status of tribal women and contemporary...
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapter - III
STATUS OF TRIBAL WOMEN AND
CONTEMPORARY WOMEN
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES IN INDIA
In the previous chapter an attempt is made to review the previous studies
related to tribal women. In this chapter deals with the gender development in
Indian planning, different aspects of women development, estimated Tribal
Population of Indigenous Peoples, Selected Countries during 2013 and present
status of tribal women in India and contemporary women development
programmes in India.
3.1 Introduction
Generally in India as per 2011 census, women constitute 48% of the
total population. Women as an important human resource were recognized by
the Constitution of India which not only accorded equality to women but also
empowered the State to adopt measures of positive discrimination in their
favour. The Constitution, the Government of India has been engaged in
committed and continuous endeavours towards ensuring all-round well being,
development and empowerment of women. One of the six basic principles of
governance laid down in the National Common Minimum Programme is to
empower women politically, educationally, economically and legally also. The
progress of Department of Women and Child Development to a Ministry under
the independent charge of Minister of State for Women and Child
Development with effect from 30.01.2006 is an important mile stone in that
direction. The capacity of the Ministry has been striving for the holistic
empowerment of women by reviewing the laws to remove gender bias,
bringing new legal measures aiming at gender justice and implementing
programmes to achieve the social and economic empowerment of women. 1
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Generally, Women empowerment is the buzzword now-a-days. No
country can afford development without considering women who constitute
about half of its stock of human resource. So, development has bypassed
women in India despite worshiping and paying respect to women in mythology
and historical texts. Gender disparities vary vastly across cultural, geographical
and historical context. India is a large country with vast economic and socio-
cultural diversity in the country. The growth issues related to women in a large
country like India will not only be inappropriate but some times even
misleading the country. Women specific and women related legislations have
been enacted to safeguard the rights and interest of women, besides protecting
against discrimination, violence, and atrocities and also to prevent socially
undesirable practices. In the previous days government of India has undertaken
a large number of schemes aimed at the socio-economic development of
women under various Five Year Plans in India. The details are presented here
below;
Chart – 3.1
Gender Development in Indian Planning System
Plans Approach
Ist Five Year Plan
Progress of women was clubbed with the welfare of the disadvantaged groups like destitute, disabled, aged, etc.,
2nd to Fifth Five
Year Plans
Welfare Motive approach, besides giving priority to women’s education, improved maternal and child health services, supplementary feeding for children and expectant and nursing mothers.
6th Five Year Plan Change in the approach from ‘welfare’ to ‘development’ of women. Multi-disciplinary approach with thrust on health, education and
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employment.
7th Five Year
Plan
Goal is raising women’s economic and social status and bringing them into the mainstream of national development.
8thFive Year Plan
Stress on the progress of women.
9th Five Year Plan
Attempted ‘Empowerment of Women’. The Plan also aimed at ‘convergence of existing services’ available in both women-specific and women-related areas.
10th Five Year Plan
Moving with the strategy of “Empowering Women” as an agent of social change and development through Social Empowerment, Economic Empowerment and justice for women.
Source: Government of India Plan Document.
In India the Development of women in the Ist Five Year Plan was
clubbed with the welfare of disadvantaged group like destitute, disabled, aged,
etc. The 2nd to Fifth Plan continue to reflect the same welfare approach besides
giving priority to women’s education and launching measures to improve
maternal and child health services, supplementary feeding for children, and
expectant and nursing mother. 6th Plan has marked a clear shift in its approach,
from welfare to development oriented plans towards women. Seventh Plan
aimed at raising women’s economic and social status and bringing them into
the mainstream of the national development. 8thPlan focus on human
development with special reference to women. The 9th Plan made significant
changes in the conceptual strategy of planning for women development. The
10th Plan continued with its strategy of empowering women as agent of social
change and development. The details can be had from the chart also.
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Chart- 3.2
Different Aspects of Gender Development in the economy
Dimenison of Cultural
Legal Issues Political aspects
Economic aspects
Social dimension
• Status of rights of
indigenous and
traditional people
• Participation in local resource
Management
• Inclusion of
indigenous
knowledge
•Awareness of rights
• ecentralization
• Mainstreaming
genderperspectives
• Decision making
Gnder justice,
elimination
of all forms
of gender
discrimination
•Poverty Eradi-cation
• Microcredit
• Women
and
Economy
• Globalization
• Women and
Agricul-ture
• Women and
Industry
• Support
services
• Education
• Health
• Nutrition
• Drinking
water
• Sanitation
• Housing
and Shelter
• Environment
At present Women’s development has come a long way from the earlier
welfare orientation approach. In the welfare approach, women were taken as
vulnerable sections of the population, whose situation could be ameliorated
through the provision of support services like health, nutrition and child care
facilities. Development of women has been looked at variously form and
dimensions that have followed the welfare approach. The current approach of
empowerment looks at unequal gender and power relations and use
conscientisation, mobilization, solidarity and collective action as the solution.
The details can be had from the chart aslo.2
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Chart-3.3
Different Perspectives to Women’s Development in India
Type of
Project
Aim
Concepts Type of
developmental
interventions Concept of the
problem
Concept of the
solution
Welfare Aspect
Poverty of women,
women’s special
needs, women as a
vulnerable groups,
women’s lower socioeconomic
status
Provision of support
services of health,
nutrition, child care
Construct maternity
clinics, health
clinics,
immunization,
health education,
nutrition education
Economic and
self-reliance aspect
Women as underemployed,
unproductive,
dependent, lacking in
productive skills
Encourage self reliance
and inter-dependence,
provide productive
skills, encourage
women’s productive
enterprises
Schemes for
women, women’s
clubs, soap
making, school
uniform making
etc.
Efficiency issues
Gender as previously
overlooked resource
in development
planning, women as
under developed
human capital
Examine actual
productive roles of
women, support
women with skills,
training and improved
technology, invest in
previously over looked
resource
Integrity of
women in
development
planning,
mainstreaming of
women’s
development,
extension advice
20 for women farmers,
appropriate
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technology for
women, increase
women’s access to factors of
production
Equality aspcet
Structure of inequality,
discrimination against
women in schooling,
credit, access to land
Equality of
opportunities for
women in schooling,
access to factors of
production
Affirmative action
to promote equal
opportunity, revise
development
planning so that
women are equal
partners and
beneficiaries in
development
process.
Empowerment
approach
Equal & Unequal gender power
relations, the
patriarchy, patriarchal
resistance
Equality mobilization,
solidarity,
collective action
Rural areas
projects, support
for women’s
collective action,
project concerned
with
democratization
and political action
Source: UNICEF, based on Moser, in ICECD (undated) Making Development Gender Sensitive, a Guide for Trainers,
Ahmedabad, ICECD.
At present in India a large number of social, economic and political
factors are found to continue to the development of women in ethnologically
diverse, socially complex and tradition-bound societies such as India. A recent
study on gender development (2005) has revealed that Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Punjab, Gujarat, Karnataka and Maharashtra are the leading states as far as
overall gender development indicators are concerned. The details of over all
gender development ranking of Indian States are presented in table – 3.1.
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Table- 3.1
Overall Gender Development Ranking of Indian States
States in the country
Gender Development
Index Values of the Index
GDI Rank Demography
factors Education
system Health issues
Social Status
Rate of Labour Participation
Economic Status
Drudgery issuess
Issue of Leadership
Andhra Pradesh
0.121 7 2 8 8 14 3 7 9 2
Assam -0.460 14 7 13 14 15 11 9 10 15 Bihar -0.573 15 9 15 15 12 13 6 13 8
Gujarat 0.228 4 12 3 3 5 4 2 4 12 Haryana -0.276 12 15 10 6 4 14 4 6 14
Karnataka 0.195 5 5 7 7 8 2 11 5 7 Kerala 0.899 1 1 1 1 2 7 13 1 9
Madhya Pradesh
-0.070 9 10 12 12 11 1 3 14 4
Maharashtra 0.187 6 8 6 5 3 9 15 3 5 Orissa -0.248 11 4 9 11 7 10 14 15 11 Punjab 0.274 3 14 4 2 1 8 1 2 13
Rajasthan -0.335 13 11 14 10 13 5 12 12 10 Tamil Nadu 0.326 2 3 2 4 9 6 8 7 3
Uttar Pradesh
-0.244 10 13 11 13 10 12 5 11 1
West Bengal -0.028 8 6 5 9 6 15 10 8 6
Source: NPC Report, Delhi.
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Graph – 3.1
Overall Gender Development Ranking Of Indian States
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Kerala Tamil Nadu Punjab Gujarat Karnataka Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh
West Bengal Madhya Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
Orissa Haryana Rajasthan Assam Bihar
Demography Education Health Social Status Labour Participation Economic Status Drudgery Leadership
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Generally, there are marked demographic contrast between the northern,
eastern and central parts of India on the one hand and the rest of the country on
the other hand. The backwardness of education has been reported high in Bihar,
West Bengal and Rajasthan while health indicators show that Bihar, Assam,
Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh are backward states in India. Then the
social status of women has also found to be poor in Andhra Pradesh, Assam,
Rajasthan and Bihar. Similarly, the economic status of women is found to be
poor in Maharashtra, Orissa, Kerala and Rajasthan. As far as the leadership is
concerned, Uttar Pradesh is ahead of state like Kerala. However, self help
groups per lakh females were reported high in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Kerala and Orissa and other states in India.
Under globalization regime Indian women are at the crossroads of their
destiny. There is a great upsurge in consciousness about their rights among all
sections and classes of society in the country. There has been tremendous
increase in developmental activity for women since the 1980s with a great leap
forward in the nineties. Women constitute 48.2 per cent of the country’s
population. However, development process has bypassed women. Their holistic
development in terms of materials, resources, programmes and policies is the
broad mandate of working of Ministry of Women & Child Development, Govt.
of India. Department of Women & Child Development was setup in the year
1985 as the national machinery for advancement of the women in the country.
In the view of increasing importance of women empowerment, Government of
India has converted the department into full fledged Ministry in the year 2006.
Government of India has implemented a number of programmes for women
empowerment. The scheme of Swayamsiddha is an integrated scheme for
women’s empowerment, which is based on formation of women into self help
groups for holistic empowerment of women through awareness generation,
economic empowerment and convergence of various schemes in India. The
long term objective of the programme is the all round empowerment of women
by ensuring their direct access to, and control over, resources through a
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sustained process of mobilization and convergence of all the ongoing sectoral
programmes in India.3
In India the Swashakti scheme is known as Rural Women’s
Development & Empowerment Project is a centrally sponsored project,
supported by World Bank and IFAD was operational till June 2005. The
scheme aimed at enhancing women’s access to resources for better quality of
life through use of drudgery and time reducing devices, health, literacy and
confidence enhancement and increasing their control over income through their
involvement in skill development and income generating activities also. The
schemewas implemented through Women’s Development Corporations in the
states of Bihar, Haryana, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh and Uttaranchal. A major initiative towards improving
the socio-economic lot of poor, marginalized and resourceless women,
Government of India launched STEP Scheme in 1986-87 with the view of
empowering poor women and promoting sustainable livelihoods for them in
traditional sectors of economy. The scheme is being implemented through
public sector organizations, state corporations, District Rural Development
Agencies, Cooperatives and voluntary organizations in India.
The GOI programme like Swalamban Programme, previously known as
NORAD was launched in 1982-83 with the assistance from NORAD aimed at
providing training and skills to women to facilitate them to obtain employment
or self –employment on a sustained basis. The scheme Swadhar was launched
by the government in the year 2001-2002 as a holistic scheme to provide
shelter, food, clothing and care to women who are living in difficult
circumstances without any social or economic aspects. Hence, the package of
assistance available under the scheme include provisions of shelter, food,
clothing, health care and counseling for destitute women; measures for social
and economic rehabilitation through education, awareness, skill upgradation
and personality development through behavioral training, etc.; help line or
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other facilities to such women in distress; and such other services as required
for support and rehabilitation of women in trouble. The scheme of assistance
for construction or expansion of hostel buildings for working women with Day-
Care Centre for Children is also in implementation since 1972. The scheme
envisages provisions of safe and affordable accommodation to working women
and women being trained for employment and girl students studying in post
school professional courses also. The scheme of Balika Smridhi Yojana is
another comprehensive girl child specific scheme, which addresses the
discrimination against the girl Child in the country.
Government of India has also adopted National Policy for
Empowerment of Women, 2001 which aimed at bringing about the
advancement, development and empowerment of women and to eliminate all
forms of discrimination against women and to ensure their active participation
in all space of public life and activities. So the gender budgeting is also widely
accepted as a powerful tool for empowerment of women. The Government of
India is focusing on mainstreaming gender budgeting initiatives and bringing
the subject center stage. The guidelines for gender based budgeting have been
issued for budgetary allocation and reviewing the policy and implementation of
schemes for the empowerment of women.
A review of Ninth Plan budget shows that about 43 per cent of funds of
gross budget support for Women Component Programmes from the 15
ministries and departments where ostensibly spent on women. Of these Family
Welfare contributed 70 percent of gross budget support, Health, Education and
Indian Systems of Homeopathy contributed 50 percent of gross budget support.
The contribution of Rural Developmentand Labour 42 per cent and 34 per cent
respectively. Others spent less than 30 per cent of their gross budgetary support
on women and empowermen of tribal community.5
3.2 India has Largest Tribal Population in the World
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At present the tribal population of India (67.6 million) is larger than that
of any other country in the world. In fact, it is almost equal to the tribal
population of nineteen countries with substantial tribal population. Mynamar,
with a tribal population of 14 million, has the second largest tribal population
of India is much more the four times that of Myanmar and more than six times
of Mexico (10.9 million) which has the third largest tribal population in the
world. The tribal population of India is more than total population of France
and Britain and four times that of Australia. If all the tribals of India had lived
in one state, it could have been the fifth most populous state after Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal ad Maharashtra. The details of estimated tribal
population of indigeneous peoples, selected countries during 2013 are
presented in table- 3.2.
Table - 3.2
At present the Estimated Tribal Population of Indigenous Peoples, Selected
Countries -2013
Country Population Share of national
population
Australia 0.4 2
Bangladesh 1.2 1
Bolivia 5.6 70
Brazil 1.5 1
Canada 0.9 4
Chile 0.2 9
Ecuador 3.8 38
Former Soviet Union 1.4 <1
Guatemala 4.6 47
India 63.0 7
Laos 1.3 30
Malaysia 0.8 4
Mexico 10.9 12
Myanmar 14.0 33
New Zealand 0.4 12
85
Papua New Quinea 3.0 77
Peru 9.0 40
Philippines 6.0 9
Thailand 0.5 1
United States 2.0 1
Source: During, A.T. 91993). Supporting Indigenous Peoples in State of the World, 1993. A Worldwatch Institute Report
on Progress Toward a Sustainable Society. New York: W.W.Norton. p.83.
Graph - 3.2
At present theEstimated Tribal Population of Indigenous Peoples, Selected
Countries -2013
Source: Table- 3.2
3.3 Constitutional Guarantee to the Tribals in India
Generally, despite the protection given to the tribal population by the
Constitution of India (1950), it remains the most backward ethnic group in
India, on the three most important indicators of development: health, education
and income. The tribals are more backward not only compared with the
General Population, but also compared to the Scheduled Caste, the other
acknowledged backward social group with constitutional protection. D'Souza
7770
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86
(1990) has examined the effects of planned developmental intervention in the
tribals from 1961 to 1981. He has concluded that twenty years of intervention
has not made any significant impact in improving the conditions of the tribal
women and their empowerment.6
3.4 The Tribals in Post-Independence India
The reality is in fact, the conditions of tribals in post-independence India
have, in many ways, worsened. This has been discussed in a special issue of
Social Change entitled Status of the Tribals in India. The tribals are the most
adversely affected ethnic group due to developmental projects of dams,
factories and mines. They constitute 8 percent of the national population, but
about 40 percent of displaced persons due to developmental projects are tribal
community empowerment.
In fact the pace of commercial exploitation of the resources of tribal
land which accounts for nearly twenty percent of the country's space with 8
percent of its population living on it has assumed a disturbing dimension aslo.
So the tribal's rights in basic resources such as land, forest and water in fact in
the entire environment have been seriously eroded, as non-tribal peasants,
traders, businessmen and other categories of aliens have moved into tribal land,
with the opening up of tribal areas, and with industrilization. The tribals have
been correctly described as victims and refugees of development in the
country.7
3.5 The Tribal Demography in India
At present contet, the tribals in India constitute 8.08 percent of the total
population. The following are the main demographic characteristics of tribals
in India. In the States and Union Territories they constitute an overwhelming
majority, e.g., Mizoram state (94.75%), Lakshadweep (93.154%), Nagaland
(87.70%) and Meghalaya state (85.53%). Even though the tribals constitute a
majority of the populatio in these States, they contribute only a small
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proportion to the total tribal population in India.
3.6 The Images of Tribal Women in India
The images of tribal women in India are also changing at present. The
women in the tribal community, as in other communities, constitute half of the
tribal population. The well-being of the tribal community, as that of any other
community, depends importantly on the status of their women. The popular
image and perception of the tribal women is that of being better off than their
non-tribal counterparts. There is no child marriage, no stigma on widowhood.
She enjoys the right to decide about her marriage, etc. Instead of dowry there is
bride price indicating high social status of the tribal woman. A tribal woman
can divorce and remarry easily. She earns and is, therefore, to a great extent
economically sound and viable.
In particular, a higher social status of women was reported by Furer -
Haimendorf [1943] Hutton [1921], Hunter [1973]. And Firth [1946] among
Tharus of U.P., and Nagas and Garos of the North East state of India. However,
there are many facts which indicate a low status for the tribal woman. For
example, women does not have property rights except in a matrilineal society
which is a small proportion of the tribal population. The women are paid less as
wages than male counterpart for the same work. Several taboos discriminating
against tribal women exist in certain tribal groups implying impurity and low
status. The tribal women cannot hold the office of a priest. There are taboos
related to menstruation as in non-tribal communities. The Kharia women
cannot touch a plough nor can she participate in roofing of a house. The Oraon
women are also prevented from touching a plough. The Todas of Nilgiri Hills
do not touch menstruating women for fear of destruction of harvest. In certain
tribes only the males can participate in ancestor worship (Satyanarayana and
Behera, 1986). The Toda and Kota women in southern India cannot cross the
threshold of a temple. The Santal women cannot attend communal worship due
to social system in the society.
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Rivers (1973), Dalton (1872) and Grigson (1938) have reported low
status of women among Todas, Kharies and Mariya Gonds with reference to
certain taboos during certain periods and ceremonies. Majumdar (1973) has
reported a higher status of tribal women on some indicators while lower on
other, while Shashi (1978) has concluded that the status of tribal women varies
from tribe to tribe etc.,.
In India the development projects have adversely affected the tribal
women. With the deforestation they have to travel a longer distance to gather
forest products. Particularly this has been one of the reasons for the
participation of tribal women in Chipko movement to save the tribal the trees.
There are evidences of sexual exploitation of tribal women by forest and
mining contractors. The incidence of sexual assualts on tribal women has
increased gradually.
3.7 Inadequacy of Micro Studies of Tribal Women
Generally speaking there are a large number of studies on tribal
communities but only a few are focussed on tribal women. Reviewing the
studies of tribal women, K.S. Singh (1988) has concluded that there is "need
for generating studies which can fill the information gap about variations that
exist and about the role and status of tribal women from one region to another
and one community to another". Singh (1993) has also reiterated that there are
materials on tribals in general but the existing literature specifically on tribal
women is limited in nature. Health statistics also give an overall picture and
data on gender differentiation of longevity, level of health, extent of mortality,
infant mortality, nutrition, etc. are not available. Emphasising the need for
base-line data on at least certain basic parameters relating to tribal women, the
status that data on various tribes are needed as they differ from one another in
the society.9
3.8 The UN International Year of the Indigenous People for the growth
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With concerned to Tribe The United Nations has declared 1993 as the
International Year of the Indigenous Peoples, the Government of India has not
signed the ILO Convention 169 of 1989 and has not accepted that the tribals in
Indian are the Indigenous Peoples to the tribals of India have been discussed by
K.S. Singh and B.K. Roy Burman in Status of the Tribals in India.
Notwithstanding the political difficulties in the definition of the Indigenous
Peoples, there is not doubt that the tribals are among the earliest settlers in
India if not the original settlers. The Hindi word Adivasi, literally means the
first habitants. The united antions International Year of the Indigenous Peoples
is an appropriate occasion to review the Status of the Tribals of India and also
the Status of the Tribal Women in the society.
3.9 Status of Tribal Women in India: Health, Education and Employment
Status can be measured on the the basis of different issues. The status of
any social group is determined importantly by its levels of health nutrition,
literacy-education and employment-income. The tribal women, constitute as in
any other social group, about half of the total population. However, the
importance of women in the tribal society is more important than in other
social groups in India, because of the fact that the tribal women, more than
woman in any other social group, works harder and the family economy and
management depends on her own responsibility.10
3.10 Health Status of Tribal Women in India
Health is wealth. Hence a comprehensive review of the health status of
tribal women has been prepared by Basu (1993, this volume). This paper
discusses, inter alia, the following dimensions: sex ratio, age at marriage,
fertility and mortality, life expectancy, nutritional status, maternal mortality,
mother and child health care practices, family welfare programmes and
sexually transmitted diseases.
Chatterjee (1993, volume) has reported increase in the incidence of
90
diseases with increase in so-called "development". He has compared this incidence
of diseases in the tribal population living in three different environments: (i)
Forestbased, (ii) Denuded Forest Area, and (iii) Industrially polluted area. The
incidence of disease is lowest in the first and the highest in the third.
Kar (199) has notified that the reproductive behaviour of Nocte tribal
woman in Arunachal Pradesh is intimately related to her value system and
cultural traditions. She is considered to be healthy if she can give birth to four
or five children and also work in the fields.
Generally, the health status of the tribals have been discussed in Status
of the Tribals in India,. The factors which influence the health status of the
tribal population in general, are also applicable to the tribal women, in fact,
more so. For instance, it has been found that illiteracy, in tribal, as also in non-
tribal population, is positively correlated with ill-health. The tribal women, as
women in all social groups, are more illiterate than men. The tribal women
share, with women of other social groups, problems related to reproductive
health status of the tribal women.11
3.11 The Major Tribes in India
At present there are 533 tribes as per notified Schedule under Article
342 of the Constitution of India in different States and Union Territories of the
country with the largest number of 62 in the State of Orissa. Some of the major
tribes of different States are presented in table- 3.3.
Table -3.3
The Major Tribes in India at Present
Sl. No
Name of the States
Name of the Tribe in India
1 Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Andamanese Jarawa, Nicobarese, Onges, Sentinelese, Shompens, Great
91
2 Andhra Pradesh Bhil, Chenchu, Gond, Kondas, Lambadis, Sugalis etc.
3 Arunachal Pradesh
Dafla, Khampti, Singpho etc.
4 Assam Boro, Kachari, Mikir (Karbi), Lalung, Rabha, Dimasa, Hmar, Hajong etc.,
5 Bihar & (Jharkhand)
Asur, Banjara, Birhor, Korwa, Munda, Oraon, Santhal etc.
6 Dadra & Nagar Haveli
As in Daman & Diu
7 Daman & Diu Dhodi, Mikkada, Varti, etc
8 Goa Dhodhi, Siddi (Nayaka).
9 Gujarat Bhil, Dhodia, Gond, Siddi, Bordia, etc
10 Himachal Pradesh
Gaddi, Gujjar, Lahuala, Swangla, etc.
11 Jammu & Kashmir
Chdddangpa, Garra, Gujjar, Gaddi, etc.
12 Karnataka Bhil, Chenchu, Goud, Kuruba, Kammara, Kolis, Koya, Mayaka, Toda,Kadu Golla etc.
13 Kerala Adiyam, Kammrar, Kondkappus, Malais, Palliyar, etc
14 Madhya Pradesh & Chhattisgarh
Bhil, Birhor, Damar, Gond, Kharia, Majhi, Munda, Oraon, Parahi, etc.
15 Maharashtra Bhil, Bhunjia, Chodhara, Dhodia, Gond, Kharia, Nayaka, Oraon, Pardhi, Rathwa etc.
16 Meghalaya Garo, Khasi, Jayantia, etc.
17 Mizoram Lusai, Kuki, Garo, Khasi, Jayantia, Mikir etc.
18 Nagaland Naga, Kuki, Mikir, Garo, etc.
19 Orissa Birhor, Gond, Juang, khond, korua, Mundari, Oraon, Santhal, Tharua, etc.
20 Rajasthan Bhil, Damor, Garasta, Meena, Salariya etc.
21 Sikkim Bhutia, Lepcha
22 Tamil Nadu Irular, Kammara, Kondakapus, Kota, Mahamalasar, Palleyan, Toda etc.
23 Tripura Chakma, Garo, Khasi, Kuki, Lusai, Liang, Santhal etc
24 Uttar Pradesh & Uttaranchal
Bhoti, Buxa, Jaunsari, Tharu, Raji
25 West Bengal Asur, Birhor, Korwa, Lepcha, Munda, Santhal, etc.
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Source: Ministry of Social Justice, GOI, New Delhi.
3.12 Educational Status of Tribal Women in India
In India the low educational status of tribal women is reflected in their
lower literacy rate, lower enrolment rate and higher dropouts in the school. The
following major trends;
The literacy rate of tribals is lower than that of general as well as SC
population.
The literacy rate of the rural tribal female is the lowest of all groups.
There is gender bias in the literacy of tribal population as in other
groups, the female literacy being lower than the male literacy.
Through there has been five-fold increase in the literacy of tribal
females it still is much lower than the national average for the
females (39.29).12
3.13 A Brief Account of the Demographic Particulars of Scheduled Tribe
Population in India
In India, out of the total Scheduled Tribe population of 67.76 million,
about 49% of the Scheduled Tribe population lives in three states viz., Madhya
Pradesh (27.73%), Maharashtra (10.80%) and Orissa (10.38%), while Hariyana,
Punjab, Chandigarh, Delhi, Pondicherry have not a single Scheduled Tribe in
the country.3
Generally, about 93 % of the Scheduled Tribe population is rural based.
Out of the 46 had more than 10% of the Scheduled Tribe population residing in
rural areas. The respective percentages being 14.94, 12.47 and 12.01. The
percentage share of Scheduled Tribe population in the total population of the
following states are Andhra Pradesh (7.6%), Assam (3.4%), Bihar (7.0%),
Gujarat (8.1%), Kerala (3.5%), Madhya Pradesh (4.8%), Orissa (5.1%),
Rajasthan (4.6%), Utter Pradesh (5.9%) and West Bengal (5.2%).4 State wise
ranking of Scheduled Tribe population and the size, proportion of Scheduled
93
Tribe population in the total population of the various states as per the 2011
census are given in Table 3-4.
Table - 3-4
In India Ranking of States and Union-Territories by Size of Scheduled
Tribes
Population (2011 Census)
S. No
State / Union -Territory
Total ST population
Percentage of ST population to total state
population
7 Andhra Pradesh 4,199,481 6.31
17 Arunachal Pradesh 550,351 63.66
9 Assam 2,874,441 12.82
4 Bihar 6,616,914 7.66
22 Goa 376 0.03
5 Gujarat 6,161,775 14.29
20 Himachal Pradesh 218,349 4.22
10 Karnataka 1,915,927 4.26
18 Kerala 320,967 1.10
I Madhya Pradesh 15,399,034 23.27
2 Maharastra 7,318,281 9.27
15 Manipur 632,173 34.41
11 Meghalaya 1,517,927 85.53
14 Mizoram 653,565 94.75
12 Nagaland 1,060,822 87.70
3 Orissa 7,032,214 22.21
6 Rajasthan 5,474,881 12.44
21 Sikkim 90,901 22.36
16 Tamil Nadu 574,194 1.03
13 Tripura 855,345 30.95
19 Uttar Pradesh 281,901 0.21
8 West Bengal 3,808,760 5.59
Union Territories
3 Andaman&Nicobar Island
26,770 9.54
94
1 Dadra and Nagar Haveli
101,380 78.99
4 Daman & Diu 11,724 11.54
2 Lakshadweep 48,163 93.15
Source : Census of India 2011,
Graph – 3.3
In India Ranking of States and Union-Territories by Size of Scheduled
Tribes
Population (2011 census)
Source: Table – 3.4.
The above Table-3.4 shows that in some of the States and in the Union
Territories, the population is predominantly Scheduled Tribe viz., Mizoram
(94.75%), Laksha Dweep (93.15%), Nagaland (87.10%), Meghalaya (85.83%),
Dadra Nagar Haveli (79.98%) and Arunachal Pradesh (63.66%). Among the
23.27
9.27
22.21
7.6614.2912.44
6.315.59
12.82
4.26
85.5387.7
30.95
94.75
34.41
1.03
63.66
1.1 0.214.22
22.36
0.03
y = 0.215x + 22.25R² = 0.002
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Mad
hya
Pra
des
h
Mah
aras
tra
Ori
ssa
Bih
ar
Gu
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t
Raj
asth
an
An
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ra P
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esh
Wes
t B
enga
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Ass
am
Kar
nat
aka
Me
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aya
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alan
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Trip
ura
Miz
ora
m
Man
ipu
r
Tam
il N
adu
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Pra
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ar P
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Him
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Go
a
Percentage of scheduled tribe population to total state population - 1991
Linear (Percentage of scheduled tribe population to total state population - 1991)
95
major states, Madhya Pradesh has the largest proportion of Scheduled Tribe
population (23.27%) followed by Orissa (22.21%) in India.
Generally, the children in the age group of 0-6 constitute 20.18% of the
Scheduled Tribe population in India as against 17.94% for the total population of
India and 19.63% for the Scheduled Caste population.' Thus the Scheduled
Tribe population has relatively higher proportion of children as compared to
general and Scheduled Caste population. The sex ratio for Scheduled Tribe
population was 972 (Per 1000 males) in India.'
In India According to 2011, census 29.6% of the Scheduled Tribe
population in the age group 7 years and above was literate, the literacy rate being
40.65% for males and 18.19% for females. These figures are much lower than
the corresponding figures for the total population of India. The tribal literacy
rate is low in Andhra Pradesh (17.16%) and Rajasthan (19.44%). In the case of
females, the literacy is extremely low in states like Rajasthan (4.4%), Andhra
Pradesh (8.7%), Orissa (10.2%), Madhya Pradesh (10.7%), Bihar (14.8%) and
Uttar Pradesh (15.0%) and so on.
In rural India the work participation rate of Scheduled Tribe population
is 49.30% which is much higher than that of the general population (33.46%)
and of the Scheduled Caste population 39.25%.' This is primarily due to very
high participation rate among the Scheduled Tribe women. In case of males,
the work participation rate of Scheduled Tribe population is 54.74% which is
higher than the corresponding figure for the total population (51.55%) and the
Scheduled Caste population (51.48%). But the female work participation rate
among the Scheduled Tribe is 43.7% as against 25.98% for Scheduled Caste and
22.25% for total population of the country. The female work participation rate of
Scheduled Tribe population is generally quite high in most of the states and
union territories. The highest female work participation rate among the
Scheduled Tribe was found in Andhra Pradesh (50.63%) and the lowest in West
96
Bengal (23.43%). Among the Scheduled Tribe population, 96.03% of the main
workers rely on the primary sector, 3.85% depends on the secondary sector and
6.12% on the tertiary sector for livelihood. 54.51% of the Scheduled Tribe main
workers in agricultural sector are cultivators, while 32.69% are agricultural
labourers. This is in sharp contrast to the proportion of Scheduled Caste as well
as the total population of the country under changing environment and
culture.13
In India the tribals live mostly in the sparsely populated parts of hills
and forests of sub -Himalayas and north east region, in the mountain belt of
central India between Narmada and Godawari rivers, and southern parts of the
Western Ghats extending from Wayanad to Kanyakumari. It is seen that there is
a wide gap between the tribals and the non-tribals even today also under the
globalsiation regime.
3.14 In India - Pre-Independence and Post- Independence Approaches
for Tribal Development
In a country like India, one group of people should not remain outside the
mainstream society. Tribals have to be involved in all the matters concerning
their country. The first approach was a legacy of the British regime, and is
usually described as 'leave them untouched'. The policy was to isolate the tribal
population from the masses. The British took deliberate efforts not to develop
communication in the tribal areas. Tribals were kept away from the rest of the
population. Verrier Elwin (1934) supported the establishment of a sort of
'National park' or 'specimens in a human Zoo' of the tribals and advised that their
contact with the outside should be reduced to the minimum. But this approach
was not followed for long period of time.
Then the General approach is the approach which paved the way for the
tribal people to mingle with the neighbouring non-tribals. In India, the process of
assimilation took place in different parts of the country, resulting in the gradual
acceptance of Hindu culture by the tribals. The main criticism against this
97
approach was that this tried to change the tribals by imposing the non - tribal
customs and traditions. The Advocates of this view supported a direct
assimilation without waiting for a slow and long-drawn change over. The
approach is also considered to be a failure in the society.
Generally the past experience of the policies of isolation and assimilation,
forced the planners to take the middle way between the two, which is called the
integrationist approach. This approach was mainly the brain child of Jawaharlal
Nehru. The policy of integration consists of two types of measures for tribal
development (1) Protective (2) Promotional measures for the development of
the community.
The first one consists of land polices, forest policies and the policies to
protect tribal culture and traditions, while the latter is the same as development
and welfare programmes undertaken by the government (through plans ) and
other voluntary agencies to make the tribal life better through the integrationist
approach. P.D Kulkarni states that "the policy of protection and development is
undoubtedly same in itself, but it remains to be seen whether development is
possible without upsetting the harmony that exists in the placid tribal life in the
country".
Generally The Constitution of India initiated the tribal welfare
programmes by incorporating important provisions. These provisions not only
put an end to the policy of indifference which had been followed during the
pre-independence period, but also gave testimony to tribal welfare
programmes, making them a constitutional obligation for the future
governments of the country.14
In addition to the above, three provisions of the constitution deserve
special mention. According to the fifth schedule, Union Executive is given the
power of giving direction to the States in matters relating to the administration of
98
scheduled areas. Then the sixth schedule designates tribal areas in Assam and
Meghalaya where autonomous district councils and regional councils have been
constituted with powers to make laws for management of land, forests, shifting
of cultivation, appointment or succession of chief and headman, inheritance of
property, marriage and divorce, social customs and matters relating to village or
town administration. Article 275 (1) of the constitution provides for grant-in-aid
from the Union to the States for promoting the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes
or for raising the level of administration of the Scheduled Areas. The
constitution also provides for the appointment of a commission for Scheduled
Tribe's for safeguarding their interests. Thus, tribal development in the true
sense and in the present context of India is in fact a post independence concept
and draws the spirit from the constitution itself for the tribes in the country .15
In India the National Committee on the development of backward areas
under the chairmanship of Sri Sivaraman (Sivaraman Committee) has
recommended the "Sub-Plan approach" with suitable adaptation for other
backward areas for the better planning and development Some committees were
formed by government of India under the chairmanship of prominent politicians
/ government officials. Hence, these committees were included in the working
group report of Fourth Plan 1980-85. The Scheduled Areas and Scheduled
Tribes commission set up under the chairmanship of Sri. U.N. Dhebar in 1961
referred to this policy approval and observed that "the problem is not to disturb
the harmony of tribal life but simultaneously work for their advance, not to
impose any thing upon the tribals but work for their integration as members and
part of the Indian family system as well".12
For the tribe a study team appointed by the Planning Commission
headed by P. Shilu A.O. opined that "the aim of tribal welfare policy should be
defined as the progressive advancement, social and economic betterment of
tribals with a view to their integration with the rest of the community on a footing
of equality within a reasonable distance of time also."13 This period has
99
necessarily to vary from tribe to tribe and it may be five or ten years in the case
of certain tribes in the country.
In India the Debar Commission (1961) stressed an integrated approach.
According to them, "problem of economic development for the bulk of the tribals
cannot be solved unless those resources of land, forests, cattle wealth, cottage
and village industries are all mobilized in an integrated basis."14 In 1972 under
the chairmanship of S. C. Dube an Expert Committee set up for advising on the
formulation of a new strategy during the Fifth Five Year Plan period.
3.15 Planning Process and Empowerment of Women in India
In India the planning process has evolved over the years from a purely
‘welfare’ oriented approach to the development approach and currently to the
‘empowerment.’ It was only from the Sixth Five year Plan onwards that
women secured a special niche and space in the national plans and planning
process primarily with thrusts on health, education and employment. A
paradigm shift occurred in the Eighth Plan where ‘empowerment’ of women
was recognized and accepted as a distinct strategy. A further impetus for
sectoral contribution to women’s programmes was received with the
introduction of the concept of Women’s Component Plan in the Ninth Plan
whereby identified ministries were required to indicate the flow of funds to the
women’s programmes and schemes. In the tenth Plan, for the first time,
monitorable targets were set for a few key indicators of human development,
which include reduction in gender gaps in literacy, wage rates and reduction in
mortality ratio. The Ninth Plan Document (1997- 2002) laid emphasis on the
participation of people in the planning process, and the promotion of self-help
groups. The approach was to access women living in poverty and to guide them
to help themselves. The Tenth Five Year Plan called for the three pronged
strategy of social empowerment, economic empowerment and providing
gender justice to create an enabling environment of positive economic and
social policies for women and eliminating all forms of discrimination against
100
them and thus advance gender equality goals for sustainable development.
In India during the tenth Plan also, emphasis continued on
empowerment of women through self help group movement. The Eleventh
Plan seeks to reduce disparities across regions and communities by ensuring
access to basic physical infrastructure as well as health and educational
services to all, recognize gender as a cross - cutting theme across all sectors
and commits to respect and promote the rights of the common person. The
Approach Paper to the 11th Plan specifically states that ‘gender equity requires
adequate provisions to be made in policies and schemes across Ministries and
Departments. It also entails strict adherence to gender budgeting across the
board for the women that to tribal women’.16
3.16 Budgetary allocation on Women Empowerment Programmes in India
In India Budgetary allocation on women empowerment programmes is
shown in table-3.5. During 2007-08 to 2012 Rs. 471.33 crores were spent on
women’s specific programmes. The larger amount was spent on Balika
Samridhi Yojana, STEP and NORAD Schemes. Similarly, during Ninth Plan
allocation, a larger amount was allocated for Balika Smridhi Yojana, Indira
Mahila Yojana and Swashakti Projects. The details are presented in the table.
Table – 3.5
In India Budgetary Allocation on Women Empowerment Programmes
(Rs.in Crore)
Programme 2007-
08 2008-09 2009-10
2010-
2011 2011-12
Total
Expenditure
(2007-2012)
Balika Samridhi Scheme 60.00 60.00 40.00 21.00 25.00 163.63
Indira Mahila Scheme - 0.01 0.02 2.21 19.51 02.11
Mahila Samridhi Scheme
38.50 20.00 2.04 15.00 8.00 35.51
101
NORAD 17.00 18.00 13.00 11.00 18.00 57.50
Rastriya Mahila Kosh 0.01 1.00 0.01 1.51 1.00 0.00
STEP 16.00 16.00 15.00 13.00 18.00 58.27
Swashakti Scheme 1.00 8.00 5.00 8.00 15.00 21.00
Total 175.71 167.61 113.31 112.10 170.29 471.33
Source: Deptt. of Women and Child Development, Ministy of Human Resource Development,May 2001, Delhi.
The above Table 3.5 clearly indicates the budgeting allocationon women
empowerment programmes from 2007 to 2012. Under Balika Samridhi scheme
Rs. 163.63 crore spent during 2007-2012, under Indira Mahila scheme Rs.
02.11 crores was spent respectively. Under all the major women empowerment
programmes Rs. 471.33 crores spent during 2007-2012 period.
Keeping with its mandate, the Ministry of Women and Child
Development has taken several initiatives during the past years for bringing
about gender equality, empowerment and development of women in the
country.
3.17 Swayamsidha Scheme in India
The scheme of Swayamsidha is an integrated scheme for women’s
empowerment through formation of women into Self-Help Groups. The scheme
was launched in February 2001 across the States and Union Territories of the
country with a total budget outlay of Rs. 116.30 crore. But subsequently
discontinued from Goa, Daman & Diu, Dadar & Nagar Haveli and Chandigarh
due to lack of interest among the UTs. The scheme is expected to culminate in
March 2008. The long-term objective of the programme is holistic empowerment
of women through a sustained process of mobilization and convergence of all
the on-going sectoral programmes by improving access of women to micro
credit, economic resources etc. The programme is being implemented in 650
blocks in the country including 238 Indira Mahila Yojana (IMY) blocks,
102
covering 335 districts. Each block consists of 100 Self Help Groups. The
programme is being implemented in many States through ICDS infrastructure;
while in some States, the scheme is implemented through State Women’s
Development Corporations. In addition to monitoring the scheme through
normal means such as Quarterly Progress Report (QPR) and field visits, a system
of Quarterly Review Meetings of State Nodal Officers has been put in place.
3.18 Achievements under Swayamsidha Scheme
Nearly 69,690 SHGs have been formed against the target of 65,000
SHGs
And 10.03 lakh women are covered under the scheme.
About 8198 clusters of SHGs have been formed
The 579 block level federations of SHGs have been formed
Rs. 143.64 crores have been saved by SHGs under the scheme
Nearly 63,714 SHGs (98%) have Bank Accounts
Rs. 100.55 crores have been deposited by the SHGs in Banks
About 34,806 SHGs (54%) have availed Bank loan
Rs. 154.34 crores loan has been taken from Banks by SHGs
51,208 SHGs (79%) involving over 5.98 lakhs women are engaged
in Income Generation Activities (IGA)
The 45,060 SHGs (69%) are given Skill Development Trainings
And 41,365 SHGs (64%) are benefiting from convergence with
other Government schemes
Many States have created Community Assets and the process is
going on. Till now,4322 Community Assets have been created
The Trainings on ten basic topics(Concept of Swayamsidha, self help
group Concept, Savings and Credit, Group Rules, Group Dynamics,
Confidence building, Conflict resolution, Book Keeping and Cash
Management, Opening bank account and Leadership development) have been
103
imparted to self help groups.
The scheme of Swayamsiddha is an integrated project for the development
and empowerment of women. It is based on formation of women into self-help
groups with emphasis on conversing services, developing access to micro-credit
and promoting micro-enterprises.17 The long-term objective of the scheme is to
achieve an all round empowerment of women, specially socially and economically
by ensuring their direct access to, and control over, resources through a sustained
process of mobilization and convergence of all ongoing sectoral programmes. The
total estimated cost of the project is Rs. 116.3 crores of which Rs. 92.30 crores are
expected to spend at block level. Rs. 16 crores at state level and Rs. 8 crore at
national level. There are 650 development blocks covered under the project while
52016 SHGs have been formed during the project period. Thus, all the states and
union territories covered under the project. The details of physical performance of
Swayamsiddha project in India 2007- 2012 are presented in table – 3.6. During
2007-2012 under this programme 650 blocks were coverd and 52016 SHGs were
formed and Rs. 4392.77 lakh grant has been increased gradually.
Table-3.6
Physical Performance of Swayamsiddha Scheme in India
State No. of blocks
No. of self help groups
Formed
Grant Released
(2007-2012) (Rs. lakh)
Percentage of
Expenditure
Andhra Pradesh 38 3734 278.76 40.11
Arunachal Pradesh
6 284 17.16 35.61
Assam 24 1400 136.68 63.42
Bihar 61 815 175.82 76.45
Chhatisgarh 17 1708 125.92 59.46
Delhi 4 54 8.34 30.46
Gujarat 27 2946 66.04 81.26
Haryana 13 968 185.79 60.54
Himachal Pradesh
8 968 73.82 86.89
104
Jammu & Kashmir
13 669 75.92 42.57
Jharkhand 24 2188 177.02 69.01
Karnataka 20 2992 245.95 83.46
Kerala 18 2150 153.05 53.43
Madhya Pradesh 36 3564 272.8 76.21
Maharashtra 36 2304 293.68 57.19
Manipur 3 230 45.11 58.1
Meghalaya 5 230 31.86 76.28
Mizoram 3 288 42.15 100.0
Nagaland 6 391 61.49 72.87
Orissa 36 3600 333.27 42.87
Punjab 15 1798 80.28 68.86
Rajasthan 30 1847 300.77 33.39
Sikkim 5 467 64.06 44.22
Tamil Nadu 44 3395 399.77 100.0
Tripura 3 267 35.41 79.41
Uttar Pradesh 94 7500 317.15 57.53
Uttaranchal 11 1000 67.44 81.46
West Bengal 39 3507 209.42 75.28
Total 650 52016 4392.77 65.26
Source: Indian Institute of Public Opinion, Delhi.
Table – 3.7
Statewise Physical Achievement Under of Swayamsiddha Scheme in India
in 2013
State No of
Blocks Allocated
SHG’s Formed
Release of Funds (Rs. in Lakhs
India 650 59940 595.36
Andhra Pradesh 38 3867 143.57
Arunachal Pradesh 6 263 -
Assam 24 2400 -
Bihar 61 1228 -
Chhatisgarh 17 1708 -
Gujarat 27 2946 -
Haryana 13 1300 33.60
Himachal Pradesh 8 800 19.17
Jammu & Kashmir 13 1250 28.00
Jharkhand 24 2357 -
105
Karnataka 20 2992 25.22
Kerala 18 2468 20.00
Madhya Pradesh 36 3667 25.00
Maharashtra 36 3012 86.00
Manipur 3 300 -
Meghalaya 5 421 5.00
Mizoram 3 301 8.74
Nagaland 6 600 9.57
Orissa 36 3600 92.14
Punjab 15 1613 -
Rajasthan 30 2490 -
Sikkim 5 550 7.00
Tamil Nadu 44 5421 50.00
Tripura 3 225 6.50
Uttar Pradesh 94 8343 -
Uttaranchal 11 1017 25.00
West Bengal 39 3909 -
Source: Annual Report, WCD.
The above Table – 3.7 gives the details of states wise Physical
achievement under Swayamsidha scheme in India. In the year 2013 the total
number of blocks allocated under this programme were 650 and 59,940 SHGs
were formed in India. During the same year Rs. 595.36 lakhs were funds
released under this scheme in order to empower the women especially tribal
women.
3.19 Formation of Self Help Groups
In India under Swayamsidha, group formation target was 65,000 self
help groups for 650 blocks. So far, 67,971 self help groups have been formed.
Most of the States achieved their targets and some States formed more self help
groups than the target set for them. The analysis of data reveals that in most
cases, the number of self help groups members fall between 10-20 against the
target of 15-20 members per self help groups. The total number of self help
groups members is 9.89 lakhs against the target of 11.37 lakhs. Registers and
cash boxes were provided to most of the groups as soon as these were formed.
106
All groups have formulated their by-laws and followed them. Attendance is
100% in nearly all sample blocks except a few cases where revenue villages are
scattered over several kilometers. The low rate of savings is usually in areas
where group members are extremely poor and are not able to save regularly.
Otherwise savings and inter-loaning is the backbone of these self help groups.
Most of the groups received all basic training and are receiving training on
income generation activities. Nearly all groups have their bank accounts. So far
as the Community Asset Creation is concerned, in some States, it is completed
or work is in advanced stage. In other States the self help groups have already
planned the type of community assets to be created. Thus, Swayamsidha has
benefited women in several ways by increasing income, awareness level,
decision making process, participation in political and social processes,
knowledge of legal rights, health issues etc., for the women empowerment
3.20 Bank Linkages in India
Bank Linkage Programme is also another important Scheme. The scheme
helped to establish close linkage between self help groups and banks/credit
societies. The bank officials were sensitized about self help groups concept. The
Animators and Programme Implementing Agencies (PIAs) were quite helpful to
SHGs in opening bank accounts and monetary transactions. Initially all the
SHGs faced some problems with regard to opening bank accounts. With the
intervention of District Collector and PIAs soon these were resolved. Banks that
extended help and co-operation are Nationalised banks as well as private banks.
Banks were made aware of the guidelines issued by the Reserve Bank of India
for opening accounts of self help groups. Banks that participated in self help
groups stabilization activities are lead bank officers and rural bank officers.
Women are involved in micro credit operations and are interacting with different
financial institutions like the nationalized banks, private banks, cooperatives,
rural banks etc. In most of the places, the banks are providing all the cooperation
to SHGs in their activities. Some bank officials try to reach out to self help
groups women personally and have relaxed their timings so that the self help
107
groups can operate their bank accounts comfortably. Some banks organized
Loan Mela for self help groups group members. The overall experience with the
Credit institutions was found positive trends in India.
Self help group members have begun to know their legal rights through
the awareness generation programmes organized under the scheme. All tribal
women members are now aware of their legal rights and laws forbidding child
marriage, child labour, and equal wages for equal work, among others. They
have awareness on dowry laws; age of marriage, and state that they do not
discriminate between sons and daughters. They are opposed to sex selective
abortions but admit that this practice is going on and women actually do not
have much control over it for the development of women.
The scheme of Swayamsidha Awareness Camps and Basic Training
programmes created awareness among self help groups members on issues
such as Family planning, health and nutrition of pregnant women, child care,
issues of adolescents, need for immunization of children, problems of
HIV/AIDS, to name a few. They know the importance of a clean environment,
keeping the house and surroundings neat and clean; importance of health care
(family health, reproductive health) etc. Some groups participated in Pulse
Polio, Immunization, and Awareness programmes also.18
3.22 Community Asset Creation
The scheme of Swayamsidha has provision for creation of community
assets as per felt needsof the women self help groups members. And the cost
of community assets could be up to Rs. 10 lakhs per block out of which Rs. 6
lakhs would be GOI share and the remaining amount would be State share. The
evaluation report indicates that in some States creation of community assets has
been completed or in advanced stage. The other States have already planned
the form of community asset to be created. The community assets are being
created after consulting the self help groups and to meet their requirements.
108
There is delay in the initiation of community assets in some States due to non
availability of 40 % community share. The sources identified by the states for
the 40% state share are State Rural Development Department, concerned
DeputyCommissioners, Block Development Officers, MPs/MLAs Grants, other
donors, etc. Only some states have been able to raise this share for
Swayamsiddha Blocks in India.
.
In nutshell it can be said that, women in Swayamsidha Blocks have
strengthened their social standing in society. Awareness of social evils like
alcoholism, dowry & female feticide is visible. Economic status of women has
definitely improved after joining the self help groups Number of women
members in Panchayat levels has increased and some of them have been
elected to local bodies also.
The scheme launched in 1987, seeks to provide updated skills and new
knowledge to poor and asset-less women in the traditional sectors such as
Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Dairying, Fisheries, Handlooms, Handicrafts,
Khadi and Village Industries, Sericulture, Social Forestry and Wasteland
Development for enhancing their productivity and income generation. This
would enhance and broaden their employment opportunities, including self-
employment and development of entrepreneurial skills. A comprehensive
package of services, such as health care, elementary education, crèche facility,
market linkages etc. are provided besides access to credit for the poor women
also.
In India during the 9th Plan period about 255635 women beneficiaries
were covered under 66 projects implemented in the States of Andhra Pradesh,
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal
Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Manipur, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh,
Uttaranchal and West Bengal. During the 10th Plan period about 2,15,651
109
women beneficiaries have so far been provided training under the Scheme. So
far, women in the dairying sector have been receiving the maximum support,
keeping in view the nature of demands in the scoeity.
During the year 2006-07, thirteen new projects were sanctioned to
benefit 31,177 women and an amount of Rs.1,597.63 lakh was released.
During the current financial year 2007-08, and thirteen new projects have been
sanctioned benefiting 34,390 women and an amount of Rs.1,474.00 lakh
released as on 31.1.2008.
3.23 Swadhar-A Scheme for Women in Difficult Circumstances
This scheme was launched by the Ministry during the year 2001-02 for
the benefit of Women in difficult circumstances with the following objectives:
To give primary need of Shelter, food, clothing and care to the
marginalized women/girls living in difficult circumstances who are
without any social and economic support;
To promote emotional support and counseling to such women;
To rehabilitate them socially and economically through education,
awareness, skill upgradation and personality development through
behavioral training etc;
To provide for specific clinical, legal and other support for
women/girls in need of those interventions by linking and
networking with other organizations in both government and Non-
Government Sectors on case to case basis;
To encourge Help-line (24 hour Telephone facility) or other facilities
to such women in distress; and
To give such other services as will be required for support and
rehabilitation of such women in distress.
3.24 Performance during the year 2011-12
Performacne of the scheme in the year 2011-12 that the budget allocated by
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Government of India for Swadhar Scheme for the year 2007-08 is Rs.15.00 crores.
Out of this, Rs.8.59 crores has been sanctioned and 40 new Swadhar Shelter
Homes have been sanctioned and funds have also been released for 153 ongoing
cases (Swadhar Shelter Home and Helpline) for 2nd and subsequent
instalment.2.32 At present, a total of 208 Swadhar Shelter Homes and 210
Women Helplines are functional across the country and 8 Swadhar Shelter Homes
have been closed by the organization (up to 12.2.2008).
3.25 Rashtriya Mahila Kosh in India
Scheme-wise sanctions and disbursements of loans by Rashtriya Mahila
Kosh are shown in Table-3.8. During 2010-11, 121 NGOs were supported for
extending micro credit to the poor women. The sanctioned amount for the year
2003-04 was reported to be Rs. 2505.60 lakhs while during 2011-12, the
amount has significantly declined. Most of the sanctioned amount was reported
to be related with main loan scheme and gold credit card scheme also.
Table-3.8
Scheme-wise Sanctions and Disbursements of Loans by Rastriya Mahila
Kosh (Rs. In Lakh)
Scheme/project
Amount Sanctioned Amount Disbursed 2010-11 2011-12 2010-11 2011-12
No. of NGOs
Amt. No. of NGOs
Amt. No. of NGOs
Amt. No. of NGOs
Amt.
Franchisee project 2 459.00 1 30.00 - - 2 229.50 Gold Credit Care Scheme
6 470.00 5 335.00 - - 7 452.00
Housing Loan project
1 40.00 1 64.00 - - 2 72.00
Loan Promotion Scheme
35 116.80 11 41.50 35 81.75 23 52.15
Main Loan Scheme 69 987.80 49.0 899.24 69 924.32 77 875.22 Revolving fund Scheme 8 432.00 5 180.00 8 440.00 7 206.00
Total 121 2505.60 72 1549.74 112 1 1446.7 118 1886.87
Source: Rastriya Mahila Kosh, Annual Report, Delhi.
The scheme’s Regional outreach of Rashtriya Mahila Kosh indicates
that most of the non governmental organisations which were supported by
Rashitrya Mahila Kosh for extending credit to poor women has reported to be
significantly high in the state of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal
111
and Orissa while number of borrowers were reported high in the state of
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh
and Orissa. Similarly, the large amount of credit was disbursed in the state of
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan in the country.
The details regional outreach of Rastriya Mahila Kosh during 2010- 11 and
2011-12 is presented in table 3.9.
Table – 3.9
Regional Outreach of Rastriya Mahila Kosh in India
State No. of NGOs
No. of Borrowers
Amount Sanctioned (Rs. Lakh)
Amount Disbursed (Rs. lakh)
2010-11
2011-12
2010-11
2011-12
2010-11 2011-12 2010-11 2011-12
Andhra Pradesh
36 26 12070 8318 777.00 541.50 436.69 655.25
Assam 2 - 650 - 35.0 - - 27.50 Bihar 6 3 3175 196 83.40 115.50 14.08 71.95 Delhi 3 1 844 294 139.00 40.00 45.00 89.50 Haryana 1 2 143 760 15.00 55.00 20.00 37.50 Himachal Pradesh
- 3 - 1530 - 150.00 150.00 -
Jharkhand - 1 - 350 - 5.00 15.00 - Karnataka 1 - 594 - 40.00 - 2.50 20.0 Kerala 2 1 110 57 5.00 5.00 5.50 22.50 Madhaya Pradesh
1 2 213 1002 400.00 80.00 135.00 217.50
Maharashtra 6 1 3596 - 169.90 10.00 27.50 76.45 Manipur 5 - 386 - 16.00 - 4.50 6.50 Mizoram 1 - 70 - 4.00 - - 2.00 Nagaland - 3 - 120 - 22.00 - 6.00 Orissa 10 10 2457 3276 145.50 189.00 51.75 156.75 Rajasthan 2 1 185 970 8.0 80.00 73.50 96.50 Tamil Nadu 23 8 9364 2345 547.60 163.00 358.70 286.00 Uttar Pradesh 7 4 517 414 42.00 37.00 55.50 33.00 Uttaranchal 1 1 420 382 30.0 32.74 19.00 16.37 West Bengal 14 5 1577 2307 48.20 124.00 31.85 65.10
Total 121 72 36371 22321 2505.60 1549.74 1446.07 1886.87
Source: Annual Report, Rastriya Mahila Kosh, Delhi.
The above Table – 3.9 indicates that during 2010 – 11 under regional outreach
of Rashtriya Mahila Kosh Rs. 1,446.07 amount disbursed and in the year 2011-
12 the amount disbursed has been increased to Rs. 1,886.87 lakh.
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3.26 Physical Performance of Swa-Shakti Project in India
In India among the empowerment programmes of women Swa – Shakti
Project is also play play a significant role.The rural women's development
project, known as Swa-Shakti project, is jointly supported by World Bank and
IFAD. It started on 16th October, 1988 for duration of 5 years with an outlay of
Rs. 186.21 crore. An additional amount of Rs. 5 crore was provided under the
project for setting up a revolving fund for giving interest bearing loans to
beneficiary groups, primarily during the formative stages. The scheme aims at
enhancing women's access to resources for better quality of life through use of
drudgery and time-reducing devices, health, literacy and imparting skills for
confidence enhancement and increasing the women's control over income
through involvement in skill development and income generating activities. The
project is being implemented as a centrally sponsored scheme in the states of
Bihar, Chhatisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh. Over all 57 districts, 335 development blocks,
7531 villages are covered under the project while 17647 self help groups were
formed with the membership of 2,43,962 women in India.
The details of physical performance of Swashakti scheme are presented in
table – 3.10. The project is being implemented by 218 non governmental
organisations in various states. There are seven precepts of Swa-Shakti scheme
viz. Pro-poor, No discrimination, sustainable livelihood, participatory,
transparent, involving men, environment friendly. The components of the project
include (i) institutional capacity building for women's development; (ii) support
mechanisms for women managed income generating activities, (iii) mechanisms
to access social programmes and leverage funds for community asset creation
and (iv) to give effective project management systems. The key interventions
under the project include both for on-farm interventions and off-farm
interventions while major focus is on capacity building of women's groups. The
responsibilities and roles of stakeholders focus on smooth functioning of the
113
project and proper coordination of various activities among the stakeholders.
Thus, the scheme has been well-planned and implemented while impact
assessment of the project is lacking to understand the dynamics of social change
and empowerment of the rural women for evolving out suitable strategies to
enhance the process of socio-economic empowerment of poor women in the
society. The details are as follows;
Table - 3.10
Physical Performance of Swa-Shakti Project in India during 2012 in India
States No. of
districts No. of blocks
No. of villages
No. of Self help
groups formed
Total Membership
No. of Non
governemntal organisations
Bihar 1 6 113 441 5121 5 Chhatisgarh 3 19 387 560 8091 14 Gujarat 8 63 1278 2706 44848 55 Haryana 3 23 643 1550 22009 14 Jharkhand 5 18 916 1678 22242 19 Karnataka 7 36 978 2149 38522 36 Madhya Pradesh
9 40 1139 2462 31533 45
Uttar Pradesh
18 116 1679 5530 63907 16
Uttaranchal 3 14 398 571 7689 14 Total 57 335 7,531 17,647 2,43,962 218
Source: Ministry of Women & Child Development. GOI.
The physical progresses achieved under Swashakti scheme in India
during 2012 details are presented in table – 3.11. During 2012 under swashakti
project 17647 self help groups were formed, 2,43,962 members were benefired,
1,221 clusters were formed Rs. 2,215 lakh grop savings were saved and 10,277
groups linked with banks and Rs. 2508 lakh amount loaned by banks for the
self help groups and 1,30,896 self help groups members engaged in income
generation activities and 1,33,123 self help groups members received advance
level training during 2012. The details are as follows;
114
Table-3.11
Physical Progress Achieved Under Swashakti Project in India in 2012
Particular Numbers No. of self help groups Formed 17647 Total Membership in self help groups 243962 Clusters Formed 1221 Group Saving (Rs. Lakh) 2215 Amount Inter-loaned (Rs. Lakh) 5487 Groups Linked with Banks 10277 Amount Loaned by Banks (Rs. Lakh) 2508 Convergence with Govt. Programmes (Groups) 9374 self help groups members engaged in Income Generation Activities
130896
self help groups members Recieved Advance Level Training
133123
Source: Annual Report, Deptt. of Women & Child Development, Ministry of Human Resources Development, Govt. of
India, Delhi.
3.27 Conclusion
From the above analysis it can be said that, economic status of women has
definitely improved after joining the self help groups. The Swayamsidha group
members have been able to further strengthen their own economic activities as
individuals and as groups by taking loans from their own kitty and from the banks
and other credit institutions. This has generated enthusiasm and self confidence in
women in the Swayamsidha self help groups who become role models for other
women in the village to emulate. The result is that once one or two groups get
formed, there is a chain reaction and other groups come up. These women handle
their own money, keep their own accounts, maintain group registers and individual
pass books and also are proud of their Group’s account in the banks with
photographs of their office bearers. The Scheme has helped in poverty alleviation
and income increase has definitely taken place from moderate to high level among
the self help groups members. Lakhs of rupees have been pooled to start income
generation activities that reflect the local needs. With a few exceptions, all self
help groups members are involved in individual or group income generating
activities - some with loan from their groups and others with Bank loans. 50-
60% of nutritious meals in ICDS centers are supplied by the self help groups
115
members. There are good number of success stories that speak of their economic
empowerment and augmentation of family income.
Regarding the awareness on various social issues has also been created
among women. Under the convergence component of the scheme, they are now
being made familiar with various developmental schemes of several Departments
which benefit women. Women now always enjoy relatively more freedom and
there is no restriction on their movement outside home for social or business
purpose. Being part of the Swayamsidha group has given them enhanced status.
After joining self help groups, the women members are increasingly participating
in family decision making, demanding their rights from family, community and
government. self help groups have developed the ability to interact with others
and have developed negotiation skills. In conclusion, women in Swayamsidha
Blocks have strengthened their social standing in society. Awareness of social
evils like alcoholism, dowry & female feticide has shown that sex ratio in Villages
has improved. A strong bond has been established between group members. They
have attachment for each other. Being members of the group, gives them a feeling
of security for their betterment.
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