mm

127,300mm 6,000mm20,800mm

120mm

9.10

The ‘C’ value

87

s t a d i u m s

where:C = viewing standard i.e. the ‘C’ valueD = distance from eye to point of focus

(typically the near touchline)N = riser heightR = height between eye and point of focusT = tread depth, i.e. depth of seating row.

While this calculation is straightforward, it has to be made for every row of seating and from every variable that the stadium design presents (e.g. rake or angle of stand, curvature of particular corner or height and depth of concrete treads and risers). A higher ‘C’ value has consequences for the rake and height of the stand that are particularly challenging when designing a large, multi-tiered stadium. As a result, in some areas of the large stadium it may be difficult to achieve a ‘C’ value greater than 60mm.

Bringing the touchline closer to a stand makes it possible to maintain an optimum ‘C’ value of 120mm but affects the height of the stand. It increases the angle of rake, the measurement of how steeply or gently the stand or terrace slopes down towards the touchline. Getting as many spectators as possible as close to the action as possible results in very steeply raked stands. Italian codes of practice suggest that a stadium rake can be as steep as 41°. Rakes of more than 35° can be found in North American stadiums. In the UK, the angle rake is determined by safety limits for staircases and the Green Guide recommended a rule of no more than 34°, which may be increased if compensatory measures are taken. Rakes exceeding 34° can induce vertigo and the steeper Italian stadiums have handrails provided in front of each seat. Shallower rakes are used on lower tiers, with the upper decks of stands being steeper in order to accommodate more spectators closer to the playing surface, with an acceptable standard of view.

Under-terrace accommodation

One of the advantages of using long span steel construction is that it enables stadium operators to eliminate columns beneath the terraces. For example, the 5400 capacity Dolman Stand at Bristol City Football Club, UK, was conceived in the 1960s as having columns in the main structure and multiple columns beneath the terraces. Re-thinking led to a main roof girder span-ning the full length, approximately 100m (328ft), of the pitch. This eliminated the internal roof support columns and provided a clear, uninterrupted view of the playing surface to all 5400 spectators. This solution also eliminated most of the columns beneath the terraces, enabling the football club to use the space for the provision of general social facilities and a bowling green. Such clear space beneath terraces has the flexibility to be adapted to suit changing trends in indoor sport and entertainment. Examples include an 85m (279ft) indoor sprint straight with fit-ness, training, physiotherapy and TV facilities (Don Valley Athletics Stadium), hospitality boxes, shops, bars, restaurants, fast food outlets, museum, national fitness centre, changing rooms and medical centre for players and match officials (Rugby Union Stadium Redevelopment, Twickenham), purpose-built cinema (Queen’s Stand, Epsom Race Course) and Jockey’s Weighing Room (Goodwood Race Course).

Saitama Super Arena, Japan

Under-terrace accommodation need not necessarily be consid-ered as purely the creation and optimisation of finite space within a fixed structure. This arena opened up exciting new possibilities when architects Nikken Sekkei (MAS.2000 Design Team) and Ellerbe Becket, with consulting engineers Flack + Kurtz, responded to their client’s wish for something with ‘the functional diversity and flexibility of the Swiss army knife, offering a wide range of features and combinations’. A holistic response to the brief resulted in the world’s first ‘smart’ arena, with the capability of converting from a concert venue for a string quartet to a full-scale stadium within 30 minutes. This versatility is achieved by a 41.5m (136ft) tall moving block – incorporating the spectator seating, shops and facilities – which weighs 15,000 tonnes. Moving 70m (230ft) horizontally, the block adapts the space to seat between 22,000 and 36,500 spectators. The 130m × 130m (426.5ft ×

C

D N RD T

R

C

20,000mm 365mm 6,000mm20,000mm 800mm

6,000mm

20,000mm 6,365mm20,800mm

6,000mm

127,300mm 6,000mm20,800mm

120mm

88

Name Location Opened Upgraded Capacity 2010 Owner Architect

FNB Stadium (Soccer City) Johannesburg 1987 2007 94,700 The Stadia and Soccer Development Trust

Boogertman Urban Edge & Partners

Coca-Cola Park (formerly Ellis Park)

Johannesburg 1928 (rebuilt 1982)

2010 70,000 The Golden Lions Rugby Club

–

King Senzangakhona Stadium

Durban 2009 N/A 70,000 City of Durban GMP Architekten

Green Point Cape Town 2009 N/A 68,000 City of Cape Town GMP Architekten + Louis Karol Architects + Point Architects

Loftus Versfeld Pretoria 1906 2005 51,762 City of Pretoria –

Port Elizabeth Stadium Nelson Mandela Bay/Port Elizabeth

2009 N/A 48,000 Nelson Mandela Bay/Port Elizabeth

GMP Architekten

Free State Stadium (Vodacom Park)

Mangaung /Bloemfontein

1952 2008 48,000 Mangaung / Bloemfontein City

–

Mbombela Stadium Nelspruit 2009 N/A 46,000 Mbombela Local Community

Boogertman Urban Edge & Partners

Peter Mokaba New Stadium Polokwane 2009 N/A 46,000 Polokwane Municipality

Prism Architects + AFL Architects

Royal Bafokeng Stadium Rustenburg 1999 2010 42,000 Rustenburg Municipality –

Table 9.2 South Africa 2010 FIFA World Cup stadiums

9.11

Saitama Super Arena, Japan (2004)

89

s t a d i u m s

426.5ft) stadium roof is supported by large fan-shaped beams. Cable rails supply electricity and connect and reconnect ducts as the block moves. Additional retractable seats at the sides, a vertically-moving floor, and movable partitions and ceiling panels can add more capacity, and an adjustable ceiling renders the acoustics appropriate for each configuration.

Fire safety design

Increasing innovation in the design, construction and uses of modern buildings has created situations in which it may be dif-ficult to satisfy the functional requirements of applicable building regulations. Recognition of this, and increased knowledge of how real structures behave in fire, has led many authorities to acknowl-edge that improvements in fire safety may be possible by adopting analytical approaches. For example, as long ago as 1991, Approved Document B to the Building Regulations for England and Wales stated that ‘a fire safety engineering approach that takes into account the total fire safety package can provide an alternative approach to fire safety. It may be the only viable way to achieve a satisfactory standard of fire safety in some large and complex buildings’.

Sports stadiums and sports facilities are among the building types that can benefit from a structural fire engineering approach. This is particularly the case in under-terrace accommodation, which may in practice be mixed-occupancy buildings containing shops, restaurants and gymnasiums. Fire safety engineering aims to adopt a rational scientific approach which ensures that fire resistance/protection is provided where it is needed and that expense is not incurred needlessly in creating an illusion of safety. Minor changes introduced at design stage can often simplify the process of meeting fire resistance requirements and reducing costs. It may be, for example, that using a slightly larger structural steel member than necessary will reduce load ratio such that plasticity will occur at a higher temperature and fire resistance will be significantly increased.

The aim in many countries is to achieve a balance between the risks of fire outbreak, risks of fire spread, detection/control systems and spectator exit system design. These aspects of fire safety design are incorporated in a ‘risk assessment’ to achieve an overall level of safety considered to be appropriate. Compartmentation will be integral to the assessment, separating high-risk areas such as kitchens from other areas. As a matter of principle, stadium and sports facilities designers should engage with local fire and safety authorities at the earliest opportunity.

Sports facilities name Events (capacity)

Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium Opening/closing ceremonies, track and field (58,000), lawn bowls (2500), weightlifting (2500)

Maj. Dhyan Chand National Stadium Hockey pitch 1 (21,000), pitch 2 (2500), warm-up pitch

Indira Gandhi Indoor Stadium Complex Gymnastics (21,500), cycling (14,000), wrestling (7500)

Dr Karna Singh Shooting Range Shooting, press centre, accreditation centre/warehouse

Tyagaraj Sports Complex Netball (5823)

Talkatora Indoor Stadium Table tennis (5000), archery (2500)

Siri Fort Sports Complex Badminton (5000), squash (3000)

Delhi University Rugby 7s (10,000)

RK Khanna Tennis Complex Tennis (6000): centre court, 9 match courts, 4 warm-up courts

SPM Swimming Pool Complex Aquatic events (5000): competition pool 50m × 25m, warm-up pool 50m × 25m, diving pool

Table 9.3 Commonwealth Games Delhi 2010

90

Sports facilities name Events (capacity)

Olympic Park Main Stadium Opening/closing ceremonies, track and field (80,000)

Olympic Park Aquatics Centre Aquatic events (20,000): competition pool 50m × 25m, warm-up pool 50m × 25m, diving pool, polo pools 50m and 38m

Olympic Park Western Arenas Basketball, fencing, handball, modern pentathlon, volleyball (10,000–15,000 × 4 arenas)

Olympic Park Hockey Centre Hockey main arena (15,000), secondary arena (5000)

Olympic Park Velopark Cycling (6000), BMX circuit (6000)

O2 Dome, Greenwich Gymnastics, basketball (20,000)

Greenwich Park Equestrian, modern pentathlon

ExCel Exhibition Centre, London Docklands Boxing, table tennis, judo, taekwondo, weightlifting, wrestling (6000-10,000 x4 arenas)

Horse Guards Parade, Westminster, London Beach volleyball (15,000)

Hyde Park, London Triathlon (3000 – finishing area)

Lord’s Cricket Ground, London Archery (6500)

Regent’s Park, London Road cycling (3000)

Royal Artillery Barracks, Woolwich, London Shooting (7500)

Broxbourne, Hertfordshire Canoe slalom (12,000)

Eton Dornay, Windsor, Berkshire Rowing (20,000)

Weald Country Park, Essex Mountain biking (3000)

Weymouth Bay and Portland Harbour, Dorset Sailing

Wimbledon, London Tennis

New English National Stadium, Wembley, London Football (90,000)

Hampden Park, Glasgow Football (52,103)

Millennium Stadium, Cardiff Football (76,250)

Old Trafford, Manchester Football (76,212)

St James’s Park, Newcastle Football (52,193)

Villa Park, Birmingham Football (43,300)

Table 9.4 Olympics and Paralympics London 2012

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London 2012 – the Big One

In the UK the Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA) specified 50cm (20in) wide spectator seating for the London 2012 venues, 4cm (1.6in) wider and 5cm (2in) deeper than originally planned. This resulted from talks with stadium designers who advised that seats of existing standard dimensions would be unable to cater for the bulkier UK population of 2012 (the number of obese people in the UK was projected to hit 27.6 million by 2010, 14% up on

2003). The seats at the New English National Stadium, Wembley, are also 50cm wide. This raises the conundrum of a widening gap between sports participants and sports spectators – with the for-mer getting sleeker (due to training and dietary advances) and the latter moving in the other direction.

Sports facilities name Events (capacity)

Celtic Park Opening ceremony

Hampden Park Track and field (46,000), closing ceremony

Tollcross International Aquatics Centre Aquatic events (6000)

Kelvinhall International Sports Arena Wrestling and judo

Ibrox Stadium Rugby 7s (50,000)

Kelvingrove Lawn Bowls Complex Lawn bowls

The Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre (SECC) Boxing, press centre

The Clyde Auditorium (The Armadillo) Weightlifting

Scotstoun Stadium Table tennis, squash

Strathclyde Park (Strathclyde Loch) Triathlon

Barry Buddon and Jackton Shooting

The National Indoor Sports Arena (NISA), Celtic Park Cycling – new venue

The National Velodrome, Celtic Park Cycling – new venue

The National Entertainments Arena, SECC Site Gymnastics, netball (12,500) – new venue

The Glasgow 2014 Hockey Centre, Glasgow Green Hockey

Table 9.5 Commonwealth Games Glasgow 2014

9.12–9.13

Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games: (facing page) Scotstoun Stadium;

and (above) The National Indoor Sports Arena (NISA), Celtic Park

10.1

Harborough Leisure Centre: airdome (2008)

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Introduction

These types of facilities were rare until recent years, when they became growth areas. Dramatic examples include indoor ski slopes and climbing wall installations. Both of these examples have leisure connotations too, so, for the purposes of this chapter, we have chosen to feature indoor facilities for four competitive outdoor sports: tennis, bowls, cricket and rowing.

Tennis-specific indoor centres

These are usually built to encourage tennis during the winter months, converting tennis from a summer sport to an all-year-round sport. They lead to culture change in tennis clubs because, after an initial period of adjustment, clubs tend to create new ladders and leagues, and provide more coaching. They also create appropriate base facilities for clubs to launch outreach pro-grammes into local communities. Building options include rigid structures, membrane structures and air-supported buildings. The most critical sport-specific design consideration is roof clearance. The United States Tennis Association (USTA) and United States Tennis Court & Track Builders’ Association (USTC & TBA) state:

‘The space directly over the court should be free of overhead obstructions and there should be not less than 18ft at the eaves, 21ft over the baseline and 35ft at the net, although 38ft is recom-mended, measured to the interior finished ceiling’.

The quoted dimensions equate to 5.487m, 6.401m, 10.668m and 11.582m respectively. The Lawn Tennis Association (LTA) in the UK publishes Guidance Notes for its clubs and associations,

recommending an unobstructed height at the net line of 9m (26ft 6in), unobstructed height at the base line of 5.75m (18ft 11in) and unobstructed height at the rear of the run-back of 4m (13ft 1in). International Tennis Federation (ITF) rules include a Guidance Note recommending a minimum height to the ceiling of 30ft (9.14m).

Chapter 10

Indoor fac i l i t ies for outdoor spor ts

10.2

Tipton Leisure Centre (1998)

94

Indoor bowling greens

In the late 1960s the Butler Manufacturing Co, Kansas City, stud-ied in depth the leisure market for steel buildings. Its findings led it to turn a substantial part of its expanding manufacturing capa-bility over to the fabrication of steel primary and secondary structurals and colour-coated steel and roof panels specifically for indoor tennis buildings, sports halls, gymnasiums, caravan and boat showrooms, squash courts and indoor bowling greens.

One of Butler’s initial fields of study was the UK market for indoor bowling greens, to enable the traditional English game to be played in controlled environmental conditions all year round. Indoor bowls clubs vary in size according to the number of rinks but, as a guide, the English Indoor Bowls Association considered provision of a six-rink green to be justified, economically and environmentally, within a catchment area of 250,000 people. Smaller towns, and to some extent rural areas, were considered capable of supporting smaller greens of three to four rinks.

The Butler LRF range of indoor bowls facilities, introduced into the UK in the early 1970s, allowed 15ft (4.57m) width for each rink, with the length of the green being 120ft (36.76m). At

either end space was provided for players to assemble and a walkway was incorporated along either side. The surface of the concrete floor has to be absolutely level and was sunken to allow for fitting of a ‘grass felt’ carpet to enable the woods to roll true.

The advent of indoor bowling greens in the 1970s coincided with the world oil crisis and global concerns to save energy. This led to steeply pitched roofs being considered unnecessary and inappropriate – even unattractive and wasteful – because they created empty space that had to be heated. The solution for an indoor bowls club was seen to be a low profile portal frame. This principle, an example of sustainable design, has prevailed to the present day.

Many bowls clubs incorporate a club room, bar and changing rooms, either within the main frame or in a width extension. Positioning and intensity of lighting is a critical factor. The sun’s rays cause fading of the green and create variations of shade. These are crucial considerations for bowls enthusiasts, meaning that few clubs are designed with rooflights.

10.3

Harborough Leisure Centre: bowls hall (2008)

95

Cricket-specific indoor centres

Cricket-specific indoor centres are built principally to service out-of-season cricketing needs. The English Cricket Board (ECB) suggests minimum requirements:

flooring to meet ECB Technical Specification for Artificial •Surfaces;additional spin mats if available and required;•bowlers’ shock pads in each lane throughout the crease area •and for a minimum of 3m into bowlers’ follow-through strides;batting and bowling creases marked out in each lane;•full-length match pitch with bowlers’ shock pads marked out in •the centre of the hall (dependent on layout and size of hall).

Buildings should be capable of accommodating six to eight lanes each 37.12m (121.8ft) minimum to 41.12m (135ft) maxi-mum long by 3.66m (12ft) minimum to 4m (13.1ft) maximum wide, with each lane including 16–20m (52.5–65.6ft) for the bowler’s run-up. The height of the horizontal top net should be 4m (minimum) to 5m (16.4ft) maximum. The outside back and

10.4–10.5

Arundel Castle Indoor Cricket School, West Sussex (1990)

96

side netting should be suspended to give a minimum of 1m (3.28ft) clear space between the building’s walls and the netting, to provide for safety and access. Nets should be suspended from a heavy-duty aluminium tracking and trolley system, with no space between roof netting and tracking system through which the ball could pass from net to net. White nylon should be used for the roof netting and the side netting should be long enough for at least 0.3m (11.8in) of slack/drape to rest on the floor. Good quality uniform lighting is essential so that players can follow the movement of balls travelling up to 128kmh (80mph).

The attributes of the floor surface are critical. Whether it is a multi-sport surface or rollout mat, it should perform well in terms of resilience, stiffness, friction and resistance to wear. It should be repairable or replaceable without any effect on its playing characteristics such as spin, pace and bounce. It could be a polymer sheeting or carpet, laid on a concrete screed. Sheeting generally wears better than carpet. Also, the density and thickness of polymer can be varied to simulate different playing conditions. Permanent underlays to the continuous surface and/or temporary rollout mats can also be used. If rollout mats are used then they should be firm with no extra cushioning, or the combination of subsurface and mat will seriously affect ball bounce.

Rowing-specific indoor centres

Rowing tanks are used to teach rowing to beginners, to improve the technique of experienced rowers and to facilitate training in inclem-ent weather. In traditional rowing tanks the experience was unre-alistic, with the rowing being about 40 times harder than rowing a real boat on water. In the late 1990s a revolutionary powered rowing tank design was developed which moves the water in the tank past the rowers, recreating the feel of rowing a boat on water. The water is powered by submersible electric pumps through hydraulically-efficient channels, with the flow being adjustable to simulate speeds up to 3m/sec (9.8ft/sec). A rowing frame allows rowing stations that represent the layout and structure of a boat, enabling rowers to sit behind each other as they would in racing conditions. The frame is set to a chosen level above the water surface and rocks about its longitudinal axis to enable the crew to feel the balance of the ‘boat’. Standard equipment for fitting out boats is used in the powered tank, with the gearing adjusted so that conventional oars and sculls can be used. The cost of building the tank was approximately £100,000 and would normally be incorporated in the cost of build-ing new rowing training facilities. Clients include national rowing centres, rowing clubs and universities.

10.6

London Regatta Centre: powered rowing tank (2001)

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The first powered rowing tank was incorporated into the London Regatta Centre, Royal Albert Dock, sited at the finish line of a new 2000m Olympic rowing course. The Centre comprises clubhouse and boathouse. The clubhouse is 90m long × 20m wide (295ft × 65.6ft) with reception area, gymnasium, rowing tank, changing facilities and plantroom (ground floor) and bar/clubroom, restaurant, kitchen, accommodation and caretaker’s flat (first floor). The centre’s structure comprises a weathertight skin suspended from a simple galvanised steel frame hung in catenary. The roof panels are 6m × 1.4m (19.7ft × 4.6ft) stainless steel sheets, 3mm (0.12in) thick, jointed with curved 102mm × 127mm × 11mm (4in × 5in × 0.4in) structural tees. These are suspended from 219CHS (8.6in outside diameter) gridline beams running the length of the building at 6m centres. Longitudinally, the building is stabilised by two bays of cross-bracing, central on each external face. The stainless steel roof sheets act as a stressed skin to provide stability to the internal rows of columns. Lateral stability is from diagonal props, at each external column position, which also restrain horizontal catenary loads in the roof. These elements are contained within gabions that run either side of the building. The boathouse, of similar roof structure to the club-house, has boat racks bracketed off the primary structure.

10.7

London Regatta Centre: boathouse (2001)

10.8

London Regatta Centre: solar pipes (2001)

Part TWO

Facilities Development

11.1

Gymnasium, Sligo (2007)

101

Introduction

Different countries have different systems of building regulation and control. In England and Wales the power to make building regulations was vested in the Secretary of State for the Environment by section 1 of the Building Act 1984. In this case making build-ing regulations was intended:

to secure the health, safety, welfare and convenience of people •in or about buildings and of others who may be affected by buildings or matters connected with buildings; to further the conservation of fuel and power; and•to prevent waste, undue consumption, misuse or contamina-•tion of water.

In this chapter we select issues which have been the subject of building regulation and which are of particular interest in regard to sports facilities developments. The issues are universal ones but are demonstrated by the authors’ experience of working to the Building Regulations for England and Wales.

Structural stability

Safety is of paramount importance. Buildings must be con-structed so that all dead, imposed and wind loads are sustained and transmitted to the ground safely and without causing such settlement to the ground, or such deflection or deformation of the building, as will impair the stability of any other building. Structural safety of the new building works depends on

successful interaction between design and construction with special reference to:

degree of loading; •properties of materials of construction; •design analysis tools; •construction details; •safety factors; •standards of workmanship.•

Building regulations give direction on imposed loadings to be sustained by floors, ceilings or roofs, taking into account regional differences in climate, for example for an altitude of less than 100m (328ft) above ordnance datum, imposed snow load may be 1kN/m² (0.02kip/ft²) for a building in the Tyne and Wear area but 0.75kN/m² (0.016kip/ft²) for a building 480km (300 miles) south in the Bristol area. Gust wind speed contours in England and Wales fan out from a basic wind speed of around 36m/s (118ft/s) in the Greater London area to around 44m/s (144ft/s) on a line circumscribing the cities of Plymouth, Cardiff, Nottingham and Norwich to around 46m/s (151ft/s) on a line from Falmouth in Cornwall, along the North Devon coastline, along the Welsh coastline, into the North West and across country to Newcastle. These regional differences in wind gust speed have led to differ-ences in the maximum permissible height of buildings which, for a normal or slightly sloping site in an unprotected open area, may range from 11m (36ft) on Tyneside to 15m (49ft) in the Greater London area.

Certain external walls, compartment walls and separating walls may be covered by building regulations. A minimum thick-ness of 190mm (7.5in) may be required for the whole of a wall

Chapter 11

Bui ld ing regulat ions

f a c i l i t i e s d e v e l o p m e n t

102

not exceeding 3.5m (11.5ft) in height by up to 12m (39ft) long. A minimum thickness of 290mm (11.4in) from the base over two storeys, and a minimum thickness of 190mm above that, may be required for a wall of between 9m (29.5ft) and 12m in both height and width. Wall cladding should:

be capable of safely carrying and transmitting the combined •dead, imposed and wind loads to the structure of the building; be securely fixed to and supported by the structure of the •building (with the fixing providing both vertical support and lateral restraint); be able to accommodate differential movement between the •cladding and the building support structure; be manufactured of durable materials (including any fixings •and other components, which should have a longevity equal to or exceeding that of the cladding material).

Fire safety

Buildings must be constructed so that, in the event of a fire, the building users are able to reach a place of safety. This requirement is met by providing an adequate number of exits and protected escape routes. The width of an escape route is related to the number of people who may need to use it with – for England and Wales – a minimum number of escape routes of two for 500 building users and three for 1000 users, up to eight for 16,000 or more users (with an additional escape route/exit required for every 5000 people, or part-5000 people, above 16,000). Where a storey has two or more exits it is assumed that one exit will be disabled by a fire. It is therefore recommended that the remaining exit or exits be of sufficient width to facilitate evacuation of all people on that storey, safely and quickly. Therefore the widest exit should be set aside from egress calculations, with the other exits being designed to cater for the fully populated storey. Stairs have to be the same width as the exit leading onto them, so exit width is a determinant in stairway design.

In the event of a fire, buildings need to resist collapse for a period of time sufficient to enable evacuation of the building users and prevent further rapid fire spread. This requirement is met by setting reasonable standards of fire resistance for the floors, roofs, load-bearing walls, building frames and other elements of structure.

Another requirement is that the spread of fire within and between buildings be kept to the minimum. This is met by:

dividing large buildings into compartments and providing •higher standards of fire resistance to walls and floors bounding a compartment; setting standards of fire resistance for external walls; •controlling the surface linings of walls and ceilings to inhibit •flame spread; sealing and sub-dividing concealed spaces in the structure or •fabric of a building to prevent the spread of unseen fire and smoke; setting standards of resistance to fire penetration and flame •spread for roof coverings.

Fire appliances must be able to function and fire-fighters must be able to do their job. These requirements are met by designing adequate access for fire appliances and facilities for fire-fighters, providing fire mains within the building and ensuring that heat and smoke can be vented from basement areas.

For large and complex buildings, including such types of sports building, the above measures may be considered inadequate or difficult to apply. In such cases a fire safety design approach may be adopted, which addresses fire safety issues holistically.

Construction materials

Construction materials must be fit and proper for carrying out building work. Identifying and widely acknowledging ‘proper’ building materials not only confirms their fitness for purpose but also helps to promote the free movement of such products (by overcoming technical barriers to their use in different places).

In this respect, a ‘standard’ can form a vital, but often mis-understood, part of doing business. The term ‘standard’ refers to a test method or a set of performance values (a ‘specification’) or a combination of the two. It should be noted that if a standard is also a specification then exact test method references must be quoted – where reference numbers are identical, a year reference is used as a suffix to indicate when a particular version came into use (some specifications require the latest version of a test method to be used while others may state a particular dated procedure).

103

Two of the most important standards organisations are the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), based in Switzerland, and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). These two bodies are seeking to establish a closer rela-tionship, which would have a beneficial effect on global trade by promoting commonality of products.

Almost all countries have their own official standards-making body, known as the National Standards Body (NSB). An example is the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Since the Single European Act of 1986 there has been a radical change in writing directives and European standards. ‘New Approach Directives’ expressed requirements in broad terms, called ‘Essential Requirements’. The Construction Products Directive (CPD) 89/106 EEC aimed to achieve the approxima-tion of laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the Member States in relation to construction products. The CPD defined construction products as being those produced for incorporation in a permanent manner in construction works, insofar as the Essential Requirements (ERs) relate to them. Six ERs were identified:

mechanical resistance and stability; •safety in case of fire; •hygiene, health and the environment; •safety in use; •protection against noise; •energy economy and heat retention. •

The link between the ER and the product on the market was made in Interpretative Documents (IDs) indicating:

appropriate product characteristics; •appropriate topics for harmonised technical specifications; •the need for different levels or classes of performance to allow •for different regulation requirements in different Member States.

From this background came harmonised European standards, which created the best route for demonstrating compliance for a product. These standards were developed mainly by European standards organisation CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation)

Table 11.1 National Standards Bodies, European Union

EU Member National Standards Body Abbreviation

Austria Österreichisches Normungsinstitut ONORMBelgium Bureau de Normalisation NBN

Bulgaria Bulgarian Institute for Standardization BDS

Cyprus Cyprus Organization for Standardization CYS

Czech Republic Czech Standards Institute CSN

Denmark Dansk Standard DS

Estonia Eesti Standardikeskus EVS

Finland Suomen Standardisoimisliitto SFS

France Association Française de Normalisation (AFNOR) NF

Germany Deutsches Institut für Normung DIN

Greece Hellenic Organization for Standardization ELOT

Hungary Magyar Szabványügyi Testület MSZT

Ireland National Standards Authority of Ireland NSAI

Italy Natio Ente Nationale Italiano di Unificazion UNI

Latvia Latvian Standard LVS

Lithuania Lithuanian Standards LST

Luxembourg Institut luxembourgeois de la normalisation, de l’accréditation, de la sécurité et qualité des produits et services

ILNAS

Malta Malta Standards Authority MSA

Netherlands Nederlands Normalisatie-Institut NEN

Norway Norges Standardiseringsforbund NS

Poland Polish Committee for Standardization PKN

Portugal Instituto Portugues da Qualidade NP

Romania Asociatia de Standardizare din România ASRO

Slovakia Slovak Standards Institute SUTN

Slovenia Slovenian Institute for Standardization SIST

Spain Asociación Española de Normalization (AENOR) UNE

Sweden Swedish Standards SS/SIS/SMS

UK British Standards Institute BS

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or CENELEC (which translates as ‘European Committee for Electronic Standardization’ – the electrical standards equivalent to CEN) on the basis of standardisation requests (mandates) from the European Commission. It should be noted that there is a close working rela-tionship between CEN and ISO, which have in many areas jointly developed standards under what is known as the Vienna Agreement – dual numbering as EN and ISO standards gives rise to prefixes such as BS EN ISO or DIN EN ISO (see Table 11.1). Most CEN test methods are referred to as ENs but those for construction products are known as hENs (harmonised European Norm). Once a harmon-ised European Norm is published across the CEN member states, any conflicting national standard must be withdrawn – usually within twelve months. In their draft or provisional state ENs are known as prENs, which have no real weight in EU law, so must be treated with caution. English is the official language for CEN and ISO but French and German versions are also published. For CEN, the English language version is usually the definitive text but French and German translations are mandatory.

Only the parts of standards relating to the ERs are mandated and these are those parts supporting the fixing of an EC mark (the CE symbol) to products. The EC mark indicates that a product may legally be placed on the market (it is not a quality mark).

All of this brings us towards a definition of ‘proper construction materials’ as those bearing an appropriate EC mark under the CPD or conforming to an approved harmonised standard of European technical approval. From a British perspective, they may alternatively conform to an approved British Standard or British Board of Agrément Certificate. Or they may conform to some other material technical specification of any one of the Member States (in which case there must be a level of protection and performance equivalent to that demonstrated by conforming to a British Standard or British Board of Agrément Certificate).

Workmanship

Adequacy of workmanship may be established by use of a British Code of Practice or equivalent technical specification (e.g. of another Member State). Technical approvals such as Agrément certificates often contain workmanship recommendations (and, as with Codes of Practice, it may be possible to use another nation’s technical approval if this provides an equivalent level of protection). Workmanship may also be approved by ISO 9000/EN 29 000/

BS 570 Quality Systems. Past successful experience of implement-ing a method of workmanship may be considered sufficient indica-tion that a required level of performance will be met. In some cases, workmanship may be subject to external inspection and assessment (e.g. testing of drains and sewers by local authorities).

Site preparation

Site preparation issues are covered in Chapters 13 and 14. Precautions must, however, be taken to prevent any substances found on or in the ground from causing a danger to health and safety. This includes ground covered by the building and the area covered by the foundations. Potential contaminants include any material (including faecal or animal matter) and any substance which is or could become toxic, corrosive, explosive, flammable or radioactive. (This requirement explains the interest of sports facilities owners and operators in brownfield sites because, as long as there is sufficient ‘good’ ground for the building works, the ‘bad’ ground can often be used for the relatively large area of surface car parking required in association with sports building developments.)

Moisture exclusion

Building regulations describe the types of damp-proof course which will prevent moisture movement into buildings from the ground. Essentially, a damp-proof course can be in any material that will prevent moisture movement, has to be continuous and has to be at least 150mm (6in) above outside ground level.

In addition to resisting ground moisture, external walls need to be resistant to rain and snow and able to prevent consequential moisture transmission to other parts of the building that may be

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Inclusive design: indoor sports facilities

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susceptible to damage. Forms of construction which meet these requirements include:

solid walls of sufficient thickness to hold moisture during bad •weather until it can be released during periods of good weather; impervious cladding which prevents moisture from penetrating •the outside face of the wall; cavity wall construction in which the outside leaf holds mois-•ture in a similar way to that of a solid wall, preventing penetra-tion of moisture to the inside leaf.

Roofs, like walls, must be resistant to rain and snow and must not transmit consequent moisture to other parts of the building that may become damaged.

Inclusive design

‘Sport for all’ cannot be achieved without provisions to enable the participation of disabled sportsmen and sportswomen. The main provisions in the Building Regulations are:

suitable means of access into the building from outside; •suitable access within the building to those facilities which •are provided; reasonable provision of sanitary conveniences; •a reasonable number of wheelchair spaces (at least 900mm •wide × 1400mm deep) where the building contains audience or spectator seating.

Approaches to the building should be level where possible and not steeper than 1 in 20 (unless a ramped approach is provided). Surface width should be at least 1200mm (47.25in). Tactile warn-ings should be provided on pedestrian routes for people with

impaired vision where the route crosses a vehicular carriageway or at the top of stairs. Dropped kerbs should be provided for wheelchair users at carriageway crossings.

Because ambulant disabled people can often negotiate steps better than ramps, where possible steps should be available as an alternative to ramps. There should be no hazards to impede people with impaired sight using access routes around the building. While it is not considered reasonable to require the provision of tactile warnings at the start of level changes, stair nosings should be distinguishable for the benefit of people with impaired sight.

Entrance doors must have a clear width of at the very least 800mm (31.5in). Ideally the minimum clear width that will be provided by a 1000mm (39.4in) single leaf external doorset will be 850mm (33.5in) clear or by one leaf of an 1800mm (71in) double leaf doorset 810mm (31.9in) clear. The space into which the door opens should be unobstructed. Disabled people cannot normally react quickly to avoid collisions if a door is opened suddenly, meaning that glazed panels 900mm (35.4in) to 1500mm (59in) from the floor should be provided in doors to enable people to see and be seen. Revolving doors and access turnstiles should only be used alongside wheelchair-friendly doors or swing barriers.

Building regulations do not attempt to provide guidance on disabled access to all types of facility within a building. They do, however, offer guidance on showering and changing facilities, covering space requirements to manoeuvre the wheelchair and to transfer onto a seat. They also cover height requirements for seats, shower heads, taps, clothes hooks and mirrors.

Sound, ventilation, vertical movement

These criteria are addressed in building regulations but are not covered in this chapter because they are the subjects of Chapters 17, 22 and 26.

11.3–11.4

Harborough Leisure Centre: (left) corridor to reception area (2008); and (right) inclusive design – WC (2008)

12.1

East Midlands International Swimming Pool, Corby:

site hoarding – public viewing porthole (July 2008)

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Introduction

Different countries have different regulations or codes of practice regarding health and safety in construction. In England, Scotland and Wales the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2007 (CDM 2007) came into force on 6 April 2007. They replaced the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994 (CDM 1994) and the Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare Regulations 1996 (CHSW). Their key aim is to integrate health and safety into the management of the project and to encourage everyone involved to:

improve the planning and management of projects from the •very start;identify hazards early on, so that they can be eliminated or •reduced at the design or planning stage and the remaining risks can be properly managed;target effort where it can do the most good in terms of health •and safety; anddiscourage unnecessary bureaucracy.•

Except where a project is for a domestic client (a person or per-sons having work carried out on their own home), the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) must be notified of projects where con-struction work is expected to last more than 30 working days or involve more than 500 person-days (e.g. 50 people working for more than 10 days). This requirement clearly renders notifiable new-build sports facilities developments in England, Scotland and Wales, many extensions to existing sports buildings and some types of sports building repair, refurbishment and restoration works.

The Health and Safety Commission has published an Approved Code of Practice (ACOP) which provides practical guidance on complying with the duties set out in the Regulations. Table 12.1, drawn from the ACOP, summarises the duties under the Regulations.

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Responsibility All construction projects (Part 2 of Regulations) Additional duties for notifiable projects (Part 3 of Regulations)

Client Check competence and resources of all appointees

Appoint CDM coordinator (compulsory role until end of construction phase)

Ensure suitable management arrangements for project, including welfare facilities

Appoint principal contractor (compulsory role until end of construction phase)

Allow sufficient time and resources for all stages

Ensure construction does not begin unless suitable welfare facilities and a construction phase plan are in place

Provide pre-construction information to designers and contractors

Provide information relating to health and safety file to CDM coordinator

– Retain and provide access to health and safety file

CDM coordinator – Advise and assist client with his/her duties

– Notify Health and Safety Executive (HSE)

– Coordinate health and safety aspects of design work and cooperate with others involved in project

– Facilitate good communication between client, designers and contractors

– Liaise with principal contractor regarding ongoing design

– Identify, collect and pass on pre-construction information

– Prepare/update health and safety file

Designers Eliminate hazards and reduce risks during design

Check that client is aware of duties and that CDM coordinator has been appointed

Provide information about remaining risks Provide any information needed for the health and safety file

Principal contractors – Plan, manage and monitor construction phase in liaison with contractor

– Prepare, develop and implement a written plan and site rules (initial plan completed before construction begins)

– Give contractors relevant parts of plan

– Ensure suitable welfare facilities provided and maintained throughout construction

– Check competence of all appointees

– Ensure that all workers have site inductions and any further information and training needed for the work

– Consult with the workers

– Liaise with CDM coordinator regarding ongoing design

– Secure the site

Table 12.1 Duties under the Regulations

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Responsibility All construction projects (Part 2 of Regulations) Additional duties for notifiable projects (Part 3 of Regulations)

Contractors Plan, manage and monitor own work and that of workers

Check that client aware of duties, CDM coordinator is appointed and HSE is notified before work starts

Check competence of all own appointees and workers

Cooperate with principal contractor in planning and managing work, including reasonable directions and site rules

Train own appointees Provide details to principal contractor of any contractor whom he/she engages in connection with carrying out the work

Provide information to own workers Provide any information needed for the health and safety file

Comply with specific requirements in Part 4 of the Regulations

Inform principal contractor of any problems with the plan

Ensure there are adequate welfare facilities for own workers

Inform principal contractor of reportable accidents, diseases and dangerous occurrences

Everyone Check own competence Check own competence

Cooperate with others and coordinate work so as to ensure the health and safety of construction workers and others who may be affected by the work

Cooperate with others and coordinate work so as to ensure the health and safety of construction workers and others who may be affected by the work

Report obvious risks Report obvious risks

Comply with requirements in Schedule 3 and Part 4 of the Regulations for any work under own control

Comply with requirements in Schedule 3 and Part 4 of the Regulations for any work under own control

Take account of and apply the general principles of prevention when carrying out duties

Take account of and apply the general principles of prevention when carrying out duties

Failure to ensure that CDM 2007 is followed in England, Scotland and Wales increases the likelihood of a dangerous or fatal incident during construction.

Failure to appoint a CDM coordinator or principal contractor on a notifiable project renders the client legally liable for health and safety matters that should be dealt with but are not.

Serious breaches of health and safety legislation on a construction project can result in construction work being stopped by HSE or the local authority, in which case additional works may be necessary to put things right. In the most serious circumstances, prosecution may result.

Clients can source suitable designers and contractors from the memberships of appropriate reputable professional institutions and trade associations.

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Millennium Dome (now O2 Arena): under construction (1998)

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Introduction

When creation of a new sports facility is considered, the client body will usually form a planning committee to which one mem-ber – say the director of sport, leisure and tourism – will be responsible on an executive basis. The executive officer will usu-ally work with an in-house building professional or hire an external building professional, traditionally an architect, to inves-tigate project feasibility and produce outline proposals and a scheme design.

Establishing feasibility (essentially the need for the project) is prerequisite to any other sports facility development activity. This will be gauged by calculating local demand for sports facilities, the characteristics of any competing facilities and the potential size of the catchment area. Given a positive outcome on feasibil-ity, the criteria of site selection and site investigation can be addressed. Construction on site cannot begin until these consid-erations have been resolved to the satisfaction of the project commissioning organisation (and its specialist consultants), the local public authority and any appropriate statutory bodies. Unless feasibility, site selection and ground conditions are right, the built facility cannot be right.

Similar sports facility projects will be studied and learned from at this stage. For the proposed facility, assessments will be made of the spatial and design requirements for the different wet and dry sports (as covered in Section 1of the book) together with their inter-relationships and associated social spaces, special-use spaces, administration, refreshment and ancillary areas (as out-lined in Chapter 7). Issues addressed will include capacity (user and spectator), transportation planning (e.g. pedestrian movement studies), acoustics (sound quality, noise and vibration studies),

control and supervision of the different activities, equipment and storage needs, servicing (mechanical, electrical and plumbing) requirements and provision for future adaptation or extension of the facility.

Data collection

Establishing feasibility involves a lot of information-gathering and analysis to ascertain:

the need for a new sports facility in an area; •comparative accessibility of public and private transport to •alternative sites; car parking potential; •ground conditions; •any problems with utility services supply; •criteria relating to planning permission; •capital costs and funding options; •implications of the anticipated project time-scale.•

Geotechnical desk studies

Most project delays and cost overruns are caused through unfore-seen ground conditions being encountered once construction work has begun on site. The geotechnical desk study is a relatively inexpensive way of gaining a large amount of data relating to a site. It enables potential ground-related hazards to be identified

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at an early stage, when their resolution can still be programmed in or an alternative site can still be preferred. A desk study can usually be carried out quickly prior to land purchase, to detect any unknown factors that could push up the cost of development. Thus, the geotechnical desk study can not only mitigate project cost but also increase negotiating strength. Desk study reports range from assessment of anticipated foundation conditions to extended considerations of environmental impact, archaeology, ecology and traffic impact. A typical report might include data on site history, geology and geomorphology, groundwater, topog-raphy and drainage, vegetation and land use, underground fea-tures (such as existing foundations, services or tunnels), archaeological potential, contamination, geo-hazards and seismology.

Risk management

Because the desk study will identify potential ground hazards, it presents an important early opportunity to introduce a risk and value management regime to interact with all stages of the project. Risk and value management is essential to mitigate risk, which grows as sites available for development become increasingly complex and expensive. Early assessment of hazards relating to, say, geology, hydrogeology, seismicity and the environment will enable the design development to incorporate appropriate mea-sures of mitigation and control.

Ground investigation

The ground investigation is the process by which geotechnical and other relevant parameters are obtained for engineering design. On-site sampling, testing and monitoring, in combination with laboratory testing, are used to obtain information on all aspects of the ground, including stratigraphy, soil parameters, groundwa-ter conditions, contamination and gas production.

Pride Park, Derby

Pride Park is the 80ha (176 acre) home of Derby County Football Club and location of other leisure, commercial and light industrial developments. It was formerly occupied by gas and coke works, domestic and industrial landfill, a gravel quarry and locomotive works. The site had been heavily contaminated by tars, oils, phenol, heavy metals, asbestos, ammonia, boron and low-level radioactive material. Of particular concern in the proposed site redevelopment was the close proximity of the River Derwent, which flows south into the River Trent and is an important source of water for the Nottingham area. The reclamation strategy included construction of a 3km (2 mile) long bentonite cement cut-off wall, a groundwater treatment works, an on-site fully engineered waste repository, gas venting systems and ground reclamation for the various site end users.

O2 Arena (Millennium Dome), Greenwich Peninsula, London

In the year 2000 the Millennium Dome was the highest earner of any tourist attraction in the UK. The Greenwich Peninsula had been the contaminated site of the largest gasworks in Europe, with additional tar works and benzene works on site. Spent lime, some converted to gypsum, had been dumped on the site. The ground was heavily polluted with BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethyl-benzene and xylene) and tar. This heavily con-taminated and environmentally dangerous waste was ‘cleaned up’ and replaced on site by the Millennium Dome, a unique 320m diameter cable and membrane structure supported by twelve 90m tall tubular steel masts. Originally the membrane was to be of PVC-coated polyester fibre but the incoming Labour government of 1997 wanted to keep open future options for the Dome’s use. The decision was taken to use instead a long-life PTFE/glass membrane. This choice enables the Dome to continue operating as an ad hoc exhibition and event centre. Hosted sports include tennis, NBA basketball, NHL ice hockey and World Championship Boxing.

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Archaeology

In the UK the Department of the Environment Planning Policy Guidance Note ‘PPG 16’ (November 1990) required local plan-ning authorities to make archaeological concerns a ‘material consideration’ of a planning application. There is now a demand that the archaeological resource of a site, if significant, be pre-served in situ by ‘good engineering practices’. This requires a site to be thoroughly evaluated archaeologically and so leads to a need for a separate archaeological investigation in many cases. An investigation may involve geophysical prospecting and exten-sive hand-dug trenching. Understanding the previous land uses can significantly aid the engineering site investigations, and hence the design and installation of new ground works. Important rev-elations might include old foundations, backfilled quarries and infilled rivers, bomb craters, industrial soil contamination, ground instability, removed trees, tunnels, sewers, wells, mine shafts and burial grounds.

Big North American firms have a tradition of incorporating public amenities in private developments. An example is the offices development during the 1990s for Merrill Lynch at Newgate, on the boundary of the City of London. The west build-ing provides public access to an excavated section of Roman city wall and medieval bastion, the main Scheduled Ancient Monuments on the site. For protection during building works, these remains were enclosed and wrapped in foam sheet, under a ply lid. The ‘chamber’ created was filled with washed sand that was vacuumed out on project completion. Subsequently, a new environment and display setting were created. The natural envi-ronment was monitored for humidity, temperature and wind movement for more than a year. The data collected was used to create conditions that would allow viewing from the foyer above and permit visitors to walk around the remains.

Although the office foyer of Merrill Lynch could just as easily be a sports centre foyer, a more appropriate demonstration project is the Thermen Museum at Heerlen, in the Netherlands. Here, in the 1970s, a NODUS space frame roof was assembled over the remains of a complete Roman bathhouse dating from the second century ad. The roof structure was then lifted into position to protect the ancient remains in situ and create the sort of large clear-span enclosure appropriate to sports and leisure building developments.

Remote sensing and geophysical testing

The remote assessment of sites using aerial photographs and satel-lite images enables a detailed appraisal of a site to be undertaken. It can identify and aid the evaluation of contaminated land, past industrial use, landfill histories, abandoned mineshafts, mine subsidence, soil changes, drainage conditions, landslides and dissolution features. It can be used to identify matters of potential engineering concern in advance of site investigation and construc-tion. By examining aerial photographs of different dates it is possible to build up a detailed chronological record of incremen-tal changes of site land use, which is particularly useful in areas with an industrial or mining history.

Geophysical testing is typically combined with, and validated by, intrusive investigation. Its use is particularly important where intrusive investigations are constrained by access problems. Even where access is feasible, the subsequent laboratory measurement of material properties on samples taken from the investigation may not be representative of the in-situ ground properties. Also, modelling complex and variable ground conditions using purely intrusive investigations can be costly. Appropriate forms of geo-physical testing include electromagnetic techniques (e.g. ground penetrating radar) to identify voids or buried obstructions, electri-cal techniques (e.g. resistivity imaging) to identify groundwater pathways and seismic techniques (e.g. downhole geophysics) or a radioactive technique (e.g. downhole gamma logging) to cor-relate geophysical properties with stratigraphy. Geophysics is used to identify ground properties and subsurface features including material strength and stiffness, rock mass characteristics, perme-ability, stratigraphy profiles, buried obstructions, voids, geological features, piezometric or water-table surfaces, groundwater path-ways, contamination and locations of bombs.

Soil mechanics

Soil mechanics is the study of the mechanical properties of soils and the ways in which these properties affect human activities. It involves applying the mechanisms of materials and fluids to describe the behaviour of soils, and establishing the performance of soil as an engineering material. Studies of soil mechanics might

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involve collecting geological samples, carrying out experiments and analysing photographs. Penetrometers may be used to mea-sure the force required to penetrate to various depths in the soil. Core tubes may be taken for analysis, enabling soil properties such as density, average grain size, strength and compressibility to be measured as a function of depth. Software is available to facilitate such analysis. Soil mechanics includes sub-surface exploration, soil composition and texture, classification, perme-ability and seepage, consolidation, shear strength, settlement, lateral earth pressures, retaining structures, geosynthetics, slope stability, shallow and deep foundations.

Soil dynamics

The effect that vibrations have on soils is of vital importance to engineers and is known as ‘soil dynamics’. This deals with soil properties and behaviour under changing stress conditions. Such dynamic stresses manifest themselves in many different aspects of the built environment, such as earthquakes, bomb blasts, fast-moving traffic and wind or wave action. Key aspects of soil dynamics include the propagation and attenuation of energy

through the ground, the rate and amplitude of subsequent loading and the effect of cyclic loading on the soils. These criteria need to be fully understood to ensure that buildings and structures meet their desired level of performance. Actions that may be taken include machine foundation assessment, analysis and design, the assessment of railways’ induced vibrations, derivation of dynamic soil properties, specification of high-quality cyclic soil tests, foundation design for cyclic loads, impact assessment and testing, finite element analysis of cyclic loads, pile driving analysis, assessment and prediction of construction-induced vibrations.

Hydrogeology

Groundwater is a major asset for abstractors, such as water com-panies and industry, and is a precious environmental resource supporting wetlands and other ecologically important features. It can also be a problem for construction works, during which its control may be necessary. Recognising the significance of ground-water at an early stage in any project allows the design of appro-priate solutions to minimise groundwater impact and optimise environmental benefits.

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Colosseum, Rome (1994)

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Foundation design

Foundations range in cross-sectional area and depth from pads and rafts to piles and caissons. They ensure that, under a wide range of defined loading conditions, movements of structures are kept within acceptable bounds. Foundations also ensure the robustness and safety of structures in earthquakes, ground col-lapse brought about by geological or human-made features and seasonal or tree-induced ground movements. Their design should incorporate the interpretation of desk study and ground investiga-tion data, the use of local knowledge and experience, selection of engineering parameters, analysis of soil–structure interaction, assurance of design compatibility with the construction process and inspections to check site implementation.

Basement and substructure design

Demand for space in cities and other urban environments often makes it cost-effective to use space below buildings for parking, deliveries, storage and plant rooms. Key issues of base-ment and excavation work include supporting the excavation

sides, controlling ground movements outside the site perimeter, controlling groundwater flows during excavation, protecting against water penetration into the completed facility and treating archaeological remains in the ground.

One of the world’s most intriguing basement designs was for a sports facility, albeit a ‘blood’ sports facility. The Colosseum in Rome opened in ad80, when the Emperor Titus staged a sea fight in approximately 1m of water. Because of this, we know that the Colosseum was originally built without a basement. But within a few years a labyrinthine underground system had been installed to accommodate ‘stage props’ and caged animals, and the slaves whose job it was to get these into the arena on cue. The basement of the Colosseum was due to be excavated in 1812 but the water-table was too high so the project was deferred. It was not until the 1990s that a team from the German Archaeological Institute measured the basement floor areas and cavities in the walls where wooden lifts, levers and cages would have been constructed. By comparing their findings with contemporary accounts of how animals ‘magically appeared’ the archaeologists pieced together an underground operation comparable in size and complexity to that of a modern stage set.

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Colosseum, Rome (2006)

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CTRL beyond London and the Turnhalle (German Gymnasium)

The fundamental importance of geotechnical engineering is dem-onstrated by the 21st century work of hollowing out the ground beneath King’s Cross and St Pancras. This brought the two termi-nals together for extension north of the high-speed Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL) and redevelopment as a ‘dense, vibrant urban quarter’ of the 58 acres (23ha) of railway land between the sets of lines. Locating a ticket office beneath St Pancras meant not only cutting off tunnel roofs and raising the Euston Road but also slicing into the station’s foundations. This has only become possible with the use of new underpinning techniques developed by geotechnical engineers in the past 20 years. Without such techniques, either the project could not have happened or the elegant gothic facade of St Pancras would have crumbled.

The special significance of this transport project to sport is that the site contains a structure known as the German Gymnasium (one part of a German school) which is a unique, purpose-built gymna-sium of immense historic and aesthetic importance. It was built in 1861 when gymnastics was ‘transported’ to Britain from Germany by followers of Frederick Ludwig Jahn, the ‘Father of Modern Gymnastics’. German immigrants formed the country’s first Gym Club and opened their ‘German Gymnasium’ in St Pancras. This was the start of the modern Olympic movement in the UK, with its message for ordinary working class people to ‘get sport’. The archi-tectural style of the building is Prussian neo-medieval vernacular (reminiscent of Munich in the 1860s). It has rare surviving laminated timber roof ribs of a type originally used in King’s Cross Station. The building is Grade II listed and was the subject of a preservation order in the railway terminal redevelopment project. Sensors were positioned all around it to monitor any movements during the adjacent construction works. None were recorded.

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German Gymnasium, St Pancras (2007)

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Sport in Britain: its origins and development

This is the title of a book by H A Harris which was published in 1975 (sadly the author died in August 1974, days after sending the manuscript to the publisher). An example of the highly per-ceptive deductions made by Professor Harris is:

‘A mosaic found in a Roman villa at Horkstow in Lincolnshire and now in the British Museum depicts a chariot race. This of course merely shows that the owner of the villa was interested in racing; it does not prove that the racing took place in Britain. But most racing mosaics found in the provinces of the Empire depict four-horse chariots among the splendours of the Circus Maximus in Rome. The Horkstow picture has two-horse chariots and the very simplest of equipment, merely the two turning-posts and the wall joining them – the kind of course we might expect in a remote and poor part of the Empire. There would have been less difficulty in providing such a track than there is today in laying out the course for the point-to-point races of a local hunt. So, although no circus has yet been identified in Britain, there is every likelihood that chariot racing did in fact take place here’.

Thirty years later archaeologists were excavating a site in Colchester, Essex, prior to the construction of a housing develop-ment, when they unearthed the first Roman chariot-racing arena to be found in Britain. The remains consist of walls, some running in parallel, outlining a structure measuring 350m (1150ft) long × 70m (230ft) wide. The ‘circus’ had a capacity of perhaps 8000 spectators and is comparable in size to chariot-racing arenas in Spain and southern France. This is the largest Roman building to be discovered in Britain. It is proof that sport was big – literally – in the Britain of 2000 years ago.

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Barnsley Metrodome (1993)

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Introduction

The Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE) in the UK has defined a masterplan as

‘a document that charts the masterplanning process and explains how a site or series of sites will be developed. It will describe how the proposal will be implemented, and set out the costs, phasing and timing of the development. A masterplan will usually be prepared by or on behalf of the organisation that owns the site or controls the develop-ment process’.

The Urban Task Force in the UK, headed by Lord Richard Rogers, stated that a successful masterplan must be:

visionary – should raise aspirations and provide a vehicle for •consensus building and implementation; deliverable – should take into account likely implementation •and delivery routes; fully integrated into the land use planning system, while allow-•ing new uses and market opportunities to exploit the full development potential of a site; flexible, providing the basis for negotiation and dispute •resolution; the result of a participatory process, providing all the stake-•holders with the means of expressing their needs and priorities; equally applicable to rethinking the role, function and form •of existing neighbourhoods as to creating new neigh-bourhoods.

In the USA White and Karabetsos flag up the need for a ‘Master Plan or, in municipal agencies, Comprehensive Plan … a well-contemplated systematized strategy taking into account the many variables (present and future) that may affect a facility’. They refer to the plan being a ‘formal, comprehensive building scheme that identifies the organization’s facility needs and establishes the priority in which construction of new or the renovation of existing facilities will occur’.

In Australia Jim Daly defines planning for recreation and sport as a people-oriented process that brings together information about the rational allocation of recreation and sport resources to meet the present and future requirements of people at the state, regional and local level. (Daly defines design as ‘the practical application of recreation and sport resources identified in the planning process’ with the designer’s task being ‘to create specific open spaces and built facilities for recreation and sport that are compatible with the environment and add to the quality of life of the present and future user’.)

The aim during the planning stages is to create the situation described succinctly by Kit Campbell: ‘The best sports and rec-reation buildings are generally the result of an enlightened client working closely with an experienced design team to a clear brief’.

Masterplanning

Several different terms have been used already to describe a plan-ning process which has to be fluid, inclusive and extensive. Planning activities that can be contracted out (e.g. aspects of

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feasibility, data collection, site investigation) were described in Chapter 13. These activities should be designed to inform the masterplanning, which is a collaborative process. Masterplanning may involve organising stakeholder workshops (to analyse issues and opportunities), technical reviews, technical testing, evalua-tion of masterplan options, environmental appraisal and public exhibition of proposals. It may involve deciding on assessment criteria to be used to evaluate alternative sites and alternative development proposals, and administering the scoring. It will certainly involve a great deal of refinement and provision for the testing of any divergences from the plan (during design and con-struction) to maintain the integrity of the development concept.

Some considerations

Planning in an urban environment, where the development has to fit in with existing buildings, is totally different from planning for a rural environment, where the development has to fit in with the landscape. In both cases a visually unobtrusive development will usually be more readily acceptable to planning authorities.

In the case of the rural location, perimeter planting can often be used effectively to screen the mass of what is inevitably and rela-tively a large building development.

Transportation planning is crucial because facility users must have the means of safe and efficient access to and egress from the site and the buildings within the site. Principal considerations will include the positioning of the access, its detailed design and suitable site boundary treatment. However, a well-designed sports and leisure centre requires that all aspects of the design be con-sidered at the same time. Because it is an integral part of the built environment, the road layout should not be considered in isolation.

People movement should be planned to contribute towards an attractive environment and to meet the needs of the drivers, pedestrians and cyclists who share the road space. It is necessary to consider road hierarchy from local distributor roads of, say, 6.7m (22ft) or 7.3m (24ft) width to transitional links or feeder roads of, say, 5.5m (18ft), 6.7m or 7.3m, access roads of, say, 5m (16.4ft) or 6.7m and shared (combined pedestrian/vehicular) surfaces of, say 4.5m (14.8ft). Service routes have to be considered at a very early stage and agreed with the highway authority. The geometry of new junctions to the existing road network will need

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Barnsley Metrodome (1993)

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to take into account both the type of traffic generated on the minor road by the new development and the existing traffic flows, speed and classification of the major road. Where the major road traffic speeds are higher than 40mph (64kmh) it is unlikely that simple priority junctions will be considered appropriate by the highway authority.

Junctions within development sites need to be designed so that they provide safe and easy access by vehicles, with good visibility, but do not compromise pedestrian movement. Traffic speeds should be reduced by the positioning of the buildings and spaces, and by reducing the effective length of each section of road. Corners with tight radii are usually more appropriate for areas around sports and leisure developments because there is a lot of pedestrian movement around the buildings and gentle radius corners encourage higher vehicle speeds. Speed restraining bends (i.e. bends with a deflection of between 80° and 100°) can be used to emphasise the change in direction.

The site car parking requirement will derive from the calcula-tions of facility usage made in the feasibility study. Standard car parking spaces are 4.8m (15.7ft) × 2.4m (7.9ft) and car parking spaces for disabled drivers are 4.8m × 3.6m (11.8ft) minimum width.

Footways should generally be sufficiently wide, at, say, 2m (6.6ft) to allow two people to pass. A single pedestrian width of say 1.2m (3.9ft), with minimum headroom of say 2.25m (7.4ft), is usually permissible for limited lengths provided that such a ‘courtesy section’ is located so that pedestrians are not forced to step onto the carriageway. Gradients of footways should be a maximum of, say 1:12 and, where possible, should be 1:20 to accommodate people with a mobility impediment.

Pedestrian and cycle links should be a minimum of 2.5m (8.2ft) wide if the surface is shared or 3m (10ft) if pedestrians and cyclists are separated. Where a cycle route crosses a distributor road or transitional link, a flush dropped kerb is generally necessary at the road crossing. Bollards approximately 1.2m (3.9ft) high, with suitable reflective markings, can be used to protect buildings and demarcate footways.

Lighting should be designed to achieve sufficient illumination to enable safe movement by pedestrians and cyclists, reduce opportunities for crime and enable drivers to see hazards on the road. Designers should also aim to illuminate the built environ-ment in an attractive way, and to select and position the lamps so that they enhance the local scene. Road lighting systems designed in accordance with the current edition of BS 5489 will

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North Berwick Leisure Centre (1997)

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be required on most UK roads, footways and roundabouts serving new development.

Signs and sign gantries are other prominent items of street furniture. Supporting columns for signs are generally tubular or rectangular rolled hollow section steel (hot-dipped galvanised and plastic coated) or aluminium, to BS 873, BS 4 and BS 4848. The mounting height for signs must be 2.1m (6.9ft) within a foot-way and 2.4m (7.9ft) within a cycleway. Pedestrian guardrails for footpaths are generally 2m (6.6ft) × 0.9m (3ft) panels of 50 × 25 × 3RHS frame with 12mm diameter bar infill, founded at the panel frame verticals on 300mm (1ft) diameter × 600mm (2ft) deep concrete foundations.

Bridges may be needed on sports and leisure centre sites to carry people, vehicles or pipes over water, roads or rail lines. These can be designed in concrete, steel or timber, depending on function, span and location. Where activities are split between different buildings on a site, high level linkbridges may be used to make transfer between buildings easier. Bridges may be neces-sary to link new sports facilities to existing buildings on, say, university or college, hospital or corporate headquarters sites.

City of Birmingham Bid to host the 1992 Summer Olympics

This project is chosen to demonstrate aspects of masterplanning because readers are familiar with the National Exhibition Centre (NEC) (Chapter 7) on which the Birmingham Olympic Bid was based, and the authors were involved with the NEC development and the Bid. In May 1985 Birmingham City Council decided to compete for the British nomination as host city for the 1992 Olympic Games. The submission to the British Olympic Association (BOA) was required by the end of July, meaning that a feasibility study covering all aspects of the Games had to be completed within eight weeks. To its advantage, Birmingham quickly decided upon that essential element of every masterplan – a clear philoso-phy. Birmingham wanted to ‘give the Games back to the Athletes’ by creating a ‘compact Games’, better than any previous event, at an already superb location at the heart of England with excel-lent communications, exhibition centres, sports facilities and tourist attractions.

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Birmingham Olympic Bid 1992: main stadium concept (1986)

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Seven principal areas of study were identified:

sports facilities; •accommodation; •transport; •telecommunications; •Games management; •funding and finance; •economic impact. •

More than 100 organisations were consulted, including the West Midlands Police, West Midlands Passenger Transport Executive, National Exhibition Centre, National Agricultural Centre, BBC, ITV and the Press. Proposals were tested and a full economic study was undertaken. In July 1986 the BOA made Birmingham the British nomination by an overwhelming majority, ahead of London and Manchester. Bid documents were then prepared for submission to the International Olympic Commission (IOC). In October 1986 the IOC in Lausanne, Switzerland, selected Barcelona to host the 1992 Summer Olympics, ahead of Birmingham, Amsterdam, Belgrade, Brisbane and Paris. Many people, including the authors, believe that the technical authority of the Birmingham Bid paved the way for future successful bids to host international sporting events by Manchester (2002 Commonwealth Games) and London (2012 Olympic Games).

Birmingham’s strategy had the principal aim of determining whether it could host an Olympic Games that would meet the spirit and letter of the Olympic Charter to a standard of which the Olympic movement and the City of Birmingham would be proud (the area’s existing facilities for sports, accommodation, transportation, communications and infrastructure were com-pared with the requirements and intent of the Olympic Charter to flag up existing suitable assets and those areas of deficiency for which development proposals should be made). The second aim of the strategy was to evaluate costs, revenues, cash flow and sources of funding to give a complete financial picture of achiev-ing the principal aim (assessment was also made of the economic impact of the Games on Birmingham and the Midlands). The third strategic aim was to group most of the Games together, and as close as possible to a single Olympic Village, in order to provide a compact Games as the best means of fulfilling the Olympic Charter (subsidiary venues should be for entire related events, should be few in number and have fast and convenient transport links to the Village). The fourth aim was to create any new

facilities both to commemorate the Games and to be of lasting benefit to the community. The final part of the strategy was to use as much existing modern infrastructure as possible in order to minimise capital spending.

Fundamental to the Bid was the ability to build the Olympic Main Stadium and the Olympic Village at the NEC, which would host the Olympic indoor sports including boxing, fencing, gym-nastics, handball, judo, table tennis, volleyball, weightlifting, wrestling and badminton. The NEC at that time comprised eight separate but linked halls of more than 100,000m² gross area (with clear heights of between 13.5m and 23m apart from Hall 8, clear height 8m). The NEC’s flexible, fully serviced, air-conditioned halls were supported by the main entrance concourse, permanent refreshment points, toilets, offices and storage space. Within the NEC’s landscaped grounds was permanent hard parking for 15,000 cars and 2000 coaches and a permanent infrastructure of access roads with direct and dedicated links to the trunk road and motorway system. Birmingham International Railway Station was contiguous with the NEC buildings, Birmingham International Airport lay within 1.5km (within a mile) of the NEC and there was a Maglev link between the rail and air terminals. The NEC directors, permanent staff and labour force were skilled and experienced at running major international events such as the Motor Show which ran continuously for 12 days, attracted up to 140,000 visitors per day and involved concurrent use of all the available space.

The NEC was already planning to double its facilities in the forthcoming 20 years. The first phase of this expansion, to provide an additional 20,000m² by 1988, would house the Games Technical Centre for the period up to and during the 1992 Olympics. Another 40,000m² of planned NEC expansion would be created by roofing over the specially-built main Olympic stadium after the event to form a giant clear span, covered exhibi-tion and multi-purpose hall. The 40ha (88 acre) Olympic Village for 14,000 athletes and team officials would be built using several basic types of module to create quality demountable structures (housing, restaurants, cinema, theatre, bank, shops) in a variety of layouts. The structures would be designed so that, following the Games, they could be relocated for reuse at urban renewal sites, holiday camps or overseas development projects.

No single location can accommodate the wide diversity of Olympic events but an attraction of the Birmingham Bid was the exceptionally close planned correlation of most activities. Four satellite multiple event centres were planned at Stoneleigh Park

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(equestrian events, shooting, archery and modern pentathlon), Perry Park, Birmingham (basketball, hockey), Birmingham (new centre for swimming, diving, water polo and synchronised swim-ming) and Holme Pierrepont, Nottingham (rowing, canoeing, kayaking). Three single event centres were planned at Edgbaston Priory, Birmingham (tennis), Birmingham (new velodrome for cycling) and Weymouth or Torbay (yachting). The Birmingham area was already rich in facilities for football with the proposed Olympic venues of Birmingham City FC, Aston Villa FC and West Bromwich Albion FC each having stadium capacities exceeding 40,000 spectators with all the associated management, support, transport, broadcasting and media infrastructure in place.

Some of the above-named locations are almost unbelievably appropriate for hosting Olympic events. Stoneleigh Park, within 20km (12.5 miles) of the NEC is an 800ha (1,760 acre) estate served by a road network inter-connected (by 1992) with the NEC by the M42 and M40 motorway system. It incorporates the National Agricultural Centre (NAC), the headquarters of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. The NAC is a permanent estab-lishment of 100ha (220 acres) comprising research, show, com-pany and administration buildings, together with stock accommodation. It is fully equipped with toilets, information kiosks, restaurants, bars and first aid centres, with telephone and radio paging. Included among the organisations which have their permanent headquarters within the NAC are the British Equestrian Federation, British Horse Society, British Show Jumping Association and Grand National Archery Society. The NAC permanent staff organises, administers and sets up events throughout the year. These events include the Olympic-scale Royal Show, a seven-day event attracting up to 100,000 visitors per day. The Grand Ring and Collecting Ring at NAC cover 2ha (4.4 acres). For the Olympics, the idea was to use temporary additional seating (16,000 seats) on three sides of the Grand Ring to supplement the 4000 capacity of the existing grandstand. Lord Leigh, owner of the Stoneleigh Park estate, had already agreed that his wider estate could be used for the endurance events which would require a larger area than that available on the NAC site.

Another satellite multiple event centre was Holme Pierrepont, planned venue for the rowing, canoeing and kayaking. This is the National Water Sports Centre and was purpose-built to host these sports. It had opened in 1973 and had already hosted the 1975 World Rowing Championships and the 1981 World Canoe Championships (with the 1986 World Rowing Championships due).

An example of a single event centre was Edgbaston Priory, planned for the tennis. This is the home of Edgbaston Priory Tennis Club, located 2km (1.25 miles) from Birmingham City Centre, where 20 grass courts and 19 hard courts made hosting Olympic tennis viable on either surface.

Capital costs of hosting the Games covered the costs of the Olympic Village and the International Centre (£63.2 million) plus local road works (£1.5 million) plus the new sports facilities (£144.2 million). The latter figure included the Olympic Stadium (£105 million), Swimming Centre (£20 million) and velodrome (£6 million). Operating cost estimates included the expenditure of the ITV/BBC broadcasting consortium and totalled £142 mil-lion (the operating cost for the 1976 Montreal Olympics was £152 million, roughly consistent with Birmingham’s figure). Studies of revenues and funding showed the Birmingham Olympics to be self-financing not only on the median estimate assumptions (which showed a surplus of over £300 million at 1985 prices and over £400 million on an inflated basis) but also on the low forecast.

On the basis of experience gained at Munich, Montreal and Los Angeles, some 5,000,000 tickets would be printed for the Birmingham Olympics, 30% of which would be distributed over-seas. On average, each overseas visitor would have three tickets, meaning that 500,000 people would visit the Games from abroad. The remaining 3,500,000 tickets would be divided between UK applicants such that 60% of total UK visitors were likely to reside within 32km (20 miles) of the Games, 30% within 160km (100 miles) and 10% further out (staying overnight in the vicinity). It was calculated that 164,000 bed spaces per night would be required for visitors to the Games. Because the number of bed spaces in the immediate vicinity was limited to 50,000 many visitors would base themselves further out, dispersing the eco-nomic impact of the Games over more of the country. In total, approximately 4.25 million people were expected to visit the Games.

The purpose of flagging up aspects of the Birmingham Olympic Bid has been to give an impression of the challenges of master-planning in terms of diversity of activity, complexity, sheer volume of work and operating to tight deadlines. It is also a tribute to the many participants in the Olympic bidding processes who put everything into winning the big prize but do not get the oppor-tunity to see their vision become reality.

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Olympian Games, Wenlock

It is a not so well-known fact that Baron de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympic movement, made a point of visiting the West Midlands in the autumn of 1890. He was there to see the local annual ‘Olympian Games’ that had been established by Dr William Penny Brookes (1809–1895) to ‘promote the moral, physical and intellectual improvements of the inhabitants of the Town and neighbourhood of Wenlock’. De Coubertin left suitably impressed and later credited Brookes with inspiring him to form the International Olympic Committee in 1894, which led to the first Olympic Games of the modern era. Sadly, Brookes died just four months before those Games were held in Athens in April 1896. Brookes’ enthusiasm for reviving the ancient Greek games is, however, not only manifested in the modern Olympic move-ment but also in the perpetuation of the Wenlock Olympian Games, which were held for the 122nd time on 11–14 July 2008, attracting athletes from all parts of the UK.

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Harborough Leisure Centre: airdome and pitched roof (2008)

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Multi-sports halls

The sports hall is the core component of a sports facilities build-ing. In the UK multi-sports halls are referred to, in terms of size, as being able to accommodate 4, 6, 8, 9, 12 or more badminton courts. Badminton is the yardstick, not only because it is a very popular sport, but also because it has some of the most demand-ing design criteria. It has the smallest court module, critical lighting requirements and stringent background colour consider-ations. So catering for badminton caters for some worst case scenarios.

Design criteria derived from the ‘badminton courts’ principle have general validity. They include the importance of clear height, flush surfaces, consistent colours, columns and beams which run between courts (to carry light fittings and division netting) and external columns or columns within or partly within external walls (never columns which project into the hall).

Different scales of sports hall provision will require corre-spondingly different scales of ancillary accommodation incorpo-rating changing rooms, fitness studios, equipment stores, plantrooms, offices, meeting rooms and a foyer. Additional sports and leisure facilities, such as swimming pools, may be provided within the single building development or in an adjacent building.

Building form

Sports facilities buildings, in common with other types of build-ing, are designed using flat, pitched or curved forms. Curved

forms may be arches and domes, for example, and may be built in concrete or steel or timber. The arch concept dates back more than 4000 years, to the Babylonians who lived on the flood plain of the River Euphrates. They cut mud into bricks and devised a wagon vault brick arch form of construction to confer structural strength. The Romans later built an empire using round stone arches for vaults, bridges and connecting columns. If a very wide arch or dome, say 200m+ (656ft+), is required then, today, steel is the obvious choice of structural material. Steel is also the com-mon choice for spans of 100m+ (328ft+), an example being the 10,000m² (108,000ft²) Manchester Velodrome which has a spec-tacular 122m (400ft) main arch. If a more usual span of 100m or less is required, then the client, architect and engineer have the choice of using steel, concrete or timber. An appropriate criterion of choice is economy of structural material. In the case of, say, a dome of 100m or less, the material choices in terms of depth of structure would rank steel above timber and timber above con-crete. But the choice will be influenced by the relative costs of the different materials, and alternative designs may narrow the cost gap.

The point is that all things are possible for facilities of usual, rather than unusual, dimensions. But the design solution should always be a good one – one that creates value and gives pleasure to facility users.

Roof structure

Selection criteria include foundation conditions, the necessary spans, the nature and magnitude of the loads to be carried,

Chapter 15

Bui ld ing form, s t ructure and facades

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lighting requirements, provision for building services, allowances for future facilities alteration, simplicity and speed of erection and – last-named but by no means least in importance – aesthet-ics. John Hurst, managing director of Tubeworkers Limited, said in the 1970s that he began selling tubular steel in construction by offering a better-looking building for the same price as a design in conventional steel sections (because, although the tubular steel was more expensive, less of it was needed to fulfil the same func-tion). So aesthetic issues are important and need not involve a cost premium.

Short-span construction is the cheapest form of construction. This is ruled out of sports building design because of the inherent need for large column-free areas which offer flexibility in use. Low clear internal height creates smaller enclosed volumes which are cheaper to heat. This too is ruled out of sports building design because restricting headroom restricts the sports that can be accommodated. Lighting considerations affect, in particular, very wide buildings, such as sports buildings, in which central areas cannot be adequately lit from the side walls.

Within these constraints, the flat roof option offers advantages. It restricts the enclosed volume to be heated to the minimum commensurate with creating the requisite headroom. Minimising the roof surface area minimises heat losses through the roof. These considerations comply with the generally accepted point of view that, as far as heating and lighting are concerned, the larger the span of the roof, the lower should be the pitch of the roof.

For sports buildings, which require large roof spans and wide column spacing, more expensive forms of construction may,

oddly, prove more economic in practice. For example, when rigid frames are used to decrease the volume of the enclosed space it is often advantageous to pitch the spanning members sufficiently to enable the use of economic forms of sheet roof covering which, for installation, require a fall of a few degrees.

For multi-sports halls in the UK, Sport England favours the use of curved cellular beams as an economic form of roof structure which provides an elegant and functional interior by avoiding a ridge. Mill-finish standing seam aluminium is likely to offer the best value for money for such an option.

Considerations relating to the building location may demand a more traditional slate or tile roof. In such cases, quality pressed sheet steel products can offer the same appearance without the weight penalty of the genuine article.

Design development considerations

Because cost of structure is a relatively low proportion (less than 20%) of overall building cost, significant increases in cost of structure may not significantly increase overall cost. However, in larger buildings, such as sports facilities, an increase in cost of structure may amount to a substantial sum of money, because the overall cost of the building is substantial.

Many early sports halls were built as column and truss frames, which are economic for spans up to around 30m (98ft). In such cases, the space above eaves level is obstructed by the trusses

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Sports hall arch: diagonal on square grid, 90m span (1990)

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and, over the wider spans, this represents a considerable addition to the enclosed space.

For spans up to around 45m (148ft), ‘umbrella’ roofs or north light roofs can be used. The north light option has lattice girders in the plane of the ridge. Here the costs are similar, for similar spans and support spacing, but the folded plate form does not restrict space under the roof.

In beam effect, girder and truss type structures, economy in material use can be achieved through increasing moments of inertia by increasing depth of structure. But this increases building volume, increasing capital costs (e.g. cladding) and operating costs (e.g. heating). It may make affordable otherwise more expensive (span for span) alternatives such as rigid frames or arches, which delineate more closely the volumes that they enclose. For these reasons, steel and reinforced concrete rigid frames, square and arched, are often designed for smaller spans even though more economic alternatives may be available.

Reinforced concrete rigid frames can prove economic up to around a 30m span but, above that, rigid steel frames have the advantage. Prestressed concrete may be competitive with solid web steel designs but, as spans increase further, designers will turn to the wider span capabilities of steel lattice girders. Aluminium structures offer big weight savings over steel struc-tures, and even more so over concrete structures, but only become cost-competitive when very wide spans are involved.

The stiffness of timber, relative to its weight and cost, makes it a valid choice for structures in which the load-carrying capac-ity is determined by flexural rigidity (e.g. structures which are

large in relation to the load they carry). Such structures include all types of roof, floors bearing light or moderate loadings and single-storey buildings (particularly those of large height and span). This clearly makes timber a viable option for the design of many types of sports centre and most types of individual sports halls and swimming pools. Timber lattice rigid frames are effective up to and around 30m span and timber bowstring trusses are among the options for wider spans. Laminated timber can be used to produce very light structures in attractive forms, such as hyperbolic paraboloid shells, elliptical domes and vaults.

Shell concrete construction is sometimes used for sports facili-ties buildings. It is economic in medium and wide-span roofs, using long-span barrels of 30–45m. It may not be the equal of steel in terms of cost and speed of erection but it is a superior solution in terms of maintenance requirement. Shell vaults can be prestressed and the advantage of prestressing increases with the size of span required.

Beam effect structures (see above) include space frame sys-tems. Sports buildings have demonstrated the potential of space frame construction better than any other building type. Space frames can be designed in steel, aluminium, concrete or timber. However, it was the introduction of steel structural hollow sec-tions which kick-started a trend of space frame construction for sports and leisure buildings. This is because tubular sections are more easily joined at any angle and their higher performance in compression produces lighter structures, particularly over large spans.

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Colne Leisure Centre (1992)

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Efficient and economic long-span roof structures for sports buildings can be achieved using tubular steel and conventional steel sections in combination, with the tubes acting as the com-pression members and the conventional sections acting as the tension members. Fixing is carried out more quickly in such cases because steelwork erectors can walk on the flat surfaces of con-ventional steel sections more easily than they can walk on round, square or rectangular tubes.

Facades

One of the simplest, shortest and best definitions of a facade is ‘the exterior front or face of a building’. This definition incorpo-rates facings, which require continuous background structure, and claddings, which create weatherproof enclosures by spanning between the elements of a building’s structure.

Facings include brickwork, which is better known in load-bearing construction. Solid masonry walls have the strength in

compression to produce economic small-scale buildings of all types where planning requirements are not limited by their use. Reinforced masonry walls can additionally withstand tensile and shear stresses, which has led to their successful use in seismic zones. However, brickwork also has the weathering properties, aesthetic appearance and range of colour to make it an appropri-ate facing to structural materials such as concrete, in which case the bricks need not be bonded and different types of straight jointed patterns may be used. Apart from the brickwork option, there are facing slabs of many different types, including natural stone (available in a vast range of colours, finishes and strengths), cast stone (made with a crushed stone aggregate and cement), concrete, terrazzo, terracotta and faience. Further facing options include hanging tiles and slates, permanent shuttering, timber facings, metal facings, plastics and glass.

Claddings carry their own weight and eliminate the need for continuous background structure. Examples include precast con-crete panels, glass curtain walling and profiled sheeting in plastics or metals. Precast concrete panels are kept down in weight by casting the panel body with a slender profile and casting ribs at

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I M Marsh Sports Hall, Liverpool (1993)

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the edges and, on larger panels, at intermediate positions. They can be designed to span vertically between floors, from which they obtain their support, or horizontally between columns. Glass curtain walling, with stainless steel or non-ferrous metal fixings, must be capable of resisting wind forces and of transmitting them to the structure. Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) cladding panels are lightweight, easily mouldable and capable of spanning large areas one or two storeys high. Sheet metal cladding, generally steel or aluminium, is profiled to confer the necessary stiffness between fixing rails. The sheets can be fixed directly to the rails, lined with insulating material or fabricated with internal and external metal surfaces sandwiching insulating material.

Even the most modern of these materials has been with us for longer than people might think. For example, the facades of the 1892-built Norrbotten-Kuriren newspaper office in Luleå, Sweden, were handmade in sheet steel units to give the appear-ance of brickwork. In the 1970s Swedish architect Bertil Franklin designed Luleå University wholly in coloured sheet steel, dem-onstrating to the world the wider, non-industrial, potential for this type of construction. Franklin, also a sports centre designer, wrote that:

‘Profiled sheet steel and its use on facades is characterised by: deep or shallow profile; scale; harmony; contrast; sur-face structure; colour. The pattern of the profiled sheet steel looks either smooth or bold. Research has shown that bold-ness is not only dependent on the depth of the section: the width of the top is of equal importance. Horizontal profile pattern strengthens the shadowing effects when the weather is cloudy. On a facade observed from the side, the shadow lines disappear on a vertical pattern but not on a horizontal one. The facades change character depending on the direc-tion of the light’.

The reason for dwelling on Luleå University is that, a decade after its construction, sheet steel was being used in the UK for the SASH centres (Chapter 7) making up the biggest sports facili-ties development programme the world had known. Sport England’s Design Guidance Note ‘Sports Halls: Design’ advises that, when selecting materials for external walls, consideration should be given to the following points:

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Tipton Leisure Centre (1998)

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Successful external claddings can include colour-coated steel. •Where profiled metal is used this looks better when run horizontally.Cedarboarding can be appropriate, is cheaper than metal •cladding and requires no maintenance.Metal cladding used above lower-level brickwork gives an •industrial appearance which may be inappropriate.External windows and door frames must be in powder-coated •aluminium or galvanised steel, UPVC or hardwood.

When selecting cladding materials, points to consider include: range of profiles available; choice of colours available; consis-tency of colour between batches; texture of finish; internal finish; need for protection before installation; formability, for making flashings; resistance to damage after installation; time to first maintenance; anticipated service life; resistance to ultra-violet light; chalking resistance; abrasion resistance; installed cost.

Air-supported structures

An example of innovation in stainless steel design is the Sports Centre at Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia, which was built 35 years ago. Here a membrane of 1.6mm thick stainless steel covers an area 73m × 91m (240ft × 299ft). The roof design eliminated the need for roof trusses or internal supporting members. A mod-est increase in air pressure circulated by ventilating fans supports the dome-shaped roof, which rises by 3m (10ft) at the centre.

Advanced technologies

Computing power has had, and continues to have, a profound effect on the visualisation and realisation of both traditional and new forms of construction, including forms of sports facilities construction. Technical developments include computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacture (CAM), leading up to computer-integrated manufacture (CIM).

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Dalplex Arena, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia:

aerial view (1975)

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Computerised design had been first used by the British con-struction industry in the complex engineering design of the Sydney Opera House in the 1960s. By the 1970s digital technol-ogy had become the ‘giant step for construction mankind’. Its potential fed out from design to fabrication and erection, and back again, creating a new holistic process that would revolu-tionise ways of working and open up vast new frontiers to building designers.

Designers and fabricators began working in more integrated ways to realise complex, challenging structures for traditional and new markets: taller structures, wider span structures and new types of structure. The enhancements and efficiencies gained were fed back into the industry’s mainstream activities. One significant col-laborative project was computer-integrated manufacture (CIM).

Steel is manufactured under highly controlled conditions. Steel sections have precise dimensions and properties. They can easily be machined, cut, folded, bolted and welded. These attributes created massive potential for innovation in the digital era. Complex building developments could be computer-modelled and visualised because of both the predictability of the products

and their well-documented common attributes. Other building materials such as timber and concrete did not necessarily lend themselves so well to this approach.

Meeting mechanical retooling needs and the resultant demands of economy of scale had hitherto been constraining factors on production. Now the reprogramming of digital milling equipment would incur only a modest cost premium, making viable the production of short runs of standard components. It would make feasible the construction of buildings based upon increasingly complex Euclidean geometries and non-geometric, amorphic ordering systems. The advantages would feed through to on-site assembly processes.

The authors were privileged to see a demonstration of the UK’s first computer-controlled steelwork fabrication system, as installed at the Bristol works of Robert Watson & Co (Steelwork) Limited in 1979. During the 1980s major steps forward were made in computerising steelwork fabrication techniques. By the late 1980s attention had turned to the potential for CIM.

At this time the European structural steelwork industry amounted to around 10%, in money terms, of the European

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Palavela, Turin: Winter Olympics 2006 ice skating facility (2005)

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construction industry. It employed more than 200,000 people directly and up to 600,000 people indirectly. The European market for structural steelwork was estimated in 1988 to be between 7 billion and 9 billion Ecu. This represented approximately 5 mil-lion tonnes of erected steelwork. The major consuming countries were the UK (1.26 million tonnes in 1988), West Germany (921,000 tonnes in 1987), France (700,000 tonnes in 1986) and Italy (610,000 tonnes in 1988). The market share of structural

steel compared with in-situ and precast concrete varied from one country to another; concrete held the dominant share in France but effective marketing had gained steel the premier position in the UK.

The Cimsteel (computer-integrated manufacture of structural steelwork) project was undertaken to place the European struc-tural steelwork industries in a world-leading position for the 1990s. It was developed and coordinated within the Eureka initia-tive, a collaborative framework to promote research and develop-ment projects between European firms.

In the late 1980s, computers were still being used principally to generate paper output, which necessitated subsequent physical transfer of the data between people and places. CIM’s aim was to develop the techniques and systems to enable information to be very efficiently generated on, exchanged between and pro-cessed by computers. This would, for example, make possible 24-hour working on major, challenging, complex projects through the electronic transfer every eight hours of project documentation between members of the design team located in three different time zones.

CIM Phase 1 took a little over 18 months and was completed in December 1988. The project team used functional and data analysis modelling techniques to break down the processes in which structural steel was designed, fabricated and erected. High-level functional analysis models were created and their extension provided the basis of the necessary information stan-dards. A complete product (structural steel) information data-base was generated, commencing with the client brief and expanding during design and fabrication. The collaborating team members investigated standards, structural design and analysis software, and computer-aided design (CAD). One detail system, BOCAD, was used to prototype interfaces between design and manufacture. BOCAD was chosen for its system of macros, which was capable of automatically generating steel-work connection details. The prototyping included the linking of a design and analysis software package, FASTRAK, with BOCAD to carry out the design, analysis and detailed design of a two-storey steel structure in a fully-computerised manner, with direct digital transfer of all information. The outcome was the product information database, or ‘product model’ using ISO-STEP (International Standards Organization – Standard for the Exchange of Product Model Information) terminology. The product model was the complete record of the steelwork struc-ture to which, and from which, any appropriate information

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New English National Stadium, Wembley, London:

315m span main arch under construction (2005)

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b u i l d i n g f o r m , s t r u c t u r e a n d f a c a d e s

could be added or retrieved during the design and construction processes, and afterwards.

Fundamentally, CIM linked CAD with computer-aided manu-facture (CAM). In CIM Phase 1 a mock-up of a CAD/CAM link between BOCAD and computer-controlled machine tools, includ-ing a welding robot, was successfully carried out. GRASP software was used by the Welding Institute to simulate and program the welding robot.

CIM Phase 2 involved producing improved design and analysis software, compatible with the product model, and creating a European environment in which standards and design models were amenable to efficient computerised solutions. A key Phase 2 activity involved producing a modular manufacturing informa-tion system (MIS). This incorporated improved computerised management techniques, for planning and control of the manu-facturing operation, and provided the mechanisms for integration of CAD with the direct digital control of machine tools and their associated production processes. The MIS was developed for compatibility with the product model and to provide an essential element of the future CIM system. As in design, the manufacturing activities addressed wider issues, including the development of a European quality assurance system and a European structural steelwork specification.

CIM Phase 2 was completed in 1998. It improved the com-petitiveness of the UK constructional steelwork industry and generated a range of outputs including the MIS specifications, business modelling and re-engineering publications. The work was subsequently extended (with the Steel Construction Institute, the British Constructional Steelwork Association and Mace Ltd) to optimise solutions for steel framed multi-storey buildings.

CIM was necessary before other hugely important research and development initiatives in the constructional steelwork and building industries could take place. Prominent among these, in 2008, is Computational Design and Optimisation (CDO). CDO involves formalising design tasks so that iterative computation, both interactive and automated, can be used to find feasible and performance-driven design alternatives that would be difficult to arrive at using only conventional computing and design pro-cesses. CDO builds on other emerging design technologies including algorithmic design, three-dimensional parametric and associative geometry, performance-based design and integrated design tools.

An insight into the advantages of these processes was provided by Mark Arkinstall, an engineer on the Beijing National Swimming

Centre (the Water Cube) for the Beijing 2008 Olympics. He con-sidered CDO essential in finding a feasible solution for this pool’s complex roof system, which consists of 25,000 steel members. Iterative search methods were employed to satisfy necessary design constraints, according to the Chinese steel design code, and to increase structural efficiency. This project demonstrates the application of CDO to realise inspirational building designs which are not possible using conventional design methods and analysis.

Kate McDougall is an engineer working on stadium projects. In April 2008 she said:

‘Stadia are all unique and they always incorporate complex geometry. Coordinating their design, planning and con-struction involves making many changes and updates throughout the project’s life cycle. This process is enhanced and facilitated through the use of 3D digital models. The software allows us to save costs by developing a route to manufacture early in the project and also by allowing us to make use of standard components to improve quality and make financial savings’.

MJ Long once said:

‘Much of twentieth century architectural experimentation has used steel to make lighter and lighter buildings whose weight, precision of manufacture, and assembly techniques can be measured against other industrial products. This in turn has led to the development of cooling systems, shading systems, and sophisticated insulation and cladding materi-als to counteract the loss of mass’.

MJ had pinpointed the way in which developments in steel con-struction would stimulate developments in construction as a whole. CIM and CDO are realising the vision.

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Chaska, Minnesota: volleyball (2007)

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Sprung floors

A sprung floor is a floor that absorbs shocks, so facilitating dance and indoor sports by enhancing performance and reduc-ing injury. Athletes and acrobats have for centuries understood the advantages of sprung take-offs and landings. Regarding dancing, those of you who’ve seen the John Ford film Wagonmaster (1950) may recall a scene in which the settlers dance to fiddle music on timber planks laid on the sand, en route to their destination in the San Juan River country, south-eastern Utah territory, in 1849. The first sprung floor (that the authors know of) was installed in the ballroom incorporated in the prime ministerial residence in Wellington, New Zealand, circa 1872. Subsequently sprung floors were installed for dance halls in embassies, hotels and private members’ clubs in the USA and Europe. With the 1920s came a surge of enthusiasm for music and dancing which led to the construction of large public dance halls and the widespread installation of sprung floors. This form of floor construction was then adopted for indoor sports facilities, initially for sports halls associated with the Berlin Olympics of 1936.

The top layer of a sprung floor is known as the ‘performance surface’ and the remainder is often referred to as the ‘sub-floor’ (although, confusingly, the term sub-floor may also be used to refer to the concrete or other material beneath a sprung floor). Performance surfaces include:

resilient pure vinyl; •wood; •poured urethane; •polypropylene interlocking tile; •

solid rubber; •vinyl composition tile (VCT). •

Maple was the first choice material (Bookwalter, 1947) for the performance surfaces of the early dance studios and sports halls, and is still a favourite. Basketball floors, for example, are highly engineered surfaces made of three-quarter inch (19mm) thick tongue-and-groove northern hard maple laid on plywood and supported by sleepers. (Northern hard maple is produced from trees grown north of the 35th parallel, where shorter growing seasons and longer winters produce maple with a closer, more uniform grain.)

Chapter 16

Indoor spor ts sur faces

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Gymnasium: footwear and sports surface interaction

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The earlier sprung floors were cushioned mechanically (some still are, principally for acrobatic and cheerleading applications). Most modern sprung floors are, however, supported by foam backing, rubber mounts or neoprene pads. Features include: an optimum amount of ‘spring’ to return energy when lifting feet; absorption of the energy of falls; appropriate traction; elimination of sideways movement; area elasticity (rather than point elastic-ity); appropriate colour (to enhance participation in dance or sport, and viewing of these activities); imperviousness to liquid spillages and other incidents which present dangers to dancers or sports participants. The requirements are complicated by the fact that, nowadays, relatively few sprung floors are activity-specific. Most have to cater for multi-purpose usage and have to be able to accommodate temporary seating and individual heavy objects (such as a piano or loaded mats trolley).

Sports halls designed with sprung floors in mind have required an allowance in depth of at least 100mm (approximately 4in) for the floor. This need has been a major constraint to laying a sprung floor in a hall not designed for it, impacting not only on the hall itself but also on door clearances and the levels of adjacent rooms and access ways. Designs have been developed to enable a sprung floor to be installed in a shallower depth of 50mm (approximately 2in) and some sprung floors developed for refurbishment projects have as shallow a depth as 30mm (1.2in approximately).

EN 14904: 2006 – indoor sports surfaces

EN 14904 ‘Surfaces for sports areas – indoor surfaces for multi-sports use. Specification’ was published in April 2006 by the Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN) on behalf of the 27-nation European Union (EU). The first part of the new European Norm covers safety and the second part covers technical require-ments. It contains definitions, describes test methods and gives minimum or maximum criteria. Previously, companies could quote different standards for different countries, which was com-plicated and confusing for customers. By setting a minimum and consistent standard for sports halls in the EU, wherever they are located, EN 14904 makes it easier to compare different types of sports floors in terms of their compliance with minimum safety and performance standards.

In June 2006 EN 14904: 2006 superseded DIN 18032-2, the German athletic surface standard, with which many indoor sports surfacing manufacturers in USA, Canada and Europe had been complying. Its application was demonstrated that year in sports hall developments associated with World Cup Germany 2006. All the EU countries and Iceland, Norway and Switzerland now use the European Norm.

In the UK from 30 June 2006, BS EN 14904: 2006 superseded BS 7044 part 4, which had been supported by the UK insurance industry as embodying a minimum specification for sports hall

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Western High School, Washington DC (circa 1899)

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floors from which causal claims for sports injuries could be defended. Sports floors which had met BS 7044 part 4 as a mini-mum standard now have to comply with the EN 14904 standard, which defines a sports floor in terms of its:

vertical deformation < 5mm (to reduce the risk of injuries •sustained by diving and falling);force reduction/shock absorption > 25% (to reduce injuries •such as shin splints, caused by jarring and vibration);uniform friction to optimise grip/slip performance across the •surface;vertical ball bounce which is true and consistent across the •floor;resistance to indentation, rolling loads and impact (especially •when the floor is used for sporting and non-sporting activities, and where bleacher seating may be used);abrasion resistance, to ensure durability and performance;•correct light reflection, for sighted and visually-impaired sports •participants who need to see line markings while moving at speed.

Sport England advises designers also to refer to CEN 217 for the design of some sports floors (particularly where higher level competition such as badminton is anticipated) and acknowledges that a sprung floor may require an alternative solution where indoor cricket is to be catered for (in which case ECB Technical Specification TS-6 should be referred to).

Conformity with EN 14904 is demonstrated by an initial type testing and a factory production control (FPC). The FPC requirement is deemed to be met by manufacturers that are ISO 9001 certified. Products meeting the essential requirements (ERs – see Chapter 11) are permitted to use the CE mark. In this case the ERs relate to:

friction; •durability; •reaction to fire; •shock absorbency; •the release of dangerous substances.•

DIN 18032-2

The idea of quality assurance for sports surfaces originated in Germany in the late 1970s. DIN standards were developed by the Otto Graf Institute, affiliated with the University of Stuttgart, Germany. Using the ‘Artificial Athlete Berlin’ apparatus, which simulated the response of a typical athlete’s interaction with a sports surface, tests were applied to point elastic (synthetic), area elastic (wood), combination and mixed flooring systems. The German initiative led to the DIN Standard 18032 Part II (1991) and the DIN Pre-Standard 18032 Part II (2001); the pre-standard replaced the 1991 version of the standard within Germany but was not universally accepted outside Germany.

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Sports surfaces

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DIN 18032-2 has now been superseded by EN 14904: 2006 but the DIN standard remains important because it has been used for sports surfaces which will be with us for years to come and it embodies well-developed test methods and requirements for indoor sports surfacing that promote resilience and durability. The DIN 18032-2 standard requires testing of the characteristics in Table 16.1.

Force reduction quantifies the ability of a designed surface to cushion impact. This ‘shock absorption’ value is expressed as a percentage of the value resulting from the same impact on a concrete surface. So the higher the figure the softer the surface, with a minimum 53% quoted in the DIN standard. Correct shock absorption reduces fatigue and lowers the risk of injuries to knee joints and ankles.

Vertical deformation is a measurement of the vertical deflec-tion or bending of a surface at the point of impact. The higher the figure the softer the surface, with a minimum 2.3mm quoted in the DIN standard. Inadequate energy return in an aerobic floor causes sore ankles and unsafe conditions for strenuous exercise. Conversely, excessive energy return increases injury risks due to trampoline-type effects.

Behaviour under rolling load is a pass or fail test, which verifies the ability of a surface construction to withstand a heavy load roll-ing across it. A loaded wheel is used to perform the test and a minimum 1500N (33.75lbf), representing a pass, indicates foot stability adequate to reduce foot roll-over and associated injuries.

Ball rebound is the measurement of the rebound height of a ball that has been dropped from a set height onto the surface. This test result is expressed as a percentage of the rebound height of the same ball dropped on to a concrete surface. A higher

percentage means a higher rebound, with a minimum 90% quoted in the DIN standard.

Sliding coefficient is a test of the finishing product applied to the surface system. A leather-lined test foot dummy is rotated down onto the surface and the ‘drag’ curve recorded. The result is expressed as a decimal figure and the higher the figure, the more resistant the surface is to sliding. The DIN standard quotes a range of 0.4–0.6 because both too little and too much slide can cause problems of rotational and pivoting motions which strain human joints. Aerobic flooring at the median figure of 0.5 pro-vides for the demands of platform and other high-impact routines.

Extent of deformation trough is a measure of the vertical deflection or bending of a surface system recorded in multiple directions at a distance of 50cm (19.7in) from the point of impact. This value is expressed as a percentage of the vertical deformation at the point of impact. The higher the percentage the greater is the spread of the trough to the surrounding area. An ideal sports surface reduces the spread of the trough to 15% or less in any direction. This is because, without proper impact isolation, sports participants’ movements can interfere with each other, increasing the possibilities of injury.

Sports hall floor coverings

Sports halls can rarely be reserved exclusively for athletic or dance activities. They are of a size and flexibility of use which gives them amenity value or revenue-earning potential for public or private assemblies, social events and cultural and entertain-ment purposes. It would, however, clearly be counter-productive to use a sports hall for such other purposes if the additional rev-enue generated were to be offset by damage, and hence cost, caused to the valuable performance surface.

Sports hall coverings date back to the late 1960s. They are used to prevent slip and fall accidents while at the same time protecting the underlying performance surface from damage caused by the movement of people or heavy objects. Types of floor covering material include carpeting, linoleum, vinyl, poly-ethylene and polyester. Typical material attributes include colour, filament size, weave count, weight, tear strength, tensile strength, adhesion, coefficient of friction, slip resistance, hydrostatic resis-tance, and fire resistance.

Test Requirement

Force reduction Min. 53%

Vertical deformation Min. 2.3mm

Behaviour under rolling load 1500N

Ball rebound Min. 90%

Sliding coefficient 0.4–0.6

Extent of deformation trough Max 15% (4 directions)

Table 16.1 Test area elastic systems: requirement to

which each test point must comply without averaging

(source: DIN 18032-2 standard)

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Sports floors life cycle costing

Due to the variety of floors and floor coverings available, sports facilities owners, operators and managers should consider life cycle costing when deciding what flooring to have installed. The installed cost for each floor option under consideration is capital cost + installation cost + floor covering cost + any equipment cost. The maintenance cost is maintenance materials cost per annum + labour cost per annum (average labour rate per hour × total hours worked per annum) × anticipated life in years and fractions of years of floor. Whole life cost (installed cost + maintenance cost) is divided by anticipated life in years for each floor option under consideration to give a comparative cost per annum.

Specifying indoor sports surfaces

For the life cycle costing calculation to be capable of validation, manufacturers must quote to a common specification. An indoor sports surface materials specification will include some, even all, of the following for the floor and, if appropriate, the floor cover-ing: dimensions (width, length, thickness); texture; colour; weight; abrasion resistance; static load limit; dynamic load limit; chemical resistance; compression set; dimensional stability; fungus resis-tance; critical radiant flux; hardness; sound insulation; ball rebound; force reduction (shock absorption); area deflection; coefficient of friction; light reflection; line paint; adhesive. The sports facilities design team, incorporating its facilities owner representative(s), may also require that the indoor sports surface system under consideration has been on the market for a specified number of years, will be manufactured in ISO 9001/ISO 14001 certified plant and is supplied/installed by a contractor/distributor approved by the system manufacturer and experienced in similar constructions over a specified number of years.

Cleaning indoor sports surfaces

Certain generalisations are applicable to sports surfaces, as to any indoor surface area in public use: people rarely slip on clean, dry floors; the principal cause of trip injuries is floors in poor condi-tion and/or bad housekeeping; hazards can be introduced by the

cleaning processes themselves. In the sports facilities that the authors use, the cleaning is excellent but the cleaners themselves are never seen, except in an emergency. This is because they always try always to clean the different parts of the building dur-ing those times when people are not using them. They plan not only to carry out their work with minimal disruption, but also to ensure that surfaces are dry before they are in use again. Cleaning staff can always be usefully consulted in any attempt to optimise the cleaning process because they work closer to the building than anybody else.

Gym mats

Gym mats are manufactured in all sorts of materials, linear dimen-sions, thicknesses and colours to suit a wide variety of sports-hall activities including gymnastics, aerobics, cheerleading, physical education, Pilates and yoga. They may be water-resistant, fire-retardant and have anti-bacterial properties.

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Sutton Arena, Surrey: indoor pole vault (2003)

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The wider and thicker (non-folding) gym mats are heavy and awkward to carry, and may be distributed around the sports hall using a gym mat trolley. Such trolleys often have a welded tubular steel frame, to eliminate sharp edges, with a wooden platform for the mats. They may use wheels, fixed castors and swivel castors – braked as appropriate.

Indoor pole vault

Pole vault beds need about 50m³ (1766ft³) of space. Their soft landing mattresses contain foam filling, which is a fire hazard. These should be stored within 1.5m (4.9ft) of fire sprinkler nozzles or, better still, in separate, fire-resistant steel containers or out-houses. Storage requirements for pole vault stands are 4m (13.1ft) minimum ceiling height and 30m² (232ft²) of floor space, if stacked horizontally. Units must be fastened for storage in accor-dance with manufacturers’ recommendations. Specialist mobile

covers are available but, when the pole vault is in progress, these covers must always be completely clear of the landing area. In the USA in 2002 the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) made padding around the base of the standards holding the cross-bar mandatory, to improve safety. This padding had previously been recommended but not required. If spectators are present in the sports hall where the pole vault is taking place then, in common with other field events, the performance area should be distanced from the spectator seating.

Boxing rings

The boxing ring is a raised, square platform with a canvas surface overlying approximately 1in (25.4mm) of padding. Flexible ropes are secured to steel posts at the four corners of the ring. The dimensions of the ring depend on the organisation under whose auspices the boxing contest is staged. Rings range in size from

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Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games:

the Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre (SECC)

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16ft × 16ft (4.8m × 4.8m) for smaller rings up to 20ft × 20ft (6m × 6m) Olympic standard and above – to approximately 25ft × 25ft (7.6m × 7.6m).

Wrestling rings

Wrestling rings generally comprise an elevated steel beam and wood plank stage, covered by foam padding and a canvas mat. The sides are then covered with an ‘apron’ to prevent spectators from seeing underneath. Around the ring are three cables, the ‘ring ropes’, encased in tubing (e.g. rubber hosing) and held up by turnbuckles. Ring dimensions range from approximately 14ft × 14ft (4.25m × 4.25m) up to 20ft × 20ft (6m × 6m), with the 18ft × 18ft (5.5m × 5.5m) version being regarded as standard in the USA and Canada. The apron area of the ring floor extends 1– 2ft (30–60cm) beyond the ropes and the ring floor is generally 3–4ft (90–1.2m) above the ground. Rings may have a suspension

system with a large coil spring underneath the stage to reduce the impact of a fall. Softer springs are safer for the competitors but stiffer springs provide a more realistic visual experience for spectators. A newer style of ring construction uses a ‘flexi-beam’, instead of a spring, to transfer impact forces to the steel beams.

The term ‘squared circle’ is often used to refer to the wrestling ring. This originates from Greco-Roman wrestling, where the action takes place on a square mat with a circle painted on it. This format is still used in amateur wrestling.

Velodromes

A velodrome will normally be among the new sports facilities built for an Olympic Games or Commonwealth Games. An example is the Dunc Gray Olympic Velodrome built for Sydney 2000 which, with its 130m × 100m span steel grid shell roof, is one of the largest structures of its type in the world. It was also

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Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games:

Kelvinhall International Sports Arena

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a world’s first in terms of construction sequence, erection being completed in record time without using temporary falsework or props (leaving the interior free for ongoing construction). Other achievements included sustainable design, the integration of acoustics and noise control into a naturally-ventilated building and a state-of-the-art stormwater environmental quality control system featuring a water ‘polishing’ pond.

Modern velodromes have steeply-banked oval tracks of two 180° circular banks connected by two straights. Outdoor tracks may be constructed of timber trusswork surfaced with rainforest wood strips. Indoor velodromes are usually built with less expen-sive pine surfaces. An alternative is the type of synthetic surface, supported on steel frames, that was introduced for the 1996 Atlanta Olympics. Tracks may range from 133m (436ft) to 500m (1640ft). Olympic standard velodromes may only measure between 250m and 400m, and the length must be such that a whole or half number of laps gives a distance of 1km. The smaller the track, the steeper is the banking – a 250m track banks around 45° and a 333m track banks around 32°. Shorter, newer and Olympic standard tracks tend to be in wood or synthetic materi-als. Longer, older or less expensive tracks may be in concrete,

macadam or sometimes cinder. The track infield (the ‘apron’) is separated from the track by a blue band (the côte d’azur). A 5cm (approximately 2in) wide black line, 20cm above the blue band, has an inner edge which defines the length of the track. The outside edge of a 5cm wide red line (the ‘sprinter’s line’) is located 90cm above the inside of the track. The zone between the red and black lines is the optimum route around the track. A rider leading in this zone cannot be passed on the inside – other riders must pass on the longer outside route. Design challenges include the fact that, although a cyclist and bike may have a combined weight of less than 100kg (220lb), allowance has to be made for motor pacing which may involve four cyclists trailing four motor cycles at 85kmh (53mph). This will create massive centrifugal force through, say, a 24m radius curve, such that even a sprint cyclist can be subject to a 4g force through the final curve, which equates to half a tonne on the wheels.

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Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games:

Chris Hoy Velodrome

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i n d o o r s p o r t s s u r f a c e s

Back to the future

Among the carvings in the tomb of Kheti at Beni Hassan (Egypt’s Middle Kingdom, approximately 2040–1640bc) there is a depic-tion of two boys sitting back-to-back with arms intertwined and legs outstretched. The point of their game seems to be either to move the opponent from his position or to stand up from the sitting position. Archaeologists have referred to the boys as ‘sitting on the ground’. This is not so – it is clear to the authors that one boy is seated on the ground and the other is seated on a slightly raised surface. Could the raised surface be a ‘gym mat’, in use well before the gymnasium was invented in ancient Greece (1100–146bc)? Could the difference in seated height of the two boys, created by the mat, be fundamental to the rules of the game being played?

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Tomb of Kheti, Beni Hassan, Egypt: carving (2100–1900BC)

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Harborough Leisure Centre: Spinning Hall ceiling (2008)

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Introduction

Heating, ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC) are means by which a controlled thermal environment is created within a build-ing. In the case of sports facilities, the aim is not only to achieve comfortable conditions for the building users but also conditions which enhance user performance. Thermal comfort depends on the temperature of the air surrounding the human body, the tem-perature of adjacent surfaces, the relative humidity of the air and movement by the air. It is a complicated business because it has to take into account the building users, building contents and the building fabric.

Additional complications of achieving thermal comfort for sports buildings arise because many very different activities take place within them. Even similar types of activity may demonstrate differences in appropriate thermal comfort. For example, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) recommends a temperature of 60–68°F (15.5–20°C) for court sports but a tem-perature of 60–65°F (15.5–18.3°C) for squash courts (with, in each case, relative humidity of 60% or less and 8–12 air exchanges per hour for enclosed courts). Appropriate temperatures for dif-ferent types of general activity pursued within sports buildings range from circa 68°F (20°C) for heavier-clothed winter activities to circa 70°F (21°C) for lightly-clothed summer activities, circa 72°F (22°C) for all-year-round sedentary activities and circa 78°F (26°C) for bathing and showering (a temperature that would otherwise cause drowsiness).

A further complication is the fact that the rate of heat flow through most media between points of different thermal potential is slow. Account has therefore to be taken of ‘thermal lag’ or ‘thermal inertia’.

Chapter 17

Heat ing, vent i la t ing and a i r-condi t ion ing

Ventilation strategy

Many ventilation strategy options are available from within the three categories of totally natural, totally mechanical and mixed mode (a combination of natural and mechanical). Natural ventila-tion, which uses the pressure differential of the external and internal environment, requires little or no energy input. Mechanical ventilation can be provided by a fan system designed to meet specific air-change requirements, occupancy levels and user

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Barnsley Metrodome (1993)

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activities (associated heat recovery systems can reduce the cost of cooling or heating incoming air by recovering energy from cool or warm exhaust air). Mixed-mode ventilation uses natural ventilation but with air-conditioning, operated at part-load, to heat or cool as demand increases or climate changes.

Designing heating and cooling systems

Heating and cooling plant is needed to achieve and maintain a constant and desirable internal temperature, balancing out heat gains and losses by transferring heat between airstreams, from building areas of heat gain to building areas of heat loss. Plant

sizing is based on the characteristics of the building fabric, the building orientation, data collected on the extreme external temperature variations and solar conditions, and data collected on the building’s internal sources of heat gain and loss.

Variations in heat loss throughout the day can, assuming a constant warm indoor temperature, be calculated from the exter-nal temperature data by applying an equation of thermal transmit-tance for the building fabric. Internal heat gains can be computed from the heat output of the various activities taking place within the building together with the outputs of heat-emitting fittings, devices and equipment in use. The other inputs to the calculation (building fabric and building orientation/solar gain) suggest that HVAC issues need to be considered at early stages in the planning and design processes.

Criteria determining the sizing and selection of the ventilation system include:

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Barnsley Metrodome (1993)

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introduction of adequate quantities of fresh air for building •users; removal of impure air and odours; •control of humidity levels; •control of summertime internal temperatures; •control of temperature throughout the year, where the ventila-•tion system is also used for space heating; sports-driven requirements such as the need to maintain low •air movement in playing zones (e.g. air velocity of less than 0.1m/sec for badminton); acoustics, noise and vibration. •

Adequate indoor air quality (IAQ) cannot be achieved without adequate ventilation. Poor IAQ leads to sick building syndrome. HVAC systems incorporate filters to clean air but, if the filters are dirty or damp – or if there is uncontrolled moisture in ducts

or drip pans – then the HVAC system can itself become a source of pollution. This flags up the crucial importance of systems maintenance, through efficient facilities management, which will not only maintain IAQ but will also decrease operating costs (because properly-maintained equipment operates more efficiently).

Multidisciplinary team approach

When the HVAC engineering of sports facilities is considered, clear benefits can be seen from deliberate joining up of the plan-ning, building design and facility management processes. Fundamentally, user demands established in the planning stages determine the size of building required, and the requisite size

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can be provided in ways which optimise the layout of the facilities contained and the cost of servicing them.

For example, rate of heat transfer is proportional to surface area (Chapter 15: Building form, structure and facades). The layout of sports facilities within a building envelope, and location of the spaces which need to be heated and cooled, are therefore of fundamental importance to the control of the building’s running costs because the heating load in a building of given volume will be greater if the facilities are dispersed in layout than if they are of compact layout. The compact layout also reduces the distance of the primary heating or cooling source from the spaces to be heated and cooled, and user demands (for building services), together with user distance (from primary heating or cooling source), are determinants in the sizing calculations of ductwork and pipework. These criteria impact on both spatial and cost considerations. However, if a building is so compact that excess internal heat gains cannot be dissipated, then an excessive cool-ing load will be generated, which will be costly to manage. These issues are best addressed holistically in an interdisciplinary team-working approach.

Energy efficiency

Global warming and rising energy costs are rapidly and irrevers-ibly raising the importance of excellence in HVAC design. For example, in England and Wales in 2006 Building Regulations required, for the first time, energy-efficient systems in buildings that are air-conditioned or mechanically ventilated. Part L2 of the Building Regulations 2006 addresses the performance of air-conditioning and mechanical ventilation systems that serve floor areas of more than 200m² (2150ft²) by:

targeting reductions in load (and therefore emissions) by •improving building materials and building design;targeting improved efficiencies and performances in energy-•using devices such as chillers and fans;promoting the use of energy-recovery devices.•

These are major changes in the Building Regulations, neces-sitating that the carbon footprint of a new building must better the 2002 standard by up to 28%. Improvements have to be dem-onstrated at planning application stage, by calculation, and when

the building is completed, by air-tightness testing. With specific regard to air-tightness, the leakage allowance is reduced from 12m³/h/m² to 10m³/h/m² at 50Pa (significantly reducing energy loss through leaks and thereby significantly reducing the amount of energy required to ventilate).

Calculations of improvements in energy efficiency are also needed for the asset rating of existing buildings for sale or rent.

Aspects of ‘improving building materials and building design’ are certain to include the reduction of solar gain by the use of materials and glazing with better thermal transmittance proper-ties. There is also scope for improving mechanical handling because many existing systems are simply over-designed – loads greater than 120W/m² (38Btu/ft²h) are excessive and, with current best practice, could be reduced to about 80W/m² (25Btu/ft²h).

Examples of improved efficiency targets for ventilation include the setting of a maximum specific fan power (SFP = the total power consumption of all fans in a system, in watts, divided by the volume flow of the system, in litres). For central systems providing heating and cooling without energy recovery, the SFP targets are 2W/litre/sec in new buildings and 2.5W/litre/sec in refurbishments. In buildings with energy recovery, the SFP targets are 2.5W/litre/sec in new buildings and 3.0W/litre/sec in refur-bishments. Mechanical ventilation systems should be capable of achieving an SFP at 25% of design duty flow rate which is no greater than that achieved at 100%. The targets should be achiev-able with most speed-control systems, especially EC drives and variable-frequency drives. There are fixed losses in motors and drives that would remain the same at lower speeds. While some motors become less efficient at reduced speeds, this is offset by the power fan law that impeller shaft power varies as the cube of the speed (so that, at one-quarter of the full speed, the fan shaft power will be 1/64th of the full-speed fan power, or less than 2%). Motors should be EFFI type high-efficiency motors.

Humidification

A dry indoor environment causes headaches, skin rashes and sore throats. It leads to eye irritation by evaporating the thin layer of moisture on the cornea of the eye and by depositing dust and dirt on contact lenses. Sports building users are not as immediately sensitive to these effects as they are to the effect on the body of heat or cold. One sure sign of dry air is electrostatic shocks, which

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h e a t i n g , v e n t i l a t i n g a n d a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g

occur below 40% relative humidity (RH) but are absent above that figure. The optimum indoor RH is 40–60%.

Problems associated with dry air are readily eliminated by the incorporation of a humidifier within the building’s air-condition-ing system. Points to consider when choosing the right humidifier include energy use, Legionnaires’ disease legislation, water sup-ply, cold water or steam, gas or electric, evaporative or spray, humidifier location, control compatibility and maintenance requirements.

Energy recovery devices

Devices used in air-handling units for air-to-air energy recovery include thermal wheels, plate heat exchangers and run-around coil systems. Thermal wheels are a standard 500mm long, what-ever their height and width, and can recover up to 90% of the energy in extract air (typical performance is 75–85%). Plate heat exchangers recover 50–65% of the energy in extract air. Run-around coils recover 45–55% but are popular because they pres-ent no risk of transfer between extract and supply airflows.

HVAC system components

Pipes may be in aluminium, or in nickel–copper alloy or copper (with solder-type or brazed fittings) or in steel, with cast-iron screw-type fittings up to 73mm (2.5in) pipe and steel butt-welded fittings for pipe sizes of 88.9mm (3in) and over. Galvanised steel may be used, and iron or steel couplings where permitted. Pipes of dissimilar metals should not be used in the same pipe run. Ancillary equipment includes hangers, sleeves, escutcheons, roller supports, expansion joints, access doors, anchors to struc-ture, valves, traps and strainers.

Ducts may be in traditional or newer materials ranging from galvanised iron or steel, or black iron, to stainless steel, copper, polyurethane duct board (pre-insulated aluminium), fibreglass duct board (pre-insulated non-metallic) or flexible tubing (flex). Gauge depends on application, unsupported length and fire resis-tance requirements. It should be noted that flex, typically flexible plastic over metal coil wire (to create the tubular shape), is con-venient for attaching supply air outlets to rigid ductwork but has

a greater pressure loss than the other types of duct. Designers and installers try to keep their installed lengths (runs) of ductwork down to around 5m (around15ft) and to minimise turns.

Additional HVAC system components include return and exhaust registers, ceiling and linear supply diffusers, linear return and transfer grilles. Ventilation equipment includes filters (e.g. panel, cartridge, roll-type, grease and activated carbon), heating and cooling coils, fans (axial, filter and blowers), thermal manage-ment devices (enclosure heaters, thermostats and hygrostats), air-handling units (AHUs) and fan-coil units. Accessories include fan guards and belt drives.

HVAC systems control

The natural, mechanical and mixed mode ventilation strategies described at the beginning of the chapter can be made increas-ingly energy-efficient by matching the flow rates delivered to the demand for them and by controlling the operating times. There is scope for changing ventilation rates in sports facilities, in line with changing patterns of use throughout the day. For example, increases in levels of carbon dioxide or pollutants can be used to trigger variable damper opening, by which more or less air can be introduced into the building.

Controls are used to operate plant when, where and as required. A familiar example is the time switch, which effectively controls processes that occur at regular intervals.

Optimisers are more advanced types of time switch, for use in buildings which are heated intermittently. They are connected to internal and external temperature sensors which determine the appropriate time for the building heating system to switch on, in order to reach the desired internal temperature at the start of building use. As the building approaches ‘closing time’, opti-misers can switch off the heating at the earliest time from which the internal temperature will stay above or at the comfort level.

A humidistat measures the humidity of the air, activating ven-tilation when humidity exceeds a predetermined threshold and turning it off when levels fall below that threshold (it is an essen-tial component of a pool hall energy-efficient ventilation system, where it should be reset depending on the temperature of the coolest surface, where condensation is most likely to occur). Other controls devices include weather compensators (which control the flow temperatures of radiator water according to

152

external temperatures), zone controls (which heat or cool different parts of a building at different times according to user needs and local solar gains), room thermostats (which regulate temperatures in individual spaces to prevent overheating and wasted energy) and thermostatic radiator valves (which control output from indi-vidual emitters).

Schwimmsporthalle, Berlin

The competition pool at the Schwimmsporthalle is probably the first in the world to have an air distribution strategy based on the use of low-velocity air from beneath the tiered seating. Air is extracted both at high level and via overflow ducts at the edge of the pool. The pool water temperature varies between 26°C (78.8°F) for competitions and 28°C (82.4°F) during normal use. In spectator areas, levels of temperatures and humidities are critical. International Swimming Federation (FINA) standards stipulate that spectator areas are kept at 1K (1°C, 1.8°F) above pool water temperatures. Significant technical issues had to be addressed, including the tendency of air to cascade from specta-tor areas towards the pool, causing discomfort and unpredictable water evaporation. The normally available computational fluid

dynamics (CFD) tools were unsuitable for resolving combined heat and water evaporation issues, so a series of bespoke algo-rithms was developed. The CFD analysis also helped to test ways to prevent air cascading towards the pool, including the introduc-tion of a heated floor around the pool. Evaporation rates were also reduced to avoid condensation and achieve savings in heat-ing and treating pool make-up water. With spectator-level air supply, substantial savings against high-level supply were pos-sible in both capital and running costs. Air is supplied at 26–34°C (78.8–93.2°F), rather than the 18–20°C (64.4–68°F) of a conven-tional high-level mixing system.

Only the occupied zones were treated, rather than the whole space, so chillers and ventilation plant capacities were reduced. Further energy savings were achieved by using outside air for ‘free cooling’. The risk of winter condensation is very high, so condensation on the glazed roof and facades is prevented in several ways. The Schwimmsporthalle’s relative humidity is lim-ited to 55%RH, while the cold but very dry air of Berlin is exploited to absorb the moisture-laden air of the pool halls. To achieve this economically, outside air is brought in and re-heated using reclaimed heat from exhaust air, before being introduced into the building. Internal moisture contents are controlled by sequentially increasing the proportion of dry outside air and increasing the supply air accordingly. When the target moisture

17.5

Schwimmsporthalle, Berlin (1999)

153

content can no longer be achieved, the supply air nearest to the glazed areas is heated further to raise the dew-point and avoid condensation.

The technique adopted for air distribution gives both lower running costs and smaller air-handling plants, chillers, and boil-ers. Using combined heat and power (CHP) to generate on-site electricity and heat yielded further energy savings. Pool water pre-heating for the competition, training and diving pools is achieved by using heat rejected from the refrigeration plant. This is supplemented, as and when necessary, by the Berlin district heating system (via two plate-type heat exchangers). Heat is recovered from the showers to preheat domestic hot water. Fabric heat losses and gains are greatly reduced because the building is

below ground and has well-insulated roofs, slabs and walls. The resulting energy savings are appreciable, given Berlin’s climate, with aggregate savings in plant costs estimated at about £750,000 (DM2.376 million = €1,214,829). This figure does not include the cost of the space saved to accommodate otherwise larger plant. Savings in running costs are heavily dependent on use, but, on average, are estimated at around £230,000 pa (DM730,000 = €373,242). The brief from the client was to design a world-class Olympic water sports competition venue where records could be broken. In addition to meeting the brief in terms of pool water quality, the design maximises cleanliness, increases efficiencies and reduces maintenance requirements.

17.6–17.8

Schwimmsporthalle: (top) overall ventilation strategy;

(left) underseat air supply; and (right) main electrical distribution

18.1

Beijing 2008 Olympics: Technology Operations Centre

155

Electrical engineering and the regulatory context

Key drivers in electrical engineering include:

safety and reliability of installation and operation; •versatility to embrace multiple equipment changes; •flexibility to cater for future IT and electrical technological •advances; minimal possible visual intrusion; and •execution to the prevailing standards for sporting venues and •public buildings.

Electrical work must be undertaken within the regulatory frame-work of the appropriate country. In the UK work is carried out to BS 7671: 2008, which is also known as the IEE Wiring Regulations 17th Edition and is virtually a European document. Many of the changes to the superseded 16th Edition have been made because of the formal incorporation of CENELEC drafts required to achieve European harmonisation.

Power and plant

Electricity is used in sports facilities developments to power fixed equipment (e.g. elevators), portable equipment (e.g. vacuum cleaners) and critical functions such as lighting, cooking, space heating, communications and automation. Principal plant areas that may be needed are: intake rooms for water, gas, electricity

and communications; transformer chambers and switchrooms; tank rooms for water and oil; standby generator rooms; boiler and calorifier rooms; sewage pump rooms; lift motor rooms; air-handling and air-conditioning plantrooms; building management system control rooms. These make up a significant proportion of the building’s floor area and enclosed volume.

Electricity demand

It is important to calculate maximum electrical demand charac-teristics at an early stage because this affects electrical design and enables the electricity company to confirm that a supply can be made available. There are two methods of calculating maxi-mum electrical demand: summation of individual connected loads with application of diversity factors (whereby, in any given installation, some of the connected loads will not be running concurrently with other loads) and comparison with a table of norms for similar installations. In practice, a combination of both methods is often adopted.

Demand for electricity in buildings grows, often dramatically, over time. While traditional electrical loads such as lighting have become more efficient, overall electrical supply to buildings has increased because of computing and data processing loads. Most of the sports and leisure buildings that came into use in the 1980s are still operating, but it is hard to look back 20 years and imagine, for example, their gymnasiums without plasma screens or interac-tive training equipment.

The established trend of increasing demand for electricity within buildings gives owners and their design teams the

Chapter 18

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156

opportunity to consider from the outset the potential implications on installed electrical plant capacity and distribution cabling. Alternative strategies that might be considered include initial oversizing of plant and incremental addition and planning for future replacement. The latter two options will be more attractive if there is a lack of confidence in continual year-on-year increase in the volume of building users. Because of the significance of the plant in terms of volume and area, the relative spatial char-acteristics need to be considered.

Electrical system design

Designing an electrical system involves, sequentially:

identifying and quantifying loads; •visualising and sketching the system and considering the loca-•tion of components, such as main switchgear and risers;

final circuit design, using ‘nominal’ parameters for volt •drop; designing and sizing protection of conductors of sub-mains, •checking discrimination with final circuits if necessary; designing and sizing protection of conductors of main switch-•gear and coordinating with size of incoming supply.

The latter is informed by the maximum demand established during the identification and quantification of loads. When carrying out a design in practice, adjustments will be made at the various stages.

Electrical installations are divided into circuits to:

avoid hazards and minimise inconvenience in the event of a •fault; facilitate safe inspection, testing and maintenance;•take account of potential danger due to the failure of an indi-•vidual function (e.g. lighting); reduce tripping of residual current devices (RDTs) due to •excessive protective conductor currents produced by equip-ment in normal operation; reduce the effects of electromagnetic interference; •prevent indirect energising of a function intended to be •isolated.

Electrical distribution

The electricity supplied to a sports facilities development, via armoured cable, has to be distributed to locations of very different demand within the building. Distribution cables are usually:

PVC insulated, in conduits of steel or plastic; •PVC insulated, PVC sheathed; •mineral insulated copper or aluminium conductors. •

Cables for the supply of specific currents at specific voltages must be appropriately sized, while ensuring that the voltage drop over the cable is not so great as to adversely affect the functioning of facilities and equipment being supplied.

As with HVAC demand (Chapter 17) cost of distribution increases as the distance of demand point from supply point

18.2

The Dollar Mountain Lodge, Sun Valley, Idaho:

high-end electrical installation at ski resort (2004)

157

increases. Therefore, locating facilities of relatively high electrical demand adjacent to the main distribution board makes sense in terms of controlling running costs. The benefit of positioning the incoming electricity supply point close to the load centre of the installation is another reason for early discussion with the elec-tricity company.

Electric wiring

In the UK, wiring systems design complies with the Codes of Practice issued by the British Standards Institution and the Home Office. They specify that all wiring should be enclosed by suitable protection against physical damage (i.e. steel wire armoured or mineral insulated cables and steel or PVC conduit). Unprotected sheathing may only be used for extra-low voltage non-emergency circuits.

Unenclosed cables should be untangled before extensive clip-ping can be applied. One solution to the problem of cable fixing is to carry groups of sheathed cables through trunking which must be sufficiently large to handle the bulk without overcrowding. Surface-run cable drops down walls to heaters and sockets must be enclosed in conduit or mini-trunking for both protective and aesthetic reasons.

The best method of protecting electrical cables is to locate them along safe routes. Conduit and trunking are best sourced from the same manufacturer, to ensure compatibility of appear-ance and fit.

Cable protectors

Electrical installation products include cable accessories. An example of this type of product is the floor-laid rubber cable protector which safeguards dangerous loose cables from damage and prevents tripping and falling. It is safe and easy to use simply by snapping open the membrane in the base, pushing in the cables and laying them flat. For purposes of illustration we have chosen to show a general workplace image, but these types of cable protection are commonly used in sports facilities and especially gymnasiums, where they can render safe and tidy the wiring to the individual training items in groups of cardiovascular and resistance equipment. Another type of cable protection is the temporary traffic-calming cable protector, which may be used in access road and car park areas around sports facilities. This comprises two products in one, controlling the speed of traffic and at the same time covering heavy duty cables or cable looms up to 50mm in diameter. The yellow hazard strips on both sides of the black profile give early warning of the danger of speed in confined areas.

Electrical equipment

Electrical equipment includes any item used for generation, conversion, transmission, distribution or use of electrical energy, such as machines, transformers, apparatus, measuring instruments, protective devices, wiring systems, accessories, appliances and lighting. Selecting equipment involves considering:

18.3

Buntingford Sports Pavilion,

Hertfordshire: power, lighting,

window, shutter and shower

controls (2004)

f a c i l i t i e s d e v e l o p m e n t

158

compliance with the appropriate product standards; •suitability for the anticipated operational conditions; •suitability for the anticipated external influences; •provision for adequate accessibility for maintenance. •

Equipment may be manufactured to BS, EN, IEC, USA or other standards.

Ingress protection (IP)

Many enclosed electrical and other products used in the sports industry have IP ratings. Protection categories to EN 60 529/IEC 529 (degrees of protection provided by enclosures) are expressed in an IP code based on numerals which indicate the degree of protection afforded to the equipment from the ingress of foreign bodies such as tools, dirt and fluids. The indicative numerals fol-low the IP prefix and may precede letters which give supplemen-tary information.

Following the IP prefix, the first numeral indicates protection against solid foreign objects: 0 – not protected; 1 – objects with diameter 50mm and greater; 2 – objects with diameter 12.5mm and greater; 3 – objects with diameter 2.5mm and greater; 4 – objects with diameter 1mm and greater; 5 – dust-protected; 6 – dust-tight. Following the first numeral, the second numeral indicates protection against water: 0 – not protected; 1 – vertically falling water drops; 2 – vertically falling water drops when the enclosure is tilted up to 15°; 3 – spraying water; 4 – splashing water; 5 – water jets; 6 – powerful water jets; 7 – effects of tem-porary immersion in water; 8 – effects of continuous immersion in water.

Examples abound: a 30mm (1.2in) long LED panel indicator may be dust-tight and temporary-immersion proofed to IP67, while a 1240mm (48in) light diffuser may be rated IP44, with protection against solid foreign objects of 1mm diameter or greater and splashing water. Electric fans may be, say, dust-pro-tected and splash-proof to IP54 or dust-protected and water-jet proof to IP55. The facility inspector (see below) may carry his or her electronic and electromechanical testing and measurement instruments in a case which is dust-tight and water-jet proof to IP65.

Part 7s

Part 7 of BS 7671: 2008 covers electrical installations in ‘Special installations or locations’. Six new ‘Part 7’ special locations are introduced. Two of these are of particular interest to sports industry professionals: bathrooms containing a fixed bath or shower and swimming pools and other basins. In each case, zoning principles of the previous edition of the Regulations are perpetuated but Zone 3 is eliminated, meaning that equipment can now be installed at the boundary of Zone 2. Locations containing a fixed bath or shower include sports buildings and sports clubhouses: Zone 0 is the bath or shower tray; Zone 1 is the area where a person bathes or showers, or the area where water is likely to be directly sprayed; Zone 2 is the area beyond Zone 1, extending a further 600mm. The zoning concept applied to swimming pools and other basins has to accommodate per-mutations of swimming pools above and below ground and fountain basins. In all cases, however, it is the safety of the unclothed or minimally clothed facility users which is of para-mount importance.

Ingress protection ratings apply, i.e. swimming pool equipment in Zone 0 is protected against immersion to IPX8, in Zone 1 splash-protected to IPX4 and in Zone 2 water-jet protected to at least IPX5 (sometimes, as here, one or other of the numerals in the IP rating are not specified, in which case an ‘X’ is shown). Socket outlets are not permitted in Zone 0 or 1 of a swimming pool and are normally only permissible in Zone 2 if they are supplied either by separated extra low voltage (SELV) from a source outside the zones or by the application of electrical sepa-ration (with the transformer outside the zones) or protected by a 30mA residual current device (RCD). Pool cleaning equipment at mains voltage or special equipment should only be brought into the pool area when it is empty of swimmers and supplied from sockets outside the zones.

18.4

Floor-laid rubber cable protector (2005)

159

Inspection and testing

In the UK, the Electricity at Work (EAW) Regulations require that all electrical installations at workplaces be designed, constructed and maintained in such a manner as to be safe to use at all times. It is the duty of the employer to ensure that electrical systems are safe. The definition of an employer includes those charged with managing the workplace. Employees have a duty to cooperate with the employer/manager.

Public buildings, including sports and leisure facilities, are inspected and tested every year, or as required by the local author-ity conditions of licence. Establishing safety in the context of sports and leisure facilities means identifying any damage to, or defects in, an electrical installation which may give rise to damage to people (e.g. electric shock or burns) or to property (e.g. heat, fire and smoke effects).

Inspection and testing must be carried out by a competent person with technical knowledge and experience appropriate to the type of installation, testing methods and requirements. Because the inspector has to make judgements on the levels and frequency of testing required, he or she must have an understanding of the use of the premises concerned, the operating environment and any relevant safety standards or licensing requirements that may apply. The correct instruments must be used for the testing. In the UK, members of the Electrical Contractors Association offer an ‘Inspection and Testing Contract’ and a ‘Maintenance Contract’ which they have registered with the Office of Fair Trading. They

can also advise on planning programmes to maintain the effi-ciency and safety of electrical systems and equipment.

Combined heat and power (CHP)

The authors have been involved in only one CHP scheme, but CHP is nonetheless worth mentioning because the technology has been with us for more than 100 years. It has been successfully applied to industrial processes and to urban areas for district heating schemes including sports facilities and multi-purpose community halls.

The electricity generation efficiencies of conventional power stations may be as low as 35%, taking into account the loss to atmosphere or water of low grade heat and grid transmission losses from power plant to end user. Although CHP plants generate electricity at slightly lower efficiencies than conventional power plants, their overall efficiency can be as high as 75% because waste heat from the generator is recovered and used. CHP can, in this way, increase the energy efficiency of an individual building served by up to 35%, with a corresponding decrease of energy costs and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Traditionally, CHP has been used for large area developments. It is now being adopted, with smaller reciprocating engines, for a growing number of, principally public, buildings including hospitals, care buildings, hotels, housing and sports facilities developments.

18.5

Temporary traffic calming cable

protector (2005)

19.1

School of Physiotherapy and Exercise Science, Gold Coast Campus,

Griffith University, Queensland, Australia (2007)

161

Introduction

People will not use a sports facility if they can’t find it, can’t park their car at it, have to queue unduly to get in, turn up for events that don’t happen, have less-than-positive encounters with staff, feel that environmental conditions are uncomfortable, try to use equipment which doesn’t work or to use facilities which aren’t operational or experience low standards of cleanliness and hygiene. These issues are generally addressed in job descriptions for sports centre staff. The key tasks for a duty manager position may, for example, be summarised as being to: maintain daily operations to required standards; maintain customer care stan-dards; monitor and plan the use of daily staffing resources; moni-tor and maintain cleanliness, environment and safety; maintain a visible presence to staff and customers; keep the line manager advised of any important issues; act as a responsible supervisor of staff and facilities; constantly check standards during periods of duty; maintain check sheets; identify failures and initiate cor-rective actions; prepare works defects reports and pass these to technicians; act as a focal point for the building owner’s monitor-ing staff. In the following sections we take a customer’s perspec-tive of a few key criteria that fall within the remit of the sports manager or the sports facilities manager: comfort, communication and cleanliness.

Comfort

The British Institute of Facilities Management defines facilities management as the integration of multi-disciplinary activities

within the built environment and the management of their impact on people and the workplace. In the UK, some 50% of national energy consumption is attributable to buildings. Because of the environmental and economic consequences of this, increasing numbers of building services engineers work in the field of facili-ties management. Their opportunity to ‘make a difference’ is demonstrated by the fact that, in the UK, only some 2% of build-ing stock is replaced or refurbished each year. The general aim, therefore, is to optimise energy use in existing buildings, so that appropriate levels of comfort for users are provided while energy costs are kept to the minimum commensurate with achieving this aim. In a building as multi-functional as a sports centre, there are plenty of opportunities to cut energy costs (e.g. using low-energy light sources, using sensors to activate/de-activate energy-inten-sive functions, introducing energy reclamation or recycling mea-sures). It is not necessary to be able to balance the valves to be able to achieve energy efficiency in buildings. What is required is that people with authority and responsibility are aware of and committed to the cause, making use of in-house or external technical resources as appropriate.

An example of the need for awareness is that, in the UK, 100% first-year Enhanced Capital Allowances (ECAs) allow the full cost of an investment in designated energy-saving plant to be written off against the taxable profits of the period in which the invest-ment is made (the general rate of capital allowances for spending on plant and machinery is 20%, on the reducing balance basis). Qualifying technologies are included on the Energy Technology List (ETL) which was expanded on 11 August 2008 and covers:

air-to-air energy recovery;•automatic monitoring and targeting (AMT);•

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162

boiler equipment;•combined heat and power (CHP);•compact heat exchangers;•compressed air equipment;•heat pumps for space heating;•heating, ventilating and air-conditioning zone controls;•lighting;•motors and drives;•pipework insulation;•refrigeration equipment;•solar thermal systems;•warm air and radiant heaters.•

Within these 14 groups there are 54 sub-technologies such as speed motors or variable speed drives (see References).

Communication

An essential aspect of good sports management is the creation of conditions in which rewarding relationships can be forged between sports centre staff and the customers they serve. Comfortable environmental conditions help in this but commu-nication is fundamental. However, communication is full of pit-falls. For example, if an item of gym equipment is faulty then it makes sense to place an ‘out-of-service’ notice on it. Such a notice should be dated and signed by the member of staff identifying or being made aware of the problem, who should initiate remedial action (by, say, phoning the equipment supplier or maintenance contractor). If, however, such a notice remains on a machine for

days or even weeks then it gives a bad impression not only to existing gym users but also to prospective new gym members. One communication that we like is the ‘Gym Etiquette’ notice reproduced as Box 19.1. We like it because few people are aware of all the ‘right things to do’ in a gym and it pulls people together in a common cause, which makes the gym a better place to be, for the benefit of all users. This is a Serco notice. All Serco signs and induction forms are taken from SLIMS (Serco Leisure Integrated Management Systems) so that every Serco-run Isospa gym will feature identically formatted documentation containing the cor-rect information.

Cleanliness

Sports centre surfaces and equipment must be kept clean or people will not want to use the facilities on offer. Dirty floors are, in any case, a safety hazard. Surfaces contaminated with, say, water, oil, food debris or dust must be cleaned before they cause accidents. However, floor cleaning itself is a significant cause of slip and trip accidents to cleaning staff and to others. The most effective approach to the problem is to design slip and trip hazards out of buildings. If, ideally, the operations manager is involved at the outset of a building development then he or she will be able to exert the appropriate influence at the optimum time. All too often, the operations manager is not involved from the outset but, once the building is operational, he or she can address the issue and perhaps introduce significant enhancements during subsequent upgrading or refurbishment works. Control measures to prevent slips and trips comprise:

1 Anti-bacterial cleaner

2 Shatter-resistant fluorescent lamps

3 CCTV kit

4 Emergency exit signage

5 Mop bucket

6 Broom

7 Mop

8 First Aid kit

9 Insect killer lamps

10 Fire alarm system

11 Fridge thermometer

12 Hot food thermometer

19.2

Sports facilities restaurant

163

management systems; •contamination control (preventing contamination control; •choosing the right cleaning method; •making sure cleaning does not introduce an additional slip •risk; obstacle removal. •

Identification and implementation of appropriate actions should be undertaken in collaboration with the cleaners, who will be acutely aware of the existing problem areas.

One of the most sensitive areas of a sports facilities develop-ment, from the point of view of cleanliness, is the restaurant or canteen. It is one of the best examples of the value of having the manager on board at the outset of the building design. This is because an architect will often favour locating the restaurant to overlook the other facilities, whereas the manager will usually prefer to locate it adjacent to reception, where it will be more easily accessible. The second option will produce a larger turn-over and therefore a larger contribution to the business. Regarding cleanliness, any litter or floor contamination emanating from the restaurant is less likely to get strewn throughout the building if the eating facility is located by the reception area. Also, a restau-rant, like a reception area, is a highly trafficked area so there is

a cleaning efficiency advantage to be gained through locating the two high-maintenance areas together. The eating area is a logical principal location for food and drink vending machines and this too fits in well with the idea of co-locating high-maintenance amenities.

An interesting debate arising out of the incorporation of eater-ies in sports developments concerns the degree to which the facilities operator should be involved in the provision of ‘healthy’ and ‘junk’ foods. Recognising that most sports facilities users are not dedicated athletes, the answer is probably to provide reason-able choice. An interesting initiative in this field is the Swimmingly Good Foods programme started in Australia in 2008 by the Queensland Association of School Tuckshops Inc., working in partnership with Queensland Council of Parents and Citizens Associations, Brisbane City Council City Life Branch, Education Queensland District South Office and Austswim. The Association saw that children and young people were snacking at public swimming pools and learn-to-swim sites but that there were no recommendations to guide consumers on the foods supplied at such venues. Information packs and fact sheets were produced on healthy eating and smart food choices. These were distributed to canteen managers, canteen management support staff, swim-mers, parents, coaches and teachers. Outcomes have included

Box 19.1 Gym etiquette

Welcome to our gym. We hope you enjoy working out here. To help things run smoothly and maintain a good environment there are a few ground rules that you need to be aware of.

All gym users must fill in a Par Q form and have an induction before using the gym.All casual users may be required to produce a receipt as proof of payment.

Under 16s are only permitted to use the gym during the allocated time slots (max. sessions for 11–15 year olds).

Please use the changing area and lockers downstairs for all your personal belongings.

Mobile phones should be on silent and calls taken outside the gym.

Everyone please sign in at the desk when you arrive. It gives us a chance to say ‘Hello’ and keep a record of how many people use the gym.

Always wear clean appropriate clothing and footwear for working out. Trainers should be free of mud and grass.

During busy periods please limit your time on each piece of CV equipment to 20 minutes.

Paper towels and antibacterial spray are provided to wipe down equipment and floor area after use.

A water fountain and water cooler are provided for your convenience. As an environmental consideration we recommend you bring your own water bottle and wash it regularly.

Drink plenty of fluids before, during and after your workout.

Please dispose of any cups and paper towels in the bins provided. There are recycle bins for plastic bottles, situated around the gym.

We try to play music suitable to the majority of users during each session. The channel and volume will be set by the gym staff. Please feel free to use personal music systems.

The passage from the gym to the dance studio is a FIRE ESCAPE route. Please keep this area clear – otherwise you are potentially endangering the lives of others.

Please refrain from eating or chewing gum in the gym.

Glass and breakable containers must not be taken into the gym at any time.

The windows in the gym must be closed at all times unless otherwise instructed by a member of staff.

Please return equipment to its allocated place after use.

Thank you for your cooperation.The gym staff

164

the introduction by some venues of healthy snack packs (yoghurt, fruit juice, cheese and crackers) and ‘green, amber, red’ labelling to assist venue users in making smart food choices. (We may have digressed from our cleanliness theme but will justify it by saying that we’ve moved on to ‘inner cleanliness’.)

Where sports equipment cleaning is concerned, Tables 19.1 and 19.2 were produced 20 years ago, by the Heart Healthy Fitness Center, but still provide a useful basic guide.

19.3

North Berwick Leisure Centre: restaurant (1997)

19.4

Harborough Leisure Centre: restaurant (2008)

165

Equipment Daily Weekly Monthly

Rower(n.b. monitor batteries should be replaced biannually)

Clean monorail with non-abrasive pad

Clean and lubricate chain using 100% cotton cloth and lightweight oil

Inspect chain links

Wipe off seat and console with 100% cotton cloth using water and mild detergent (dilute)

Clean pads with vinyl protectant Adjust seat rollers

Inspect chain handle

Tighten shock cord

Arm/leg ergometer Wipe off seat and console with 100% cotton cloth plus water and mild detergent. Rinse

Clean and lubricate chain with cotton cloth and lightweight machine oil

Inspect bolts

Clean seat with vinyl protectant

Computerised bike Clean seat and console with 100% cotton cloth and mild soap with water (dilute)

Clean and lubricate chain with cotton cloth and lightweight machine oil

Inspect bolts and screws

Clean housing with same materials Clean pedals and lubricate

Wax seat post with auto wax

Clean shroud and seat with vinyl protectant

Mechanical stairclimber Clean console and housing with cotton wool and water with mild detergent

Clean and lubricate all bushings with lightweight machine oil

Inspect housing, belts and electrical components and repair as needed

Wipe and clean pedals and grips with solution from above

Clean machine with vinyl protectant

Treadmill Clean console and housing with cotton cloth and mild detergent solution

Clean belt with cotton cloth and mild detergent solution. Must run belt at 2mph (3kph) while cleaning

Inspect electrical components and bolts – calibrate if needed (consult manual)

Windtrainer Clean bike frame and housing with mild detergent and cotton cloth

Clean and lubricate bike chain with Teflon spray

Clean seat with same materials Check tyre pressure and fill if necessary

Calibrate (consult manual) Inspect chain and lubricate if needed

Check mounting screws

Recumbent bike Clean housing, console and seat with cotton cloth and mild soap

Inspect all bolts and chains and adjust as needed

Charge battery overnight

Equipment Daily Weekly Monthly

Selectorised Clean upholstery with cotton cloth and mild soap solution

Lubricate guide rods and linear bearings (wipe clean with dry cotton cloth, then wipe entire length with medium-weight oil)

Wash grips in mild soap and water

Clean frames with cotton cloth and either warm mild detergent or all-purpose liquid cleaner

Inspect and adjust: cables, nuts/bolts, torn upholsteryApply vinyl upholstery protectant

Extra Extra

Clean off dumbbell rack with warm mild detergent or all-purpose liquid cleaner

Wipe off dumbbells and barbell plates. Check bolts on bars

Pneumatic Clean upholstery with cotton cloth and mild soap solution

Polish chrome with cotton cloth and automotive chrome polish

Lubricate cylinder rods with dry cotton cloth and lightweight machine oil

Wipe off frames with cotton cloth Clean seat belts with mild soap Lubricate pivot bearings

Release air pressure Every two weeks, switch the compressor pump

Wash rubber handgrips in mild soap and water

Apply vinyl upholstery protectant

Table 19.1 Sample preventive maintenance schedule – cardiovascular equipment

Table 19.2 Sample preventive maintenance schedule – resistance equipment

20.1

Harborough Leisure Centre:

reception area – Quest certificate displayed (2008)

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Introduction

Sport is generally associated with a healthy outdoor lifestyle. So it is a conundrum that it took the Industrial Revolution, division of labour and urban development to create the conditions in which sports facilities development would happen. In the second half of the 20th century, in both the USA and the UK, increasing leisure time led to increasing demand for, and increasing use of, sports facilities in schools, school-and-community, community (public sector) and then commercial (private sector) locations. With the establishment of valuable sports building assets came the beginnings of education and training in their management and use. This brought about initiatives aimed at achieving con-sistencies and common standards, continuous improvement and validation by periodic external inspection or monitoring. Facilities planning, design, project management, construction, operation and maintenance are now becoming essential multidisciplinary elements of education, continuing professional development and services/facilities accreditation courses in the sports business as a whole.

Sports courses accreditation

North America has traditionally taken the lead in the sport and exercise field. In 1989, the North American Society for Sport Management (NASSM) and National Association for Sport & Physical Education (NASPE) agreed that there was a need to provide some level of quality assurance to students enrolling in sport management courses and to employers hiring graduates of

the courses. From these discussions came the creation of the independent Sport Management Program Review Council (SMPRC) to act on behalf of both NASSM and NASPE for the purpose of reviewing sport management courses. Following the formation of SMPRC, standards used for course approval evolved. In 2004 East Carolina University’s Sport Management degree became the 26th master’s degree course in the USA to meet standards set nationally by SMPRC.

By now much discussion was taking place about moving towards a coordinated accreditation process, a more recognised approach within academia. In June 2005 the NASPE and NASSM leadership met to discuss the proposed direction of SMPRC, including movement toward accreditation. From this meeting came the formation of two task forces: the Accreditation Task Force and the Standards Task Force. These task forces comprised members from each association and were charged with investigat-ing sport management accreditation from a process and policies perspective, as well as a standards perspective.

Around the same time, the International Assembly for Collegiate Business Education (IACBE) was pursuing the institution of an accreditation process for sport management courses/departments (IACBE is a specialised business accrediting body that promotes and recognises excellence in business education in colleges and universities at the undergraduate and graduate levels).

In September 2006, a meeting was held to discuss whether a sport management accreditation model involving NASSM, NASPE and IACBE was feasible. This meeting and subsequent discussions led to the proposal for the formation of a sport management accreditation body, the Commission on Sport Management Accreditation (COSMA) with the following characteristics and aims:

Chapter 20

Cont inuous improvement

f a c i l i t i e s d e v e l o p m e n t

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independent accrediting body, with a board of commissioners •formed from its membership (member institutions); provider of accreditation and related services for sport man-•agement courses in colleges and universities; outcomes-based assessment and accreditation body, in which •excellence in sport management education is evaluated based on the assessment of educational outcomes, rather than on prescriptive input standards; flexible and innovative in applying its philosophy of •accreditation; recognises that sport management education exists within a •dynamic, complex environment that requires innovative approaches to achieving quality educational outcomes (in other words, regardless of where the sport management course/department is housed, e.g. school or college of education, kinesiology, business, physical education, the COSMA will focus on the mission and learning outcomes that are achieved).

Sports facilities content in higher education courses

The development and diversification of sports studies in higher education has led recently to the incorporation of facilities plan-ning, design and maintenance modules. In 2008, for example, the University of Ulster offered for the first time a BSc Hons in Sports Technology:

‘This new and innovative course has been developed to provide graduates who can make dynamic contributions to a wide range of professional roles, within the growing sports technology sector. This will include design and consultancy in relation to new advanced sports equipment and facilities, together with contributions to the manage-ment aspects of sport and fitness facilities, within the local economy and beyond. The delivery is collaborative, involv-ing the School of Electrical & Mechanical Engineering in a lead role, with significant modular content from the School of Sports Studies. At the core is the ethos of provid-ing a creative and innovative environment to enable the development of the following areas within the sports sector:

design and manufacture of exercise equipment, sports products and monitoring/enhancement apparatus; facility design and implementation; sport and leisure services management and maintenance.’

Courses within Ulster’s School of Sports Studies are accredited through the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) and/or the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE). New courses such as ‘Sports Technology’ cannot be accredited until there is a throughput of students.

One of your authors (JP) studied at Newcastle upon Tyne Polytechnic as a teenager in 1970/71, so is particularly pleased that his former college, now the University of Northumbria, is also at the forefront of the sports revolution in higher education. Northumbria’s latest addition to its sports courses is its BSc (Hons) in Sport Management. The curriculum reflects staff expertise and research interests, key trends in the associated professional body (the Institute of Sport, Parks and Leisure – ISPAL) and relevant national benchmarks. Students benefit from the type of vocation-ally-oriented placements that the author enjoyed during his time in the North-East. Graduates in Sport Management at Northumbria have gone on to careers in the public, commercial and voluntary sectors including facilities management, event management, sport marketing, sport manufacture and retail, sports media and sports development.

Continuing professional development (CPD), standards and accreditation

Professional development, in any field, is about learning basic skills, developing expertise and staying abreast of current devel-opments. A professional membership association may offer struc-tured training, ad hoc events participation and networking opportunities. Members may be required to obtain a certain number of points per annum, from participation in CPD schemes, in order to maintain their professional status. Because of the fast-moving, fast-changing character of sport, involvement in sports-related CPD can deliver huge advantages. Professional associations which administer CPD schemes internationally include the Institute of Sport Management (ISM) in Australia, UK and Europe, New Zealand, Nigeria and West Africa.

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c o n t i n u o u s i m p r o v e m e n t

In the UK the Institute of Sport and Recreational Management (ISRM) promotes, at a national level, professionalism in the provi-sion, management, operation and development of sport and recreation services. Its objectives are to:

identify and promote professional best practice throughout the •sport and recreation sector;

establish and maintain high-quality professional qualifications •and continuous professional development which are current and for which there is industry recognition and demand; provide a comprehensive support and information service for •its members through direct communications and regional networks; provide courses and qualifications which help people employed •in the sector to improve their skills, and which develop and advance their professional careers; develop strategic alliances and partnerships to promote the •benefit of sport, recreation and physical activity to the popula-tion as a whole; engage with like-minded organisations beyond the UK to col-•lectively improve standards of professionalism in the manage-ment of sport and recreation.

Also in the UK, the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES) sets, maintains and enhances the professional and ethical standards of its members who are actively involved in sport and exercise science. High standards are achieved through mandatory adoption of the BASES code of conduct by all members and through a system of BASES accreditation, which serves as a quality assurance mechanism. The aim of accreditation is to ensure that the level of service received by a client is based on the best available knowledge and practice. There are two categories of BASES accreditation – scientific support and research – and four disciplines: biomechanics, physiology, psychology, interdisciplinary. An interdisciplinary approach has been described (Burwitz et al., 1994) as ‘more than one area of sport and exercise science working together in an integrated and co-ordinated man-ner to problem solve’. In terms of the content of this book, sports surfaces are good examples of subjects requiring an interdisciplin-ary approach. This is because their performance is based on a set of functionally interlinking variables and because knowledge of how the different variables interlink is imperative and under-researched (and often in practice relies on the application of experiential knowledge). Interdisciplinary skills include:

‘bridge building’ – the coming together of specialist knowledge •from different disciplines; restructuring – methodologies, theories and practices from one •discipline are borrowed and transposed into another discipline to restructure the approach to a challenge; integration – the application and combination of different •disciplines.

20.2

Harborough Leisure Centre:

induction, instruction, advice (2008)

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Sports Facilities Standards: NIRSA

In the USA the National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) runs the annual Outstanding Sports Facilities (OSF) awards. These recognise creative, innovative designs of new, renovated or expanded collegiate recreational facilities. Each winner is considered a standard or model by which other colle-giate recreational facilities should be measured, and from which others can benefit. The awards are presented at the conclusion of NIRSA’s Annual Conference and Recreational Sports Exposition which, in 2008, was held in Austin, Texas. The 2008 winners were: the Student Recreation and Fitness Center at California State University, San Bernardino (HOK, Architect); the Student Recreation Center, College of William and Mary (Moseley Architects and Hastings & Chivetta, Architects); Recreation Activity Center/MC Anderson Park, Georgia Southern University (Lyman Davidson Dooley and Hastings & Chivetta, Architects); Student Recreation and Fitness Center, University of Maine (Cannon Design, Architect); Weinstein Center for Recreation and Wellness, University of Richmond (Worley Associates, Architect).

Sports facilities accreditation: Quest

Quest is the UK quality scheme for sport and leisure, measuring and rating facility operation, service development, staffing and customer relations. It is used by the sports and leisure industry as:

an assessment of performance against recognised industry •standards; a method of auditing operational procedures, auditing quality •and benchmarking against other facilities; a means of encouraging the application and development of •industry standards and good practice in a customer-focused management framework.

It enables facilities to recognise their strengths, identify areas for improvement and draw up action plans to raise standards of service delivery to customers. Benefits of this include a structured approach to achieving best value, a framework for continuous

improvement, the optimisation of financial performance (through a planned approach to improving effectiveness) and the encour-agement of staff ownership and development.

The assessment process for ongoing Quest accreditation for a facility operates on a two-year cycle which incorporates a self-assessment process, two mystery customer visits, a minimum two-day on-site external assessment and a one-day on-site assessment.

The overall ‘raw’ Quest score is derived from each best prac-tice principle (of which there are 176) under 22 different manage-ment issues being scored on a 1 to 4 basis (1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = good, 4 = excellent). The raw score is then converted into a score out of 10 for easy benchmarking. Quest approval is awarded if a facility achieves an overall score of 60–67% during the full (two-day) assessment. Facilities achieving 68–74% are rated ‘com-mended’, 75–83% ‘highly commended’ and those achieving 84% or more are rated ‘excellent’. At the end of each two-year accredi-tation period, the centre is re-assessed using the two-day on-site visit.

Quest is endorsed by all four home country Sports Councils in the UK. It is recommended by the British Quality Foundation for Self Assessment in Sport and Leisure Operations (BQF). It is also supported and endorsed by the UK’s major sports and leisure industry representative organisations including the Local Government Association (LGA), Institute for Sport, Parks and Leisure (ISPAL), Institute of Sport and Recreation Management (ISRM), Sports and Recreation Industry Training Organisation (SPRITO) and Fitness Industry Association (FIA).

The authors also advocate Quest because it places operation and maintenance of the building and building services at the heart of its assessment. An interesting but as yet under-applied logic is that, once the basic Quest criteria are met, enhancements to the building and its environmental systems present the potential for increasing the facility score to achieve a higher rating. Innovations in building management, process control and automation, energy efficiency and environmental controls further the cause of con-tinuous improvement and impress accreditation assessors. The third part of this book covers some of the exciting possibilities in sports building use and reuse.

4 = EXCELLENT: Yes, we do this and there is nothing or very little required to improve it

3 = GOOD: Yes, we do this but there are still some areas for improvement

2 = FAIR: Yes, we do this but it is not fully implemented across all services, activities and facilities

1 = POOR: No, we don’t do this at all

Table 20.1 Quest accreditation raw scores for facilities

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Key area: facilities operation Quest best practice

FOP1Standards, systems and monitoring

Services are planned to deliver a safe and enjoyable experience for all customersDocumented systems are in place to ensure that the key elements of service are under control and promote qualitySystems are up to date, available to and known by all relevant staffThere is a sensible and adequate level of monitoring of quality standards and inspection to meet statutory requirements

FOP2Cleanliness

The level of cleanliness is visibly acceptable, taking due account of customer expectationsThere are high standards of hygiene in critical areasCustomers are not put at risk or inconvenienced as cleaning takes place

FOP3Housekeeping and presentation

The facilities are presented in a fit and tidy state, reflecting general pride in the provision by the organisation, and the staff signage, accessibility and security are all effective

FOP4Maintenance

Maintenance is based on an effective preventive approach to ensure customer enjoyment and safetyRepair requests are actioned promptly within an effective systemThe facilities are well-maintained within the constraints of their age and structure

FOP5Equipment

Suitable, sufficient and well-maintained equipment is available for useA range of equipment is provided to allow and meet programme varietySafety in use is achieved

FOP6Environmental management

Planning ensures that environmental factors in customer/staff-sensitive areas are managed and controlledReasonable temperatures, lighting and ventilation for sporting, social and staff areas are achievedUse of utilities is managed and reduced where possible as part of an overall environmental management approachSensible initiatives contribute to lessening the impact of the facilities on the environment

FOP7Changing rooms and toilets

Changing rooms and toilets are comfortable, appropriate and cleanThey are regularly inspected, cleaned and stockedThey are equitable, accessible and family-friendly

FOP8Health and safety management

The centre has an up-to-date and specific health and safety policy and management programmeManagement and the workforce are aware of and undertake their responsibilities in health and safety proactivelyCustomer and staff safety is a priority in all facilities

Table 20.2 Quest best practice in facilities operation

Key area: customer relations Quest best practice

CR1Customer care

Quality standards of customer service are defined and delivered consistently by all staffStaff are trained to provide customers with information and assistance, and to sell services proactivelyAll staff are empowered to make on-the-spot decisions about customer serviceCustomers have equal access and opportunity to services and facilities

CR2Customer feedback

Customer comments and feedback are actively encouraged by all staff and acted upon. They are seen as an opportunity to improve and help drive improvements for customers

CR3Research

Proactive research is conducted to identify potential customer and current customer requirementsThere is an understanding among the team of the target market, the facility users, competition and local and national trends

CR4Marketing

Strategic and planned marketing activity is documented, which the centre uses to identify, plan and cost all marketing activitiesAccurate, attractive and up-to-date information is provided for the local community/target markets through a variety of methodsA variety of promotional methods is used within the budgetary constraints of the facility to increase income and usageThe organisation operates to a clear pricing policy which seeks to ensure that subsidy is targeted effectively and is reviewed regularly

CR5Bookings and reception

The administration system for bookings is customer-friendly and provides a range of opportunities for one-off (non-casual) bookings, and effective regular bookingsCustomers’ needs are fully clarified and actioned through to completion of bookingThe reception service operates in a smooth manner with skilled, knowledgeable staff providing prompt attention to customers and first-time visitors

Table 20.3 Quest best practice in customer relations

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Table 20.4 Quest best practice in staffing

Key area: staffing Quest best practice

STAF1Staff supervision and planning

Staff are appropriately trained, qualified and in sufficient quantity to deliver the standard of service promised to customers and staffplans ensure that staff absences can be covered and facilities/activities are not restricted through staff absenceShift patterns include time off-shift for meetings, training and personal development of staffAll employment legislation and statutory regulations are adhered to

STAF2People management

All staff involved in service delivery, whether paid or voluntary, are seen as critical to the delivery of a quality serviceTraining and development are ongoing for individuals and teams, with the aim of continually improving standards of service and achieving the organisation’s objectivesAll employment legislation and statutory regulations are adhered to

STAF3Management style

There is a management style that demonstrates the ability to communicate with and motivate staff across all levelsThe management processes skilfully balance business goals with customer needs and staff involvementThere is a culture of continuous service improvement through the empowerment and involvement of staff

Key area: service development and review

Quest best practice

SDR1Business management

The centre has clearly identified its purpose, established overall strategies and set specific objectives and targets to achieve themThe centre has developed and uses a ‘business plan’ to map out its objectives and targets

SDR2Programme development

The programme of activities is designed to meet the facility’s aims and objectivesThe programme is dynamic, innovative and responsive to the requirements of customers and potential customersActivities contribute to sports development, active health, education, safety and security within the communityThe programme considers the various types of user and use to ensure that it is balanced and promotes equality of access

SDR3Partnerships

Partnership arrangements are designed to meet the centre’s aims and objectivesPartnerships are positively managed to meet local, regional and national agendaCommunity engagement is undertaken

SDR4Performance management

Performance indicators are used to measure and improve the service and management of the facilitiesFinancial management is controlled and appropriately communicated

SDR5Information and communication technology

Information and communication technology is managed legally and safelyAll information and data are used, managed and stored/recovered securely

SDR6Continuous improvement

Performance measurement, feedback and process reviews are used as a basis for continuous improvementImprovement planning forms the basis for ongoing and actual continuous improvement

Table 20.5 Quest best practice in service development and review

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FOP3: Housekeeping and presentation:

BPP1 Are both standards of, and responsibilities for, known by staff?

BPP2 Do all staff take responsibility for keeping the facilities well-presented?

BPP3 Are there regular and continuous checks of the presentation of the facilities?

BPP4 Are customer areas generally clean, tidy and safe to use?

BPP5 Are staff areas generally clean, tidy and safe to use?

BPP6 Is the external signage effective at directing customers to the centre?

BPP7 Are the arrangements for getting to the centre and parking of vehicles meeting customers’ needs?

BPP8 How effective is the internal signage at directing and informing customers and staff?

BPP9 Are the security arrangements for the customers, facilities and staff effective?

FOP4: Maintenance:

BPP1 Has a competent survey of the condition of all the buildings, plant and equipment been done in the last 5 years?

BPP2 Have the long-term upkeep requirements of the centre been planned?

BPP3 Is there a planned approach to preventative maintenance to ensure the building, plant and equipment work effectively and efficiently?

BPP4 Is a defect reporting system used which is effective for all areas?

BPP5 Is it clear who is responsible for the maintenance of all buildings, plant and equipment?

BPP6 Is all maintenance work carried out by competent and qualified personnel?

BPP7 Does all plant and equipment used by staff and behind the scenes work effectively and efficiently?

BPP8 Are all the facilities within the centre well-maintained?

FOP5: Equipment:

BPP1 Is there sufficient equipment to meet the demands of the programme?

BPP2 Are opportunities taken for resale and hire of equipment?

BPP3 Are set-up plans for activity equipment documented?

BPP4 Is equipment for customers stored, set up/down and used safely?

BPP5 Is equipment used by customers kept in a good condition and replaced when required?

BPP6 Are customers provided with instructions to use equipment (with records kept where appropriate?

BPP7 Is coin- and token-operated equipment available and working for customers?

Table 20.6 Sample questions extracted from the Quest self-assessment questionnaire

Part THREE

Technologies

21.1

New English National Stadium, London: the Wembley Arch (2005)

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Materials

Sport is a great driver of materials technology. The most dramatic examples are to do with athletic performance. The pole used in the pole vault famously went from the ash or hickory of the 19th century to bamboo at the start of the 20th century, light metal alloys in the late 1940s and fibreglass from the early 1960s.

The authors recall speculation in the 1980s of the effect on athletics performance that replacement carbon fibre knee joints would have. Thankfully, carbon composite materials were intro-duced into prosthetics instead. In the 2004 Paralympic Games in Athens, German athlete Wojtek Czyz won three gold medals and set two world records wearing an artificial leg. More recently, the double amputee Oscar Pistonius, ‘the blade runner’, has run a phenomenal 10.91 seconds in the 100m on carbon fibre ‘blades’ (Oscar self-deprecatingly calls himself ‘the fastest thing on no legs’). Materials technology enables disadvantaged athletes to aspire and to realise their aspirations. It is the same for the design-ers of sports facilities who are taking materials such as high strength steels, glulam timber beams and aluminium sheets, and are working their own kind of magic with them.

Bricks

There is a wide range of colours available in bricks. This, together with the availability of different mortar colours, textures and lay-ing patterns, creates a wide diversity of design opportunities. Brick is often chosen to complement and integrate with surrounding buildings. It combines aesthetic appeal with impact resistance,

inertness, sound insulation properties, low maintenance require-ments and resistance to water, wind and fire.

Bricks are made from clay, extracted from the earth by extru-sion or soft mud moulding, with or without ‘frogs’ (indentations in one or more than one bed surface). They are dried to prevent bursting when they are subsequently fired at, depending on clay type, 900–1200°C (1650–2200°F). The firing forces together clay particles and impurities to produce a hard weatherproof material. Bricks shrink during firing and this must be taken into account when determining the mould size.

Until masonry walls were calculated on a scientific basis, great heights required great thickness of wall. The development of

Chapter 21

Mater ia l s

21.2

East Midlands International Swimming Pool, Corby:

structural steelwork and glulam beams (July 2008)

t e c h n o l o g i e s

178

design methods raised considerations, including the choice of suitable building plan form, maintaining a proportion of height-to-width appropriate to minimising wind stresses and running the connecting floor through the outer face of the external walls to reduce eccentricity of floor load. A suitable plan form is one in which the floor area is divided into rooms of small to medium size, with the floor plan repeated on each storey. This arrangement does not lend itself to the kind of spaces contained in a sports centre, but it does lend itself to the hostels or other types of athletes’ accommodation which may be associated with interna-tional sports venues. If, for argument’s sake, the sports facilities are steel framed then an option is to use brick infill for the sports facilities and key it to the choice of brick for the hostel-type accommodation. If the accommodation is associated with a one-off event (such as the Olympics or World Student Games) then the brick solution also enables such accommodation to be readily sold on for post-Games housing.

The strength of a masonry wall depends on the strength of the bricks, the mortar used and the quality of the workmanship. Badly mixed mortar and imperfect bedding of the bricks can reduce wall strength by up to 35%. However, little advantage is gained in ultimate wall strength by increasing the strength of mortar beyond a certain point for a particular grade of brick. Appropriate mortars to confer maximum strength with different grades of brick are:

low strength bricks (10.35N/mm², 1500psi) = 1 cement: •2 lime:9 sand;medium strength bricks (20.7 to 34.5N/mm², 3000–5000psi) •= 1 cement:1 lime:6 sand;high strength bricks (48.3N/mm², 7000psi, or more) = 1 •cement:3 sand (lime may be added up to one-quarter volume of cement).

Concrete

Concrete is made from a mixture of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water, which sets to form a hard stone-like material. It is important that the particles are of many different sizes so that, on mixing, the smaller particles fill the gaps between the larger ones, giving a dense concrete with an economical amount of cement. A concrete much used in buildings is the nominal

1:2:3 mix (by volume one part cement, two parts sand, three parts gravel). Concrete strength depends on many factors but the most important one is the water:cement ratio.

Concrete surfaces are particularly suitable for court games that require a fast, uniform surface. A 100mm (4in) reinforced slab is appropriate for play areas of single-course construction for tennis, handball and badminton courts, and ice skating and roller skating rinks. The slab should be reinforced with steel bars or wire mesh at the centre of the slab depth. Concreting should be continuous until at least one full section, such as one-half of a tennis court, is completed. Concrete is popular for its high light reflectance (ratio of reflected radiation to incident radiation). Sometimes darker surfaces may be required for tennis or other courts to cut down on the sun’s glare, by absorbing light and reducing reflec-tion, and/or to provide better contrast between the playing surface and light-coloured balls or other projectiles. Colouring is achieved by chemical stain, applied after the concrete has hardened, or by mixing mineral pigments with the concrete ingredients. Shades of brown, tan and green have been used. Black gained predomi-nance for tennis courts in California in the 1950s.

Concrete surfaces can be painted using Portland cement paints or organic paints, as appropriate, and by following precisely the paint manufacturers’ instructions. In applying paint to coarse-textured concrete, a brush with shorter, stiff fibre bristles is used. In applying paint to smooth concrete, whitewash or Dutch-type calcimine brushes are used.

The infrastructure requirements of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics were partially responsible for Japan’s national switch out of timber construction and into concrete construction, in the early 1960s. The new sports-led choice of material enabled Japan to take a lead in concrete design and construction technologies, which expanded massively when the Japanese government pumped 430 trillion yen (US$3.6 trillion) into its public works projects in the 1990s. However, concrete buildings in Japan tended to be demol-ished after 25–30 years because of exposure to acid-laden air, cracking in exteriors and discolouration. Now polymer surface coatings can extend building life. These are being continuously developed to achieve safety in the environment, fire resistance, imperviousness and resilience to cleaning chemicals.

The largest manufacturer of acrylic polymer cement com-pounds for resurfacing new or worn concrete surfaces is Quality Systems Inc. of Nashville, Tennessee. The company began life in 1990 by producing surface coatings for protecting or restoring swimming pools. It has since expanded its activities to cover most

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aspects of the built environment. Typically, a polymer surface coating is applied by brush or spray in layers of 3.2mm (⅛in) to 50.8mm (2in). The new surface can be made to carry colour and texture and/or to offer special levels of hardness, clarity, resistance to heat and cold, and resistance to damage from mould, abrasion (sand), chemicals or oils.

Timber

Wood is visually attractive in construction and liked by building users. Timbers are historically divisible into two classes – soft-woods and hardwoods. This is confusing because some softwoods are harder than some hardwoods, and vice versa. It is useful to note that softwoods are produced by conifers and, usually, ever-green trees, while hardwoods are produced from broad-leafed trees. But, however you look at it, examples of both categories of timber may be heavy or light, variable in strength and resistance to decay, and light or dark in colour. A timber specification should

therefore name the required characteristics or, ideally, name the species required (together with purpose of use, situation in which it is to be used, whether preservative treatment is required and any standards or codes of practice that apply).

All timber products are affected by moisture and are classified for use under specified environmental conditions. Exposure to air reduces the natural moisture of timber and causes the wood to shrink in width and thickness (though not significantly in length). In due course, the amount of moisture in the wood equates with that in the surrounding atmosphere, i.e. the ‘equilibrium moisture content’ is reached. Subsequently, any significant alteration in the amount of moisture in the surrounding air will produce a response in the wood. For use in heated buildings, timber should be kiln-dried and prevented from reabsorbing moisture during transportation and erection. Sample timbers, with thermal con-ductivity values and densities at 15% moisture content, include:

western red cedar (0.77 W/m°C, 338kg/m³); •Douglas fir (1.00 W/m°C, 528kg/m³); •

21.3–21.5

Willink Leisure Centre, Reading: (top) RHS column (1996);

(right) positioning the concrete pourer; and (above) concrete filling RHS

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pitch pine (1.65 W/m°C, 690kg/m³); •mahogany (1.65 W/m°C, 705kg/m³).•

Fire safety design criteria include fire resistance and spread of flame. Timber provides its own natural fire resistance in the form of charcoal and the rate of charring (that is, rate of loss of section). For most timbers the rate is 0.6mm/min. In conditions of fire, timber does not crack, soften, melt or collapse, and the uncharred part retains its strength.

The wide range of wood products available includes laminated timber, laminated veneer lumber (LVL), plywood, particleboard, fibreboard and Thermowood. Laminated timber, for example, can be manufactured to any transportation size, typically 30m (98ft), although spans greater than 50m (164ft) are feasible. Its strength-graded timber sections are continuously glued with resin adhe-sive, using scarf or finger jointing within the laminates. A structural steel beam may be 20% heavier and a concrete beam 600% heavier than an equivalent glulam timber beam.

Architectural membranes

Architectural membranes are used for tensile structures and there is one tensile structure which exemplifies the genre. It is a sports facilities development – the main stadium for the 1972 Munich Olympics. In the 1960s, architect Frei Otto developed a building design theory using well-curved surfaces of opposing curvatures and minimal surfaces, with equal tensions under stress. Together with Günter Behnisch & Partners (architects) and Leonhardt & Andrä (consulting engineers), Otto developed a lightweight ten-sion concept for the Munich stadium that was adopted in prefer-ence to more than 100 design submissions. At 85,000m2 (915,000ft²) Munich would be, when built, the world’s largest covered stadium. Its transparent Acrylglas roof membrane is car-ried by a steel net made up from 410km (256 miles) of steel wire

rope suspended from 436km of cable weighing 2286 tonnes. Support is by main steel masts 12–80m (39–262ft) tall, weighing up to 320 tonnes, and supplementary masts which rise above the heads of the spectators. One reason for adopting such a bold and unprecedented structure was the requirement in the design brief for a maximum light differential of 3:1 for colour television cam-era coverage of the Games. The Munich structure led to huge advances in lightweight structures design, not only for sport but also for the wider fields of leisure, tourism and commerce.

Essentially, tensile structures, when stressed, naturally assume minimal surfaces of maximum efficiency. The membranes form both the structure and skin of the building. Because of their great strength, they are capable of immense spans. Because they can also be transported to site in pre-assembled sections of 1000m2 (10,764ft²) or more, they are the most rapid form of construction available. Their curvature confers maximum structural efficiency, and their translucent glow is aesthetically pleasing when viewed from within or outside the building.

Today, the materials choice for tensile roof structures is usually made between PVC-coated polyester fabric and PTFE-coated woven glass fibre. PVC-coated polyester is available in a variety of colours and has a lifespan of 10–15 years. White PTFE-coated glass fibre material is more expensive but is self-cleaning and non-combustible, with a lifespan of 25 years plus.

Glass

Several types of glass are used in building structures:

annealed float glass (silicon, soda ash and recycled broken •glass); toughened glass (produced by heating and rapidly cooling •annealed glass); laminated glass (produced by bonding two layers of glass with •a layer of acrylic resin).

The safest option is laminated glass, which will not shard on impact.

Glass makes for terrific buildings. Advances in glass technol-ogy, and reductions in cost of the material, made possible the switch from introverted buildings in the 19th century to outward-looking buildings in the 20th century and beyond. However, glass

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Airdrie Leisure Pool (1997)

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facades cause extremes of temperature within buildings – making occupants too hot in summer and too cold in winter. So buildings with glass facades need air-conditioning, at a time when UK buildings are responsible for 50% of UK carbon emissions.

Innovations in nano-engineering – hydrophobic, hydrophilic, photovoltaic and electrochromic – are currently leading to more active glass surfaces, energy conversion, variations in reflection and the use of glass for colour and translucency, texture and opacity. Coating glass with dye can, for example, cut the cost of solar power by boosting the efficiency of solar-powered devices. A ‘solar concentrator’ can harvest photons and funnel them into photovoltaic devices, enabling relatively small solar cells to har-ness rays from a much larger area. Mirrors that track the sun are already used to deliver extra light into solar panels, to maximise electricity output. But such mirrors have been expensive to install and maintain, and their use has led to solar cells overheating. A team at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is currently working on an alternative. Essentially, a mixture of dye molecules is used in a thin film coated onto the glass, with each type of dye molecule absorbing light of a different wavelength to take maxi-mum advantage of sunlight’s spectrum. Team leader Marc Baldo believes that the new technology could ultimately double the efficiency of 90% of the solar cells in use in 2008.

Iron and steel

For most of humankind’s time on Earth, only timber and stone have been available for beam construction. Cast-iron was invented in ancient China and used for small-scale applications such as farm implements and weapons. It was manufactured on a large scale in the 18th century and thus became available for beam construction in buildings. Cast-iron beams with spans up to 41ft (12.5m) were used in the development of the British Museum which, between 1825 and 1850, was Europe’s biggest building site. The economy and efficiency of cast-iron beams resulted from trial and error rather than mathematical calculation. Hodgkinson’s beam was of the shape generally used after 1830. This is of ‘I’ configuration comprising top flange, web and bottom flange. The top (compression) flange is narrower than the bottom (tension) flange because cast-iron is much stronger in compression than tension. The web tapers from bottom flange to top flange. From the 1840s cast-iron began to be superseded by wrought-iron,

which is ductile (cast-iron is brittle) and has a higher strength in tension than cast-iron. Some designers used wrought-iron for beams and cast-iron, because of its strength in compression, for columns.

Steel is as strong in tension as in compression, leading to equal widths of top and bottom flanges in beams. Introduction of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes for manufacturing steel led to Dorman Long and Co., in 1885, rolling mild steel joists up to 16in (406.4mm) deep. In the 1950s ‘universal beams’ were being manufactured in steel to depths of 36in (9144mm) and with flange widths up to 16½in (419mm). Steel is, by far, the metal most widely used for building structures. It is not only stronger in tension and compression but also many times stiffer (less deformable) for its bulk than other common structural materials (e.g. timber, reinforced concrete and brick). So a steel element will resist more load than other materials of comparable size. This makes it a material of choice for creating large load-bearing frameworks that can be erected quickly to achieve a complete weatherproof building at the earliest opportunity. Steel-framed buildings can be more easily altered than other buildings, after completion, using bolted or welded connections. Wartime needs to join metals efficiently brought about the post-World War II era of modern welding techniques including shielded metal arc, gas metal arc, submerged arc, flux-cored arc and electroslag. Research and development in the field of structural steelwork, benefiting from the advances in welding technology, led to innovations in:

composite design of beams; •composite metal decking floors;•friction grip fasteners; •

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The Dome, Doncaster (1989)

182

high-strength bolts; •high-strength steel; •plastic design of frames; •stressed-skin construction; •structural hollow sections; •yield line analysis of joints. •

Additionally, profiled sheet steel cladding was developed from ‘corrugated iron’ type products to modern deep profiles capable of spanning greater distances and generally coated with a coloured protective and decorative finish. Also, advances in corrosion protection of structural steelwork made possible many more applications of steel in building including, for example, the increased use of thin cold-formed sections for purlins.

The above-listed structural steelwork developments include the structural hollow section, which is more efficient in compres-sion than any other steel section. For example, the permissible loadings for the circular and rectangular hollow section over a typical column height of say 2.5m to 3m (8.2ft to 9.8ft) may be twice those of the universal column for a similar weight per metre (or foot) of material. This explains why there are plenty of tubular steel columns to be seen in the pages of this book. Uniquely among steel sections, the hollow section has a fully enclosed space that can be put to use by building designers for purposes such as services conduit and protection. One interesting develop-ment in ‘using the hole’ is concrete-filling. Remembering that the hollow section is already the most efficient steel section in com-pression, the permissible load of a 2.6m tall hollow section

column 200 × 200 × 5mm (yield 30kg/mm², weight per metre 30.01kg) can be dramatically increased from an unfilled 110 tonnes to a concrete-filled 192 tonnes (420 bars). Thus, a 150 × 150 concrete-filled column can replace a 250 × 350 conventional column and a 300 × 300 concrete-filled column can replace a 550 × 650 conventional column. This increases usable floor space on every floor of a building. Furthermore, the concrete core increases the fire life of the column and enables external fire protection requirements to be reduced or eliminated, according to conditions of service.

Stainless steels

Stainless steels possess enhanced corrosion resistance because of the addition of chromium to alloys of iron and carbon. They are familiar for their uses in cooking utensils and cutlery, fasten-ers, architectural hardware, mechanical equipment, and health and sanitation installations. In comparison with mild steel, they have greater corrosion resistance, cryogenic toughness, work-hardening rate, strength, hot strength, hardness and ductility. They also have a more attractive appearance and a lower maintenance requirement. Worldwide demand for stainless steels is growing at approximately 5% per annum and new applications are con-tinuously being discovered or invented for them.

Stainless steels are available to the construction industry in the forms of plates, bars, sections, sheet strip and tubes. They are widely used by architects and engineers in North America, Japan and western Europe (but traditionally less so in the UK).

Stainless steels are commonly divided into five groups:

martensitic; •ferritic: •austenitic; •duplex (ferro-austenitic); •precipitation-hardening. •

For exterior applications the most appropriate grades of austenitic steels are type 304 and the molybdenum-bearing types 315 and 316. For interior applications, ferritic stainless, which contains little or no nickel, may be used (commonly as types 430 and 434). Standard finishes for architectural applications range from semi-dull to mirror.

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Goodwood Racecourse (1990)

183

Aluminium

The most common source of aluminium is the ore called bauxite which was discovered in 1821 near the village of Les Baux in France. Aluminium on its own is too soft for structural purposes but it can be alloyed effectively with copper, magnesium, silicon, nickel and zinc. Alloying can produce tensile strength equivalent to that of mild steel. Because such alloys weigh about 2800kg/m³ (175lb/ft³), compared with around 7850kg/m³ (490lb/ft³) for steel, lighter structures can be designed in aluminium alloys than is possible in mild steel.

More significantly, perhaps, aluminium is regarded as a non-combustible material. It will melt at about 620°C (1148°F), but it does not burn, ignite, add to the fire load or spread surface flame. Its thermal conductivity is four times that of steel and its specific heat twice that of steel. Because heat is conducted away more quickly in aluminium than in steel, a greater heat input is necessary to bring aluminium up to a given temperature. These qualities make it a leading choice for roof coverings, including many roof coverings for sports facilities.

Aluminium sheeting is transported to site in coils and is passed continuously through a machine to form standing seams in situ. This ‘long strip’ system removes the need to form joints transverse to the standing seams up to a maximum of 7m (23ft). The standard thickness for long strip aluminium roofing is 0.8mm (0.03in) and the recommended maximum width of 450mm (17.7in) produces standing seams at 375mm (14.8in) centres. A minimum fall of 1.5° is recommended.

In the 1980s Ron Taylor, who inspired us to write this book, designed the roof structure for Norway’s first international-stan-dard indoor football hall (120m × 90m × 20m high) at Østfold. Ron liked simplicity and here he used a tubular steel three-pin arch structure without the purlins or bracing that would normally be incorporated for lateral support. Instead, Ron achieved the appropriate support with double-layer Plannja aluminium deck-ing, which enhanced stability during erection and in the finished roof. Half arches were built and clad at ground level, lifted in pairs at the centres of the span and joined at high level. Imposed loading catered for uniformly distributed snow or heavy accumu-lations of snow up to 6.2kN/m² (124lb/ft²) at the outer ends of the arch.

A good example of the use of aluminium for visual appeal is at the Gordon Barracks, Bridge of Don, where a new sports facility was required to fit in with the existing buildings. Here, architects

Mackie Ramsey & Taylor selected a light-coloured flat wall panel and natural-coloured aluminium roof sheeting to complement the traditional granite of the neighbouring buildings. In that same area, at Aberdeen Grammar School, a Kalzip aluminium standing seam roof was chosen for the new School Sports Centre, with an acoustic build-up to eliminate reverberation within the building during use.

The Eynsham Joint Use Sports Centre in west Oxfordshire opened in September 2007. This has a steel frame structure with blockwork, brickwork and an aluminium roof. The top layer of the aluminium roof sheets had to be formed in a radius to match the curve of the roof exactly. Such an operation requires a large area in which to roll the roof sheets to the correct profile and is often undertaken off-site. Because of the narrow site access and restricted working area, a 100 tonne crane was used to suspend a rolling machine and roll of raw sheeting material within a steel container at roof height, some 10m (33ft) above ground level. The sheets simply rolled out of the container, across the roof and into place. The procedure was completed within a day.

21.9

Royal Commonwealth Pool, Edinburgh:

stainless steel diving platform (1972)

184

Titanium

Titanium was discovered in 1791 by Cornish clergyman and mineralogist William Gregor (1761–1817). It had to wait a long time for practical application but the first uses were very high profile: Douglas Aircraft’s X-3 jet plane (1952) and Nasa’s X-15 rocket (1959). One of the authors (JP) began wearing a titanium watch in the 1990s, in preference to the lightweight plastic watches that are the more usual option for runners. The metal is now used in many sporting goods including tennis rackets, lacrosse stick shafts, bicycle frames and helmet grills for sports which include American football (since 2003) and cricket.

What is not so readily appreciated is that titanium sheet (0.3–0.4mm) can be used as roofing and cladding for buildings. The 99% pure material used in construction has a density of 4510kg/m3 (281.5lb/ft³), which is between that of steel and aluminium. It also has a low coefficient of expansion (8.9 × 10-6°C). The natural oxide film can be thickened by anodising to a range of colours between blue and cream, or a textured finish may be applied.

Lead

Rolled lead sheet is exceptionally resistant to atmospheric corro-sion and, when specified and fitted correctly, can provide a

maintenance-free weather shield for more than 100 years. Lead has a high coefficient of linear expansion so due allowance must be made for thermal movement in design, layout, sizing of panels and fixing details. It is incombustible but melts at 327.4°C (621.3°F) and it is fully recyclable. Applications include flashings and weatherings, damp-proof courses, cavity trays, linings to parapet and valley gutters, coverings to flat and pitched roofs, vertical cladding, cappings to parapet walls and sound attenua-tion. Lead is widely used for both new and refurbishment works at sports centres. It is clear, however, from the list that lead is appropriate for remedial work to existing and historic buildings. This is particularly so, in the UK, for ecclesiastical buildings.

Copper

The most famous copper dome in the UK is also part of a place of worship – the London Central Mosque at Regent’s Park. Sheet copper is available in thicknesses ranging from 0.5 to 1mm (and up to 3mm for curtain walling). Standard thicknesses for roofing are 0.6 and 0.7mm. Sheet widths range from 500 to 1000mm, with 600mm being standard for roofing. For long-strip roofing hard temper strip is necessary to prevent buckling with thermal movement. At University College School, Hampstead, the rede-velopment Phase1 (Sports Centre) was completed in October

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Swansea Leisure Centre (2008)

185

2006 and incorporated a high-quality copper roof to complement adjacent listed buildings. More recently, a copper-clad curved roof has been used for the redevelopment of Swansea Leisure Centre, Wales, to link with the city’s industrial heritage. The original building had opened in 1977 and was one of the widest-span buildings of its type in the UK. The redevelopment includes Wales’s largest fitness centre with cutting-edge technology gym equipment, aerobic studios and fitness centre facilities for the under-16s. The new multi-purpose sports hall also hosts concerts and accommodates a synthetic ice rink.

Zinc

Zinc sheet is now rarely used for roofs because more durable materials are available. Zinc–copper–titanium alloy is used as a standard product (0.6mm minimum thickness) or with organic coatings including acrylic, polyester and silicon-polyester paints, Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), plasticised poly-vinyl chloride (PVC-P) or a chemical pre-weathering treatment.

The prize material

A discus is (Collins English Dictionary: Millennium Edition), ‘a circular stone or plate used in throwing competitions by the ancient Greeks’. In Homer’s Iliad, Book 13, Achilles proclaims that funeral games will be held in honour of his slain friend Patroklos and instigates chariot racing, boxing, wrestling, duel-ling, weight-throwing, archery and javelin competitions. Prizes are awarded to the victors. The weight-throwing contest features a projectile which is also the prize – a highly-valued ingot of iron. The mould used in the smelting process, to separate metal from ore, is a round hole in the ground which produces a lentil-shaped ingot. Because of this, the ancient Greeks continued to compete at throwing this strangely-shaped object for more than 1000 years – and the practice continues today.

21.11

Swansea Leisure Centre: glass walls (2008)

22.1

Ballet Rambert, Chiswick, London (circa 1970)

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Introduction

Emitted sound travels in waves until it reaches a wall or other obstacle. Here the sound is partially absorbed and partially reflected. The absorbed sound is dissipated as heat energy and the reflected sound travels in a new direction until it reaches another impediment.

Sports facilities have hard walls, floors and ceilings for resil-ience against impacts. This accentuates the echo and reverbera-tion of sound within the building enclosure, resulting in poor acoustics. But sports facilities house functions which require good acoustic performance. Examples include dance instruction, music and public address. Even more importantly, no building can be expected to be popular with recreational users unless it facilitates clear, comfortable conversation.

Reverberation

Noise is generally measured with sound-pressure meters that record sound in decibels (dB). The reverberation time of a room is the time it takes for sound to decay by 60dB once the source of the sound has ceased. Reverberation time is the basic acousti-cal property of a room which depends only on its dimensions and the absorptive properties of its surface and content. Reverberation impacts on speech intelligibility.

In England and Wales, the Building Regulations state that ‘each room or other space in a building shall be designed and constructed in such a way that it has the acoustic conditions and the insulation against disturbance by noise appropriate to its

intended use’. Sample requirements for reverberation times (in seconds) are <2 (swimming pools), <1.5 (indoor sports halls and gymnasiums), <1.2 (dance studios) and <0.8–1.2 (multi-purpose halls for physical education, drama, assembly, occasional music). By comparison, the outdoors reverberation time is 0, that of Glyndebourne Opera House is 1.3 and that of St Paul’s Cathedral is 13 (a long reverberation time can make musical notes blend together too much, making it difficult to pick out individual notes in fast, complex passages).

Absorption coefficient

The amount of sound energy that can be absorbed by a surface is given by its absorption coefficient ‘α’, which takes values in the range 0–1. A totally reflective surface (one which absorbs no sound) has an absorption coefficient of 0 (0%) and a totally absorptive surface (that absorbs all sound incidents on it) has an absorption coefficient of 1 (100%).

One of the biggest reflectors of sound (noise) is the plastered masonry wall, which has a sound absorption coefficient of 0.02. This compares with 0.03 for a glass window, 0.08 for a timber door, 0.59 for heavy carpet on concrete, 0.70 for heavy fabric and 0.80 for cloth seats. Commercially-available noise control prod-ucts include hanging banners and baffles, acoustic screens, wall panels, ceiling tiles, acoustical doors and windows, acoustical foams and sound diffusers. Acoustic timber wall panels, for exam-ple, are available with sound absorption coefficients up to 1.00.

Sound absorption materials should be planned into the design of sports facilities. They can also be added as retrofit applications,

Chapter 22

Acoust ics

188

as the need for noise reduction within existing sports buildings is addressed.

Coincidence effect

With some materials, stiffness combines with mass to produce a resonance effect, known as the coincidence effect. This is caused by flexural waves in the partition. For a brick wall the effect may occur at an insignificant 100Hz (the human ear is most sensitive to frequencies between 1kHz and 3kHz – a 1kHz tone will sound much louder than a 100Hz tone of the same pressure level). However, window glass has coincidence frequencies in the upper audible range (windows are usually the weakest part of the build-ing envelope for sound insulation).

Noise criteria curves

The Handbook of Facilities Management defines the noise criteria (NC) as a single numerical index commonly used to define design goals for the maximum allowable noise in a given space. It is commonly used for noise produced by a ventilation system but may be applied to other noise sources. The NC consists of a family of curves that defines the maximum allowable octave-band sound pressure level corresponding to a chosen NC level. The curves provide a convenient way of defining ambient noise level in terms

of octave band sound pressure levels. They consist of a family of curves relating the spectrum of noise to an environment. Thus higher noise levels (measured in decibels) may be allowed at lower frequencies because of the fact that the ear is less sensitive to noise at lower frequencies. Any measuring of loudness must take this frequency sensitivity into account. Typical NC levels in sports facilities developments are 35–40 (gymnasiums, racquet courts, indoor swimming pools).

Sound transmission class

Minimum acceptable standards for safe noise levels have been established in the USA by federal regulatory agencies the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). According to OSHA, 5–10 million Americans are at risk from noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) because they are exposed to sounds louder than 85dB on a sustained basis in the workplace. Also, 48 million Americans engage in shooting sports, the most common cause of non-occupational NIHL (socioacusis). More males than females have NIHL – it is believed that 1.8% of American males have handicap-ping NIHL.

Regarding buildings, and depending on the cause of the noise, excessive noise levels can be reduced to acceptable levels by specific action. The two primary sources of unwanted sound – high noise levels and excessive reverberation – can be dampened by adding acoustical absorbents in the affected areas.

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Garnerville Police Training College, Belfast: Gymnasium (2006)

189

In the USA, the degree of insulation of airborne sound pro-vided by a given material is indicated by its Sound Transmission Class (STC) rating. This is widely used to rate partitions, ceilings, floors, doors, windows and exterior walls. The STC number is derived from sound attenuation values tested at 16 standard frequencies from 124–4000Hz. These transmission-loss values are then plotted on a sound pressure level graph and the resulting curve is compared to a standard reference contour. Acoustical engineers fit these values to the appropriate transmission loss (TL) curve to determine an STC rating.

For sports facilities the STC rating falls between 40–60, for example the guidelines for gymnasiums, squash and racquetball courts and indoor swimming pools is 45–55 (these facilities are also subject to a measured reverberation time guideline of 0.8–1.4 seconds). The higher the STC rating, the better is the level of sound absorption.

Sound reduction index

Outside the USA the Sound Reduction Index (SRI) ISO standard is used. This too is a measure of decibels lost when a sound of a given frequency is transmitted through, say, a partition. It should be noted that doubling the mass of a partition does not double the STC or SRI. Doubling mass, for example by going from two sheets of drywall to four, typically adds 5–6 points to the STC. The ‘mass law’ (a general rule) implies that doubling the mass per unit of a partition increases transmission loss by 6dB (in practice this

is generally below 6dB). Transmission loss can be achieved more effectively by decoupling the panels from each other than by add-ing mass to a monolithic wall, floor and ceiling assembly.

Sound reduction

The reduction in sound pressure level between adjacent rooms in a building depends not only on the sound reduction index of the separating wall but also on its area, the acoustic absorption present in the receiving room and the amount of transmission by flanking paths (indirect transmission routes). As general sound reduction measures are implemented, flanking paths become more important considerations. It may be difficult to better 60dB sound level difference without special measures, such as struc-tural discontinuities, to reduce the flanking transmission.

Methods of reducing the effects of unwanted sound include eliminating the sound, introducing acoustical absorbents, chang-ing the shape or layout of an area, applying background sound or isolating the source of the sound and/or vibration. Acoustical treatments include the use of walls and other barriers, soft acousti-cal materials and air space (the larger the space, and the further sound travels within it, the more it is absorbed). Extending walls beyond dropped ceilings can give better acoustical control than stopping internal walls at the dropped ceiling height.

Structural insulation materials are commonly in the form of sprayed coating, applied directly to the surface, or of laminated or monolithic (low density) boards. These are used to provide

22.3

Sports centre car park:

planting reduces noise and visual intrusion (2008)

t e c h n o l o g i e s

190

thermal insulation, fire resistance, acoustic insulation (spray and board) and sound reduction (spray). Acoustic ceiling tiles reduce echo within a hall or room and reduce sound transmission between rooms. They may form part of a suspended ceiling or be attached directly to the underside of the ceiling. A common mate-rial for acoustic ceiling tiles is open-cell melamine-based foam which may have a Hypalon-coated surface.

Sound may not only emanate from within an enclosed space but may also be introduced into the space through walls, floors and ceilings. In conventional wall construction, alternate studs can support the sides of the wall in such a way that through con-nection from one wall surface to another is eliminated (this is sometimes known as double-wall construction). Reductions in the passage of sound between the wall surfaces can also be achieved by filling the space within the walls with sound-absorb-ing material. Other options include introducing approximately 75–100mm (3–4in) of sand into the walls at the baseboard and laying sound-absorbent fabric over the partitions in suspended ceiling construction.

Unwanted sound or noise may be transmitted into halls or rooms by ventilating ducts, pipes or spaces around pipe sleeves. Transmission of sound through ducts can be reduced by the use of baffles or by lining the ducts with sound-absorbent (and, logi-cally, also fire-resistant) materials. The ductwork connections may also be designed to incorporate fabric or rubberised material to interrupt sound transmission through the metal. Pipes can be covered and pipe sleeves filled. Insulation products may be textile-based or of magnesia or calcium, potassium or sodium silicate bound by fibres and compressed into blocks or sections (for pipe lagging) or powdered for application in plastic form.

Keeping noisy spaces separate from those intended to be free from noise is much easier to achieve at project outset. The issue of plantroom-generated noise and vibration should be addressed early in the planning and design process, to eliminate or minimise sound effects on activities taking place within the sports facilities develop-ment. Chillers and large boilers can present severe noise problems, particularly at low frequencies where corrective measures are dif-ficult to achieve. Enclosures can be used to suppress the noise from a stationary machine or item of plant such as a diesel generator. For them to be effective, they should have few or no openings. Where this is not possible because of the need to ventilate, properly designed attenuated air routes are required. The effectiveness of such enclosures is enhanced by lining internally with an acoustical absorbent. Machinery vibration can be reduced by installing

equipment on floating or resilient mountings or bearings. A buffer zone formed by a corridor or storage area around the plantroom is a useful noise control measure. Otherwise double walls and double doors may be needed between areas that are noisy and areas that must be quiet. Single doors having a sound insulation greater than 35dB are expensive and difficult to install. Seals are necessary around the edge, to prevent sound leakages, and these may make the door hard to open and shut (a better option is often two mod-erately insulating doors separated by an absorbent-lined ‘sound lock’). All window and door locations must be considered in the light of acoustic, noise and vibration criteria at project outset.

Maintenance considerations

Acoustical materials have their own special maintenance needs. Tile fractures or fabric tears clearly require urgent attention because damaged acoustical materials cease to carry out their function. It should be noted that oil-base paint reduces the sound-absorbent qualities of most materials. The most common treat-ment of acoustical fibre is with a lightly brushed coating of water-base paint. Most acoustical materials lose their efficiency after several applications of paint.

External acoustics

Sports facilities usually have adjacent walkways and surface car parks, where a great deal of user-noise may be generated with the hard surfaces acting acoustically like the hard surfaces within the building. Ameliorating elements include shrubbery, trees and grass.

Clouds

Perhaps the most dramatic acoustical device for sports facilities is the fabricated ‘cloud’. Continuous jets of air are used to form an ‘air roof’, tent-like in shape, over a large open arena. This can not only eliminate the need for a membrane or pneumatic roof but can also be used for sound control.

191

B of the Bang

At its time of erection in 2004 this 56m (184ft) tall sculpture, adjacent to the City of Manchester Stadium, was the tallest in Britain. It takes its name from Linford Christie’s comment that he started his races not just at the ‘bang’ of the starting pistol but at the ‘B of the Bang’. This explosion of sound was captured by Thomas Heatherwick in weathering steel with 180 tapering hol-low steel sections – spikes – radiating from a point 22m (72ft) above ground, where they are supported by five 25m (82ft) taper-ing steel ‘legs’. The sculpture weighs 165 tonnes and has 20m (65ft) deep foundations weighing more than 1000 tonnes. In 2009 the future of the sculpture was placed in doubt, but the image of the sculpture is a truly dramatic representation of coruscating sound.

22.4

Sportcity, Manchester: B of the Bang (2005)

23.1

Western High School, Washington DC:

when do we get Electric Lights? (circa 1899)

193

The Electric Light Orchestra

In 1879 there was the beginning of a global lighting revolution orchestrated by competition between inventors including Thomas Edison, William Edward Sawyer and Philip Diehl (USA), Henry Woodward and Mathew Evans (Canada) and Joseph Swann (UK). The first public building in the world to use Edison’s new incan-descent lamps was the Mahen Theatre in Brno, Moldavia (now Czech Republic). Francis Jehl, Edison’s assistant in the invention of the lamp, supervised the installation at Brno in 1882. In the following year the Czech National Theatre in Prague became the most technically advanced building of its type in the world, with the installation of electric illumination and a constructional steel stage. These buildings accommodated dance and ballet training and performance, placing sports-type facilities at the heart of the electric light revolution. The lamps were the first that would last a practical length of time – 13.5 hours initially.

Types of electric light

Electric lighting types were developed to include incandescent, fluorescent, mercury-vapour, metal halide, quartz and sodium-vapour. The first known attempt to produce an incandescent light bulb was made by the British astronomer and chemist Warren De la Rue in 1840. He enclosed a platinum coil in an evacuated tube and passed an electric current through it. The design was efficient but the cost of the platinum made it impractical. The incandescent light is instantaneous, burns without sound and is not affected by the number of times the light is turned on and off. Incandescent

lamps are economic to buy and easy to change, with individual fittings capable of holding different sizes of lamp. They do, how-ever, have excessively high spot brightness and give off consider-able heat, which can cause problems when high levels of illumination are necessary. Lighting innovations have been moving towards enhanced illumination at lower cost. Fluorescent lamps offer longevity and at least two-and-a-half times the amount of light of incandescent lamps, for the same electrical current usage (the latter advantage led to their introduction into many old build-ings in order to raise the illumination level without installing new

Chapter 23

L ight ing

23.2

Secondary Modern School, Hunstanton:

along main block towards gymnasium (1954)

194

wiring). Mercury-vapour lighting is relatively expensive to install but, in life cycle terms, is cheaper than incandescent. Its bluish colour is not always appropriate but very satisfactory lighting systems can be achieved by its use in combination with incandes-cent lighting. Mercury-vapour lights have, however, been super-seded by metal halide lights which do not last as long but operate more efficiently, without the blue tinge. Metal halide high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps emit five times the light of incandescent lamps without producing intense heat. Because of their superior colour rendition, metal halides are a particularly appropriate choice if a venue is to host televised events.

Quartz lights and high-pressure sodium lights are outdoor lights which have, in recent years, been used indoors too. Quartz lights are similar to incandescent lights but have a slight bronze colour and are a little more efficient. High-pressure sodium lights are highly efficient and give the best output of the types described. Their drawback is a yellow-bronze hue which is not always appropriate.

General sports lighting is usually achieved through a regular arrangement of luminaires. A luminaire is a complete light fitting including lamp or lamps, optical components and control gear. Height and design of the sports facilities ceiling determine the choice of luminaire. Options include recessed (for mounting in cavities or ceiling voids, often flush with a ceiling), surface-mounted (for mounting directly on the ceiling, with the luminaire housing visible) and pendant, or suspended. Luminaires are dif-ferentiated on the basis of type (e.g. incandescent, fluorescent, discharge), number of lamps (e.g. single, twin, cluster), intended location (interior, exterior), degree of protection (against damp, dust), type of construction (open, enclosed, reflector, specular reflector, louvred, diffuser, floodlight) and application (technical, decorative). A manufacturer’s specification might include:

IP classification; •light output ratio; •flux fraction ratio; •polar curve and/or intensity distribution data; •spacing-to-height ratio; •utilisation factors; •glare index table.•

Measuring illuminance

The foot-candle (fc, ft-c) is a non-SI measure of the amount of light generated at a distance of 1ft from the light source. Therefore 100fc = 100 candles of light at 1ft from a lamp. A lumen (lm) is a metric measure of the amount of light reaching the object to be illuminated (1fc = 1lm/ft2). Candlepower, or candela (CD), is a non-SI measure of the amount of light that a bulb or LED pro-duces, measured at the bulb or LED (1CD = 1lm/m2).

The SI-derived unit of illuminance is the lux (an abbreviation of lumens per square metre). Because 1fc = 1lm/ft2 and 1lux = 1lm/m2, and because 1ft2 = 0.0929 m2, then 1 lux = 0.0929fc and 1fc = 10.76 lux. In the lighting industry this is typically approximated to 1fc = 10 lux.

Recommendations for illumination of sports activities have during the past 60 years included 5fc (skating, dance), 10fc (swim-ming), 20fc (bowling, volleyball), 30fc (badminton, gymnasium exhibitions, handball, squash), 50fc (basketball, ice hockey), 200fc (professional boxing). Today, the required illumination levels for sports activities are usually within the range 30–150fc. Using the above-quoted conversion factor, North American foot-candles can quickly be converted into European lux, and vice versa.

23.3

Highgate Wood School sports

hall, Haringey, London

(circa 1970)

195

l i g h t i n g

The glasshouse

The biggest source of illuminance is, of course, the sun. In the UK, between 1944 and 1954, the British government built 2500 schools. Hunstanton School, constructed 1949–54, was designed by Peter and Alison Smithson and epitomised the Modernist architectural experiment of post-war Britain. The steel frames and glass walls of its school buildings and gymnasium allowed natural light to flood in, as intended. But glass is a poor insulator and caused the buildings to heat up (like a greenhouse) in the summer and to cool down too much in the winter. Despite this, Norfolk’s resilient pupils of the 1950s liked ‘the glasshouse’, as it was known locally, and it became something of a blueprint for sub-sequent British school building design (today the school is largely as initially designed but with some black panels introduced to mitigate the solar gain). Glazing is similarly integral to the North American learning experience, with states such as Washington, Oregon, Montana and Idaho recommending daylight as the pri-mary source of illumination in classrooms and school gymnasiums.

The Blind Box

The award-winning Highgate Wood School Sports Hall was com-missioned by the London Borough of Haringey in the early 1970s. It was designed by Chapman/Lisle Associates, working with Anthony Hunt Associates (in what must have been one of Tony Hunt’s earliest sports facility projects). By way of complete con-trast to Hunstanton, this building design was driven by the then current view that only artificial lighting offered the control neces-sary for optimising playing conditions for indoor sports. The brief was for an artificially lit sports hall of standard dimensions with changing rooms and ancillary facilities. The design team’s response was to include all the accommodation in a single, simple form. Design of the structure and fabric became a giant exercise in packaging, with the 36.8m × 23.2m × 8m (120ft × 76ft × 26ft) high building delineated by its elegant and contrastingly-painted RHS frame. Within the building, the lighting was integrated with the RHS purlins and ‘fish bellied’ RHS trusses which span the 23.2m.

The importance of lighting in sports facilities

In the UK, preparation of the Sports Council’s 1984 design note on sports hall lighting (see the References) was preceded by a survey covering technical aspects, costs and user opinion of light-ing in small multi-purpose halls. The purpose of the survey was to aid understanding and ensure the relevance of recommenda-tions. Of all responses stating that the hall characteristics were liked, 15% related to lighting. Of all the hall characteristics dis-liked, 35% related to lighting. Of all reasons given for preferring one hall to another, 22% concerned lighting. This feedback flagged up to owners, operators and designers the importance of lighting to sports building users.

The Sports Council stated that existing recommendations concerning lighting standards for recreational play in indoor sports halls were not satisfactory. It considered it ‘impossible to meet the lighting requirements of users in both a daylit hall with roof lights and a blind box’. A principal recommendation was that:

‘the design of small multi-purpose sports halls should aim at the provision of average illumination levels at badminton net height of at least 400 lux. Also consideration should be given to the achievement of even illumination through-out; lighting type, layout and hall decorations are crucial to this’.

Incident lighting

Incident lighting is expressed in terms of probable sunlight hours. These are the total number of hours per year when the sun would, under typical cloud conditions, shine directly onto a given point. In any new building in the UK in which sunlight is desirable, two Building Research Establishment (BRE) recommendations for incident lighting should be met: one principal window wall should face within 90° of due south; along this window wall, every point on the standard 2m (6.55ft) reference line (i.e. 2m above ground level) should be within 4m (measured sideways) of a point exposed to at least one-quarter of the annual probable hours of sunlight on an open site (these hours of exposure should

196

include at least 5% of probable hours of sunlight in the six winter months between 21 September and 21 March).

Sports facilities lighting

Lighting design for sports facilities is about producing good visibil-ity which meets the requirements of the sports being played. Natural lighting has to be considered from the earliest planning stages of a sports facilities project. This is because glazed areas of the building must be correctly positioned and sized to achieve uniform natural illumination which avoids glare, reflections, unwanted solar gain and heat loss. The lighting designer has to take into account the prospective background (tone, colour and variation), roof configuration and any planned storage (e.g. gym equipment). Associated considerations at the early stages include screening (blinds, planting) and protection to low-level glazing (use of safety glass). External shading devices include reveals, horizontal and vertical overhangs, vertical sun-screen, rotating panels, rollershades with vertical slide bar, awnings, sliding or rotating shutters, vertical or horizontal fixed or moveable louvers, lightshelves, trees, shrubs and vines. Additional shading devices include Venetian blinds, roller blinds and prismatic elements (interpane and internal) and lightshelves, reflective blinds, cur-tains, tilted and/or reflective surfaces (internal).

Lighting design for sports facilities is holistic and incorporates the daylight system, artificial system and control system. Maximising the use of natural light promotes energy efficiency, but it cannot eliminate the need for artificial lighting and associ-ated controls. Evaluating artificial lighting options involves con-sidering quality of light, visual comfort, uniformity of illumination, lighting type, position (ceiling mounted uplighters and/or down-lighters, and/or wall/track-mounted lights), energy efficiency, length of life, radiation of heat, initial and ongoing costs, and ease of cleaning and replacement.

Achieving uniformity of illumination necessitates eliminating dark areas. Uniformity can be measured as a ratio of the brightest

to the darkest area of a sports surface: the lower the number the better is the uniformity of illumination. Using different lighting patterns, including combinations of wide and narrow beams, decreases dark areas. Advances in reflector technology are also leading to the replacement of traditional standard symmetrical reflectors with new generation reflectors of shapes that redirect off-field spill light. Computer programs have been developed to aid the design process.

Lights in arenas, sports halls and other high-ceiling activity spaces should be a minimum of 7.3m (24ft) above the playing surface so that they will not interfere with mandatory clearance heights for indoor sports. Indoor lighting systems are generally direct or indirect. Direct lighting systems are overhead and face down to the floor. Indirect lighting systems face some other direc-tion, such as side walls or ceiling, reflecting light to reduce glare (e.g. for volleyball, to protect against glare to eyes following high-flying balls). Indirect lighting is more expensive to provide because with each reflection the amount of travelling light is diminished. Therefore more energy is consumed in indirect light-ing than in direct lighting, to achieve the same area illumination. Both direct and indirect lighting must be designed to achieve the required illumination without causing glare or shadows on the playing surface. Certain indoor sports have specific lighting requirements, for example lighting should not be positioned within a 4m (13ft) radius of a basketball basket.

In general, sports involving small balls and fast movement call for higher lighting levels of at least 300 lux (27.9fc). Also, some sports may require special lighting. Examples include the use of high illuminances for TV broadcasting, vapour-proof fittings in appropriate areas of facilities and underwater lighting in swim-ming pools. Apart from such special requirements, consideration should be given to standardising the light fittings as much as possible in order to reduce the quantities and varieties of spares that must be stored on site.

Consideration should be given to the shielding of fittings and/or the use of impact-resistant covers. If struck by a ball, then a luminaire must withstand any damage that might otherwise cause component parts to fall to the ground. Care must be taken that the grid dimensions of the lamp enclosure are substantially smaller than missiles which may be used, so that, say, balls or shuttlecocks cannot lodge in the fitting or its protective grille.

The need for emergency lighting provision raises the issues of a generator or batteries, automatic changeover devices and the use of a separate circuit to light strategic routes and exits.

23.4

Harborough Leisure Centre: uplighter (2008)

197

Provision must be made for access to the lighting and to glazed areas, such as rooflights, for cleaning, maintenance, repair and replacement.

Flexibility of the lighting system (i.e. various switching pos-sibilities) should be considered where multiple uses of space are the norm. Dimmer switches may be incorporated for, say, lighting to spectator areas.

Automation of lighting systems enables switching to be pro-grammed to illuminate specific areas for specific purposes for specific durations of time. This opens up huge cost-saving oppor-tunities because, apart from the different lighting requirements of different sports, practice sessions – which do not require the same quality of light – can account for more than five times as much use as spectator events. Automated systems can optimise lighting to shared facilities to meet the needs of different activities in the most energy-efficient way. Lighting control considerations include the physical location of the central control point (e.g. reception, office).

Dirt depreciation

In the late 1990s the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) funded a three-year study of luminaire (lighting fixture) dirt depre-ciation undertaken by the interNational Association of Lighting Management Companies (NALMCO). Luminaire dirt depreciation (LDD) factors used at the time derived from the 1950s, when smoking was the norm and air-conditioning was provided by opening windows. Analysis of the results of the study indicated that existing light loss factors relating to dirt and dust build-up on fixture surfaces overestimated the extent of light loss. This offered the opportunity, in lighting designs, to reduce the number of fixtures required to maintain light levels while achieving initial and operating cost savings. For new installations the number of fixtures required is:

In the above equation: CU = coefficient of utilisation, a derating factor which shows the percentage of lumens produced by the

lamps that reach the playing surface, the room proportions and the ability of room surfaces to reflect light; LLF = light loss factors, multiplier values used to estimate overall performance at different times during the life of the lighting system (e.g. performance of light and luminaire, maintenance level of system).

The second lighting revolution

The electric lighting revolution of 1879 changed lifestyles forever but came to be taken for granted as electric lighting became widespread. There would be little change in its technology until Nick Holonya Jnr invented the first practical light-emitting diode (LED) in 1962. Light in an LED is emitted from a solid object – a block of semiconductors – rather than the conventional vacuum or gas tube, as in incandescent light bulbs and fluorescent lamps. The first LEDs (which were red) became commercially available in the late 1960s. Shuji Nakamura of Nichia Corporation, Japan, built a prototype brilliant blue light LED in 1993. Sport took a leading role in LED technology use, notably in stadium and arena high-profile signage and display applications in North America. In 1995 Alberto Barbieri developed a transparent contact made by indium tin oxide while investigating the efficiency and reli-ability of high-brightness LEDs at Cardiff University, Wales. Subsequently, Nakamura would develop a phosphor coating to mix yellow light with blue to produce a light that appears white. In 2006 Nakamura was awarded Finland’s Millennium Technology Prize for his invention of high brightness blue and white LEDs. The ‘solid state lighting’ revolution had begun in earnest.

Solid state lighting (SSL)

The term ‘solid state lighting’ derives from the fact that light in an LED is emitted from a solid object. SSL uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs), organic light-emitting diodes (OLED) or polymer light-emitting diodes (PLED) as sources of illumination. These sources provide light to be seen rather than light to be seen by. The brightness levels of the newest devices are now viable for a wide range of applications and further improvements will make LEDs competitive on performance and cost with traditional sources for general purpose lighting. Principal advantages of using

Incandescent (100W) Fluorescent (linear CW) Metal halide White LED

Visible light (%) 5 21 27 15–30

Infrared (%) 83 37 17 0

Ultraviolet (%) 0 0 19 0

Total radiant energy (%) 88 58 63 15–30

Heat: conduction and convection (%) 12 42 37 70–85

Total 100% 100% 100% 100%

Table 23.1 Power conversion for typical white light sources

C

D N RD T

R

C

20,000mm 365mm 6,000mm20,000mm 800mm

6,000mm

20,000mm 6,365mm20,800mm

6,000mm

127,300mm 6,000mm20,800mm

120mm

N

lighted area desired light level product lumens

f

ixture CU LLF

t e c h n o l o g i e s

198

LEDs include design choice, energy-efficiency, reliability, tough-ness and durability, reduced maintenance requirement, fast start-up, good low-temperature performance, digital control and low-voltage operation.

Using the latest drivers and controllers, LEDs provide almost limitless choice of light – colour, intensity and distribution – beyond anything possible with traditional light sources. Because they are typically much smaller than conventional light sources, LEDs can combine unobtrusiveness with a wide colour range for dramatic lighting designs, including dynamic and complex three-dimensional effects.

Lighting consumes approximately 25% of all electrical energy used globally. SSL can be 20 times more efficient than incandes-cent lights and five times more efficient than fluorescent lighting. Because LEDs use low DC currents, small exterior installations can be powered by solar cells, so taking advantage of ‘free’ energy. Widespread changeover to LED lighting technology will deliver substantial energy savings plus environmental benefits including reductions in CO2 emissions, acid rain and hazardous waste (such as mercury).

Unlike light bulbs, LEDs dim gradually over time and do not ‘blow’. Manufacturers specify LED ‘life’ as the time for the light output to dim to 70% of its initial value, typically 50,000 hours. In reality, most single colour LEDs (e.g. red, green, blue) will exceed this, with 100,000 to 150,000 hours of use possible if the device operates within maximum ratings and adequate heatsink-ing is provided. Being a newer, less mature technology, the best white LEDs have a life of around 35,000 hours (four years of continuous operation).

Because they are solid-state devices, LEDs are highly resistant to vibration, making them ideal for applications in which this can cause the early failure of conventional light sources. Their long life expectancy makes them suitable for encapsulating into weath-erproof housings for outdoor use.

Once installed and working, LEDs should seldom need replac-ing. They can therefore eliminate costly and/or potentially danger-ous maintenance work. These attributes make them particularly suitable in inaccessible or awkward applications.

The above-named advantages have brought about a steady increase over recent years in the use of LED displays to provide people with dynamic information and messaging. The capability to display instant real-time messages, coupled with low power and low maintenance, makes LED signage a cost-effective solu-tion for many applications, including travel information, warning

announcements, queue management, gambling, entertainment, retailing and advertising.

An example of the possibilities of the technology is demon-strated by rock band Massive Attack’s world tour of 2006, which took in venues ranging from theatres and ballrooms to stadiums and arenas. United Visual Artists (UVA) used 240 Chroma-Q™ Color Blocks to create a hemispherical, curving LED screen of high-impact lighting and video effects. These ranged from scroll-ing text statistics for ‘Safe from Harm’ to organic, warm patterns for ‘Teardrop’, blue-and-white point-sources for ‘Inertia Creeps’ and bold audio-driven looks for ‘Karmacoma’.

GaN LED lighting

On 28 January 2009 it was announced that Cambridge University researchers at the Cambridge Centre for Gallium Nitride (CCGN), with funding from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), had found a new way of producing LEDs which

23.5

Stairway: Marl CreativeArc LED architectural lighting (2008)

199

can bring their cost down by up to 75%. This new technology uses Gallium Nitride (GaN), an artificial semiconductor which emits a bright light but uses very little electricity. Colin Humphries, Head of the CCGN and Professor of Materials Science at Cambridge University, said, ‘Gallium Nitride is probably the most important semiconductor material since silicon. It emits brilliant light as well as being the key material for next generation high frequency, high power transistors capable of operating at high temperatures’.

GaN-based lighting is not in itself new but has, to date, been expensive to produce. The new technique grows GaN on silicon wafers, which brings down manufacturing costs by 90% (UK company RFMD is setting up production in Durham). The new technology also offers a 50% boost in efficiency over previous methods which used GaN grown in laboratories on expensive sapphire wafers. The current prototype was found in tests to be 12 times more efficient than traditional tungsten and three times more efficient than fluorescents. Scientists anticipate that switch-ing to GaN could cut the proportion of UK electricity used for lighting from 20% to 5%. Additional advantages include long life

(100,000 hours), environmental friendliness (no mercury content) and operational efficiencies (instant response, no flicker, dimmable).

23.6

Muncaster Castle Sports and Activities Centre, Cumbria:

Marl CreativeArc LED architectural lighting (2008)

23.7

GaN-based LED lights (February 2009)

24.1

Road direction sign: to leisure centre (2008)

201

Communication and sports facilities

Physical exercise is the most obvious defining activity of a sports facilities development but communication is also a defining char-acteristic. It starts with directions from the highway and local road networks and with the building’s name, which is usually displayed at high level outside the reception area. If these basic communica-tions are unsuccessful, then the sports facilities development will be unsuccessful. Within the building there is staff-to-staff, staff-to-user and user-to-user communication on just about anything. Voice enhancement and communication systems range from the simple microphone to sophisticated PA systems and from the land-line telephone to the cell phone. There is interactivity between user and gym equipment. Signage is not only important but, in some cases, mandatory, covering health and safety issues, directional advice, instructions and information. There is broadcasting to LCD or plasma screens installed in gyms, studios, restaurants and public areas. There is also the personal wiring for sound that enables exercisers to work out while listening to their own choice of music or, say, a language-learning course.

Solid state lighting (see Chapter 23) enabled companies in the computer industry to start building text and graphic displays using standard computer graphics cards and PC hardware. The mass market consumer electronics industry is now making pro-grammable digital signal processing (DSP) chipsets intended for HDTV and digital TV set-top boxes, streaming media encoders and flat panel LED projectors and desktop/laptop computer displays. The new LED technologies have brought into the every-day sports facilities environment ultra-wide screen video dis-plays, electronic fascia signage, round and curved video displays and exterior building animation. They have opened up new and

exciting possibilities in video-streaming, covering corporate identity, match-scoring, forthcoming events and commercial advertising.

Chapter 24

Communicat ions

24.2

Harborough Leisure Centre: gym – health and safety notice (2008)

202

Effective communication

Some aspects of communication are quantifiable. To understand a message, a viewer must have sufficient time to read the message content. This necessitates considerations of maximum and minimum viewing distances, mode of travel of the viewer (on foot or bicycle, or in a car) and the speed at which the viewer is travelling. Tables 24.1 to 24.3 are used by Daktronics, LED display designer and manufacturer, for clients specifying its products and, in particular, for those specifying its Galaxy ® text and graphics displays.

Signage

In the 1980s the International Standards Organization (ISO) tested symbols for signage with a multilingual audience. ISO developed the symbol of a running man and a door, indicating both the

Maximum viewing time (seconds)

Character size

Maximum viewing distance

5 mph 8 km/h

15 mph 24 km/h

25 mph 40 km/h

35 mph 56 km/h

45 mph 72 km/h

55 mph 89 km/h

65 mph 105km/h

75 mph 121km/h

In mm ft m

13.7 4.6 2.7 1.9 1.5 1.2 1.1 0.9 2 51 100 3041.1 13.7 8.2 5.8 4.6 3.7 3.2 2.7 6 152 300 91

61.6 20.5 12.3 8.8 6.8 5.6 4.7 4.1 9 229 450 13789.0 29.7 17.8 12.7 9.9 8.1 6.8 5.9 13 330 650 198

123.3 41.1 24.6 17.5 13.7 11.2 9.5 8.2 18 457 900 274

164.4 54.8 32.8 23.4 18.2 14.9 12.6 10.9 24 610 1200 366

246.6 82.2 49.2 35.1 27.3 22.3 18.9 16.4 36 914 1800 549

328.8 109.6 65.6 46.8 36.4 29.8 25.2 21.8 48 1219 2400 732

Table 24.1 Text viewing ranges (approximate) – emboldened values are acceptable exposure times

Speed Pixel pitch7.6mm (0.3in) 12mm (0.47in) 20mm (0.78in) 34mm (1.33in) 46mm (1.8in) 89mm (3.5in)

5 mph 8 km/h

T&G TO TO

15 mph 24 km/h

T&G T&G TO TO

25 mph 40 km/h

T&G T&G TO TO

35 mph 56 km/h

T&G T&G T&G TO

45 mph 72 km/h

T&G T&G T&G TO

55 mph 89 km/h

T&G T&G TO

65 mph 105km/h

T&G T&G

75 mph 121km/h

T&G

T&G = text and graphics recommendationTO = text only recommendation

Table 24.2 Appropriate pixel pitch for display application (based on traffic speed and desired display content)

Pixel pitch Minimum viewing distance

12mm (0.47in) 20ft (6m)20mm (0.78in) 45ft (14m)

34mm (1.33in) 75ft (23m)

46mm (1.8in) 105ft (32m)

89mm (3.5in) 200ft (61m)

Table 24.3 Closest approximate distance when light emitted

from pixels begins to blend into a continuous picture

203

direction of egress and the way in which the door opened at the point of exit. This safety symbol, the first to be based on compre-hensive communications research, was in 1987 incorporated in ISO 6309. Three years later BS 5499: Part 1 dealt with safety signs, means of escape and fire-fighting equipment identification. By drawing on the ISO standard, this British Standard helped to establish an international standard of recognition.

In the UK, following the principles and practices of British Standards goes a long way towards meeting the requirements of the UK Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations (No. 341). This legislation was formed from, and satisfies, the European Community Safety Signs Directive EEC/92/58. The Regulations offer design criteria which can be adapted within sensible limits, and the EC Directive offers guidelines as opposed to a code.

The Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations were introduced to create a standardisation of signs so that a given symbol would instantly convey a given message using a combination of geometrical shape, colour and picture element. The Regulations did not specify the circumstances in which signs should be displayed because this was considered to be the respon-sibility of the building owner and/or operator, working with professional advisors and the appropriate certifying authority. While neither the Safety Sign Regulations nor British Standards specified requirements for the cleaning and maintenance of safety signs, any sign must be kept clean and be repaired as necessary to convey its message effectively. It is also important to ensure

that directional and safety signs are never obscured by advertising or information displays.

BS 5499: Part 4 (BSI 2000), Safety Signs was published in September 2000. This included ‘Fire Safety Signs, Code of Practice for Escape Route Signing’. In the Code, maximum view-ing distances were devised by Dr G M B Webber using a Japanese visual acuity study of normal-sighted people based on the use of Landolt rings. (A Landolt ring is an optotype, a standardised symbol used for testing vision, which consists of a ring with a gap and looks like the letter ‘C’. The gap can be at various posi-tions – usually left, right, top bottom and at the 45° positions in between these points. The task of the tested person is to decide on which side the gap is.) All signs conforming to BS 5499: Part 1 and BS 5499: Part 4, used in conjunction with a formal risk assessment, are deemed to satisfy all requirements under Building, Fire Precaution and Health and Safety at Work Regulations and Legislation.

The Research Group for Inclusive Environments at Reading University developed a proposal to assess the influence of a range of criteria on the legibility and conspicuity of emergency escape signs for use in the built environment and the production of emergency escape route signage (EERS) design guidance suitable for all building users. There are substantial advantages to be had by developing a range of emergency escape signs that encompass the needs of the visually impaired. For example, achieving accept-ability for the visually impaired means achieving acceptability for everyone and the cost of then manufacturing signs for

24.3

Harborough Leisure Centre:

reception information sign – poolometer (2008)

204

24.4

Beijing 2008 Olympics: the Water Cube, broadcasting (2008)

24.5

Beijing 2008 Olympics: Lenovo Main Press Centre i-lounge (2008)

205

everyone need be no greater than producing signs for normal-sighted people only. Components of the proposed study included:

luminance and luminance contrast of the graphical symbol •and of the background; uniformity of the luminance across the surface of the sign; •angular size of the graphical symbols and the text; •text style, where mixed case and upper case legends are •examined for internally illuminated signs; format of graphical symbols, including arrows; •sign technologies including internally-lit fluorescent, elec-•troluminescent and LED types, and externally-illuminated types; assessment under normal lighting and emergency lighting •conditions; viewing distance considerations.•

The phone revolutions

Sports businesses are as phone-dependent as any other busi-nesses. For example, sports centre staff need to keep in touch with fitness instructors who may operate out of different venues and across various sites, and sports centre users need to phone in to check session times and make bookings.

The ‘talking telegraph’ was invented in 1849 by Antonio Meucci, an Italian immigrant into the USA. In 1871 Meucci filed a caveat – an intention to patent – on his invention but did not renew the caveat. In 1876 Alexander Graham Bell filed a patent for his version of the ‘telephone’, which he had developed through researching into ways of helping deaf and mute people communicate by recording speech vibrations. The earliest tele-phones used telegraph lines or open-wire, single-wire earth return circuits. The advent of electric trams in the 1880s induced noise into the circuits and the telephone companies converted to bal-anced circuits, which were themselves quickly superseded by wire transposition, using twisted pair cables to cancel out interfer-ence. The twisted pair cabling technology was adapted to handle not only voice communication but also data communication such as telex, fax and – in more recent years – the Internet.

In 1921 the AT&T Bell company began experimenting with one-way phone systems between the Detroit Police Department and its patrol cars. This objective was achieved by 1928, so the first mobile phones were car phones. Within 20 years, wireless telephone service had been achieved in almost 100 North American cities. Reception was not always of the highest quality, but the achievement was remarkable.

In 1978 AT&T Bell developed ‘cellular’ technology through test-ing a mobile telephone system based on hexagonal geographical regions called ‘cells’. As a caller’s vehicle passed from one cell to another, an automatic switching system would transfer the call from one cell to another without interruption. From 1983 the cellular

24.6

Wicksteed Park, Northants:

Olympic Closing Ceremony broadcast to UK regions

(24 September 2008)

206

telephone system began to be used nationally in the USA. The mobile phones themselves were developed from the original brick-like instruments into compact, elegant, lightweight accessories. In addition to performing the standard voice function of a telephone, today’s mobile phones may support additional services and func-tions including Short Message Service (SMS) for text messaging, email, packet switching for access to the Internet, gaming, Bluetooth, infrared, camera with video recorder and Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) for sending and receiving photographs and video.

The telephone revolutions of the 1870s (land-line) and 1970s (cell phone) make an interesting parallel with the artificial lighting revolutions of the 1870s (electric) and 1960s (solid state) that were covered in Chapter 23.

Conversing with gym equipment

When we are using gym equipment, we like instant feedback on our performance so that we know if there is a need to ‘up the tempo’ to achieve our progress aspirations (or moderate our efforts to avoid collapse). Interactivity between user and machine is set up by the user keying in value responses to some basic attribute-type prompts delivered via a display screen. Thus, the user of, say, a treadmill or cross trainer will be asked personal questions (e.g. weight, age) and machine-setting questions (e.g. duration of ses-sion). The equipment software may be quite sophisticated. However, the user can easily work out the simpler things that the machine wants to convey. For example, we want to do 30 minutes on a treadmill, starting at 5mph (8kmh) and building up to 10mph (16kmh). We want to know how far we’ve run. The distance run is the product of starting speed + final speed multiplied by time and divided by two. In this case the calculation is 5mph (starting speed) + 10mph (final speed) multiplied by 0.5 (hours) and divided by 2 = 3.75 miles. To work out the number of calories burned, the equipment software takes user weight (input in response to a prompt) and multiplies it by the distance run (calculated as dem-onstrated). The calculation of the work rate is the number of calo-ries burned divided by the time spent running.

With the cross trainer, calculations are even easier. This is because each ‘step’ is fixed by the geometry of the machine. The machine can take the user weight-input and combine it with the distance-travelled calculation to produce the number of calories burned. It uses current speed and weight information to display the current work rate.

The rowing machine involves simply pushing with the legs and pulling with the arms, using a chain linked to a large fan. The level of difficulty is set by adjusting the air intake to the fan, a process known as ‘adjusting the vent’. Sensors in the rowing machine record the speed of rotation of the fan and how many times it turns for each pull. For all its simplicity, the rowing machine offers extensive feedback options ranging from calorie-burn information to race scenario graphics and games (e.g. the Concept 2 PM3 ‘Fishing Game’). The default language for gym equipment may be English but, for equipment distributed in the main European markets, available options for selection may include all of the principal western European languages and all Scandinavian languages.

24.7

Garnerville Police Training College, Belfast: Gymnasium (2006)

207

c o m m u n i c a t i o n s

Rough

Maintenance requirement is an important consideration in sig-nage design and installation. There are many situations in which messages can become concealed or corrupted. We’ve chosen this Desborough township (population 8500) sign to demonstrate both possibilities. The sign fails to tell the traveller where they are arriving, and could give the wrong impression of the welcome he or she is likely to receive (the foliage was cut back at the end of September 2008, six weeks after this photograph was taken).

24.8

Rough (2008)

25.1

Harborough Leisure Centre:

foyer fire safety equipment (2008)

209

Definitions

‘Safety’ means the protection from accident of building occupants or users and, to a lesser extent, of their possessions. ‘Security’ means the protection from wilful attack of building occupants or users, their possessions and the property they occupy.

Safety

Entries to and exits from facilities must be clearly marked and equipped with panic hardware. Emergency procedures need to be posted and followed. Facilities must comply with appropriate codes and regulations. Telephone and other emergency call sys-tems must be available, together with first-aid equipment and materials. Building users must comply with eye-guard and foot-wear requirements. All activities must be conducted in accor-dance with the appropriate rules and guidelines, which are developed to incorporate safety standards. Facilities must be cleaned regularly and equipment inspected periodically. If equip-ment is found to be damaged or defective then it should be repaired or replaced promptly.

Fire safety design

Fire is one of the most destructive threats to safety. Over the authors’ working lives the emphasis of fire safety in construction has moved upstream from the manufacturer-driven consideration of fire

protection to the design concept-driven consideration of fire safety design. This change in approach leads to more imaginative and more elegant structures but necessitates dealing with fire safety issues from project outset. Fire safety design is a vast topic and the only reason for not devoting a whole (and substantial) chapter to it is that its influence permeates the content of the book as a whole.

Summerland

On the night of 2 August 1973 fire spread through the Summerland sports and leisure complex at Douglas, Isle of Man, killing 51 people and seriously injuring 80. This disaster was to sports and recreational buildings what Ronan Point was to high rise develop-ment, Hillsborough to stadiums and King’s Cross to transport terminals. More than 35 years have now passed since the tragedy. The events are recounted here to encourage diligence and to eliminate complacency in those too young to be forever affected by the salutary media coverage of the time.

Summerland had opened on 25 May 1971. It was a climate-controlled 50,000ft² (4600m²) seven-storey concrete building with adjacent Aquadrome (two heated swimming pools, sauna and Turkish bath) and a miniature golf garden. It was designed to accommodate up to 10,000 tourists. Facilities included a dance area, games areas, restaurants and a public bar. Novel techniques and new plastic materials were incorporated in its construction. The street frontage and part of the roof were clad in a frosted translucent acrylic glass sheeting called Oroglas.

The fire started around 19:30 hours and was caused by three boys illicitly smoking in a small kiosk adjacent to the centre’s

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mini-golf course. The burning kiosk keeled over against the exte-rior of the building and the acrylic sheeting proved highly flam-mable, spreading the fire quickly across the walls and roof, and through vents which were not properly fire-proofed. The acrylic melted, allowing more oxygen to enter, and the melted material fell, starting more fires and injuring and impeding people trying to escape. The interior sound-proofing material also proved to be highly flammable and the building’s design incorporated many unblocked internal spaces, which increased the conflagration by acting as chimneys.

Thirty minutes elapsed before the local fire services were alerted. The emergency call did not come from within Summerland. It came from the captain of a ship two miles (3km) out to sea who radioed HM Coastguard the message, ‘It looks as if the whole of the Isle of Man is on fire’.

Meanwhile, it was only the sight of the flames that had made the 3000 people on the premises aware of the danger they were in. There was panic and a rush for the exits, where people were trampled and crushed because the doors were locked. People then strove to reach the main entrance instead, causing a crush there. The arriving fire services realised that they had a major disaster on their hands and all the resources of the Isle of Man Fire and Rescue Services were mobilised.

The death toll at Summerland led to a public inquiry which took place between September 1973 and February 1974. No spe-cific individuals or groups were blamed and the deaths were attributed to misadventure. The delay in evacuation and the use of flammable building materials were condemned. Changes in build-ing regulations were introduced to improve fire safety. The seri-ously-damaged Summerland centre was demolished, rebuilt on a smaller scale and re-opened in 1978. It closed in 2004 and final demolition began in October 2005. The east wall was kept intact because of concerns that its removal might cause cliff collapse.

Fire precautions

The aim of fire precautions within a building is to inhibit the growth of fire and to restrict its spread. The influencing factors are: size of building (area, height and volume); layout and configuration within the building; uses accommodated and activities hosted; construc-tion materials, linings and claddings; type of construction; services installed; furnishings and furniture. Precautions may include:

protection of load-bearing structure to prevent untimely col-•lapse in the event of fire;limitation of combustibility of key structural elements;•adequate and appropriate provision of means of escape;•access for fire-fighters to and up through the building to reach •the seat of the fire and extinguish it;compartmentation and separation within the building to •restrict spread of fire (plus maintenance of separation by pro-tection of openings, fire stopping and cavity barriers within concealed spaces);safe installation and maintenance of building services, heat-•producing equipment and building user equipment;enclosure of high-risk places with fire-resisting construction •to protect adjacent areas;active fire-extinguishing installations to detect and/or contain •fire in its early stages and to restrict its growth and spread;limitation of flame spread by selective use of materials;•fire-resisting external walls and/or space separation to prevent •spread of fire to adjacent premises, protection of openings in external walls, use of insulation with limited combustibility to reduce risks of ignition and fire spread;provision of natural or mechanical ventilation, smoke extrac-•tion and/or smoke control measures to facilitate escape and fire-fighting;

25.2

Fire precaution and safety measures

211

management and staff training in procedures for evacuation, •maintenance of fire precautions and risk analysis.

Fire detection

Fire detectors are designed to detect heat, smoke or radiation. Fire detection and alarm equipment is closely related to illegal entry detection equipment. In fully integrated systems, equipment for each function can be included on the same control system, together with access control and energy management functions. In the interests of reliability, it is best to minimise the number of elements in a fire alarm system. The detectors (or ‘call points’) are usually solid state devices that are, electrically, either nor-mally open (NO) or normally closed (NC), with the condition being reversed when the point is activated. The message is then conveyed, via a single circuit (or circuit-break) to the control and indicating equipment and to the fire sounders, fixed fire-extin-guishing systems, fire doors and the ventilation system. The loca-tion of fire detectors is influenced by considerations including the type of detector, the size and shape of building and ceiling heights. Radiation (flame) detectors work best in tall, open, inte-rior spaces (and in open external spaces). Smoke and heat detec-tors are slower to react in tall rooms and are ineffective in most external locations. Ceilings which are not flat raise additional considerations in the location of detectors. For example, where downstand beams or ducting are of greater depth than 10% of the ceiling height then they must be considered as walls and each side of the downstand must be treated as a separate room.

Emergency lighting

In the event of an emergency of any kind, not necessarily a fire emergency, building occupants or users must be able to make a quick, safe escape from the building. Self-contained, central bat-tery or central generator systems of emergency lighting must be available for activation to illuminate escape routes and their directional signs. This draws the appropriate routes to the immedi-ate attention of occupants, provides sufficient light to facilitate safe egress and ensures that fire alarm call points and fire-fighting equipment along the escape route can be easily accessed.

Security

Sports facilities buildings can be subject to – or the scenes of – theft, vandalism, enforced entry, muggings, assaults, fraud, arson and general anti-social behaviour. The most crime-susceptible places within the building are the changing rooms and the cash desk. Because users’ cars are parked for protracted periods of time, sports centre car parks may be susceptible to vehicle crime.

Sports facilities managers have a primary duty to protect their staff, the users of their building and any cash or valuables that may be on the premises. Public surveillance of entrances is known to deter intruders. Other known enhancements to security include a heavy safe for any cash that has to be kept on-site, robust chang-ing room lockers, secure locks on windows and doors, avoidance of easy routes to roofs and openable skylights, effective site light-ing and the elimination of potential hiding places within the building. Lighting and surveillance are particularly important in

25.3

Harborough Leisure Centre:

reception security and access control (2008)

212

car parking areas. In 2006, for example, crime opportunities at Leicester Leys Leisure Centre were slashed when Chubb Electronic Security installed 14 colour CCTV cameras around the outside of the buildings and at other strategic positions including the dis-abled car park (where unauthorised parking had been taking place), the pool hall, the equipment and snack-vending stores and outside the locker rooms.

Site layout is ideally considered from a security perspective at project outset. Entry and exit points should not be sheltered from view but may usefully be overlooked by other parts of the building development or by neighbouring properties. Perimeter footpaths should be well-lit and additional external lighting might incor-porate passive infrared detection. Fences often make better bar-riers than walls because they can be seen through and not hidden behind. Barriers may be reinforced by planting but this may again raise the consideration of lack of visibility. Examples of external security products available to sports facilities managers include rubber road ramps, no-waiting cones, traffic barriers and chain-holder systems.

Window apertures attract the interest of criminals. Laminated glass (Chapter 21) is preferable from a security point of view. Window panes less than 0.05m² (0.54ft²) cannot be climbed through. Larger panes should, for security, be as large as possible. For increased security, windows may be barred or fitted with grilles. Vertical bars are more effective than horizontal bars. They should be 20mm × 20mm (0.8in × 0.8in) cross-section and of 125mm (4.9in) maximum spacing. Transverse tie-beams should be provided at 600mm (23.6in) centres.

Outside doors of the building should be thicker than 44mm (1.7in) and of solid construction, with internal hinges. If more

than one lock is fitted, then the locks should be well-spaced (by approximately one-third of door height).

The above can be used to support the argument that early involvement of a security engineer in a project can be a cost saving rather than an incurred cost. This is because the security engineer can help the space planner to minimise the amount of electronic security that the finished building will need. The security engineer can advise the architect on optimisation of security through the placement of perimeter barriers, windows and doors, corridors and stairs. Also, intelligent security planning means taking advantage of integrated infrastructure components. Security can be integrated with the spaces, pathways and low-voltage communication spine that deliver the building’s fire detection, building management, lighting and audio-visual voice and data systems. This offers advan-tages in future development because, when functions share the same cabling, they can be more readily extended.

Access control

Access control systems to sports facilities include card-readers, chip-readers and electronic locks that read information encoded on cards, disks or keys carried by building users. Popular systems include insertion-readers or swipe-readers which interpret mag-netic strip cards, or proximity-readers that do not require contact with the cards they read. Other components include the software for managing the distribution and encoding of the cards, and the processing of transactions, together with strikes, contacts and releases that operate the doors.

25.4

Clydebank Leisure Centre (1994)

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s a f e t y a n d s e c u r i t y

The use of such systems makes possible additional safety and security measures. A safety example is that the medical condi-tion of building users, logged on the centre’s database, can display on the screen at reception when a card is swiped. This alerts staff of the presence on-site of somebody who, under certain conditions, may require specific attention. A security example is that the appearance of building users can be checked at swipe-in against photographs held on the database. This prevents the fraudulent use of membership cards and, in the case of stolen cards, enables them to be returned to their rightful owners.

Market Drayton Swimming Pool

Business Project Management Solutions worked with North Shropshire District Council on CCTV and door access develop-ments at Market Drayton Swimming Pool, Wem, Shropshire, UK. This involved replacement, fully-automatic doors with associated security and overrides, refurbished entrance foyer, internal and external CCTV provision with remote radio access link to a police monitoring station, infrared CCTV monitoring of the external lido pool with movement detection and tracking, and Short Message Service (SMS) alerts to key personnel. The benefits to the client included:

compliance with Part M of the Building Regulations;•compliance with the requirements of Quest audit;•ease of access for disabled pool users;•automatic opening of all entrance doors upon fire alarm •activation;manual overrides;•enhanced insulation at front entrance;•elimination of anti-social behaviour in external pool, car park •and reception areas;security for pool users;•control of public access areas with camera monitoring;•rapid engagement of police and key personnel on incident •alert activation;recording of incidents for later investigation and, potentially, •prosecution;peace of mind for pool users and residents in adjacent •properties.

Emirates Stadium, Arsenal Football Club, Holloway, North London, UK

Call-Systems Technology (CST) of Edgware, Middlesex, UK worked with Arsenal FC on the development and introduction of the ‘StewardCall’ system to the club’s new Emirates Stadium, which opened in 2006. Every one of the club’s 700 stewards carries a small wireless transmitter which has four buttons: one to summon a supervisor; one for medical help; one for an ejection squad; one for the stadium’s cleaners. Pressing a button transmits an instant alert to pagers worn by the appropriate personnel. At the heart of the system is CST’s Genesis communications software, which monitors exits, fire doors, alarms and all other critical equipment. This program logs and displays all the wireless traffic, giving the control room an immediate overview of every situation as it occurs. Key staff can also send messages and alerts to indi-viduals as well as pager groups via terminals throughout the stadium’s PC network. Log reports show that 300–350 ‘StewardCalls’ are made during each match. This level of activity would not be sustainable using a system based on two-way radios. However, as an independent system, StewardCall ensures that all messages are received, regardless of the amount of radio traffic. Its cost is less than one-quarter the cost of a 700-unit radio system. Additional benefits include clear messages (whatever the back-ground noise), lack of intrusion in quiet areas such as lounges, and the ability to act as a viable substitute should the radio system fail. Opening and closing the stadium has also been made simpler. Multiple security sweeps and checks are replaced by each steward pushing a button on his or her transmitter to confirm status. As a result, the control room now makes one-tenth of the calls that it used to make during stadium opening and shut-down.

26.1

Projectile range, Norwich: inclusive design for visually impaired (2008)

215

Sport for All

‘Sport for All – Sport for Life’ was the theme of the 12th World Sport for All Congress that was held from 3 to 6 November 2008 in Genting Highlands, Malaysia. The five specific issues covered were:

physical activity for young people; •the role of Sport for All in an IT World; •the challenges of ageing populations; •social justice; and•the Olympic and Sports Movements’ Sport for All initiatives. •

Because wheelchair provision presents a relatively big challenge to facilities planners and designers, it has become almost synony-mous with the concept of accessibility. However, Sport for All includes able-bodied people, the physically disabled, the very young and the very old, and those with visual or hearing impair-ment, or those suffering from mental illness. Universal access is an essential component of this theme and of all the initiatives emanating from it.

Inclusive sports

More types of inclusive sports will be catered for in sports facili-ties in the future. For example, sitting volleyball is played on a 10m × 6m (33ft × 19.7ft) court as opposed to the 18m × 9m (59ft × 29.5ft) standard court. The net height is reduced to 1.15m (3.77ft) for men and 1.05 (3.44ft) for women, from the standard

volleyball net heights of 2.43m (8ft) for men and 2.24m (7.35ft) for women. The sitting version of volleyball enables double-leg amputees and people with spinal cord, polio-induced or other lower-extremity disabilities to compete with able-bodied partici-pants. The rules necessitate some part of the body, from buttocks to shoulders, being in contact with the floor at all times. Players must stay seated while hitting, front-row players may not block an opponent’s serve and the use of prosthetic or orthopaedic devices is banned. (For deaf people, the standard volleyball game can be played using a red flag instead of a whistle as a signalling device.)

Access to play areas and facilities

There are regulations or guidelines covering aspects of access to individual sports areas and building facilities. An example relating to sports areas is the need for two accessible means of entry to the water in swimming pools with more than 300ft (91.44m) of linear pool wall. The primary means of entry should be a sloped entry or a pool lift capable of operation by a person with a dis-ability. The secondary means of entry could be one of these two types or a transfer wall, transfer system or pool stairs. An example relating to access to facilities within a sports building is that of restaurants, where there should be wheelchair access to food service lines and all collection points for tableware, crockery, cutlery, condiments and any associated foods and drinks (e.g. from vending machines). The principal consideration of this chapter is, however, the means of people movement from the reception area of the building to the different areas of activity.

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Passenger elevators

Passenger elevators (or lifts) move people vertically between floors. They are available in capacities ranging from 1000lb (455kg) to 6000lb (2727kg) in increments of 500 lb (230kg). In buildings of eight floors or less, they are hydraulic (up to 200ft/min, 1m/s) or electric (up to 500ft/min, 2.5m/s). Elevators in tall buildings may have speeds up to 2000ft/min (10m/s) and they are mentioned here because sports facilities in hotel or residential towers are often located at a high level, where users may enjoy spectacular views.

Passenger elevator controls include call buttons, door-open and door-close buttons and an alarm button or switch. US elevators also have a stop switch. In the US and some other countries, call button text and icons are raised to enable blind people to operate the eleva-tor. Additional elevator equipment might include a telephone, fireman’s key switch, medical emergency key switch, hold button, call cancellation mechanism and key card reading devices (which may be used to restrict elevator use). Controls that might be located behind a locked panel, and are not therefore intended for passenger use, include switches to control elevator lighting and ventilation fans, an inspection mode switch (which may be located on top of the elevator), independent service/exclusive mode (for use in, say, transporting goods), manual up/down controls for elevator techni-cians and pass/start buttons for attendant-operated service.

Stairways

A ‘stairway’ is a stairwell and the staircase that it contains. In the UK the term ‘staircase’ is often used to mean the same thing. Other important terms include ‘tread’ (the part of the stairway that is stepped on), ‘riser’ (the vertical part between each tread on the stair) and ‘nosing’ (an edge part of the tread which pro-trudes over the riser beneath). Tread width is the sum of tread ‘run’ width plus tread nosing width. A ‘balustrade’ is the system of ‘balusters’ and ‘railings’ which prevents users from falling off the edge of the stairway. The vertical balusters support the railings and are, in turn, supported by ‘stringers’, ‘stringer boards’ or ‘strings’ (usually one either side of the stairway). Confusingly, the term ‘banister’ may be used to mean a handrail, or the handrail plus the balusters, or just the balusters. A ‘landing’ is an area of a floor near the top or bottom step of a stairway. An ‘intermediate landing’ is a small platform that is built, as part of the stairway, between main floor levels to allow stairs to change direction or stair users to rest. Intermediate landings consume floor space and add to the expense of a stairway. But they usefully increase the options open to stairway designers by enabling changes in direc-tion and offering privacy to upper level users (because they cut out direct sightlines from ground floor to upper floor). Importantly, if a user should fall down a stairway then an intermediate landing

26.2

Forest Gate Youth Centre, London (2006)

217

will prevent that fall from extending all the way to the foot of the stairs. So intermediate landings are potential life-savers and they usually feature in sports facilities developments. An ‘L’ shaped stairway has one landing and a change in direction by 90°. A ‘U’ shaped stairway may have a single wider landing for a change in direction of 180°, or two landings for two changes in direction of 90° each. Typical UK stairway dimensions may be:

minimum tread length 245–260mm (9.6–10.2in);•maximum riser height 220mm (8.7in);•minimum riser height 155mm (6.1in);•maximum nosing protrusion 32mm (1.25in);•handrail height 900–1000mm (35.4–39.4in);•railing diameter 37–68mm (1.25–2.675in);•maximum space between balusters 100mm (4in);•maximum openings between bottom rail and treads 6in •(152mm).

The rise height of each step is measured from the top of one tread to the top of the next tread. It is not only the physical height of the riser, because that excludes the thickness of the tread. The tread depth, the ‘going’, is measured from the edge of the nosing to the vertical riser. The number of steps in a stairway is always the number of risers and not the number of treads. Stairway design parameters may be quoted as, say, riser + tread = 465–480mm

26.3

Hampden Park, Glasgow (1994)

26.4

Safety stair tread (2008)

t e c h n o l o g i e s

218

(18.3–18.9in) or 2 × riser + tread = 555–700mm (21.8–27.5in). Specifying a maximum riser height and minimum tread length gives a ‘maximum slope’. Specifying a minimum riser height and maximum tread gives low-rise stairs which take up a lot of floor area. Steeper stairs are permitted for residential buildings than are allowed in public buildings. Safety stair treads and landings are available in steel, stainless steel, aluminium, fibreglass and other materials including, as required, appropriate backings and bonded surfaces.

Ramps

A ramp is an inclined plane installed in addition to, or instead of, stairs. It may be bolted or cemented in place (permanent), resting on the ground or on a cement pad (semi-permanent) or temporary (portable, usually of aluminium construction). For permanent wheelchair ramps, a minimum width of 3ft (914.4mm) may be specified. Regarding ratio of ramp height to ramp length, a generalisation is that 1in (25.4mm) of step requires 1ft (304.8mm) of ramp, i.e. a ratio of 1:12. For permanently-fixed ramps, mini-mum recommended ramp length may be 1in to 1ft 3in (381mm); 2in (50.8mm) to 2ft 6in (762mm); 4in (101.6mm) to 5ft (1524mm); 6in (152.4mm) to 7ft 6in (2286mm). For assisted wheelchairs, minimum recommended ramp lengths may be: 1in step to 6in ramp; 2in step to 1ft ramp; 4in step to 2ft (609.6mm) ramp; 6in step to 3ft (1014.4mm) ramp. For self-propelled wheelchairs on temporary ramps, recommendations may be: 1in to 1ft; 2in to 2ft; 4in to 4ft (1219.4mm); 6in to 6ft (2028.8mm). Non-slip and anti-slip surfaces for stair treads, stair nosings and ramps are available in forms including tapes and coatings to suit stairways constructed in concrete, steel, timber and other materials.

Technological advances

If you look at elevator shafts, stairways and ramps in sports facili-ties developments then you are likely to see a lot of steel. This is because steel can be precision-manufactured off-site, under controlled workshop conditions, and transported to site as com-ponents for ease of assembling and manoeuvring prior to welding or bolting together. Elevator, stairway and ramp designers have

26.5–26.7

Harborough Leisure Centre:

(top) first floor elevator area (2008);

(middle) ground floor elevator area (2008); and

(bottom) automated doors (2008)

219

taken advantage of developments in the post-1945 era of modern welding techniques.

The introduction of structural hollow sections (SHS) in the late 1950s gave stairway designers a highly efficient, fully enclosed steel section with smooth corners. If a stair user should slip into balusters or railings made of SHS then, in comparison with the use of open steel sections, the resulting impact would cause reduced – or maybe even no – physical damage. Large SHS proved effective for stringer applications and the need for stairways to turn was facilitated by advances in tube bending technologies. For example, the curving of large diameter struc-tural hollow sections for architectural and engineering purposes was achieved by ‘fire bending’ up to and including the 1970s. This process involved filling the tube with silver sand and ram-ming it home hard. The tube ends were then plugged with a clay compound, to hold the sand firm and tightly packed. Then the tube was heated to 950°C (1740°F) by coke-fired or gas-fired ovens in whatever manageable lengths could be accommodated. The process was highly skilled and labour intensive, often requir-ing several re-heats and water-dousing operations to produce a bend with acceptable tolerances. It was therefore expensive and technically challenging with no certainty of a positive, even less a consistent, outcome. Steelwork fabricators using the fire bend-ing technique had, in particular, to beware of wrinkles on the inside radius, wall thinning and ovality.

Today’s curved tubular sections are formed by passing the tube to be bent through an induction coil where a narrow band of the

tube, approximately 13mm (0.5in) wide, is raised to a forging temperature while the remainder is kept cool by air and water cooling coils. The tube is secured to a pivoted radial arm which is set to describe the required centre line radius of the tube. A hydraulic ram pushes the pipe through the heating coil while the radial arm rotates the pipe to the desired radius. Changes in bend radius require an adjustment to the pivot point. As appropriate, a series of multiple bends can be produced without the need for intervening straight sections. The narrowness of the heated zone eliminates pipe wrinkling and no formers or supporting mandrel are needed (because the cold tube on either side of the heated zone provides adequate support). Because of the very high speed of induction heating, neither the outside nor the inside of the tube develops scaling during bending.

The skill needs and inherent uncertainties of fire bending resulted in relatively few curved steel structures, especially for buildings as opposed to bridges, before the 1980s. Today, how-ever, large diameter curved circular hollow sections are promi-nent in the design not only of sports buildings but also many other public, commercial, retail and industrial building developments. They have made possible aesthetic and even iconic solutions to the challenges of designing large-mass building developments. Examples range from feature arch entrances and curved roofs to the 315m (1033ft) span Wembley Arch, the world’s widest single-span roof structure.

26.8

Liverpool Watersports Centre: ramp (1995)

27.1

Beijing 2008 Olympics: Technology Operations Centre (2008)

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Getting smart

In buildings, materials and structures must be safe (under con-struction, in service and during demolition), durable (typically for 60–120 years), low cost, low maintenance and of predictable properties. Systems or materials that are ‘smart’ can sense a change in the environment, such as a rise in temperature or an increase in light intensity, and respond by effecting a compensa-tory change, such as a reduction in temperature or a change in glazing from clear to different degrees of opacity. The challenge for smart technologies is to create enough ‘added value’ to justify associated increases in initial outlay.

Principal applications for smart technology in construction are ‘sensors’ and ‘actuators’ (collectively ‘transducers’), ‘smart materi-als’ and ‘smart systems’. A sensor is anything, e.g. a photoelectric cell, which receives a signal or stimulus and responds to it. An actuator is anything that initiates action or mechanical motion. An early and influential example is James Watt’s flyball governor for steam engines (1788), in which two metal balls swinging around at the ends of levers held on a revolving shaft control the amount of steam admitted to the engine cylinder, so controlling the engine speed regardless of load (this principle is still used in steam turbine control and in the governing mechanisms of car transmissions). A smart material, such as the intumescent paint used in steelwork fire protection, senses changes in the local environment and responds to them. A smart system, for example an active noise suppression system, controls the use of sensors and actuators to assess actions required and take those actions.

One of the biggest concentrations of transducers has been at Beijing 2008. Here, Lenovo allied imagination with management skills and technology to build a multi-layered computing solution

which would support delivery of Olympic competition results to fans and media around the world, and keep all aspects of the Games on track. Lenovo deployed more than 30,000 pieces of equipment and some 600 engineers. Its core engineering team was based in the Technology Operations Centre (TOC) inside the massive Digital Building on the Olympic Green. From within the TOC, the engineers monitored all venues to make sure equipment was in place and operating correctly. Lenovo also maintained hundreds of servers in the Digital Building which, during the Games, processed more than 23,000,000 live queries.

Control systems

Whatever their degree of complexity, all control systems have common basic features. The simplest form is the ‘open loop’ control system comprising desired output + controller + actual output (there is no feedback mechanism incorporated so this type is not smart). The ‘closed loop’ control system incorporates a transducer for monitoring the actual output and converting it into a form similar to the signal representing the desired output. The two signals are compared to produce a ‘difference’, or ‘error’, signal which is used to control the system. Closed-loop control systems are therefore ‘error-actuated’ and smart.

Switches

These are used to switch electric current fully on or fully off. They

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are essential components of control systems. Examples range from the basic light bulb + two wires + switch condition, which enables the light to be turned on and off, to the complex computer, which is a switching device transmitting tiny electronic impulses through a maze of circuits. Switches are of several principal types. The push-button switch is a push-to-make, release-to-break type. Slide and toggle switches are generally single-pole, double-throw (spdt) or double-pole, double-throw (dpdt), with the poles being the number of separate circuits that the switch will make or break simultaneously. A microswitch is a sensitive mechanical switch fitted with a lever so that only a small force is required to operate it. A rotary switch has one or more fixed contacts (poles) that make contact with movable contacts mounted on its spindle, facilitating a greater variety of switching conditions. Magnetically-operated switches include the reed switch and electromagnetic relay. The latter enables a small current to control a much larger current in a separate circuit.

Washroom controls

Everybody has to use washrooms and they are integral to sports facilities developments. So we choose them to illustrate some points. Up until recently we would not have made this choice because washrooms in sports centres were unglamorous and utilitarian (and that is being kind). It is now universally accepted that they must be pleasant places to be or sports club members will take their business elsewhere.

Modern washrooms often have a service entrance and utilities passages that run behind the fixtures. Wall-mounted toilets that bolt on from behind the wall are superseding floor-mounted toilets. Wall-mounted or ceiling-mounted optical proximity sen-sors, using an LED and a photodetector, are used increasingly to create automatic washrooms. Reflective distances are dependent on the drive current for the light-emitting device, the wavelength of the light source and the type of reflective material. For security reasons sensors can also be designed as ‘in-wall’, to operate through almost any dielectric including glass, plastic, ceramic, plaster and wood. They can also be installed on the far side of the wall, behind the fixtures, viewing out through small windows to urinals, toilets, sinks and hand dryers. Water-use efficiency is a key benefit of such systems – facility managers and maintenance staff can use predetermined flow times and automatic shut-off to deliver significant water and energy savings.

Cold and flu viruses can survive on surfaces for up to 72 hours. Automating washroom fixtures such as faucets, flushers and door openers eliminates the need for users to touch surfaces and breaks the chain of cross-contamination. Surround sensor technology, or capacitive sensing, can be used to activate a tap when hands are within a few inches or centimetres of it. In addition to the new hands-free technologies, manufacturers have developed new surface materials that help stop the spread of bacteria. Solid-surface materials have very low porosity, which makes them resistant to contamination from fungi and bacteria, and do not contain the bacteria-harbouring seams found in laminate fixtures. Solid plastic is another material now being used in washrooms (for partitions) and locker rooms (for lockers and locker-benches).

27.2

Beijing 2008 Olympics: the Water Cube, equipment testing (May 2008)

223

c o n t r o l s a n d a u t o m a t i o n

It is a non-porous, corrosion-proof, bacteria-resistant, easily-cleaned material compounded from polymer resins under high pressure. Another important consideration in washroom provi-sion, which affects the location of control devices, is pedestrian movement flow – because sinks and hand dryers should be placed between the toilet facilities and the exit, to encourage people to wash their hands.

Washroom control measures need not be electronic or elec-tromechanical. At Schiphol, Amsterdam, the airport authority had a life-size black fly etched strategically into the inner bowl surface of urinals installed in the men’s washrooms. Users automatically aimed at the fly. This reduced ‘spillage’ by 80%, thereby promot-ing hygiene and considerably reducing floor-cleaning requirements.

Building management systems

Building management systems (BMS) use smart systems in the technologies that they incorporate to control HVAC, lighting, alarm systems and other building elements. BMS are usually based on central unit control, using information supplied by peripherals. More recently, distributed intelligence microprocessors have been developed to serve as intelligent peripheral units, with the central unit taking on a ‘supervisory’ function. The costs of such systems have come down, relative to overall building cost. Once installed, more control functions can usually be added without the need for extra cabling requirements.

System transmission media are typically 24V bus cable, Electrical Installation Bus (EIB) radio frequency, via infrared and, increasingly, the Ethernet. EIB was developed by Siemens but is now managed and regulated by the central Konnex Association, which is independent of manufacturers. Apart from EIB, main protocols accepted as ‘open’ in the building systems industry include LON (which operates mainly at field device level) and BACnet (which is an open data communications protocol for building automation and control networks including HVAC con-trol, fire detection and alarm, lighting control, security, smart elevators and utility company interfaces). The main difference between the LON protocol and other languages of equal recogni-tion, like BACnet, is that LON was designed from the bottom up as a controls communication platform – it was not limited to a specific application area such as building controls or HVAC.

EIB technology requires only a bus line along which all bus devices (sensors and controls) can communicate. Potential func-tions include checking that all of the building’s doors and win-dows are closed. EIB switches can be used to control, say, air-conditioning and broadcasting. Alarms can be monitored and controlled, and can dial out to programmed telephones if preset levels are exceeded. Lighting and heating bills can be reduced because of the ability to control individual room temperatures and to provide constant environment by compensating room temperature against outside temperature. Special lighting control networks can be incorporated. Enhanced building automation can be achieved through, for example, incorporating the lighting-specific control protocol Digital Addressable Lighting Interface (DALI) which, typically, comprises ballast and multisensor. This can encompass individually addressable lighting ballasts (ana-logue permits only circuit addressability), bi-directional com-munication between each ballast and the control system, passive infrared (PIR) movement detection, constant lighting control and infrared (IR) remote operation.

Integration

BMS are part of the movement towards the computer-integrated building. Single systems operations are based on a terminal for each system. Integration enables one point of access to the whole system, with data from the various system parts appearing on a screen simultaneously. Operators can access the information they want more quickly and respond faster. Systems training is simpli-fied and systems maintenance time is reduced. Integrated systems should incorporate intelligence so that some of the information produced can activate automatic responses, freeing the operator to address contextual issues. Automated responses may include lighting and HVAC activation on swipecard-holder entry to an area of a building or, in the event of fire and smoke outbreak, control of fans and dampers together with the unlocking of secu-rity doors to allow safe egress of building users. Benefits of inte-gration are more obvious in the operational rather than the constructional stages of buildings. It has, however, been demon-strated that an integrated solution planned into a building starts to deliver savings during the construction phase and can, through construction and operation, achieve operating cost savings of 20% over the lifetime of the system.

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Alert devices

Alert devices include output mechanisms (means of alerting build-ing users) and feedback mechanisms (means of alerting control system operators). In each case alerts may be audible or visual, or a combination of the two. Sounders, beacons and sounder/beacon combinations can be used to alert building users. Activated lighting may be, say, xenon or LED and constant or, to commu-nicate urgency, flashing. The human ear can detect sounds from 20Hz (very low pitch) to 20,000Hz (very high pitch) but is par-ticularly sensitive to sounds in the range 500–5000Hz (the ‘speech’ frequencies). A logarithmic scale, the decibel scale, is used to measure sound levels. So a sound of, say, 20dB is not twice as loud as 10dB – it is 10 times louder. The sort of sound levels that interest us in the sports centre context range from, say, a whisper (30dB) and normal speech (50dB) to levels which are safe for an indefinite period of time (<85dB) and up to levels which are safe for protracted periods (90dB is safe for about eight hours) and ultimately unsafe levels (100–105 dB is safe for less than 30 minutes). So watch out before you allow Led Zeppelin to be booked to perform at your sports hall! Sounders may be set to operate at unsafe (to the human ear) levels if their function is to communicate an emergency, such as the implementation of building evacuation procedures.

Of greater interest, in the context of this chapter, is feedback to the control system operator, over and above everyday data delivery, involving audible and visual alert devices. Audible

devices include buzzers, which work by applying voltage to a piezoelectric crystal – such as quartz or topaz – which causes the crystal to expand or contract. By attaching a diaphragm to the crystal, changes in voltage will cause the diaphragm to vibrate and generate sound waves. Buzzer attributes include sound fre-quency (usually 2–4kHz), operating voltage (V), voltage range and sound level (dB). Visual alert devices principally comprise indicators.

An intriguing aside in feedback innovation is the development by Swiss researchers in 2009 of a sensor that can monitor the progress of orthopaedic implants in a healing bone and could, eventually, be made to biodegrade in the body. A small but sig-nificant number of sports centre members use gym equipment to help rebuild strength in limbs that have been weakened by injury or disease. In such cases the sensor device, embedded in an implant, can monitor implant deformation to avoid overload dur-ing physiotherapy and rehabilitation. It can provide information about the healing process of the bone, with more of the load shifting from the implant to the bone being reflected by changes in recorded deformation.

Indicators

What makes silicon, as a material, useful to electronics is the way that a silicon atom’s electrons are distributed as shells

27.3

Harborough Leisure Centre:

user-activated sensors – cross-trainer grips (2008)

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surrounding the nucleus. There are two electrons in the inner shell, eight in the next shell and four in the outer shell. The four electrons in the outer shell make pure silicon a crystalline mate-rial, with each outer ‘valence’ electron forming a ‘covalent bond’ with an electron from a neighbouring silicon atom. Once a pure crystal of silicon has been manufactured, it is ‘doped’ with impurity atoms to create n-type or p-type semiconductors. By careful selection of p-type and n-type semiconductors it is pos-sible to make a p–n junction emit light when it is forward-biased. This creates a light-emitting diode (LED) – opening up new fron-tiers in controls technology by providing the means of replacing the fragile, short-life incandescent lamps used as indicators or on/off lamps (in circuits, the LED is designated by a standard diode symbol with two arrows pointing away from the cathode). Life expectancy of the LED exceeds 100,000 hours of operation (Chapter 23). An LED emits light when only a few milliamps (mA) are passed through the p–n junction. A p–n junction based on silicon releases energy in the form of heat, which simply warms up the junction. If the p–n junction is formed from other semi-conductor material then the energy release can be at infrared, red, green and yellow wavelengths. An LED emits light if the forward-bias voltage across it is approximately 2V (a resistor must be connected in series with an LED to be lit by a potential dif-ference greater than 2V).

Marl 699 series LED Indicators with integral resistor

In 2008 Marl International introduced its 699 series of 12.7mm panel mount LED indicators. These are true bi-polar products for low voltage applications, have full internal potting to resist shock and vibration and are sealed to IP67. They will operate from any voltage in the range 12–28V with minimal variation in brightness, making them appropriate choices for battery-powered systems and other applications where input voltage is subject to wide variations. These new LEDs are highly energy-efficient, drawing just 8mA from a 12V supply – around 25% less than the established versions. Light output colours (with light intensities in brackets) are white (14,000mcd), blue (7000mcd), red (11,000mcd), green (23,000mcd) and yellow (16,000mcd).

LED intelligent panel indicators with integral resistor

Arcolectric specialises in the manufacture of appliance switches, indicator lights and fuseholders for every kind of product from computers to vending machines, security devices and lighting to laser printers. Its intelligent LED panel indicators include main-tenance timers, mains supply checkers, temperature monitors and temperature micro-loggers. The example shown is a maintenance timer, which monitors accumulated usage time and indicates when preventative maintenance should be carried out. The 30mm × 11mm indicator shows continuous green while power is applied, and the accumulated operating time (hours run) is monitored and stored in non-volatile memory. When the number of operating hours exceeds the pre-programmed time limit, the LED illumina-tion changes to flashing red, clearly indicating that a service or replacement interval has been reached, and that maintenance is required. The indicator can be reset after maintenance operations are completed. Indicators are available with pre-set intervals of 1 week (168 hours), 1 month (672 hours), 3 months (2184 hours), 6 months (4368 hours), 1 year (8736 hours) and 3 years (26208 hours).Typical applications include: component end-of-life indi-cation; de-scale/decalcification interval; filter cleaning/replace-ment interval; machinery – lubrication, belt change; petrol/diesel engines – oil change, servicing; equipment calibration interval reminder; visual inspection and cleaning reminder.

Smart shoes

Sensors and transducers are pervading not only sports facilities development but also sports development as a whole. For example, on 10 May 2004, after three years of secret in-house development at Portland, Oregan, Adidas unveiled the most advanced shoe in the world – Adidas 1. Essentially, the shoe adapts itself to its wearer and to changing running surface conditions. Each shoe contains a 20MHz microprocessor capable of 5,000,000 calculations per second. A magnetic sensor in the shoe’s heel measures its compres-sion on impact, taking 1000 readings per second. An algorithm determines the optimum amount of cushioning and an electric motor, spinning at 6000rpm, turns a metal rod that adjusts the hollow plastic heel to suit the wearer. The motor is powered by a replaceable 3V battery which lasts approximately 100 hours.

27.4

Marl 699 Series LED panel indicator (2008)

27.5

LED intelligent panel indicator: maintenance timer (2007)

28.1

Sports centre approach road: sustainable transport (2008)

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Sustainability

To ‘sustain’ means to ‘support’, ‘provide for’, ‘maintain’, ‘keep going’, ‘prolong’, ‘support the life of’. The concept of ‘sustain-ability’ is based on the idea that we are holding the planet in trust for future generations and this must be embodied in our decision-making. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) – The Earth Summit – was held in Rio de Janeiro on 3–14 June 1992 to help governments rethink economic development and to find ways of halting the destruction of irre-placeable natural resources and the pollution of the planet. It aimed to bring about a change in understanding of the likely long-term environmental effects of developed and developing economies, with particular reference to:

energy use; •loss of habitats; •air, water and soil quality; and•health. •

‘Sustainable development’ involves providing a level of social activity within recognised economic constraints and at reduced environmental impact – the ‘triple bottom line’. Because these qualities are, in any case, integral to good design, they extend beyond meeting client needs to addressing wider social issues. On the environmental front, there is expectation of reductions in materials consumption and reductions in the impact of materials use and disposal.

Energy efficiency

During the second half of the 20th century, apart from a period in the mid-1970s, energy was comparatively cheap. It has been essen-tial to world economic development. Demand for energy can be viewed as a combination of the human population, the economic output and activity of that population and the energy intensity of its output and activity (i.e. the energy used per unit of output). The average annual energy intensity of global output (1985–90) was -1.1% but has been predicted to rise to +1.8% per annum (based on predicted population expansion and historical trends). Most pri-mary energy is from fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas. Reserves of these are finite and declining. The nuclear power option offers security of energy supply and low carbon dioxide emissions, but it leaves a legacy of reprocessing and waste containment costs. Sustainable energy, principally wind and solar forms, are exciting alternatives, but are developing from a low base. For the foresee-able future, therefore, energy-efficiency and energy savings are vitally important and growing in importance. Options which offer big potential savings in energy consumption include daylighting, adaptive facades, LED lighting (Chapters 23 and 27), displacement ventilation, ultra-light vehicles with hybrid engines, bio-liquid fuels from cellosic materials, information systems that manage demand using load-levelling/peak-shaving techniques and matching to inter-mittent supplies, waste heat recovery techniques (Chapter 5) and combined heat and power (CHP) or co-generation. This list reflects the importance of buildings in achieving energy reductions and sav-ings (more than 40% of global energy use is in buildings). Associated measures include the integration of land use and transport planning to reduce the need to travel and to support non-energy-intensive modes of transport such as public transport, cycling and walking.

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Daylighting

Daylighting of sports facilities is natural and energy-efficient. It has been held back in some cases by the issue of ‘glare’, which is a by-product of poorly-designed daylighting. Glazed walls in swimming pool buildings are popular with pool users and act as a shop window for the facilities on offer. They do produce reflec-tions but these can be opportunities rather than problems because, for example, the space can be planned so that the daylighting creates an attractive sparkle on the water surface when viewed from the entrance, but no surface reflection at all when viewed from the lifeguard station. In sports halls, daylighting introduced through rooflights can be diffused by translucent fabric panels which prevent direct sunlight from penetrating the playing volume and reduce glare.

Adaptive facades

The space planning referred to above can be used in combination with ‘angular glazing’ which allows light to pass through only in

selected directions, enabling glare control to be achieved simply by the lamination of solar control films. Then there are ‘super windows’, multiple layers of glass and/or plastic that may be film-coated or filled with low conductivity gases such as argon. These can be such good insulators that they can gather more energy than they lose over a 24-hour period in winter. ‘Air cur-tains’, created by air travelling from a supply grill in the ceiling to an extractor in the floor, can be used to separate a humid swimming pool from adjacent areas. ‘Photochromic glass’ becomes increasingly opaque when exposed to sunlight and ‘automated blinds’ are photovoltaic cells which absorb solar energy for use in the building. Glass products are continuously being improved. For example, in 2008 AGC Flat Glass, Brussels, introduced Vision-60T into its European Stopray range. Vision-60T is a high performance glass with toughenable coatings, high solar protection and low emissivity. The product, for use in non-resi-dential architecture, offers increased thermal insulation and retains more than 65% of solar heat. Its low light reflection is aimed at meeting the requirements of architects looking for neu-tral glass.

28.2

Airdrie Leisure Pool (1997)

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Displacement ventilation

Mixed flow ventilation is the traditional method of supplying air to ventilated spaces. Cool air is blown in through the ceiling or wall. By diluting the room air, it aims to provide an even tem-perature and even contaminant level throughout the space. Typical sports hall and gymnasium designs incorporate this sys-tem, using rooftop units to push air down from a high ceiling. However, mixed flow ventilation often leads to uneven tempera-tures, inadequate ventilation and background noise.

Displacement ventilation works on the principle of introducing conditioned air at low velocity through floor terminals or other diffusers. As cool air floods into the room at low level, the room’s heat sources lift the air up and it passes through the occupied zone, to be exhausted at high level. Because the displacement units are located at low level, a considerable vertical temperature gradient naturally occurs between floor and ceiling. The volume of air supplied to a room is height-dependent because of this gradient and the air volume supplied for displacement ventilation is proportional to the supply air and exhaust air temperatures.

With displacement ventilation, the flow of air is maintained by convective forces, which also have the effect of carrying to discharge the airborne pollutants characteristic of inadequate ventilation or filtration. (Electrostatic air cleaners are also now available to remove indoor air pollutants such as organic com-pounds, dust, smoke, allergens and viruses – benefiting people’s health and extending the life of furnishings, fittings and expensive equipment.)

Displacement ventilation is feasible for rooms over 2.5m (8.2ft) high, where the vertical temperature gradient is unimportant, i.e. where high temperatures above 2m (6.6ft) height are not impor-tant. These basic criteria fit a lot of sports facilities but may exclude some arena-type installations where tiered seating rises up around the playing area.

Harare International School

Harare International School caters for the educational needs of children from more than 50 nations. In its new building the school wanted to showcase sustainable technologies that would be cost-effective and would stimulate environmental awareness. Architect

Mick Pearce with engineer Arup designed a solution which became an international model of sustainable design.

Classrooms benefit from a passive cooling/heating system. Filtered fresh air is supplied from chambers of granite rock, located beneath shady verandas. These chambers are configured to act as thermal storage batteries. During summer nights cool

28.3–28.5

Harare International School Physical Education Complex:

(top) exterior (2002);

(middle) gymnasium (2002); and

(bottom) wind cowls (2002)

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air is blown through the building via the stored rock, which absorbs the high levels of night coolness that are a feature of the local climate. During school hours, air is blown through the rock chambers, reducing incoming air temperatures by up to 10ºC (18°F). This can reduce classroom temperatures to 8ºC (14.4°F) cooler than ambient. The system also works for the winter months, when Harare has chilly mornings followed by warm afternoons. By operating the low energy fans during daytime hours only, afternoon heat is stored in the rocks and can produce several degrees of pre-heating to the early morning air supply.

In the school’s art block, passive ventilation is promoted using a specially engineered wind-driven extractor. The physical educa-tion building has a pair of periscope-shaped wind-cowls which turn in opposition to each other, providing passive supply and extraction. Hot water requirements for the school are met by locally manufactured solar panels.

Sutton Arena, Surrey

Sutton Arena is one of a growing number of sports venues, sup-ported by Sport England, in which natural ventilation systems are

used not only to reduce energy costs but also to embrace long-term eco-friendly strategies. The arena hosts international-level athletics (as well as regional clubs and community groups) so is often used for televised events, hence the considerable array of powerful floodlights which generates high heat gains. The building incorporates Windcatchers supplied by Monodraught of High Wycombe. The Monodraught Windcatcher differs from other forms of natural ventilation in that it makes no difference which way the wind blows, the louvers on one side will always encapsulate the prevailing wind and turn that air movement down through 90°. By the movement of external air at roof level, a negative or suction zone is also created to one side of the Monodraught system, encouraging the extraction of stale air to the atmosphere. The architect for the Sutton Arena project was William Hogan-O’Neil, who said, ‘My whole idea from the concept stage was to bring the outside indoors, with daylighting and fresh air to replicate as much as possible traditional outside field and track facilities in this all-weather arena’. Eight 1000mm (3.3ft) diameter Windcatcher natu-ral ventilation systems were used at Sutton, each fitted with motorised opposed blade dampers. Ten 750mm (2.5ft) diameter Monodraught SunPipes – energy free, super-reflective tubes – were also used to provide the natural daylight requirement, while not contributing to the project’s heat gains.

28.6

Sutton Arena, Surrey (2003)

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Bio-liquid fuels from cellosic materials

The Borough of Telford and Wrekin is one of the most wooded areas in the UK. Building consultants working within the Borough had been looking for a suitable site for a biomass heating pilot project in order to demonstrate to the community the application of an efficient and viable source of renewable energy. At the time, Oakengates Leisure Centre needed to replace its inefficient oil-fuelled heating system. This presented an opportunity because a leisure centre and swimming pool, with its continuous all-year-round heating requirement, was considered to be the perfect demonstration project. The cheapest option would have been to upgrade the existing system and continue to use oil. However, the introduction of new environmental legislation – The Control of Pollution (Oil Storage) (England) Regulations 2001 – meant that a new oil system would have to be installed, which would have been very expensive. The only viable options were, therefore, a new gas system or the biomass option. Net present value projections were produced in the summer of 2002 for each proposed solution, comparing installation costs and future energy costs. Because the amount of capital funding required for the more expensive biomass solution was not avail-able at that time, the analysis was based on the use of a ‘heat

contract’, by which a separate company is responsible for the maintenance and running of the heating system and the cus-tomer receives a bill for the heat used. It was also decided that Oakengates would not wish to be involved in the purchase of wood fuel and would leave this to a heat supplier, which would manage the purchase and delivery of the fuel and would main-tain the boiler.

Advantage West Midlands approved a grant of £25,000 (from the Environmental Technology Programme) to cover the additional cost of the biomass option, as opposed to the gas solution, and Oakengates was able to make capital funding of £100,000 avail-able. An order was placed for a biomass boiler. The equipment was purchased outright and a ten-year heat contract set up, whereby Econergy provides the fuel and operates and maintains the system. The heat is charged through a heat meter, by monthly invoice. By the time the project was up and running, in November 2004, the comparative costs of fuel were £18/MW hour (biomass), £23/MW hour (gas – accounting for boiler efficiency) and £40/MW hour (oil). Among the other advantages were reductions in fossil-fuel-derived carbon dioxide emissions, from approximately 290 tonnes per annum to around 40 tonnes per annum, and increased local employment because of the creation of a local wood market.

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Sutton Arena, Surrey (2003)

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Waste heat recovery

In the early 1980s sports facilities led the way in the introduction of waste heat recovery techniques. More recent examples include the refurbishment of Pontypool Active Living Centre, Wales, in 2007 and the upgrading of Wadebridge Leisure Centre, Cornwall, in 2006.

At Pontypool, a £6.85 million refurbishment incorporated the installation of Calorex combined heat-recovery and dehumidifica-tion units, reducing running costs by 42% in comparison with the previous air-handling unit. Carbon dioxide emissions were reduced by 51% (i.e. 288 tonnes) per annum. The centre has a 25m pool with gallery for 200 spectators, a separate teaching pool, hydro-slide and health suite with spa, steam room and sauna. The Calorex units incorporate heat-pump technology. The unit serving the main pool was modified to include a Cylon controller, to enable easy integration into the BMS, and remote monitoring and diagnosis.

At Wadebridge a new energy-efficient ventilation system for the swimming pool saves £14,000 per annum in running costs and reduces carbon dioxide emissions by at least 150 tonnes per annum. The new air-handling unit recovers heat from the air around the pool and uses it to heat the bathing water. At the same time, moisture is extracted from the air, keeping humidity levels down and improving the air quality for swimmers and staff.

Combined heat and power (CHP)

The £250 million ExCel Exhibition Centre in London is open 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. It is the largest clear span building in Europe and venue for the London 2012 Olympic boxing, table tennis, judo, tae kwon do, weightlifting and wrestling events. In terms of power supply, its Docklands loca-tion posed a serious challenge because there was only a limited grid supply and the cost of reinforcing the National Grid was considered to be too high. ExCel brought in Energy Control Consultants Ltd (ECCL) to formulate an energy strategy. Modelling for the ExCel site, as an exhibition and events centre site, showed complex demand patterns that varied significantly depending on two factors – the temperature outside and the internal use. The chosen and most cost-effective, efficient

configuration for the site involved using CHP plant for the baseload, topped up by the limited grid supply to make up the core off-peak load. Scottish and Southern implemented the consultants’ proposal, installing a 7MW grid supply including two 3MW diesel-powered generating sets and one Cummins 1.35MW CHP set powered by a 16-cylinder 16QSV81G 81-litre gas-powered Cummins engine. The CHP set operates in parallel with the centre’s electricity grid supply, ensuring on-site base-load during peak periods (when exhibitions are being held or events hosted). The CHP unit can supply medium hot water generated by waste-heat from its exhaust. This is used for heat-ing in winter and, via an absorption chiller, for air-conditioning in the summer. The Excel Energy Centre also includes three 6MW boilers, two 2.5MW absorption chillers and one 3.9MW vapour compression chiller. In the event of a mains power failure, the CHP unit is automatically stopped and a circuit breaker opened, isolating the unit. It then provides standby in parallel with the Energy Centre’s two standby sets.

BREEAM

Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) is the world’s longest-established and most widely-used environmental assessment method for buildings. It assesses buildings against set criteria and provides an overall score of pass, good, very good, excellent or outstanding. It is primarily a design stage assessment. By involving a BREEAM assessor as early in the life of a project as possible, it is easier to obtain a higher rating and a more cost-efficient result. For some categories of new-build, e.g. UK schools, a BREEAM rating is mandatory.

USGBC: LEED

The US Green Building Council (USGBC) is a non-profit organisa-tion committed to expanding sustainable building practices. It aims to transform the way that buildings and communities are designed, built and operated, enabling an environmentally and socially responsible, healthy and prosperous environment that improves the quality of life.

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The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System™ is a third-party certification programme and the US nationally-accepted benchmark for the design, construction and operation of high-performance green buildings. LEED provides building owners and operators with the tools they need to have an immediate and measurable impact on their building’s performance.

RoHS and WEEE

European readers, and all readers involved in European markets, need to be familiar with the RoHS and WEEE Directives of the EU. The Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances (RoHS) Directive was fully implemented in July 2006. It bans the placing on the EU market of new electrical and electronic equip-ment containing more than agreed levels of lead, cadmium, hexavalent chromium and polybrominated biphenyl (PBB) and polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants. The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive came into force in January 2007. It aims both to reduce the amount of WEEE being produced and to encourage everyone to reuse, recycle and recover WEEE. The ten categories of RoHS WEEE include IT and telecommunications equipment (category 3), light-ing equipment, including light bulbs and luminaires (category 5), toys, leisure and sports equipment (category 7), monitoring and control instruments (category 9) and automatic dispensers (cat-egory 10).

29.1

Racquet and Tennis Club, Park Avenue, New York (December 2003)

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Introduction

Refurbishment is a perennial activity. It has increased as large numbers of buildings have become derelict or obsolete because of the decline of traditional industries. Building stock is a valuable resource and heritage but, like any resource, it has a finite life. This life can be extended and the value of a building restored, and even enhanced, by carefully-considered and well-imple-mented refurbishment. A key criterion is the fact that most build-ings under consideration for refurbishment were designed in eras when energy use was not an issue. Therefore imaginative engi-neering is necessary to bring them into line with current financial and environmental requirements.

Ground conditions

As with new buildings, refurbishment projects are susceptible to the introduction of contaminants and methane gas from the ground. Unfortunately, unlike new buildings, refurbishments have already had their base structures designed and built. So the opportunity for mitigating ground conditions is reduced. Nevertheless, the nature and concentration of contaminants should be established by sampling and testing, as with new-build (see Ground Investigations, Chapter 13). If contaminant levels are too high, then materials must be removed or separation measures taken. If methane is present, then assessment must be made of the rate of generation and the possible rate of penetration through the ground slab. It may be necessary to dissipate the gas or design an appropriate barrier. Where new or deeper basement

construction is planned as part of a refurbishment, there will be additional ground considerations including the level of the water-table and the depth and type of existing foundations.

Structural assessment

Refurbishment projects are about reducing risk, because there is always an aspect of dealing with the unknown. Surprises can be planned for by flexible design, programme buffers, early investiga-tion and the use of appropriate forms of contract. Risk can be reduced by assembling and assessing all available information on the building (from, say, the building owner, professional advisors, building control records, reference libraries and institution archives) and by opening up the existing structure to surveying, inspection and testing. Record data can be validated by digging inspection pits and sampling existing concrete, masonry and steel, for testing and analysis of past performance. Findings will inform assessment of the building’s future life expectancy.

The strength of an existing structure can be assessed by con-sidering the imposed loading which has been present. If there is no visible damage or distortion then it can reasonably be accepted that – at the time of testing – the structure is capable of supporting the existing dead loads plus the imposed loads that have been safely applied in the past. In particular, the ‘100-year rule’ states that if a building has performed satisfactorily for 100 years without sign of distress, and if no change is planned to the imposed load that it is intended to carry, and provided that all reasonable maintenance requirements are met, then the structure should continue to function satisfactorily.

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Loading

It will be seen from the above that future loadings should be kept within the load range which has proved to be appropriate in the past. Future partitions and finishes should be detailed to minimise the risk of damage due to structural movements. Where floor use is changed, or dead load loading increased then, generally, the application of statutory imposed design loads to the structure is required. Less onerous values may be agreed by the building control office if these are considered to be appropriate to a spe-cific location.

Timber

In old buildings, particularly those which have been empty for a long time, timber may exhibit signs of decay or infestation. The points where joists and other members are built into external walls are particularly susceptible to damp penetration through the walls and these ends should be inspected as a priority. Where heating or electrical installations have been introduced into an existing building, then its timber floors may have been weakened by notching or otherwise cutting to accommodate the new ser-vices. Strengthening and repair of timber floors may be required to:

repair damaged, deteriorating or defective wall plates, bearings •and joints – or individual timber elements; upgrade the strength of timber bearings, joints and elements •as necessary to support any new loading conditions (or remedy a previously inadequate structural performance, where no change in use is proposed); orimprove the stiffness in excessively springy floors. •

Most timber repairs involve the repair of bearings, remediation of wet and dry rot or insect attack, and the strengthening of structurally deficient and/or split binding joints, oak girders and associated joints. Ceiling repairs may be necessary to joints weakened by shrinkage, to members damaged by previous ceiling removal or replacement, and to members with serious splits or shakes.

Iron and steel

These metals will be gradually degraded by water and air if they are left wholly unprotected or inadequately protected. In this event it may be possible to clean and paint the material, otherwise it may be necessary to remove and replace affected members.

Masonry

Masonry is highly durable (Chapter 21). Inspections should, however, be carried out to ensure that wall construction is sound – that rubble-fill or snap headers have not been used and that internal and external skins are adequately tied. Things to watch out for include:

past differential settlement, leading to cracking; •damp/frost penetration due to degradation/omission of a •damp-proof course; anddamp penetration due to, say, damaged rainwater goods or •inadequate capping; inappropriate repointing, e.g. using hard cement mortars in soft bricks.

Concrete

Concrete degrades under the action of water and air so that, eventually, the protective layer around its steel reinforcement ceases to function effectively. This leads inevitably to the rusting of the reinforcement and spalling of the concrete. Swimming pools, for example, may be installed in clayish soil which, as it dampens and dries out, may cause cracking of the concrete cover to the pool’s steel reinforcement. This process can be exacerbated if the pool is emptied and refilled repeatedly because this causes the walls to move out and back again, also leading to cracking. If the concrete cover is insufficient to allow for such cracking then water will reach the steel and start to corrode it. If the pool water is salt water, as at Santa Cruz (Chapter 5), then the corrosive effect on the steel reinforcement will be accelerated. Methods of repairing cracks to swimming pool concrete include cathodic protection, the use of resin-based waterproofing products, e.g. low-viscosity polyurethane or – for structural repairs – epoxy.

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r e f u r b i s h m e n t

Repairs, upgrading, retrofitting, restoration

Remedial works to spalling concrete are, of course, repairs rather than refurbishment works (but are covered here because they may represent an essential element of pool refurbishment). Other refurbishment-type works include upgrading (e.g. of wiring, HVAC installations, controls systems) and retrofitting (e.g. of LED lamps, insulated panels or double or triple glazing). Restoration is perhaps less applicable to sports facilities, which have not generally been around for as long as other types of building. Where required, restoration is the toughest aspect of refurbish-ment because it calls for extensive knowledge of materials technology, including that of materials no longer in common use, together with a keen understanding of the construction techniques of previous generations. The above categorisations are not mutually exclusive. The Racquet and Tennis Club, 370 Park Avenue, New York City (NYC), was built in 1917 (in response to its site, the height of the club was made exactly two times the width of Park Avenue). According to the original plans, the inte-rior contained three dining rooms, a billiard room, library, lounge, gymnasium, four squash courts, two tennis (real tennis) courts and two racquets courts. Today there are four international squash courts, one North American doubles squash court, one racquets court and the two tennis courts. The second-storey windows in the building facade, overlooking Park Avenue, have in recent years been replaced with energy-efficient insulating glass in the reused existing frames. This hybrid solution intro-duced new technology to a sensitive historic site while meeting with – as it had to – the approval of the New York City Landmark Preservation Commission (LPC).

Sports club facilities refurbishment

Many private clubs were originally gentlemen’s clubs. Over the years, the front parts of the buildings tended to be refurbished and the rear parts of the building, containing the sports facilities, tended to be neglected. These provide interesting refurbishment case studies because, in recent years, they have had to be adapted to cater for women members and disabled members. Modifications have had to be made to toilet facilities, locker

rooms and playing areas or courts. At the Harmonie Club, 4 East 60th Street, NYC, one spa floor level has been converted to pro-vide equal facilities for men’s and women’s locker rooms, steam rooms and changing facilities. At the Union Club, 101 East 69th Street, NYC, recent refurbishment works have involved replacing approximately 50% of the fifth floor, consolidating all wet func-tions into a central location and creating a core of plumbing services. These works were based on original club precedents. During refurbishment works of these types the opportunity is often taken to introduce features such as variable speed fans and motors, and remote computerised controls, which can be used in combination to increase the proportion of floor space available for activities, reduce staffing levels and optimise energy consumption.

Hutton Arena, Hamline University, Chaska, Minnesota

Hamline University is known as the birthplace of intercollegiate basketball. It hosted and competed in the world’s first intercol-legiate basketball game on 9 February 1895. The ‘Hamline Pipers’ took on the School of Agriculture, which was connected with the University of Minnesota, and lost 9–3. Norton Fieldhouse (renamed Hutton Arena in 1986) opened on 4 January 1937. Hamline hosted Stanford University in the first game played at the Fieldhouse, losing 58–26. Under the leadership of legendary head coach Joe Hutton Snr, the Pipers went on to win National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) Championships in 1942, 1949 and 1951. In 1967 the arena was renovated: the old bleachers were dispensed with; a 4in (101.6mm) concrete base for the slab was installed; new fluorescent lighting was mounted; the ceiling was painted; the existing wooden floor was replaced with a ‘Tartan’ floor of approximately 11,000ft² (1000m²). The Tartan floor was replaced with another Tartan floor in the mid-1970s and the current wooden floor was installed in year 2000.

30.1

Bilston Steelworks: scrap steel dump (1948)

239

Definitions

To recycle means to:

pass (a substance) through a system again for further treatment •or use;reclaim (packaging or products with a limited useful life) for •further use;institute a different cycle of processes or events (in a machine, •system, etc.);repeat (a series of operations); and•as a noun – the repetition of a fixed sequence of events.•(Collins English Dictionary – Millennium Edition)

When these generic definitions are applied to specific fields of activity, then they open up scope for different interpretations and – ultimately – misinterpretations. Our definition of recycling, in the building context, is the reclaiming of materials of construction for alternative uses or using the existing building as a whole for an alternative purpose.

Recycling building materials

It is interesting to speculate on the possibility of some of the scrap steel shown in the photograph finding its way into the school and school sports facilities building programme of the 1950s. This is quite likely in view of the great diversity of steel products going into buildings, from simple fasteners and fixings all the way up to building frames and roof structures.

If a building is scheduled for demolition, then there are certain materials that may usefully be salvaged for recycling. The obvious example is original fireplaces salvaged from houses. Other exam-ples include structural steel sections, sheet metal, piping (especially lead or brass), hardware, hardwood flooring, mouldings, panelling, timbers, tiling, brick and stone. Post-demolition, the principal building materials (Chapter 21) are all highly recyclable.

Steel, for example, is 100% recyclable and is the world’s most recycled material, losing none of its properties during re-treatment processes. There are two processes for making steel – the basic oxygen furnace process uses a minimum of 25% recycled steel and the electric arc furnace process uses virtually 100% recycled steel. The 380 million tonnes of scrap steel recycled in 2003 amounted to 40% of that year’s total world crude steel-make of 965 million tonnes. In North America, the amount of energy required to produce one ton of steel decreased by almost 23% between 1990 and 2003 as the result of technological improve-ments and energy conservation measures implemented by the industry. Ohio Steel reported that a production cycle for a pound of steel resulted in 90% less air, water and solid waste emission than it had ten years previously. The Canadian Steel Producers Association has stated that extensive use of recycled steel in the steel production process:

conserves raw material and reduces the impact of resource •extraction on the environment; saves energy; and •reduces landfill waste. •

For every ton of steel produced in Canada in 2006, over half a ton of scrap steel was recycled. When one ton of steel is recycled,

Chapter 30

Recyc l ing

240

2500lb (1134kg) of iron ore, 1400lb (635kg) of coal and 120lb (54kg) of limestone are conserved.

Concrete is also 100% recyclable (and all UK concrete reinforce-ment is manufactured from recycled steel). It is the ultimate ‘local’ material, requiring minimum transportation. A concrete structure has a high thermal mass. Exposed concrete facilitates fabric energy storage (FES) which regulates internal temperature fluctuations. This reduces a building’s mechanical, electrical and plumbing require-ments while reducing the need for and cost of energy-intensive air-conditioning, and reducing carbon dioxide emissions. New developments in concrete technology have the potential to make concrete an important factor in carbon reduction. Although concrete currently accounts for 5% of human-caused carbon-dioxide emis-sions, mostly because of its cement content, a new process will soon enable precast concrete to actually store carbon dioxide.

Fort Regent, St Helier, Jersey

This is one of the largest, most prominently located and romantic non-sports to sports recycling projects. Fort Regent was completed in the spring of 1814, at a cost of £375,203, to withstand invasion by France. It was never stormed because Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo in 1815. The fort was garrisoned by British troops until 1932, after which date its condition declined and it fell into a state of neglect. In 1958 the British government sold all War Department buildings on the island to the States of Jersey and, at that time, the fort was valued at £14,500 (so not a great investment for the British taxpayer). The 13,500m² (145,313ft²) building could not simply be left to rot but the nature of its construction – some walls were 5.5m (18ft) thick – meant that both conversion and demolition were expensive options. In 1966 the States of Jersey authorised an island lottery which proved profitable and enabled a scheme to be

developed for conversion of the open fort, on its site overlooking the harbour, to an enclosed sports and recreation centre. Ron Taylor was asked to put forward a design for roofing the proposed amenity in structural hollow sections and his Structural Marketing team at British Steel developed a tubular steel design that was adopted by the architect and client. The structure was completed in 1972.

The principal constraint was the irregular shape of the fort. There were many other challenges too:

access to the fort was extremely restricted, up a steep and •winding road and into a narrow tunnel piercing the ramparts and leading to the central parade ground; the ramparts contained many narrow brick vaulted rooms, •extended laterally, which ruled out carrying major structural column loads down through the walls – it was necessary to support the roof from parade ground level 6.1m (20ft) below; the consultant responsible for the cladding required that the •roof structure be separated from the vertical glazed enclosure springing from the vertical rampart level (necessitating a move-ment joint between the verges of the roof structure and the side wall framing); the wind velocity derived from the requirements of CP3: 1972 •Chapter V (Loading) was 52m/sec (170ft/sec) which gave rise to theoretical suction forces on the roof of such magnitude that if the whole roof were covered in 100mm (4in) concrete blocks then they would all be blown off.

The structural solution coped with these difficulties and cre-ated the maximum possible usable space contained by the fort’s walls. Three areas of roof were of such complex shapes that they were designed as space structures and used as anchorage points. The central dome of 51m (167ft) clear span and its deep drum-framed supports were part of the architectural concept and formed

30.2

Fort Regent Recreation Centre, Saint Helier, Jersey:

view from la Route de la Libération (2007)

241

a convenient and rigid central core for the superstructure. The north and south hipped and peaked ends allowed no possibility of repetitive fabrication. The main structural loads could be car-ried to parade ground level by means of central columns. Overturning and lateral loads due to wind forces were carried to the ramparts by a series of portal frames, these structures being analogous in appearance and action to single poled tents (albeit carrying greater forces than those which a tension/membrane structure could be expected to withstand without experiencing serious flutter). The dual use of frames, as guys and as supports to a rigid cladding system, ensured that the ends of the building formed solid anchorages. The loads to the ramparts from overturn-ing forces were spread evenly by portals round the ends of the building and therefore did not exceed the allowable limit on the rampart construction. The areas between the three space struc-tures were required to be as clear as possible, having as few supports to ground as possible, commensurate with achieving economy. In order to allow a walkway to be carried around the inside of the ramparts, with adequate headroom under the roof members, the construction depth of the roof framing could not exceed 4ft (1.2m). Accordingly, a system of braced portal frames with hinged feet was used to support a system of curved beams continuous over the portal rafters. The portals were spaced at 90ft (27.43m) centres while the curved beams were spaced at 8ft (2.44m) centres along the portals.

The depth between curved beam chords was made 3ft 9in (1.14m) and that between the portal rafter chords 6ft (1.83m), allowing a knee brace to be introduced in the curved beams at each support point. This knee brace served the dual purposes of increasing the beam depth at the points of maximum bending

effect and providing lateral support to the bottom chord of the portal rafters. Because the legs of the portal frames had a height of 32ft (9.75m) without lateral support, they were made triangular in section. The rafters were provided with good lateral support by the curved beams and were therefore designed as plane frames. In view of the 250m (820ft) length of the building, movement joints were provided at each side of the dome structure.

Preliminary calculations suggested that a single-layer dome of between 6in (152mm) and 8in (203mm) construction depth was feasible. A triangular grid would have provided the most satisfactory theoretical structural solution but the fact that no repetitive fabrica-tion was possible led to the consideration of square and other quadrilateral grids. The grid finally adopted provided rows of nearly square frames allowing up to 30 similar frames to be fabricated in each pair of rows out from the dome centre line. This solution made cladding simpler. The dome was assembled from the prefabricated frames at ground level, inside the braced vertical frames of its sup-porting drum, the clearance between ring beam and drum being 20mm (0.8in). The dome was then hoisted from its own supporting structure into its final position 13.4m (44ft) above ground level within two days, using the British lift slab method.

The Curved Workshop, Wapping, London

Ian Mudd, who advocated publication of this book, is the former leader of the Arup teams of engineers which worked with London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) on the regeneration

30.3–30.4

Curved Workshop, Wapping:

(left) before; and

(above) after

242

of the London Docklands. This massive commercial, residential and mixed-use transformation project involved many sports and leisure facilities, taking advantage of the water amenity. We know, however, that Ian is particularly fond of one very small recycled building project completed within the overall Docklands redevelopment.

The building in question is the Curved Workshop. It had been built in 1911 and had a western wall following the curve of Wapping Basin (in which an all-weather football pitch had been laid). This industrial facility was disused and threatened with demolition. Ian and his team, working with architect Shepheard, Epstein & Hunter, saved the Curved Workshop by recycling it as a sports hall, building a new sports hall on its northern side and thereby creating the 1800m2 (19,375ft2) Wapping Sports Centre. Features of the conversion included the reuse of the original roof trusses, positioned radially in 18 bays along the 55m length, which are an early example of the use of steel for this type of application. Truncation of the southern end of the building, to allow space for a future east–west road, was achieved by erecting a new gable wall in the style of the existing building, removing one truss and modifying another.

The Old Gym, Leslie, Searcy County, Arkansas

Relatively few sports buildings have been recycled, as they have not been in existence for very long and they have come into a growing market which has continued to grow year on year. For these reasons, existing sports buildings have tended to be upgraded, retrofitted and refurbished.

One interesting example of change in use, however, is the recycling of the Old Gym, built in 1938, as the Ozark Heritage Art Center. The story begins in the Great Depression, when the citizens of Leslie approached President Franklin Roosevelt’s Work Progress Administration (WPA) to construct a gymnasium to complement their school, which had been built in 1910 during the city’s boom years. The resulting native stone gymnasium building was used for 48 years, up to 1986, when the education authority constructed new facilities nearby.

School superintendent Ed Bradberry had the idea of converting the empty, disused Old Gym into an arts centre. Retired local merchants Rex and Daphne Killebrew spearheaded a fundraising effort to make this happen. The Killebrews donated $200,000, about 80% of the total needed for the four-year recycling pro-gramme. After the centre opened, in August 1990, the Killebrews donated another $300,000 in stocks as an endowment for the non-profit organisation.

The centre houses the Killebrew Theater, Art Gallery and Heritage Museum. Since 1997 the theater’s signature event has been an annual fiddle contest for Arkansas residents (one of just three such contests in the state). The Art Gallery changes exhibi-tions on a monthly basis. The Heritage Museum has four rooms of locally-sourced items and artefacts ranging from an 1820s loom to classic typewriters, cheerleader outfits, a dentist’s office from the mid-20th century and a collection of whittlers’ photographs and implements. It is in the Heritage Museum that Professor Chris Valle and his students from the Lyon College Art Department have showcased their talents by exhibiting their work (photo). This particular exhibition was sponsored by Kappi International Honorary Art Fraternity.

30.5

The Old Gym, Leslie: Ozark Heritage Art Center (2005)

243

Sports facilities reflect the times in which they are built. They are a measure of civilisation because they indicate refinement in interests and tastes. It is said that today’s stadiums are the equiva-lent of Europe’s medieval cathedrals in terms of the wonderment they inspire, but the stadiums and sports facilities of the ancient world are no less inspirational.

Perhaps what marks these buildings out is the way in which they reflect the aspirations of the societies they serve and those of the people responsible for building and using them. If this is accepted as being the case, then our enterprising generation makes the sports facilities business a great business to be in right now – a place where imagination, inventiveness and technology meld into powerful creative forces.

Conclus ion

244

In this book we have referred to the importance of effective com-munication and, in particular, to the use of precise and consistent terminology during the construction planning, procurement and implementation processes. The importance of effective commu-nication continues into the building operation and maintenance phases of the project life cycle.

MasterFormat is the most widely used standard for organising specifications and other information for commercial and institu-tional building projects in the USA and Canada. It provides a master list of divisions, and section numbers and titles within each division, for users to follow in managing information about a facility’s construction requirements and associated activities. Standardising the presentation improves communication among all the parties involved in construction projects.

On 12 May 2005 one of the authors (JP) was privileged to hear Karl Borgstrom, Executive Vice President, Construction Specifications Institute, speak about the New MasterFormat to a Construction Writers Association audience at Hotel Washington, Washington DC. The MasterFormat 2004 Edition is the most significant revision in the product’s 40-year history, and the first new version since 1995.

Dr Borgstrom said that MasterFormat 2004 was a response to the need for change. He gave the example that, when the original 16 divisions of MasterFormat were created, there was one tele-phone company maintaining connections to a building, using a single telephone closet for telecoms wiring. In those days, tele-phone lines were used mainly for talking. Today, building owners have to accommodate much more complicated equipment, and tenants choose between many different providers for the services that ‘fat pipes’ bring into the building. Dr Borgstrom explained how the New MasterFormat would accommodate changes in

attitudes to security and life safety, green building design and sustainability. None of these issues, he noted, were much men-tioned 40 years ago.

SPECIFICATIONS GROUP

General Requirements Subgroup:Division 01 – General Requirements •

Facility Construction Subgroup:Division 02 – Existing Conditions •Division 03 – Concrete •Division 04 – Masonry •Division 05 – Metals •Division 06 – Wood, Plastics, and Composites •Division 07 – Thermal and Moisture Protection •Division 08 – Openings •Division 09 – Finishes •Division 10 – Specialties •Division 11 – Equipment •Division 12 – Furnishings •Division 13 – Special Construction •Division 14 – Conveying Equipment •Division 15 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION •Division 16 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION •Division 17 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION•Division 18 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION•Division 19 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION•

Appendix I

Const ruct ion Spec i f i cat ions Ins t i tu te (CSI ) MasterFormat

245

a p p e n d i x i

Facility Services Subgroup:Division 20 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION •Division 21 – Fire Suppression •Division 22 – Plumbing •Division 23 – Heating Ventilating and Air-conditioning •Division 24 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION •Division 25 – Integrated Automation •Division 26 – Electrical •Division 27 – Communications •Division 28 – Electronic Safety and Security •Division 29 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION•

Site and Infrastructure Subgroup:Division 30 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION •Division 31 – Earthwork •Division 32 – Exterior Improvements •Division 33 – Utilities •Division 34 – Transportation •Division 35 – Waterway and Marine •Division 36 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION •Division 37 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION •Division 38 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION•Division 39 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION •

Process Equipment Subgroup:Division 40 – Process Integration •Division 41 – Material Processing and Handling Equipment •Division 42 – Process Heating, Cooling, and Drying • Equipment Division 43 – Process Gas and Liquid Handling, Purification • and Storage Equipment Division 44 – Pollution Control Equipment •Division 45 – Industry-Specific Manufacturing Equipment •Division 46 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION •Division 47 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION •Division 48 – Electrical Power Generation •Division 49 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION •

CSI provides technical information and products, common organi-sational systems for construction information, continuing educa-tion and professional certification to continuously advance the process of delivering construction projects.

Construction Specifications Institute (CSI): www.csinet.org/s_csi/index.asp

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Appendix I I

Indoor spor ts : space p lann ing drawings

American squash

Squash

247

Archery

248

Badminton

Baseball

249

Boxing

250

Hockey

Ice hockey

251

Martial arts

Netball

252

Swimming pool

Diving pool

253

Team handball Tennis

254

Tetherball

255

Trampoline

Volleyball court

257

General

Sawyer, Thomas H (ed.), Facility Design and Management: For Health, Fitness, Physical Activity, Recreation and Sports Facilities Development, Sagamore Publishing, ISBN 1571675655, 2005

Peterson, James A and Tharrett, Stephen J, ASSM’s Health/Fitness Facility Standards and Guidelines, American College of Sports Medicine, Human Kinetics, 2nd revised edn, ISBN-10 0873229576 ISBN-13 978-0873229579, 1997

Sports Council (Geraint John and Kit Campbell), Handbook of Sports and Recreational Building Design: Indoor Sports, Volume 2, 2nd edition, Architectural Press, ISBN-10: 0750612940 ISBN-13: 978 0750612944, 1995

Konya, Allan, Sports Buildings, Architectural Press, ISBN 0 85139 7611, 1986

Chapter 1

Crane-Dixon, Architects’ Data Sheets: Indoor Sports Spaces, Architecture Design and Technology Press, ISBN 1 85454 008 4, 1991

Sport England, Comparative Sizes of Sports Pitches and Courts (Design Guidance Note), Sport England, April 2007 www.sportengland.org/

Sport England, Sports Halls: Sizes and Layouts (Design Guidance Note), Sport England, ISBN 1 86078 108 X, February 2000

Sport England, Sports Halls: Design (Design Guidance Note), Sport England, ISBN 1 86078 094 6, February 1999

New Buildings Institute www.newbuildings.org/National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA)

www.nirsa.org/sportscotland www.sportscotland.org.uk/

Chapter 2

World Squash Federation, Squash Specifications for: Courts, Rackets, Balls (Recommended Standards Approved by the World Squash Federation), WSF May 2003 www.worldsquash.org

Plimpton, George and Zug, James, Squash: A History of the Game, Scribner Book Company, ISBN-10: 0743229908 ISBN-13: 978-0743229906, September 2003

Bellamy, Rex, The Story of Squash, Cassell, 1978Squash Talk www.squashtalk.comUS Squash Racquets Association www.us-squash.org/European Squash Federation www.europeansquash.com/England Squash www.englandsquash.com/Squash Australia www.squash.org.au/Asian Squash Federation www.asiansquash.com/members.htmlIndian Squash Professionals www.ispsquash.com/Press Articles by Raju Chainana from 1976 to 2001

www.ispsquash.com/RajuChainaniArticles3.htmProspec/Ellis Pearson www.prospec.co.ukABS www.abs-sport.hu/McWil Courtwall www.mcwilcourts.com/

References

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r e f e r e n c e s

Chapter 3

BS 5628-1: 2005 Code of Practice for the Use of MasonryDD140: Part 2: 1987 Recommendations for the Design of Wall

TiesBS EN 845-1: 2003 Specification for Ancillary Components for

Masonry – Part 1: Ties, Tension Straps, Hangers and BracketsKicklighter, Clois E, Modern Masonry – Brick, Block and Stone,

Goodheart-Willcox, 2003Microsoft Windows Embedded, Real-Time Embedded

Computers Help Maximize Gym Workouts, 22 May 2007Life Fitness – World Leader in Commercial and Home Fitness

Equipment www.lifefitness.comCurves International Women’s Fitness Franchise and Weight

Loss www.curves.comMy Gym Children’s Fitness Center www.my-gym.comOvertime Fitness www.overtimefitness.comOlsen, Stefanie, ‘Teen-only gym: Virtual reality, real sweat’,

CNET News, 22 September 2006Power Plate www.powerplateusa.comCamber, Rebecca, ‘Madonna looks amazing thanks to £7,000

vibrating plate’, Daily Mail, 18 July 2006Hall, Joanna, ‘All You Need To Know About: Power-Plate’,

Guardian Weekend, 5 September 2007Stuttaford, Dr Thomas, ‘Q&A: Why do I sweat’, The Times,

23 July 2007BAE Systems Engineering, ‘Calculated Fitness – Case Study 01:

Simple sums in the gym’ www.baesystemseducationprogramme.com/ systemsengineering/pdfs/gym.pdf

CYBERFIT www.cyberfit.deDesigner Fitness www.designer-fitness.comK&K Designs www.fitnessdesigner.comPrecor www.precor.comProfessional Fitness Concepts www.pfc-fitness.comTotally Fitness www.totallyfitness.co.ukCollins, Patrick et al., ‘Design and Construction of Zero-Gravity

Gymnasium’, Engineering Construction and Operations in Space V, American Society of Civil Engineers, 1996

Chapter 4

Rambert Dance Company www.rambert.org.ukGiordan, Marion, ‘Ballet Rambert Studios’, Tubular Structures,

19, p. 24, British Steel Corporation, Tubes Division, October 1971

National Dance Association, Dance Facilities, American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 1985

National Dance Association www.aahperd.org.nda/National Dance Teachers Association www.ndta.org.uk/Henshaw, David, ‘A New Dance Studio’

www.ndta.org.uk/public/resources/dm028d.htmlDance Studio Specification Hands On CPDA Ltd

www.handsoncpda.com/Foley, Mark, ‘Dance Spaces’, Arts Council of England, 1994

Chapter 5

Wheeler, Mortimer, The Indus Civilization, Supplementary Volume to the Cambridge History of India, 3rd edition, 1968

Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA) www.fina.org/USA Swimming www.usaswimming.org/National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCCA)

www.ncca.org/State of Alaska, Department of Education, ‘Swimming Pool

Guidelines’, 1997 edition www.eed.state.ak.us/facilities/publications/SwimmingPool.pdf

Lund, John W, ‘Design Considerations for Pools and Spas (Natatoriums)’, GHC Bulletin, September 2000 http://geoheat.oit.edu.bulletin/bull21-3/art3.pdf

Amateur Swimming Association www.britishswimming.org/Mungall, G et al., ‘Manchester Aquatics Centre’, Arup Journal,

1, pp. 9–14, 2001 www.arup.com

Chapter 6

Harris, Martin C, ‘Homes of British Ice Hockey’, Stadia, ISBN-10 07524 2581 1 ISBN-13 978 0 7524 2581 8, 2005

259

r e f e r e n c e s

Dilley, Philip, ‘Oxford Ice Rink’, Arup Journal, Ove Arup Partnership, pp. 23–27, Spring 1986

Disano, ‘Curling: a Scottish game entirely to be discovered’, Disano Lighting Magazine, No. 1, 2007

Brochure: ‘A New View for Bringing People Together’, HOK Sport Architecture

USA Hockey www.usahockey.com/ Ice Hockey UK www.icehockeyuk.co.uk/Royal Caledonian Curling Club

www.royalcaledoniancurlingclub.org/English Curling Association www.englishcurling.org.uk/Canada Curling Association www.curling.ca/United States Curling Association www.usacurl.org/The Official US Speedskating Website www.usspeedskating.org/Speed Skating Canada www.speedskating.ca/International Skating Union (ISU) www.isu.org/Skate Canada www.skatecanada.ca/The United States Figure Skating Association (USFSA)

www.usfsa.org/National Ice Skating Association (NISA) www.iceskating.org.uk/Ice Skating Australia www.isa.org.au/CIMCO Refrigeration

www.cimcorefrigeration.com/icesports.asp

Chapter 7

Beckmann, Poul, ‘Crystal Palace Sports Centre’, Ove Arup & Partners, London, Newsletter No. 24, pp. 129–131, June 1964

The Great Exhibition of 1851: An Overview www.victorianweb.org/history/1851/1851ov.html

‘NODUS Space Frame Grids Part 1 – Design’, British Steel Corporation Tubes Division, 2nd edition, January 1974

‘National Exhibition Centre, Birmingham’, Tubular Structures, 26, pp. 3–5, British Steel Corporation Tubes Division, January 1976

Wynne-Jones, RD, ‘This Sporting Life: Sunderland Recreation and Leisure Centre’, Tubular Structures, 27, pp.17–19, British Steel Corporation Tubes Division, August 1976

Martin, Andrew and Pascoe, John, ‘NODUS the Space Maker’, British Steel Corporation Tubes Division, 1974

Shepheard, Michael (ed.), ‘A standardised approach to sports halls’, Building with Steel, Vol. 9, No. 6, pp. 26–27, Constrado, December 1984

Pascoe, John, ‘Dubai Sports Halls’, Tubular Structures, 53, p.4, British Steel General Steels, January 1991

Culley, Peter and Pascoe, John, Tubular Structures Case Study 2: The Dome, Doncaster Leisure Park, British Steel General Steels, 1991

Culley, Peter and Pascoe, John, Tubular Structures Case Study 7: The Play Drome, Clydebank Tourist Village, British Steel General Steels, 1995

John, Geraint and Campbell, Kit, Handbook of Sports and Recreational Building Design: Volume 2 Indoor Sports, 2nd edition, The Sports Council Technical Unit for Sport, Architectural Press, 1995

National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) www.nirsa.org/

Yee, Robert, Sports and Recreation Facilities, Visual Reference Publications Inc., 2006

Chapter 8

Gabrielsen, M Alexander and Miles, Caswell M, Sports and Recreation Facilities: For Schools and Community, Prentice-Hall, 1958

Hindhaugh, Eric (ed.), Building with Steel 2 – Buildings for Education, British Steel Corporation, February 1970

Pascoe, John (ed.), Tubular Structures 63 – Learning with SHS, British Steel Tubes & Pipes, January 1996

Pascoe, John (ed.), Tubular Structures 56 – Regeneration, British Steel General Steels, June 1992

Pascoe, John and Culley, Peter, Sport-led Social and Community Regeneration 2002, Corus Structures – Winning Stadia, Corus Construction Centre, 2002

Sheffield International Venues www.sivltd.comSportcity, Manchester www.sportcity-manchester.comLondon 2012 www.olympic.org/uk/games/london

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r e f e r e n c e s

Chapter 9

Culley, Peter and Pascoe, John, Stadium Engineering, Thomas Telford Publishing, 2005

John, Geraint, Sheard, Rod and Vickery, Ben. Stadia – A design and development guide, 4th edition, Architectural Press, 2007

Shapiro, J, The Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds (The ‘Green Guide’), 4th edition, HMSO, London, 1997

Inglis, Simon, Digest of Stadium Criteria, Football Stadia Advisory Design Council, 1992

Inglis, Simon, Seating – Sightlines Conversion of Terracing Seat Types, Football Stadia Advisory Design Council, 1991

Culley, Peter, Action Steps for Sports Ground Safety, British Steel General Steels, 1990

Clark, Warren, ‘The Olympic Legacy’, Recreation, pp. 32–37, September 2005

World Stadium www.worldstadiums.comGuide to the Football Stadiums in Europe

www.stadiumguide.comThe Stadium Guide – USA www.stadiumguide.com/usa.htmAustralian Stadiums www.austadiums.comNational Stadium, Wembley www.wembleystadium.com/

default.aspxKisho Kurokawa, Ōita Stadium www.kisho.co.jp/164.htmKisho Kurokawa, Toyota Stadium

www.kisho.co.jp/page.php/2672010 World Cup Stadiums, South Africa

www.sa-venues.com/2010/2010-stadium.htmCommonwealth Games, Delhi 2010, Venues

http://cwgdelhi2010.org/venues.htmlLondon 2012 www.london2012.comCommonwealth Games Glasgow 2014 www.glasgow2014.comHOK Sport www.hoksport.comNBBJ www.nbbj.com/#work/market-sectors/sportsArup Sport www.arup.com/sportEllerbe Becket www.ellerbebecket.comGMP Architekten www.gmp-architekten.de

Chapter 10

Tennis Queensland http://www.tennis.com.au/pages/default.aspx?id=21&pageId=734

English Cricket Board, Cricket Specific Indoor Centres: TS2: ECB Facility Briefs and Guidance Notes for Cricket Specific Indoor Centres (Excellence Centres) www.static.ecb.co.uk/files/ts2-cricket-specific-indoor -centres-1334.pdf

Powered Rowing Tank Design www.rowingtank.comMcLean, James, The London Regatta Centre and Powered

Rowing Tank, pp. 19–23, The Arup Journal, 1, 2002

Chapter 11

Billington, MJ et al., The Building Regulations: Explained and Illustrated, Blackwell Publishing, 13th revised edition, March 2007

Chudley, R and Greeno, R, Building Construction Handbook: Incorporating Current Building & Construction Regulations, Butterworth-Heinemann, 6th edition, March 2006

BSI www.bsi-global.com/en/Standards-and-Publications/About-BSI-British-Standards/

ISO www.iso.org/ASTM www.astm.org/ANSI www.ansi.org/CEN www.cen.eu/cenorm/index.htmCENELEC www.cenelec.eu/World Standard Services Network http://www.wssn.net/WSSN/

listings/links_national.html

Chapter 12

Health and Safety Commission, Managing Health and Safety in Construction: Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2007, Approved Code of Practice, HSE Books, 2007

Health and Safety Executive, Want construction work done safely? A quick guide for clients on the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2007, HSE Books, 09/07, www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg411.pdf

Statutory Instrument 1996 No. 1592, The Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996, HMSO, 1996 www.legislation.gov.uk/si/si1996/Uksi_19961592_en_1.htm

261

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Chapter 13

Nicholson, Duncan and Pascoe, John, ‘Geotechnics’ (capability statement), Arup, 2002

Harris, HA, Sport in Britain: Its Origins and Development, Stanley Paul, London, 1975

Chapter 14

Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE), Creating Successful Masterplans – A Guide for Clients www.cabe.org.uk

Urban Task Force, Towards an Urban Renaissance, Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM), 1999

White, Harvey and Karabetsos, James, ‘Planning and Designing Facilities’, pp. 13–28, Facilities Planning for Physical Activity and Sport, American Association for Active Lifestyles and Fitness, 1999

Daly, Jim, Recreation and Sport Planning and Design, 2nd edition, Human Kinetics, 2000

Campbell, Kit, ‘Design Briefs’, in Sports Council, Handbook of Sports and Recreational Building Design: Indoor Sports, Volume 2, 2nd edition, pp. 38–40, Architectural Press, 1995

Irwin, Ernie et al., ‘Birmingham Olympics’, The Arup Journal, Volume 21, No. 1, pp. 4–22, Spring 1986

Chapter 15

Bechthold, Martin, Innovative Surface Structures: Technologies and Applications, Routledge, 2007

Brookes, Alan J and Meijs, Maarten, Cladding of Buildings, 4th edition, Routledge, 2007

Levin, Ezra (ed.), Wood in Building, The Architectural Press, London, on behalf of the Timber Research and Development Association, 1971

Foster, Jack Stroud and Harington, Raymond, Structure and Fabric, Part 2, BT Batsford Limited, London, 1976

Franklin, Bertil, ‘Coloured Sheet Steels for Roofs and Facades’, Building with Steel, Vol. 7, No. 2, Constrado, July 1978

Long, MJ, Design Life of Buildings, Proceedings of an Institution of Civil Engineers Symposium held 26–27 November 1984, Thomas Telford, London, 1985

McDougal, Kate, Desktop Engineering, ‘Pushing the Limits in Sports Facility Design’ www.dte.co.uk/case_studies/sports_facility_design.htm

Chapter 16

EN 14904: ‘Surfaces for Sports Areas – Indoor surfaces for multi-sports use – Specification’, Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN), April 2006

DIN Pre-Standard 18032 Part II: ‘Sports Halls, Halls for gymnastics, games and multi-purpose use. Part 2: Sports floors, requirements and testing’, Deutsches Institut für Normung, 2001

DIN Standard 18032 Part II: ‘Sports Halls, Halls for gymnastics, games and multi-purpose use. Part 2: Sports floors, require-ments and testing’, Deutsches Institut für Normung, 1991

Bookwalter, Karl W (ed.), College Facilities for Physical Education, Health Education, and Recreation, College Physical Education Association, 1947

Maple Flooring Manufacturers Association, MFMA Maple Performance Characteristics Guide, MFMA, 2001

Sport England, Design Guidance Note: Floors for Indoor Sports, Sport England, September 2007

CEN TC 217: Surfaces for Sports Areas: WG2: Sports Hall Surfaces; established 1988

England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB), ‘Cricket Specific Indoor Centres’, TS2, ECB Facility Briefs and Guidance Notes for Cricket Specific Indoor Centres (Excellence Centres) http://static.ecb.co.uk/files/ts2-cricket-specific-indoor-centres-1334.pdf

ASTM E648-08: ‘Standard Test Method for Critical Radiant Flux of Floor-Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source’, American Society for Testing and Materials, 2008

ASTM F2650-07: ‘Standard Terminology Relating to Impact Testing of Sports Surfaces and Equipment’, American Society for Testing and Materials, 2007

ASTM D1042-06: ‘Standard Test Material for Linear Dimensional Changes of Plastics Under Accelerated Service Conditions’, American Society for Testing and Materials, 2006

262

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ASTM D543-06: ‘Standard Practices for Evaluating the Resistance of Plastics to Chemical Reagents’, American Society for Testing and Materials, 2006

ASTM D3389-05: ‘Standard Test Method for Coated Fabrics Abrasion Resistance (Rotary Platform, Double-Head Abrader)’, American Society for Testing and Materials, 2005

ASTM F1860-04: ‘Standard Specification for Rubber Sheet Covering With Backing’, American Society for Testing and Materials, 2004

ISO 2813: ‘Paints, Coatings, Varnishes, Non-metallic coatings, Specular reflection, Gloss (of surface), Optical measurement, Films (states of matter), Angles (geometry), Test equipment, Testing conditions, Specimen preparation, Calibration, Reproducibility, Optical’, International Organization for Standardization, 1997

ISO 717-2: ‘Acoustics, Rating of sound insulation in buildings and of building elements. Impact sound insulation’, International Organization for Standardization, 1997

Touny, AD and Wenig, Dr Steffen, ‘Sport in Ancient Egypt’, edition Leipzig (translated from the German by Joan Becker), B R Grüner Amsterdam, 1969

Chapter 17

Sol, Neil and Foster, Carl (eds), American College of Sports Medicine Health/Fitness Facility Standards and Guidelines, Human Kinetics Books, 1992

Maver, Thomas W, Building Services Design: A Systematic Approach to Decision-making, RIBA Publications Limited, 1971

Part L, Jan 2008 www.environ.ie/en/DevelopmentandHousing/BuildingStandards/RHLegislation/FileDownload,16556,en.pdf

Stolton, David, Delivering Indoor Air Quality, Modern Building Services, April 2007

McFadyen, Craig, One L of a Change in Thinking, Modern Building Services, April 2007

Prowen, Rik, The Importance of Humidification, Modern Building Services, March 2006

Schwimmsporthalle, Berlin www.arup.com/_assets/_download/download42.pdf

Chapter 18

Institution of Engineering and Technology, IEE Wiring Regulations, 17th edition (BS7671: 2008), Institution of Engineering and Technology, March 2008

Locke, Darrell, Guide to the Wiring Regulations: 17th edition IEE Wiring Regulations (BS7671: 2008), John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2008

Chapter 19

Claiming an Enhanced Capital Allowance (ECA) www.eca.gov.uk/etl/claim/_default.htm

Health and Safety Executive, ‘Slips and trips: The importance of floor cleaning’, HSE information sheet, HSE, September 2005 www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/web/slips02.pdf

INFORM Inc, ‘Cleaning for Health: Best Practices’, 2006 www.informinc.org/cfhbp.pdf

Green, Angela, Sports Marketing, Routledge, 2008 Wolsey, Chris et al., HRM in the Sport and Leisure Industry,

Routledge, 2008 Wilson, Robert J and Joyce, John, Finance for Sport and Leisure

Managers, Routledge, 2007Westerbeek, Hans et al., Managing Sport Facilities and Major

Events, Routledge, 2006Ferrand, Alain et al., Routledge Handbook of Sports

Sponsorship, Routledge, 2006Torkildsen, George, Leisure and Recreation Management,

5th edition, Routledge, 2005Watt, David C, Sports Management and Administration,

Routledge, 2003Robinson, Leigh, Managing Public Sport and Leisure Services,

Routledge, 2003Peterson, James A and Tharrett, Stephen J, Fitness Management:

A Comprehensive Resource for Developing, Managing, and Operating a Successful Health/Fitness Club, Healthy Learning, 2nd edition, 2008

263

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Chapter 20

North American Society for Sport Management (NASSM) www.nassm.com

National Association for Sport & Physical Education (NASPE) www.aahperd.org/naspe

International Assembly for Collegiate Business Education (IACBE) www.iacbe.org

University of Ulster Sports Technology www.ulster.ac.ukUniversity of Northumbria www.northumbria.ac.ukInstitute of Sport Management (ISM) www.ismhome.comInstitute of Sport and Recreational Management (ISRM)

www.isrm.co.ukBritish Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES)

www.bases.org.ukBurwitz, L et al., ‘Future Directions for Performance-Related

Research. An Interdisciplinary Approach’, Journal of Sports Sciences, 12, 93–109, 1994

National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) www.nirsa.org

Quest www.quest-uk.org

Chapter 21

Gabrielsen, M Alexander and Miles, Caswell M, Sports and Recreation Facilities: For Schools and Community, Prentice-Hall, 1958

Liddell, Ian, ‘Creating the Dome’, The 1997 Hinton Lecture, September 1997

Architen Landrell www.architen.comJapan Inc Business Technology People, Concrete,

Magazine No. 72, Summer 2007 www.japaninc.com/mgz_summer_2007_concrete

American Concrete Institute www.concretepumpers.comQuality Systems Inc.

www.permacrete.com/architects/index.phpBritish Cement Association (BCA) www.cementindustry.co.ukBrick Development Association www.brick.org.ukMasonry Contractors Association of America

www.masoncontractors.comTimber Research and Development Association

www.trada.co.uk

Wide Span Wood Sports Structures www.trada.co.uk; www.woodforgood.com

Brick Industry Association www.astm.orgAssociation for Iron and Steel Technology www.aist.orgSteel Construction Institute (SCI) www.steel-sci.orgThe British Constructional Steelwork Association Ltd (BCSA)

www.steelconstruction.orgBritish Stainless Steel Association www.bssa.org.ukAluminium Association www.aluminium.orgEuropean Aluminium Association www.eaa.netInternational Titanium Association www.titanium.orgCopper Development Association www.cda.org.ukLead Sheet Association www.leadsheetassociation.orgSociety of Facade Engineering

www.facadeengineeringsociety.orgUS Glass www.usgnn.com

Chapter 22

BS 8233:1999: ‘Sound insulation and noise reduction for buildings. Code of Practice’, BSI, B/209/18, 15/08/99

BS EN ISO 140-6:1998: ‘Acoustics – Measurement of sound insulation in buildings and building elements’, BSI, PEL/23/1, 15/10/98

Ruys, Theodorus, AIA (ed.), Handbook of Facilities Planning, Vol. 1, Laboratory Facilities, ISBN 0-442-31852-9. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990

ISO 1996-1:2003: ‘Acoustics – Description of measurement of environmental noise’, ISO, TC43/SC1, BSI, 2003

BS EN ISO 717-1:1997: ‘Acoustics. Rating of sound insulation in buildings and of building elements’, BSI EPC/1, 15/08/97

Occupational Safety and Health Administration www.osha.govEuropean Association of Insulation Manufacturers (EURIMA)

www.eurima.orgFederation of European Heating and Air-Conditioning

Associations (REHVA) www.rehva.euNational Insulation Association, NIA (of USA) www.insulation.

orgAcoustical Society of America (ASA) www.asa.aip.orgEuropean Acoustics Association (EAA) www.eaa.fenestra.orgInstitute of Acoustics (IOA) www.ioa.org.uk

264

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Shield, Bridget and Cox, Trevor, ‘Acoustics, Audio and Video’, University of Salford, www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/acoustics_info/concert_hall_acoustics/?content=index

Bureau Veritas: ‘Building Acoustics’ www.bureauveritas.co.uk/wps/wcm/connect/bv_couk/Local/Home/bv_com_serviceSheetDetails?serviceSheetID=22428

Chapter 23

Gregory, Sarah, ‘sports hall lighting – a guide to visibility in small multipurpose sports halls’, TUS design note 10, Sports Council, November 1984

DIN EN 12193:2007 Light and lighting – Sports lighting, Publication Date 2008-04, German

DIN VDE 0710-13 Luminaires with operating voltages below 1000; Luminaires safety to ball throwing (VDE Specification) Publication Date 1981-05, German

Illumination Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) www.iesna.org

interNational Association of Lighting Management Companies www.nalmco.org

US Environmental Protection Agency www.epa.govAssociation of Lighting Designers (ALD) www.ald.org.ukThe Lighting Association (LA) www.iald.orgArchenhold, Geoff, ‘LEDs’, IALD/RIBA Conference on

Sustainability, Business Design Centre, London, February 2007

The Future of Things http://thefutureofthings.com/news/6362/cheap-100-000-hours-led-light.html

Chapter 24

British Standards Institution, ‘Code of Practice BS 5499 Part 1: Specification for fire safety signs’, BSI, London, 1990

British Standards Institution, ‘Code of Practice BS 5378 Part 1: Safety signs and colours’, BSI, London, 1980

British Standards Institution, ‘Code of Practice BS 5499 Part 2: Specification for self-luminous fire safety signs’, BSI, London, 1986

British Standards Institution, ‘Code of Practice BS 5499 Part 3: Specification for internally-illuminated fire safety signs’, BSI, London, 1990

International Organization for Standardization: ‘ISO 6309: Fire protection – safety signs’, ISO, Geneva, 1987

Health and Safety Executive, ‘Health and Safety Regulations (Safety Signs and Signals) 1996 No. 341’, Health and Safety Executive Books, London, 1996 (see also the detailed guid-ance Safety Signs and Signals: Guidance on Regulations, The Health and Safety Regulations 1996, HSE Books, 1996)

European Community, ‘Directive EEC/92/58: European Safety Signs Directive’, EC, Brussels, 1992

British Standards Institution, ‘Code of Practice BS 5499 Part 4: Safety signs’, BSI, London, 2000

International Organization for Standardization, ‘ISO 9002: Quality Management Standard’, ISO, Geneva, 1994

United States, ‘Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990’, Pub.L. 101-336, 104 Stat. 327, enacted 1990-07-26

Great Britain, Disability Discrimination Act 1995, Stationery Office Books, 17 December 1995

HM Govt., Explanatory Notes to the Disability Discrimination Act 2005, Stationery Office Books, 22 April 2005

Statutory Instrument 2005, No. 3340: ‘The Disability Code of Practice (Public Authorities) (Duty to Promote Equality) (Appointed Day) Order 2005’, HMSO, 2005

Chapter 25

Buchanan, Andrew H, Structural Design for Fire Safety, John Wiley and Sons Ltd, April 2001

Purkiss, JA, Fire Safety Engineering; design of structures, Butterworth-Heinemann, November 2006

Muir, Peter, The New Fire Safety Legislation, RICS Books, February 2007

Ham, Simon, Legislation Maze: Fire, RIBA Publishing, April 2007

Colquhoun, Ian, Design Out Crime: Creating Safe and Sustainable Communities, Architectural Press, 2003

Marsh, Paul, Security in Buildings, Construction Press, 1985Business Project Management Solutions

www.businessprojectmanagementsolutions.co.ukStewardCall www.butlercall.co.testimonials.php

265

r e f e r e n c e s

Chapter 26

Hall, Peter and Imrie, Robert, Inclusive Design: Designing and Developing Accessible Environments, Spon Press, 2001

Goldsmith, Selwyn, Universal Design, Architectural Press, 2000European Union, ‘EN81-1: 1998 Safety Rules for the

construction and installation of lifts – Electric lifts’, EU, 1998

European Union, ‘EN81-2: 1998 Safety Rules for the construction and installation of lifts – Hydraulic lifts’, EU, 1998

Liftline Limited, EN81 – New Standards www.liftline.co.uk/en81/introduction.htm

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, ‘ASME A17.1, Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators, and CSA B44, Safety Code for Elevators’, ASME, 2007

ASME Product Catalogue, Education/Training – Elevators and Escalators www.asme.org/elevator

Canadian Standards Association, ‘CSA B44.1/ASME-A17.5, Elevator and escalator electrical equipment’, CSA, 2004

Australia: ‘Australian Standard Lift Code AS1735 Part 2 (2001)’, Department of Commerce, 2001

Australia: ‘Australian Standard AS1735 Part 12 (1999)’, Department of Commerce, May 1999

European Union: ‘EU Lift Directive 95/16/ec (The Lift Regulations 1997)’, EU, 1997

BNI Building News: ‘ADA Accessibility Guidelines’, BNI Publications, June 1996

Pascoe, John, ‘Building with Steel since 1945’, unpublished paper, 2008

Chapter 27

Levermore, Geoff, Building Energy Management: An Application to Heating, Natural Ventilation, Lighting and Occupant Satisfaction, Taylor & Francis, 2000

Lenovo www.lenovo.com/planetwide/select/selector.htmlMarl International www.leds.co.uk/Arcolectric www.arcolectric.co.uk/Adidas www.adidas-group.com/

Chapter 28

Earth Summit www.un.org/geninfo/bp/enviro.htmlEnergy Saving Trust www.est.org.ukRestriction of Use of Certain Hazardous Substances

www.rohs.gov.uk/BREEAM www.breeam.org/USGBC: LEED www.usgbc.org/Displaypage.

aspx?categoryID=19Monodraught: putting the wind and sun to work

www.monodraught.comAGC Flat Glass www.agc-flatglass.enHarare International School

www.arup.com/environment/project.cfm?pageid=1683Sassi, Paolo, Strategies for Sustainable Architecture, Routledge,

2006Frey, Hildebrand and Yaneske, Paul, Visions of Sustainability:

Cities and Regions, Routledge, 2007Dunster, Bill et al., The ZEDbook, Routledge, 2007Thomas, Randall and Garnham, Trevor, The Environments of

Architecture: Environmental Design in Context, Routledge, 2007

Hyde, Richard et al., The Environmental Brief: Pathways for Green Design, Routledge, 2006

Emmanuel, Rohinton, An Urban Approach To Climate Sensitive Design: Strategies for the Tropics, Routledge, 2005

Guy, Simon and Moore, Steven, Sustainable Architectures: Critical Explorations of Green Building Practice in Europe and North America, Routledge, 2004

Curwell, Stephen et al., Sustainable Urban Development Volume 1: The Framework and Protocols for Environmental Assessment, Routledge, 2005

Deakin, Mark et al., Sustainable Urban Development Volume 2: The Environmental Assessment Methods, Routledge, 2007

Vreeker, Ron et al., Sustainable Urban Development Volume 3: The Toolkit for Assessment, Routledge, 2008

Cooper, Ian and Symes, Martin, Sustainable Urban Development Volume 4: Rethinking Professionalism in Europe, Routledge, 2008

266

r e f e r e n c e s

Chapter 29

Barrie, Malcolm and Pascoe, John, Refurbishment, Arup, 1993Arup Research + Development, ‘Work on Existing Buildings:

risks and mitigation’, draft document, April 2002Kratchman, Steven, The Design of Urban Private Sports Clubs

in New York City, Steven Kratchman Architect PC, 2004Hutton Arena www.hamline.edu/hamline_info/athletics/

facilities/hutton_arena.html

Chapter 30

Reiner, Laurence E, How to Recycle Buildings, McGraw-Hill, 1979

267

Index

Page numbers in italics denote an illustration/table

Abbeydale Club (Sheffield) 17Aberdeen Grammar School 183absorption coefficient 187–8access control systems 212–13accessibility 215–19accreditation 167–8, 169, 170–3Accreditation Task Force 167acoustic ceiling tiles 190acoustics 187–91

and absorption coefficient 187–8and coincidence effect 188external 190and fabricated ‘cloud’ 190maintenance of materials 190noise criteria curves 188and reverberation 187and sound reduction index 189sound reduction methods 189–90and sound transmission class 188–9

actuators 221adaptive facades 228Agganis Arena (Boston University) 50Agrément Certificates 104air curtains 228air-conditioning 148, 150 see also

HVACair-handling units (AHUs) 53, 54, 82air-supported structures 132air-tightness 150aircraft hangars 80–1Airdrie Leisure Pool 149, 180, 228Airdrionians FC (Broomfield Park) 78, 80alert devices 224aluminium 129, 183Amateur Swimming Association of

Great Britain 40American College of Sports Medicine

(ACSM) 147American National Standards Institute

(ANSI) 103

American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers 43

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) 103

Anglian Standing Conference see ASCApproved Code of Practice (ACOP) 107arch concept 127, 128archaeology 113Arcolectric 225Arsenal Football Club (Emirates

Stadium) 213‘Artificial Athlete Berlin’ apparatus 139Arundel Castle Indoor Cricket School 95Arup 53, 62, 229, 241ASB 18ASC (Anglian Standing Conference) 70,

71

‘B of the Bang’ sculpture 191BACnet 223badminton 7, 126badminton courts 8, 127ball rebound 140, 140ballet 31Ballet Rambert (Chiswick) 32, 186bandy 51Barnsley Metrodome 118, 120, 147, 148basement design 115BASES (British Association of Sport and

Exercise Sciences) 169‘basket ball’ 5–6basketball 7, 237

floors 137beam effect structures 129beams 181Beaurepaire Centre Pool (University of

Melbourne) 45–6Becket, Ellerbe 20, 87Bedford, David 57beech squash 19–20behaviour under rolling load 140, 140Beijing 2008 Olympics 46, 56–7, 154,

204, 220, 221, 222

Beijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games (BOCOG) 84

Berkeley High School (California) 8bi-level switching 12Bilston Steelworks 238biomass heating 231Bird’s Nest Stadium (Beijing) 84–5, 85Birmingham International Arena 58Birmingham Olympic bid (1992) 122–4,

122Bitterne Leisure Centre (Southampton)

62, 63blinds, automated 228Boardwalk Hall (Atlantic City) 50boathouse 97, 97BOCAD 134, 135boPET 34bowling greens, indoor 94, 94boxing rings 142–3, 142Brady Squash Center (Yale University)

16, 20BREEAM (Building Research

Establishment Environmental Assessment Method) 232

bricks/brickwork 17, 130, 177–8Bridgend Comprehensive School 72–3bridges 122Bristol City Football Club 87British Association of Sport and Exercise

Sciences (BASES) 169British Board of Agrément Certificate 104British Institute of Facilities

Management 161British Olympic Association (BOA) 122,

123British Standard see BSBritish Steel Corporation 58British Steel Wide Span Sports Solutions

79, 80–1brownfield sites 75, 104BS

5499 2037044 11, 138–97671: (2008) Part (7) 158

268

i n d e x

Building Act (1984) 101building management systems (BMS)

223building regulations 101–5

and construction materials 102–4, 103

and disabled access 105and energy-efficient systems 150and fire safety 102and moisture exclusion 104–5and site preparation 104and standards 102–4, 103and structural stability 101–2and workmanship 104

Building Regulations (2006) 150Building Research Establishment

Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) 232

Buntingford Sports Pavilion (Hertfordshire) 157

Business Project Management Solutions 213

Butler Manufacturing Co 94

‘C’ value 86–7, 86cable protectors 157, 158, 159cables, electrical 156, 157Calipatria United School District

(California) 26Call-Systems Technology (CST) 213Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation 32Campbell, Reith Hill (CRH) 19candlepower 194car parks/parking 121

lighting and surveillance 211–12sports centre 189

carbon dioxide emissions 44, 198, 231, 232, 240

cast-iron 181CATIA software 85cavity wall construction 105CE mark 139cedarboard cladding 11, 132ceiling tiles, acoustic 190

ceilingsand fire detectors 211ice rinks 52repairs of in refurbishment projects

236squash courts 16

Celtic Football Club Grandstand 81CEN (Comité Européen de

Normalisation) 103, 104, 138217: 139

CENELEC 104changing rooms 66–7Channel Tunnel Rail Rink (CTRL) 116chariot racing 117Chaska (Minnesota) 136chemicals 42–3chlorine 42–3CHP see combined heat and powerChris Hoy Velodrome (Glasgow) 144Cimsteel project 134circular hollow sections (CHS) 64, 65,

66, 73, 81claddings 11, 130–2CLASP (Consortium of Local Authorities

Special Programme) 70, 70, 71, 72CLAW (Consortium of Local Authorities

in Wales) 71cleaning/cleaniness

and facilities management 162–4indoor sports surfaces 141, 162and restaurants 163of safety signs 203of sports equipment 164, 165

closing roofs 79–80, 81–2, 83, 84‘cloud’ 190Clydebank Leisure Centre 9, 65–6, 66,

212CMB (Consortium for Method Building)

70, 71, 72Codes of Practice 104coincidence effect 188Colne Leisure Centre 42, 129Colosseum (Rome) 114, 115, 115column and truss frames 128–9

combined heat and power (CHP) 153, 159, 232

comfortand facilities management 161–2

Comité Européen de Normalisation see CEN

Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE) 119

Commission on Sport Management Accreditation (COSMA) 167–8

Commonwealth Games 18Delhi (2010) 89Glasgow (2014) 19, 21, 91, 142,

143, 144Manchester (2002) 74–5

communication 201–7effective 202, 202and facilities management 162and gym equipment 27–8, 206phone revolutions 205–6and signage 201, 202–5and sports facilities 201

computational fluid dynamics (CFD) 152

computer-aided design (CAD) 132, 134, 135

computer-aided manufacture (CAM) 132, 135

computer-integrated building 223computer-integrated manufacture (CIM)

132, 133–5Computational Design and Optimisation

(CDO) 135concrete 129, 178–9

and carbon dioxide emissions 240degradation of 236facilitation of fabric energy storage

240methods of repairing swimming pool

236painting and colouring 178precast 130–1recycling of 240shell 129

269

i n d e x

and swimming pools 41thermal mass of 240

condensation 53, 152consortium building 70–3Consortium of Local Authorities Special

Programmes see CLASPConsortium of Local Authorities in

Wales see CLAWConsortium for Method Building see

CMBconstruction

health and safety regulations 107–9Construction (Design and Management)

Regulations (2007) 107construction materials see materialsConstruction Products Directive (CPD)

103, 104continuing professional development

(CPD) 168–9Continuous Edging System 50continuous improvement 167–73control systems 221–5

building management systems 223features of 221and switches 221–2washroom 222–3

cooling 148–9 see also ventilationcopper 184–5corridors 67Coventry Central Baths 57cricket, indoor 95–6, 96, 139cross trainers 206Crucible Theatre (Sheffield) 18Crystal Palace 60–1curling 52, 52Curved Workshop (Wapping) 241–2,

241Curves 28

Daktronics 202Dalplex Arena (Dalhousie University)

132, 132Daly, Jim 119damp-proof course 104

dance studios 31–7ballet barres 34dimensions 31, 33doors 33floors 33–4, 137heating 33, 34interior decoration 34Laban Centre 35–7, 36lighting 33, 34mirrors 34music and sound systems 34–5, 35NDA recommendations 33NDTA guidelines 33–4Rambert Dance Company 32–3roofs 32–3storage space 34ventilation 33, 34walls 33

dance/dancing 31daylight/daylighting 11, 12, 24, 195,

228deformation trough, extent of 140, 140design development considerations

128–30digital technology 133dimmer switches 197DIN 18032-2 138, 139–40, 140dirt depreciation 197disabled people 67, 105, 215

building regulations and access 105–6

discus 185displacement ventilation 229Dollar Mountain Lodge (Sun Valley,

Idaho) 156Dome, The (Doncaster Leisure Park)

64–5, 65, 181domes 127Don Valley Athletics Stadium (Sheffield)

68, 73, 87doors

dance studios 33and disabled 105and security 212

and sound reduction 190sports centre 67

Dubai sports halls 63–4ducts/ ductwork 151, 190Dunc Gray Olympic Velodrome

(Sydney) 143duty managers, key tasks for 161

Earth Summit (1992) 227East Midlands International Swimming

Pool (Corby) 106, 177EC mark 104Edgbaston Priory 124Education School Premises Regulations

33Educational Policies Commission 69Electrical Contractors Association 159electrical engineering, key drivers in 155electrical equipment 157–8electrical installation 155–9

and BS7671: (2008) Part 7 158and cable protectors 157, 158, 159designing of systems 156inspection and testing 159and IP codes 158and regulations 155wiring 157

Electrical Installation Bus (EIB) 223electricity

and CHP plants 159demand for 155–6distribution of 156–7uses of in sports facilities 155

Electricity at Work (EAW) Regulations 159

electrostatic air cleaners 229elevators, passenger 216emergency escape signs 203–4emergency lighting 196–7, 211Emirates Stadium (Arsenal Football

Club) 213EN 14904: (2006) 138–9, 140energy efficiency 150, 159, 161–2, 198,

227

270

i n d e x

energy recovery devices 151Energy Technology List (ETL) 161–2energy-efficiency tax deductions 12English Cricket Board (ECB) 95English Indoor Bowls Association 94Enhanced Capital Allowances (ECAs)

161ENs (European Norms) 104Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

188, 197‘equilibrium moisture content’ 179Essential Requirements (ERs) 103, 104,

139ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) foil

skins 47, 85Eureka initiative 134ExCel Exhibition Centre (London) 232Eynsham Joint Use Sports Centre 183

fabric energy storage (FES) 240facades 130–2

adaptive 228facilities management 158, 161–5

and cleanliness 162–4and comfort 161–2and communication 162definition 161keys tasks of a duty manager 161

facings 130factory production code (FPC) 139Falkland Palace, Royal Tennis Court 20,

21fan systems 147, 150‘fan zones’ 76FASTRAK 134Fédération Internationale de Natation

(FINA) 40feedback innovation 224figure skating 54–5fire appliances 102‘fire bending’ 219fire detection 211fire exits 102fire precautions 210–11, 210

fire safety 209–11and building regulations 102and stadiums 89Summerland disaster (1973) 209–10and timber 180

fitness 23flanking paths 189floor coverings 140, 141, 142floors 11

cleaning of 141dance studios 33–4, 137and DIN 18032-2 139–40and EN 14904: (2006) 138–9gymnasiums 24indoor bowling greens 94indoor cricket centres 95, 96life cycle costing 141materials used in 11sports halls 11sprung 137–8squash courts 17, 19swimming pools 41

fluorescent lamps 193–4foot-candle 194footways 121force reduction 140, 140Forest Gate Youth Centre 216Fort Regent (St Helier) 240–1, 240foundation design 115

Gallium Nitride (GaN) LEDs 198–9, 199Garnerville Police Training College

(Belfast) 188, 206geophysical testing 113geotechnical desk studies 111–12German Gymnasium (St Pancras) 116,

116girder structures 129Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games

19, 21, 91, 142, 143, 144glass 180–1, 228

types used in building structures 180Vision-60T 228

glass curtain walling 131

glass reinforced plastic (GRP) cladding 131

glass walls, squash courts 17–18‘glasshouse’ 195global warming 44, 150Goodwood Racecourse 182Gordon Barracks 183Grand Central Station (New York)

Squash Tournament of Champions 18, 20–1

GRASP software 135Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro) 38, 39Great Exhibition (1851) 60–1Greeks, ancient 23, 79, 185greenhouse gas emissions 159 see also

carbon dioxide emissionsground conditions

and geophysical testing 113and geotechnical desk studies 111–12and refurbishment projects 235and soil dynamics 114and soil mechanics 113–14

ground investigations 112, 235groundwater 112, 113, 114GSBS 53gym equipment 27–9

and communication 27–8, 206user-activated sensors 224, 224

‘gym etiquette’ 162, 163gym mats 141–2Gymnasium (Sligo) 100gymnasiums 23–9, 69

and ancient Greeks 23and club membership issue 23environment of 25floors 24layout of 26–7in outer space 29roofs 24, 26, 69and schools 69walls 24

Hamline University 237Hampden Park (Glasgow) 217

271

i n d e x

handrails 67, 216, 217Hanley Ice Rink (Teluride, Colorado) 51Harare International School 229–30, 229Harborough Leisure Centre 169, 196

airdrome 92, 126bowls hall 94elevators 218fire safety equipment 208gymnasium 25, 26, 28reception area 166reception security and access control

211restaurant 164signage 201, 203Spinning Hall ceiling 146swimming pool 61user-activated sensors 224

hardwoods 179Harmonie Club (New York) 237harmonised European Norm (hENs) 104Harrow Leisure Centre 59, 59hazardous substances 233health and safety 107–9 see also safetyHealth and Safety Executive (HSE) 107Health and Safety (Safety Signs and

Signals) Regulations 203‘heat contract’ 231heat transfer, rate of 150Heathrow Airport 80heating 148–9

biomass 231and combined heat and power (CHP)

153, 159, 232control systems 151of dance studios 33, 34of ice rinks 52, 53of sports halls 11of squash courts 16of swimming pool water 43

heating, ventilating and air-conditioning see HVAC

heightof buildings and wind gust speeds 101of sports halls 8

hENs (harmonised European Norm) 104Heringthorpe Leisure Centre

(Rotherham) 59–60, 60Hertfordshire system 70high-pressure sodium lights 194higher education courses 168Highgate Wood School Sports hall

(Haringey) 194, 195Hillsborough Leisure Centre 8, 72Hodgkinson’s beam 181Holme Pierrepont 124Horkstow, Roman villa at 117Horndean Community School 73HORSA (Hutting Operation for the

Raising of the School Leaving Age) 70

humidification 150–1humidistat 151humidity, relative 147, 151, 152Hunstanton School 195hurling 51Hurst, John 128Hutton Arena (Hamline University) 237HVAC (heating, ventilating and air-

conditioning) 82, 147–53designing heating and cooling

systems 148–9and energy efficiency 150energy recovery devices 151and humidification 150–1multidisciplinary team approach

149–50and Schwimmsporthalle (Berlin)

152–3, 152, 153system components 151systems control 151–2

hydrogeology 114

ice hockey 51, 51, 55ice resurfer 49–50ice rinks 49–55

and condensation 53and curling 52design of 51–2

dimensions 51dual-function venues 50, 52early 49heating/cooling and ventilation 52,

53–4lighting 52preparing surfaces of 49recycling buildings 55resurfacing 49–50roofs 50, 53and speed skating 53–4storage provision 52

ice skating 50, 51IEE Wiring Regulations (17th Edition) 155Illinois Institute of Technology 69illuminance, measuring 194incandescent lighting 193incident lighting 195–6inclusive design 104, 105indicators 224–5

LED intelligent 225, 225Marl 699 series LED 225, 225

indoor air quality (IAQ) 149indoor facilities for outdoor sports 93–7indoor sports halls see sports hallsingress protection (IP) codes 158Institute of Sport Management (ISM)

(Australia) 168Institute of Sport and Recreational

Management (ISRM) (UK) 169integrated systems 223integration sports facilities 57–67International Assembly for Collegiate

Business Education (IACBE) 167International Olympic Commission

(IOC) 123, 125International Skating Union (ISU) 54International Standards Organization

(ISO) 103, 104, 134, 202–3International Swimming Federation

(FINA) 152International Tennis Federation (ITF) 93Interpretative Documents (IDs) 103IP (ingress protection) codes 158

272

i n d e x

iron 181, 236ISO-STEP 134

J M Marsh Sports Hall (Liverpool) 130Jahn, Frederick Ludwig 116Jai Alai Hall (Havana, Cuba) 14Japan 178Johns Hopkins University (Baltimore) 8

Kelvinhall International Sports Arena 143

Kheti, tomb of (Egypt) 145, 145King George VI Sports Hall (Lilleshall) 7

Laban Centre (New Cross, London) 35–7, 36

laminated glass 180, 212laminated timber 180landings 216–17Landolt rings 203Lawn Tennis Association (LTA) 93lead 184Leadership in Energy and Environmental

Design (LEED) 232–3LED intelligent panel indicators 225, 225LEDs (light-emitting diodes) 197–9, 198,

199, 201, 225Leicester Leys Leisure Centre 212leisure centres 58–60, 61, 64–6 see also

sports centres‘level deck’ system 59Lewis Ice Arena (Aspen, Colorado) 53Liddell, Eric 85life cycle costing, and floors 141Lift Slab method 59lifts see elevatorslight fittings, shielding of 196light-emitting diodes see LEDslighting 193–9

achieving uniformity of illumination 196

automated systems 197and building management systems

223

of built environment 121dance studios 33, 34direct and indirect systems 196and dirt depreciation 197emergency 196–7, 211GaN LED 198–9, 199ice rinks 52importance of in sports facilities 195incident 195–6and indoor bowling greens 94and indoor cricket centres 96and LEDs 197–9, 198, 199, 201, 225measuring illuminance 194natural 33, 196power conversion for white light

sources 197road 121–2and security 211–12solid state (SSL) 197–8, 201sports facilities 196–7sports halls 11–12squash courts 16, 19swimming pools 42, 45types of electric 193–4

Liverpool Watersports Centre 219loading(s)

and building regulations 101and refurbishment projects 236and soil dynamics 114

lockers 67Lodge Park Sports Centre (Corby) 24LON 223London (2012) Olympics 47, 69, 75–6,

75, 76, 90, 91, 91London Arena 50London Docklands Development

Corporation (LDDC) 241–2London Regatta Centre 96, 97, 97lumen 194lux 194

MACE (Metropolitan Architectural Consortium for Education) 70, 71–2

McIntyre, Professor Peter 45–6maintenance

of acoustic materials 190of signage 207, 207

ManchesterCommonwealth Games (2002) 74–5Sportcity 74–5, 191, 191

Manchester Aquatics Centre 44–5, 44Manchester Stadium 74–5, 74Manchester Tennis and Racquet Club

21, 21Manchester Velodrome 127manufacturing information system (MIS)

135Market Drayton Swimming Pool 213Marl 699 series LED indicators 225, 225masonry 130, 177–8, 236masterplanning 119–25

and City of Birmingham Olympic bid (1992) 122–4

materials 177–85building regulations and construction

102–4, 103recycling building 239–40smart 221see also individual names

matsgym 141–2rollout 96

mechanical ventilation 147–8, 150membranes, architectural 180mercury-vapour lighting 194MERO space-frame system 9metal halide lights 194methane 235Metropolitan Architectural Consortium

for Education (MACE) 70, 71–2Mewès and Davies 17Millennium Dome (now O2 Arena) 55,

110, 112Millennium Stadium (Cardiff) 81–2, 81,

83Miller Park (Milwaukee) 82, 82, 83mini squash 19

273

i n d e x

mirrors, dance studios 34mixed-mode ventilation 148mobile phones 205–6Module 2 buildings 72moisture exclusion 104–5Monodraught Windcatcher 230mortars 178Mudd, Ian 241, 242Muncaster Castle Sports and Activities

Centre 199Munich Olympics (1972) 180music

and dance studios 34–5My Gym 28

nano-engineering 181National Agricultural Centre (NAC) 124National Association for Sport and

Physical Education (NASPE) 167National Collegiate Athletic Association

(NCAA) 142National Dance Association (USA) 33National Dance Teachers Association

(UK) 33–4National Exhibition Centre see NECNational Intramural-Recreational Sports

Association (NIRSA) 8, 67, 170National Recreation Centre (Crystal

Palace) 41, 56, 57National Standard Bodies (NSB) 103, 103National Swimming Center (Beijing)

46–7, 46natural lighting 33, 196natural ventilation 147, 230NEC (National Exhibition Centre) 58,

61, 122, 123‘New Approach Directives’ 103New Buildings Institute 11New English National Stadium

(Wembley) 83, 84–5, 84, 91, 134, 176

NODUS space frame system 10, 57–8, 58, 59, 113

noise criteria curves 188

noise levels, excessive 188noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) 188North American Society for Sport

Management (NASSM) 167North Berwick Leisure Centre 121, 164Northumbria University 168nosing 216, 217Nottinghamshire School Building

Programme 70nuclear power 227

O2 Arena (Millennium Dome) 55, 110, 112

Oakengates Leisure Centre 231occupancy sensors 12Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA) 188Official Journal of the American College

of Sports Medicine 28–9Old Gym, The (Leslie) 242–3, 242Olympia Arena (Detroit) 49Olympian Games (Wenlock) 125Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA) 91Olympic Games 40, 125

Beijing (2008) 46, 56–7, 154, 204, 220, 221, 222

Birmingham bid (1992) 122–4, 122London (2012) 47, 69, 75–6, 75, 76,

90, 91, 91Munich (1972) 180Paris (1924) 85Tokyo (1964) 178

‘100-year rule’ 235ONWARD (Organization of North

Western Authorities Rationalized Standard Design) 70, 71, 72

optimisers 151Oquirrh Park Skating Rink (Utah) 53–4Otto Graf Institute 139outdoor sports

indoor facilities for 93–7Outstanding Sport Facilities (OSF)

awards 170Overtime gym 28

Oxford Ice Rink 50–1, 50oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) 43

Palasport Olimpico (Turin) 54Palavela (Turin) 133Paralympic Games (2004) 177passive cooling/heating systems 229–30pedestrian guardrails 122pedestrian movement 120, 121pelota 15, 17penetrometers 114perimeter planning 120Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) 27–8Perspex 19Philadelphia Racquet Club 15photochromic glass 228photovoltaic devices 181Pinerola Ice Rink (Italy) 52pipes 190

and HVAC systems 151pixel pitch for display application 202planning 119–21plantrooms, reducing noise levels 190plate heat exchangers 151Play Drome (Clydebank Tourist Village)

65–6playing areas, of popular indoor sports

6, 7Plunge, The (Santa Cruz) 40, 236pole vault 177

indoor 141, 142Poly-Gymn Conditioner 27polymer 96Ponds Forge International Sports Centre

(Sheffield) 71, 73Pontypool Active Living Centre 232Power Plate 27, 28–9Pride Park (Derby) 112production information database

(‘product model’) 134–5profiled metal sheeting 131, 132Prospec 17PTFE-coated glass fibre material 180PVC-coated polyester fabric 180

274

i n d e x

Quality Systems Inc. 178–9quartz lights 194Quest 170, 170–3

Racquet and Tennis Club (New York) 234, 237

rakes 87Rambert Dance Company 32–3ramps 105, 218, 219Ramsey & Taylor, Mackie 183real tennis 15, 21, 21recycling 55, 239–42

building materials 239–40Curved Workshop (Wapping) 241–2,

241definition 239Fort Regent (St Helier) 240–1,

240The Old Gym (Leslie) 242–3, 242

reflector technology 196refurbishment 235–7relative humidity 147, 151, 152remote sensing 113residual current device (RCD) 158resonance 60restaurants 67, 162

accessibility to 215choice of foods issue 163–4and cleanliness 163

restoration 237Restriction of the Use of Certain

Hazardous Substances (RoHS) directive 233

retrofitting 237reverberation 187, 188riser 216, 217, 218risk management 112roads 120–1

direction sign 200lighting systems 121–2

Robert Watson & Co (Steelwork) Limited 133

Rogers Center (formerly Skydome) (Toronto) 80, 83

rolled hollow sections (RHS) 59, 84Romans 40, 113, 115, 117, 127roofs 62, 127–9

aluminium 183closing 79–80, 81–2, 83, 84and consortium building 72copper 184–5dance studios 32–3The Dome 64–5flat 128gymnasiums 24, 26, 69ice rinks 50, 53indoor rowing centres 97integrated leisure centres 64–5, 66long-span 130Manchester Stadium 74and moisture exclusion 105pitched 94SASH 62, 63selection criteria 127–8short-span construction 128space frame systems 9–10, 57–8,

58–9, 58, 129swimming pools 42, 44–5, 59, 60tensile 180‘umbrella’ or north light 129

rowing machines 206rowing-specific indoor centres 96–7,

98, 99rowing tanks 96–7, 96Royal Automobile Club (Pall Mall,

London) 17Royal Commonwealth Pool (Edinburgh)

183Rugby Union Football HQ

(Twickenham) 80run-around coil systems 151

Safe-Screen squash courts 19safety 107–9, 209–11

definition 209and emergency lighting 211fire 89, 209–11signs 203

structural 101see also security

St Nicholas Rink (New York City) 48St Pancras 116, 116Saitama Super Arena (Japan) 87, 88, 89Salt Lake Organizing Committee (SLOC)

53San Alfonso del Mar (Algarrobo, Chile) 47San Diego Squash 15San Francisco Dance Center 31, 35Santa Cruz Natatorium (California) 40SASH (Standardised Approach to Sports

Halls) 60, 61–3, 131school and community sport facilities

(United States) 69School of Physiotherapy and Exercise

Science (Griffith University, Queensland) 160

school sports halls 7–8, 11, 26school-building 69, 195

consortium 70–3Schwimmsporthalle (Berlin) 152–3, 152,

153SCOLA (Second Consortium of Local

Authorities) 70–1, 70, 73Scotland 13Scotstoun Stadium (Glasgow) 21Scottish Exhibition and Conference

Centre (SECC) 142SEAC (South-Eastern Architects

Collaboration) 70, 71, 72security 211–13

and access control 212–13definition 209and lighting 211–12and Market Drayton Swimming Pool

213measures 211–12and site layout 212and ‘StewardCall’ system at Arsenal

FC 213and windows 212

semiconductors 225sensors 221

275

i n d e x

separated extra low voltage (SELV) 158shading devices 47, 196sheet metal cladding 131Sheffield

hosting of XVIth Universiade 73–4Sheffield Arena 73Sheffield International Venues (SIV)

73–4shell concrete construction 129shinty 51‘shock absorption’ value 140short-span construction 128shower facilities 67sick building syndrome 149sightlines 86–7, 86signage 200, 201, 202–5

emergency escape 203, 205maintenance of 207, 207safety 203street 122

silicon 224–5site investigation 111

and archaeology 113and ground investigation 112and hydrogeology 114remote sensing and geophysical

testing 113and soil dynamics 114and soil mechanics 113–14

site preparation 104site selection 111Skatetown (Roseville, California) 54skyboxes 73sledge hockey 52sliding coefficient 140, 140SLIMS (Serco Leisure Integrated

Management Systems) 162slip and trip accidents

measures to control 162–3smart materials 221smart shoes 225smart technology 221Smithson, Peter and Alison 195smoke detectors 211

Social Services and the Schools 69softwoods 179soil dynamics 114soil mechanics 113–14‘solar concentrator’ 181solar panels 181solid state lighting (SSL) 197–8, 201sound reduction index 189sound reduction methods 189–90sound systems, dance studios 35sound transmission class 188–9sounders 224South Africa

2010 FIFA World Cup stadiums 88South-Eastern Architects Collaboration

see SEACspace frame systems 9–10, 57–8, 58–9,

58, 129space gymnasiums 29space hotels 29specific fan power (SFP) 150speed skating 53–4Sport for All 105, 215Sport England 57, 61, 128, 131, 139,

195, 230sport management courses 167–8Sport Management degrees 168Sport Management Program Review

Council (SMPRC) 167Sportcity (Manchester) 74–5

B of the Bang sculpture 191, 191sports centres

changing facilities 67and circulation 67increase in number of 61restaurants 67

Sports Council 61sports equipment, cleaning of 164, 165Sports Hall for Acrobats (Berlin) 10sports halls 5–14, 59

and ‘badminton courts’ principle 127

definition 7distinction from gymnasiums 26

Dubai 63–4equipment storage 13factors affecting cost 9fittings for 11floors and coverings 11, 137, 138–9,

140heating and ventilation 11lighting 11–12multi- 127playing areas and size of 6, 7, 8roofs 8–10, 9, 10, 59, 59–60, 128and Standardised Approach to Sports

Halls (SASH) 60, 61–3, 131upgrading existing 13walls 11

Sports Technology degree 168sportscotland 13sprung floors 137–8, 139squash 7

beech 19–20and Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth

Games 19, 21health benefits of 16history of 15mini 19at sea 18

squash courts 15–22, 59all-glass 18ceilings 16convertible 18floors 17, 19glass walls 17–18HVAC 16lighting 16, 19Safe-Screen 19size of 15walls 17

Squash Tournament of Champions (Grand Central Terminal, NewYork) 18, 20–1

stadiums 79–91, 135ancient Greek 79closing-roof 79–80, 81–2, 83, 84fire safety design 89

276

i n d e x

sightlines and calculating ‘C’ value 86–7, 86

and steel wide-span solutions 80–1under-terrace accommodation 87, 89use of 3D digital models 135see also individual names

stainless steel 132, 132, 182, 183stairways/staircases 216–18, 217, 219

consortium building and 71–2and exit width 102

Standardised Approach to Sports Halls see SASH

standards 102–4, 103Standards Task Force 167Stanley Cup 55steel 62, 64, 127, 129, 181–2, 218

advantages of 181and computer-integrated

manufacture 133–5innovations in 181–2as principal structural element in

SASH 62–3processes for making 239recycling 239–40and refurbishment projects 236roof structures in 9–10, 9and structural hollow sections (SHS)

219, 240and swimming pool roofs 42uses of in consortia components 70,

71–2wide-span solutions 80–1

‘StewardCall’ system 213Stoneleigh Park 124storage

dance studios 34and ice rinks 52sports halls and equipment 13

structural hollow sections (SHS) 219, 240structural stability

and building regulations 101–2structure 128–30Summerland (Isle of Man) 209–10Sun Gro Centre (Beausejour, Manitoba) 52

Sunderland Leisure Centre 58–9, 61sunlight hours 195surfaces, indoor sports 137–45

bacteria-resistant 222–3cleaning 141, 162and DIN 18032-2 138and EN 14904: (2006) 138–9floor coverings 140, 141, 142specification for 141and velodromes 144see also floors

surveillance measures 211–12sustainability 227–33

adaptive facades 228and biomass heating 231and BREEAM 232and combined heat and power (CHP)

153, 159, 232and daylighting 228displacement ventilation 229and Harare International School

229–30, 229RoHS and WEEE directives 233and Sutton Arena (Surrey) 230, 230,

231and USBGC’s LEED system 232–3and waste heat recovery 232see also energy efficiency

Sustainable Development Strategyand London Olympics 76

Sutton Arena (Surrey) 141, 230, 230, 231

Swansea Leisure Centre 184, 185, 185swimming pools 39–47, 59, 61, 236

accessibility 215approach to design 41–2changing rooms 67cleaning and purifying water 42–3condensation problem 43–4cracks in concrete and methods of

repair 236and electrical installations 158floors and finishes 41and glazed walls 228

heating of water 43history of development of indoor 40lighting 42, 45outlets for 43pool dimensions 40–1roofs 42, 44–5, 59, 60and tiles 41–2waste heat recovery 43–4water circulation 43waterproofing and insulation 41world’s biggest 47

Swimmingly Good Foods programme 163–4

swipe-cards 212, 213Swiss Cottage Sports Centre 57switches 221–2Sydney Opera House 133

Tamworth Sports Centre 61–2Taylor, Ron 81, 183, 240TD Banknorth Sports Center

(Quinnipiac University) 52telephones 205–6temperature 147tennis 11, 15tennis-specific indoor centres 93, 93text viewing ranges 202thermal comfort 147‘thermal inertia’ 147‘thermal lag’ 147thermal wheels 151Thermen Museum (Heerlen,

Netherlands) 113thermostatic radiator valves 152thermostats, room 152tiles

used for swimming pools 41–2timber 129, 179–80

affected by moisture 179–80and fire safety design 180products available 180strengthening and repairing of in

refurbishment projects 236use of in heated buildings 179

277

i n d e x

time switch 151Tipton Leisure Centre 93, 131titanium 184toilets 67, 222, 223Tokyo Olympics (1964) 178Torino Palavela (Turin) 54, 55 toughened glass 180traffic speeds 121transportation planning 120–1tread 216, 217, 217–18, 217treadmills 206triple jump, indoor 12trunking 157trusses 64–5, 129Turnhalle see German Gymnasium

(St Pancras)

Ulster University 168under-terrace accommodation 87, 89underpinning techniques 116Union Club (New York) 237United States Figure Skating Association

(USFSA) 54–5United States Tennis Association (USTA)

93United States Tennis Court & Track

Builders’ Association (USTC & TBA) 93

University School (Hampstead) 184–5upgrading 13, 237urban regeneration, sports-led 69–77Urban Task Force 119urinals 67, 223US Green Building Council (USGBC),

LEED 232–3Utah Olympic Oval 53–4

V-mop 17velodromes 143–4, 144ventilation/ventilation systems 147–8

control devices 151criteria determining sizing and

selection 148–9dance studios 33, 34

displacement 229and energy efficiency 150equipment 151ice rinks 52and indoor air quality 149mechanical 147–8, 150mixed-mode 148natural 147, 230passive 229–30sports halls 11squash courts 16, 19see also HVAC

vertical deformation 140, 140Victoria Rink (Montreal) 51Vienna Agreement 104Vision-60T glass 228VIVO 27–8volleyball 7, 136

sitting 215

Wade King Student Recreation Center 8Wadebridge Leisure Centre (Cornwall)

44, 232Wagonmaster (film) 137walls 62, 130

brick 177–8and building regulations 101–2considerations when selecting

materials for external 131–2dance studios 33finishes 11and fire safety 102glazed 228gymnasiums 24ice rinks 52moisture exclusion and external

104–5and sound reduction 190sports halls 11squash courts 17use of steel in consortium building

72Warfield Gymnasium 5, 7washroom controls 222–3

Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive 233

waste heat recovery 232and swimming pools 43–4

Water Cube 135, 222water polo 40weather compensators 151–2‘Wembley Arch’ 84, 84Wembley stadium see New English

National StadiumWenlock Olympian Games 125Western High School (Washington DC)

4, 5, 7, 22, 23, 30, 138, 192wheelchair access 67, 105, 215wheelchair ramps 218Wicksteed Park (Northants) 205wide span structures 80–1Willink Leisure Centre (Reading) 179wind gust speeds, and height of

buildings 101Windcatchers 230windows 11, 132, 188

and security 212super 228

Winter Olympics 53, 54wiring systems 157wood see timber 179workmanship 104World Cup

(Germany) (2006) 76stadiums in South Africa (2010) 88

World Sport for All Congress (2008) 215World Squash Federation (WSF) 16World Student Games (XVIth) (Sheffield)

73–4wrestling rings 143

Yee, Robert 67

Zamboni 49–50zinc 185zinc spray coatings 66

278

Image credi ts

The authors and publisher would like to thank the following individuals and institutions for giving permission to reproduce illustrations. We have made every effort to contact copyright holders, but if any errors have been made we would be happy to correct them at a later printing.

All images are the authors’ own unless otherwise stated.

Architectural Press Archive/RIBA Library Photographs Collection 23.2

Arcolectric 27.5Arup 1.5, 5.3, 5.5, 6.3, 6.4, 7.7, 7.8, 8.2, 9.9, 14.4, 17.6–17.8,

21.9–21.11, 26.2, 28.3–28.5 British Steel Corporation 7.2, 7.4, 7.5Crispin Eurich for Tubular Structures magazine 4.2, 22.1Dalhousie University Photograph Collection, PC1, Dalhousie

University Archives and Special Collections 15.6Daniel Imade 7.1David Nairn © British Steel Corporation 3.3Designhive/Glasgow 2014 2.5, 9.12, 9.13, 16.6–16.8Detroit Hockey Club 6.2Eric A Clement © US Department of Defense 8.7Felix Fonteyn © British Steel Corporation 7.3, 9.2Gareth Young 10.6–10.8Griffith University 19.1Harry Sowden © Arup 30.4Henry Trotter 2.3James Popple 13.2, 13.3Jens Willebrand 17.5John Clarke © British Steel 1.3, 1.4, 5.4, 7.9, 7.10, 8.1,

8.3, 9.3, 10.2, 14.1–14.3, 15.3–15.5, 17.2–17.4, 19.3, 21.3–21.8, 25.4, 26.3, 26.8, 28.2

John Clarke © Corus Group 13.1John Pascoe 22.3, 24.6, 24.8JSE (Electrical Services) Ltd 18.3Kokyo Miwa Architectural Photography Laboratory 9.11Lenovo 18.1, 24.4, 24.5, 27.1, 27.2Library of Congress © Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper 6.1Library of Congress © Pillsbury Picture Co. 5.2Library of Congress: gift of the State Historical Society of

Colorado 2.1Library of Congress: photo by Frances Benjamin Johnston 1.1,

3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 16.3, 23.1

London 2012 Venue-Images Preview 5.8, 8.5, 8.6Lyon College Art Department 30.5Man vyi 30.2Manchester Tennis and Racquet Club 2.7Marl International Limited 23.5, 23.6, 27.4Martin Atkinson 26.1Merlin Hendy and Martin Rose 4.4, 4.5Nicolas Sanchez 9.4Peter Culley 9.10Philip Sayer 23.3Police Service of Northern Ireland 22.2, 24.7PTW Architects 5.6, 5.7R Berbec 29.1Radio Times 1.7Roger Ridsdill Smith © Arup 10.4, 10.5Ronald G Taylor & Associates 15.2Shepheard, Epstein & Hunter 30.3Simon J Atkinson 3.4, 3.5, 3.7, 7.6, 9.8, 10.1, 10.3, 11.3, 11.4,

12.1, 15.1, 15.8, 17.1, 19.4, 20.1, 20.2, 21.1, 21.2, 23.4, 24.1–24.3, 25.1, 25.3, 26.4–26.7, 27.3, 28.1

Sport England 1.6, 11.2, 16.2, 16.4Sport Instituut Goederaad, Netherlands 3.6Steve Thomas © Monodraught 28.6, 28.7, 16.5Stewarts and Lloyds Ltd 9.1, 30.1Thomas Cooper Library, University of South Carolina 2.6, 2.8Thomas Graham © Arup 8.4Thomas Heatherwick 22.4Tim Griffiths 9.6, 9.7Tim Ledlie 2.4University of Cambridge 23.7Vulcascot, Crawley, UK 18.4, 18.5Wayne Short © US Department of Defense 1.2Wheeler Electric 18.2William D Moss © US Department of Defense 6.7WS Atkins 9.5