spring 2007motivation1. spring 2007motivation2 definitions content models process models
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Spring 2007 Motivation 1
Motivation
Spring 2007 Motivation 2
Motivation
• Definitions
• Content models
• Process models
Spring 2007 Motivation 3
What is Motivation?
• “Willingness to exert effort to reach organizational goals”
• The force that starts, sustains, and directs activity
Need
Drive Search
TensionReduction
Sat.Tension
Feedback
Spring 2007 Motivation 4
Why Does it Matter?
Performance
Ability Motivation
Spring 2007 Motivation 5
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
• Where does our motivation come from?• Extrinsic = external rewards• Intrinsic = rewards from the task itself
• Application to domains of human activity
Type of Activity Motivation Freedom Human Value
Work Extrinsic Constrained ???
Play Intrinsic Freely Chosen Distraction
Leisure Intrinsic Freely Chosen Self-Fulfillment
Spring 2007 Motivation 6
Content vs. Process
• Content• What motivates us?
• Process• How are we motivated?
Spring 2007 Motivation 7
Content Models
• Maslow
• Herzberg
• McClelland
• Theory X, Theory Y
Spring 2007 Motivation 8
Maslow’s Pyramid
Physiological
Safety
Social
Esteem
Self-Actualization
Spring 2007 Motivation 9
Herzberg’s Two Factor Model
• Ideas developed through work with engineers and scientists
• Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are separate, not two ends of a single scale
• One group of factors prevents dissatisfaction, but does not cause satisfaction
• Another group of factors cause satisfaction• Question: does satisfaction lead to performance?
• Traditionally, we said Yes• However, performance may cause satisfaction• But, satisfaction is related to turnover
Spring 2007 Motivation 10
Hygiene vs. Motivators
Hygiene Motivators Quality of
supervision Rate of pay Company policies Working conditions Relations with others Job security
Career Advancement Personal growth Recognition Responsibility Achievement
Lack of these results in dissatisfaction
These result in satisfaction
Spring 2007 Motivation 11
McClelland - Needs
• Three basic human needs• Achievement• Power• Affiliation
• N Ach performance• Tested on large scale basis
• N Ach (children’s stories)• National performance (utility usage)
Spring 2007 Motivation 12
Theories X and Y
Little ambitionDislike work
Avoid responsibility
Theory X
Self-directedEnjoy work
Accept responsibility
Theory Y
Spring 2007 Motivation 13
Motivating with Money
• Does money matter?• According to Herzberg, no
• But…..
Spring 2007 Motivation 14
Process Models
• Behavior modification
• Goal setting
• VIE
• Equity Theory
• Job Characteristics Model
Spring 2007 Motivation 15
Behavior Modification
• Basic psychological theory• Pavlov• Skinner
• Behavior is a function of its consequences
• Some say….assumes that people have little free will
Spring 2007 Motivation 16
Basic Terms
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Extinction
• Punishment
Shaping:Reward close approximations, then closer approximations, until desired response is achieved
Spring 2007 Motivation 17
How it WorksConsequence
Reward Punishment
Con
tin
gen
cy
Apply
Withhold
PositiveReinforcement
NegativeReinforcement
Punishment
Extinction
Schedules of Reinforcement
FIXED INTERVAL
Reinforcement occurs at fixed intervals of time: the bimonthly paycheck.
FIXED RATIO
Reinforcement occurs after a set number of behaviors: piece rate pay.
VARIABLE INTERVAL
Reinforcement occurs at random intervals of time: the supervisor visits the employee, on no fixed or set schedule, to praise at that time.
VARIABLE RATIO
Reinforcement occurs after a random number of behaviors: gambling, especially slot machines.
Spring 2007 Motivation 19
Using Reinforcement
• If workers are positively reinforced for their high performance, they will work harder.
• If workers receive immediate reinforcement for their hard work, they will work harder than if their reinforcement is delayed.
• Frequent reinforcement of positive behavior and infrequent reinforcement of negative behavior results in higher performance.
Spring 2007 Motivation 20
More on Using Reinforcement
• Workers will work harder if their reinforcements for work are somewhat random.
• If a positive work behavior is never reinforced, it will be extinguished.
• Reinforcements may be of several different kinds and must be tied to the individual worker.
• If workers are rewarded for even small increases in performance, then greater performance may result.
Spring 2007 Motivation 21
Goal Setting
• Goals lead to performance• Specific goals lead to higher performance than
general goals• Performance increases in proportion to goal
difficulty -- but goals should be attainable• Goals must be accepted• Goals should be linked to feedback and rewards
Spring 2007 Motivation 22
What is a Good Goal ?
• Specific
• Measurable
• Attainable
• Rewarded, realistic
• Timely• Feedback• Integrated, Intermediate• Challenging, clear
Spring 2007 Motivation 23
Using Goal Setting
• Workers work harder if they have goals to strive for.
• Workers work harder if they have goals that are high and challenging, rather than easy or unattainable.
• If goals are clear and understandable, workers will work harder.
• If workers have a chance to participate in setting goals, they will be more committed to attaining those goals.
Spring 2007 Motivation 24
More on Goal Setting
• If larger goals are broken down into short-term goals, workers will receive more frequent feedback about goal accomplishment and, thus, strive harder to meet those goals.
• If employees know what the consequences of goal accomplishment are (for themselves and the organization), they will strive harder to meet those goals.
Spring 2007 Motivation 25
Yet More…
• If individual goals are integrated with organizational goals, workers will work harder.
• If progress toward goal accomplishment is measurable and feedback is given, the workers will strive harder to meet those goals.
• Workers work harder if goals are specific, rather than general or “do your best”.
Value ofReward
Effort
PerceivedEffort-Reward
Probability
RolePerception
Skills, Abilitiesand Traits
Performance Goals
ExtrinsicRewards
IntrinsicRewards
Satisfaction
PerceivedEquity ofRewards
E1
E2
The Complex Model….
V
Spring 2007 Motivation 27
A Simplified Model
IndividualPerformance
OrganizationalRewards
IndividualEffort
IndividualGoals
Expectancy
Spring 2007 Motivation 28
Equity Theory
• Employees must believe they are treated fairly, or motivation will wane. Equity theory maintains that employees evaluate their inputs (IS) in relation to their outcomes (OS) as compared to the inputs (IO) and outcomes (OO) of others to determine fairness.
I
O
I
O
s
s
O
O
Spring 2007 Motivation 29
Responses to Perceived Inequity
• Change perception of own outputs
• Change perception of own inputs
• Change own outputs (ask for raise)
• Change own inputs (work less)
• Change perception of others’ inputs or outputs
• Choose a different referent
• Withdraw from situation (quit)
Job Characteristics Model
Strength of Employee Growth NeedStrength of Employee Growth Need
Personal andWork Outcomes
High InternalWork Motivation
High-QualityWork Performance
High SatisfactionWith the Work
Low AbsenteeismAnd Turnover
Core JobDimensions
Skill Variety
Task Identity
Task Significance
Autonomy
Feedback
CriticalPsychological States
ExperiencedMeaningfulness
of the Work
Experienced Responsibility for Work Outcomes
Knowledge of the Actual Results of the
Work Activities