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Stephen HawkingCH CBE FRS FRSA

Hawking at NASAs StarChildLearning Center 1980s

Born Stephen WilliamHawking 8 January 1942 Oxford England

Died 14 March 2018(aged 76) CambridgeEngland

Resting place WestminsterAbbey Deans YardWestminsterLondon[1]

Education St Albans SchoolHertfordshire

Alma mater University ofOxford (BA)

University ofCambridge (MAPhD)

Known for Hawking radiation

A Brief History ofTime

Stephen HawkingStephen William Hawking CH CBE FRS FRSA (8 January 1942 ndash 14 March 2018)

was an English theoretical physicist cosmologist author and Director of Researchat the Centre for Theoretical Cosmology within the University of Cambridge[15][16]

His scientific works included a collaboration with Roger Penrose on gravitationalsingularity theorems in the framework of general relativity and the theoreticalprediction that black holes emit radiation often called Hawking radiation Hawkingwas the first to set out a theory of cosmology explained by a union of the generaltheory of relativity and quantum mechanics He was a vigorous supporter of themany-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics[17][18]

Hawking was a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) a lifetime member of thePontifical Academy of Sciences and a recipient of the Presidential Medal ofFreedom the highest civilian award in the United States In 2002 Hawking wasranked number 25 in the BBCs poll of the 100 Greatest Britons He was theLucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge between 1979and 2009 and achieved commercial success with works of popular science in whichhe discusses his own theories and cosmology in general His book A Brief History ofTime appeared on the British Sunday Times best-seller list for a record-breaking 237weeks

Hawking had a rare early-onset slow-progressing form of motor neurone disease(also known as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis ALS or Lou Gehrigs disease) thatgradually paralysed him over the decades[19][20] Even after the loss of his speechhe was still able to communicate through a speech-generating device initiallythrough use of a hand-held switch and eventually by using a single cheek muscleHe died on 14 March 2018 at the age of 76[21][22]

Early life and educationFamilyPrimary and secondary school yearsUndergraduate yearsGraduate years

Career1966ndash19751975ndash19901990ndash20002000ndash2018

Personal lifeMarriagesDisabilityDisability outreachPlans for a trip to space

Death

Contents

PenrosendashHawkingtheorems

BekensteinndashHawking formula

Hawking energy

GibbonsndashHawking ansatz

GibbonsndashHawking effect

GibbonsndashHawking space

GibbonsndashHawkingndashYorkboundary term

ThornendashHawkingndashPreskillbet

Spouse(s) Jane Wilde (m 1965div 1995)

Elaine Mason (m 1995div 2006)

Children 3 including LucyHawking

Awards Adams Prize(1966)

Eddington Medal(1975)

Maxwell Medaland Prize (1976)

Heineman Prize(1976)

Hughes Medal(1976)

Albert EinsteinAward (1978)

RAS Gold Medal(1985)

Dirac Medal(1987)

Wolf Prize (1988)

Prince of AsturiasAward (1989)

Personal viewsFuture of humanityScience vs philosophyReligion and atheismPolitics

Appearances in popular media

Awards and honoursStephen Hawking Medal for Science CommunicationBlack Hole discovery dedication

PublicationsPopular books

Co-authoredForewords

Childrens fictionFilms and seriesSelected academic works

Notes

ReferencesSources

External links

Hawking was born on 8 January 1942[23] in Oxford to Frank (1905ndash1986)[24] andIsobel Eileen Hawking (neacutee Walker 1915ndash2013)[25][26][27] Hawkings mother wasborn into a family of doctors in Glasgow Scotland[28][29] His wealthy paternalgreat-grandfather from Yorkshire had over-extended himself buying farm land andthen gone bankrupt in the great agricultural depression during the early 20thcentury[29] His paternal great-grandmother saved the family from financial ruin byopening a school in their home[29] Despite their families financial constraints bothparents attended the University of Oxford where Frank read medicine and Isobelread Philosophy Politics and Economics[26] Isobel worked as a secretary for amedical research institute and Frank was a medical researcher[26][30] Hawking hadtwo younger sisters Philippa and Mary and an adopted brother Edward FrankDavid (1955ndash2003)[31][32]

In 1950 when Hawkings father became head of the division of parasitology at theNational Institute for Medical Research the family moved to St AlbansHertfordshire[33][34] In St Albans the family was considered highly intelligent andsomewhat eccentric[33][35] meals were often spent with each person silently readinga book[33] They lived a frugal existence in a large cluttered and poorly maintainedhouse and travelled in a converted London taxicab[36][37] During one of Hawkingsfathers frequent absences working in Africa[38] the rest of the family spent fourmonths in Majorca visiting his mothers friend Beryl and her husband the poetRobert Graves[39]

Early life and education

Family

Andrew GemantAward (1998)

Naylor Prize andLectureship(1999)

Lilienfeld Prize(1999)

Albert Medal(1999)

Copley Medal(2006)

PresidentialMedal ofFreedom (2009)

BreakthroughPrize inFundamentalPhysics (2012)

BBVA FoundationFrontiers ofKnowledgeAward (2015)

Website hawkingorguk

Scientific career

Fields General relativity

Quantum gravity

Institutions Gonville andCaius CollegeCambridge

CaliforniaInstitute ofTechnology

PerimeterInstitute forTheoreticalPhysics

Thesis Properties ofExpandingUniverses (1966)

Doctoraladvisor

Dennis Sciama[2]

Other academicadvisors

Robert Berman[3]

Doctoralstudents

Bruce Allen[2][4]

Hawking began his schooling at the Byron House School in Highgate London Helater blamed its progressive methods for his failure to learn to read while at theschool[40][33] In St Albans the eight-year-old Hawking attended St Albans HighSchool for Girls for a few months At that time younger boys could attend one ofthe houses[39][41]

Hawking attended two independent (ie fee-paying) schools first Radlett School[41]

and from September 1952 St Albans School[23][42] after passing the eleven-plus ayear early[43] The family placed a high value on education[33] Hawkings fatherwanted his son to attend the well-regarded Westminster School but the 13-year-oldHawking was ill on the day of the scholarship examination His family could notafford the school fees without the financial aid of a scholarship so Hawkingremained at St Albans[44][45] A positive consequence was that Hawking remainedwith a close group of friends with whom he enjoyed board games the manufactureof fireworks model aeroplanes and boats[46] and long discussions aboutChristianity and extrasensory perception[47] From 1958 on with the help of themathematics teacher Dikran Tahta they built a computer from clock parts an oldtelephone switchboard and other recycled components[48][49]

Although known at school as Einstein Hawking was not initially successfulacademically[50] With time he began to show considerable aptitude for scientificsubjects and inspired by Tahta decided to read mathematics at university[51][52][53]

Hawkings father advised him to study medicine concerned that there were few jobsfor mathematics graduates[54] He also wanted his son to attend University CollegeOxford his own alma mater As it was not possible to read mathematics there at thetime Hawking decided to study physics and chemistry Despite his headmastersadvice to wait until the next year Hawking was awarded a scholarship after takingthe examinations in March 1959[55][56]

Hawking began his university education at University College Oxford[23] inOctober 1959 at the age of 17[57] For the first 18 months he was bored and lonely ndashhe found the academic work ridiculously easy[58][59] His physics tutor RobertBerman later said It was only necessary for him to know that something could bedone and he could do it without looking to see how other people did it[3] A changeoccurred during his second and third year when according to Berman Hawkingmade more of an effort to be one of the boys He developed into a popular livelyand witty college member interested in classical music and science fiction[57] Partof the transformation resulted from his decision to join the college boat club theUniversity College Boat Club where he coxed a rowing crew[60][61] The rowingcoach at the time noted that Hawking cultivated a daredevil image steering his crewon risky courses that led to damaged boats[62][60]

Hawking estimated that he studied about 1000 hours during his three years atOxford These unimpressive study habits made sitting his finals a challenge and hedecided to answer only theoretical physics questions rather than those requiringfactual knowledge A first-class honours degree was a condition of acceptance forhis planned graduate study in cosmology at the University of Cambridge[63][64]

Primary and secondary school years

Undergraduate years

RaphaelBousso[2][5]

Bernard Carr[2][6]

Fay Dowker[2][7]

ChristopheGalfard[8]

Gary Gibbons[2][9]

ThomasHertog[2][10]

RaymondLaflamme[2][11]

Don Page[2][12]

MalcolmPerry[2][13]

WuZhongchao[2][14]

29 others[2]

Signature

Anxious he slept poorly the night before the examinations and the final result wason the borderline between first- and second-class honours making a viva (oralexamination) necessary[64][65] Hawking was concerned that he was viewed as alazy and difficult student So when asked at the oral to describe his plans he saidIf you award me a First I will go to Cambridge If I receive a Second I shall stay inOxford so I expect you will give me a First[64][66] He was held in higher regardthan he believed as Berman commented the examiners were intelligent enough torealise they were talking to someone far cleverer than most of themselves[64] Afterreceiving a first-class BA (Hons) degree in natural science and completing a trip toIran with a friend he began his graduate work at Trinity Hall Cambridge inOctober 1962[23][67][68]

Hawkings first year as a doctoral student was difficult He was initially disappointedto find that he had been assigned Dennis William Sciama one of the founders ofmodern cosmology as a supervisor rather than noted Yorkshire astronomer FredHoyle[69][70] and he found his training in mathematics inadequate for work ingeneral relativity and cosmology[71] After being diagnosed with motor neuronedisease Hawking fell into a depression ndash though his doctors advised that he continuewith his studies he felt there was little point[72] His disease progressed more slowlythan doctors had predicted Although Hawking had difficulty walking unsupportedand his speech was almost unintelligible an initial diagnosis that he had only twoyears to live proved unfounded With Sciamas encouragement he returned to hiswork[73][74] Hawking started developing a reputation for brilliance and brashnesswhen he publicly challenged the work of Fred Hoyle and his student Jayant Narlikarat a lecture in June 1964[75][76]

When Hawking began his graduate studies there was much debate in the physics community about the prevailing theories of thecreation of the universe the Big Bang and Steady State theories[77] Inspired by Roger Penroses theorem of a spacetime singularityin the centre of black holes Hawking applied the same thinking to the entire universe and during 1965 he wrote his thesis on thistopic[78][79] Hawkings thesis[80] was approved in 1966[80] There were other positive developments Hawking received a researchfellowship at Gonville and Caius College at Cambridge[81] he obtained his PhD degree in applied mathematics and theoreticalphysics specialising in general relativity and cosmology in March 1966[82] and his essay Singularities and the Geometry of Space-Time shared top honours with one by Penrose to win that years prestigious Adams Prize[83][82]

In his work and in collaboration with Penrose Hawking extended the singularity theorem concepts first explored in his doctoralthesis This included not only the existence of singularities but also the theory that the universe might have started as a singularityTheir joint essay was the runner-up in the 1968 Gravity Research Foundation competition[84][85] In 1970 they published a proof thatif the universe obeys the general theory of relativity and fits any of the models of physical cosmology developed by AlexanderFriedmann then it must have begun as a singularity[86][87][88] In 1969 Hawking accepted a specially created Fellowship forDistinction in Science to remain at Caius[89]

In 1970 Hawking postulated what became known as the second law of black hole dynamics that the event horizon of a black holecan never get smaller[90] With James M Bardeen and Brandon Carter he proposed the four laws of black hole mechanics drawingan analogy with thermodynamics[91] To Hawkings irritation Jacob Bekenstein a graduate student of John Wheeler went furthermdash

Graduate years

Career

1966ndash1975

and ultimately correctlymdashto apply thermodynamic concepts literally[92][93] In the early 1970s Hawkings work with Carter WernerIsrael and David C Robinson strongly supported Wheelers no-hair theorem one that states that no matter what the original materialfrom which a black hole is created it can be completely described by the properties of mass electrical charge and rotation[94][95] Hisessay titled Black Holes won the Gravity Research Foundation Award in January 1971[96] Hawkings first book The Large ScaleStructure of Space-Time written with George Ellis was published in 1973[97]

Beginning in 1973 Hawking moved into the study of quantum gravity and quantum mechanics[98][97] His work in this area wasspurred by a visit to Moscow and discussions with Yakov Borisovich Zeldovich and Alexei Starobinsky whose work showed thataccording to the uncertainty principle rotating black holes emit particles[99] To Hawkings annoyance his much-checkedcalculations produced findings that contradicted his second law which claimed black holes could never get smaller[100] andsupported Bekensteins reasoning about their entropy[101][99] His results which Hawking presented from 1974 showed that blackholes emit radiation known today as Hawking radiation which may continue until they exhaust their energy andevaporate[102][103][104] Initially Hawking radiation was controversial By the late 1970s and following the publication of furtherresearch the discovery was widely accepted as a significant breakthrough in theoretical physics[105][106][107] Hawking was electeda Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1974 a few weeks after the announcement of Hawking radiation At the time he was one ofthe youngest scientists to become a Fellow[108][109]

Hawking was appointed to the Sherman Fairchild Distinguished visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology(Caltech) in 1970 He worked with a friend on the faculty Kip Thorne[110] and engaged him in a scientific wager about whether theX-ray source Cygnus X-1 was a black hole The wager was an insurance policy against the proposition that black holes did notexist[111] Hawking acknowledged that he had lost the bet in 1990 a bet that was the first of several he was to make with Thorne andothers[112] Hawking had maintained ties to Caltech spending a month there almost every year since this first visit[113]

Hawking returned to Cambridge in 1975 to a more academically senior post as reader in gravitational physics The mid to late 1970swere a period of growing public interest in black holes and the physicists who were studying them Hawking was regularlyinterviewed for print and television[114][115] He also received increasing academic recognition of his work[116] In 1975 he wasawarded both the Eddington Medal and the Pius XI Gold Medal and in 1976 the Dannie Heineman Prize the Maxwell Prize and theHughes Medal[117][118] He was appointed a professor with a chair in gravitational physics in 1977[119] The following year hereceived the Albert Einstein Medal and an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford[120][116]

In 1979 Hawking was elected Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge[116][121] His inaugural lecture inthis role was titled Is the End in Sight for Theoretical Physics and proposed N=8 Supergravity as the leading theory to solve manyof the outstanding problems physicists were studying[122] His promotion coincided with a health crisis which led to his acceptingalbeit reluctantly some nursing services at home[123] At the same time he was also making a transition in his approach to physicsbecoming more intuitive and speculative rather than insisting on mathematical proofs I would rather be right than rigorous he toldKip Thorne[124] In 1981 he proposed that information in a black hole is irretrievably lost when a black hole evaporates Thisinformation paradox violates the fundamental tenet of quantum mechanics and led to years of debate including the Black HoleWar with Leonard Susskind and Gerard t Hooft[125][126]

Cosmological inflation ndash a theory proposing that following the Big Bang the universe initially expanded incredibly rapidly beforesettling down to a slower expansion ndash was proposed by Alan Guth and also developed by Andrei Linde[127] Following a conferencein Moscow in October 1981 Hawking and Gary Gibbons organised a three-week Nuffield Workshop in the summer of 1982 on TheVery Early Universe at Cambridge University a workshop that focused mainly on inflation theory[128][129][130] Hawking alsobegan a new line of quantum theory research into the origin of the universe In 1981 at a Vatican conference he presented worksuggesting that there might be no boundary ndash or beginning or ending ndash to the universe[131][132] He subsequently developed theresearch in collaboration with Jim Hartle and in 1983 they published a model known as the HartlendashHawking state It proposed thatprior to the Planck epoch the universe had no boundary in space-time before the Big Bang time did not exist and the concept of thebeginning of the universe is meaningless[133] The initial singularity of the classical Big Bang models was replaced with a regionakin to the North Pole One cannot travel north of the North Pole but there is no boundary there ndash it is simply the point where all

1975ndash1990

north-running lines meet and end[134][135] Initially the no-boundary proposal predicted a closed universe which had implicationsabout the existence of God As Hawking explained If the universe has no boundaries but is self-contained then God would nothave had any freedom to choose how the universe began[136]

Hawking did not rule out the existence of a Creator asking in A Brief History of Time Is the unified theory so compelling that itbrings about its own existence[137] In his early work Hawking spoke of God in a metaphorical sense In A Brief History of Time hewrote If we discover a complete theory it would be the ultimate triumph of human reason ndash for then we should know the mind ofGod[138] In the same book he suggested that the existence of God was not necessary to explain the origin of the universe Laterdiscussions with Neil Turok led to the realisation that the existence of God was also compatible with an open universe[139]

Further work by Hawking in the area of arrows of time led to the 1985 publication of a paper theorising that if the no-boundaryproposition were correct then when the universe stopped expanding and eventually collapsed time would run backwards[140] Apaper by Don Page and independent calculations by Raymond Laflamme led Hawking to withdraw this concept[141] Honourscontinued to be awarded in 1981 he was awarded the American Franklin Medal[142] and in the 1982 New Year Honours appointed aCommander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE)[143][144][145] These awards did not significantly change Hawkings financialstatus and motivated by the need to finance his childrens education and home expenses he decided in 1982 to write a popular bookabout the universe that would be accessible to the general public[146][147] Instead of publishing with an academic press he signed acontract with Bantam Books a mass market publisher and received a large advance for his book[148][149] A first draft of the bookcalled A Brief History of Time was completed in 1984[150]

One of the first messages Hawking produced with his speech-generating device was a request for his assistant to help him finishwriting A Brief History of Time[151] Peter Guzzardi his editor at Bantam pushed him to explain his ideas clearly in non-technicallanguage a process that required many revisions from an increasingly irritated Hawking[152] The book was published in April 1988in the US and in June in the UK and it proved to be an extraordinary success rising quickly to the top of best-seller lists in bothcountries and remaining there for months[153][154][155] The book was translated into many languages[156] and ultimately sold anestimated 9 million copies[155] Media attention was intense[156] and a Newsweek magazine cover and a television special bothdescribed him as Master of the Universe[157] Success led to significant financial rewards but also the challenges of celebritystatus[158] Hawking travelled extensively to promote his work and enjoyed partying and dancing into the small hours[156] Adifficulty refusing the invitations and visitors left him limited time for work and his students[159] Some colleagues were resentful ofthe attention Hawking received feeling it was due to his disability[160][161] He received further academic recognition including fivemore honorary degrees[157] the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1985)[162] the Paul Dirac Medal (1987)[157] andjointly with Penrose the prestigious Wolf Prize (1988)[163] In the 1989 Birthday Honours he was appointed a Companion ofHonour (CH)[159][164] He reportedly declined a knighthood[165]

Hawking pursued his work in physics in 1993 he co-edited a book onEuclidean quantum gravity with Gary Gibbons and published a collectededition of his own articles on black holes and the Big Bang[166] In 1994 atCambridges Newton Institute Hawking and Penrose delivered a series of sixlectures that were published in 1996 as The Nature of Space and Time[167]

In 1997 he conceded a 1991 public scientific wager made with Kip Thorneand John Preskill of Caltech Hawking had bet that Penroses proposal of acosmic censorship conjecture ndash that there could be no naked singularitiesunclothed within a horizon ndash was correct[168] After discovering hisconcession might have been premature a new and more refined wager wasmade This one specified that such singularities would occur without extraconditions[169] The same year Thorne Hawking and Preskill made anotherbet this time concerning the black hole information paradox[170][171] Thorneand Hawking argued that since general relativity made it impossible for blackholes to radiate and lose information the mass-energy and information carried by Hawking radiation must be new and not from

1990ndash2000

Hawking with string theorists David Grossand Edward Witten at the 2001 StringsConference TIFR India

inside the black hole event horizon Since this contradicted the quantum mechanics of microcausality quantum mechanics theorywould need to be rewritten Preskill argued the opposite that since quantum mechanics suggests that the information emitted by ablack hole relates to information that fell in at an earlier time the concept of black holes given by general relativity must be modifiedin some way[172]

Hawking also maintained his public profile including bringing science to a wider audience A film version of A Brief History ofTime directed by Errol Morris and produced by Steven Spielberg premiered in 1992 Hawking had wanted the film to be scientificrather than biographical but he was persuaded otherwise The film while a critical success was not widely released[173] A popular-level collection of essays interviews and talks titled Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays was published in 1993[174]

and a six-part television series Stephen Hawkings Universe and a companion book appeared in 1997 As Hawking insisted this timethe focus was entirely on science[175][176]

Hawking continued his writings for a popular audience publishing The Universe in a Nutshellin 2001[177] and A Briefer History of Time which he wrote in 2005 with Leonard Mlodinowto update his earlier works with the aim of making them accessible to a wider audience andGod Created the Integers which appeared in 2006[178] Along with Thomas Hertog at CERNand Jim Hartle from 2006 on Hawking developed a theory of top-down cosmology whichsays that the universe had not one unique initial state but many different ones and thereforethat it is inappropriate to formulate a theory that predicts the universes current configurationfrom one particular initial state[179] Top-down cosmology posits that the present selects thepast from a superposition of many possible histories In doing so the theory suggests apossible resolution of the fine-tuning question[180][181]

Hawking continued to travel widely including trips to Chile Easter Island South AfricaSpain (to receive the Fonseca Prize in 2008)[182][183] Canada[184] and numerous trips to theUnited States[185] For practical reasons related to his disability Hawking increasinglytravelled by private jet and by 2011 that had become his only mode of internationaltravel[186]

By 2003 consensus among physicists wasgrowing that Hawking was wrong about theloss of information in a black hole[187] In a2004 lecture in Dublin he conceded his 1997bet with Preskill but described his ownsomewhat controversial solution to the

information paradox problem involving the possibility that black holes have morethan one topology[188][172] In the 2005 paper he published on the subject he arguedthat the information paradox was explained by examining all the alternative historiesof universes with the information loss in those with black holes being cancelled outby those without such loss[171][189] In January 2014 he called the alleged loss ofinformation in black holes his biggest blunder[190]

As part of another longstanding scientific dispute Hawking had emphaticallyargued and bet that the Higgs boson would never be found[191] The particle wasproposed to exist as part of the Higgs field theory by Peter Higgs in 1964 Hawkingand Higgs engaged in a heated and public debate over the matter in 2002 and againin 2008 with Higgs criticising Hawkings work and complaining that Hawkings

2000ndash2018

Hawking at the Bibliothegravequenationale de France toinaugurate the Laboratory ofAstronomy and Particles inParis and the Frenchrelease of his work GodCreated the Integers 5 May2006

Hawking with University of Oxfordlibrarian Richard Ovenden (left) andnaturalist David Attenborough (right)at the opening of the Weston LibraryOxford in March 2015 Ovendenawarded the Bodley Medal toHawking and Attenborough at theceremony

celebrity status gives him instant credibility that others do not have[192] The particle was discovered in July 2012 at CERNfollowing construction of the Large Hadron Collider Hawking quickly conceded that he had lost his bet[193][194] and said that Higgsshould win the Nobel Prize for Physics[195] which he did in 2013[196]

In 2007 Hawking and his daughter Lucy published Georges Secret Key to theUniverse a childrens book designed to explain theoretical physics in an accessiblefashion and featuring characters similar to those in the Hawking family[197] Thebook was followed by sequels in 2009 2011 2014 and 2016[198]

In 2002 following a UK-wide vote the BBC included Hawking in their list of the100 Greatest Britons[199] He was awarded the Copley Medal from the RoyalSociety (2006)[200] the Presidential Medal of Freedom which is Americas highestcivilian honour (2009)[201] and the Russian Special Fundamental Physics Prize(2013)[202]

Several buildings have been named after him including the Stephen W HawkingScience Museum in San Salvador El Salvador[203] the Stephen Hawking Buildingin Cambridge[204] and the Stephen Hawking Centre at the Perimeter Institute inCanada[205] Appropriately given Hawkings association with time he unveiled themechanical Chronophage (or time-eating) Corpus Clock at Corpus Christi College

Cambridge in September 2008[206][207]

During his career Hawking supervised 39 successful PhD students[2] One doctoral student did not successfully complete the PhD[2]

As required by Cambridge University regulations Hawking retired as Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 2009[121][208] Despitesuggestions that he might leave the United Kingdom as a protest against public funding cuts to basic scientific research[209]

Hawking worked as director of research at the Cambridge University Department of Applied Mathematics and TheoreticalPhysics[210]

On 28 June 2009 as a tongue-in-cheek test of his 1992 conjecture that travel into the past is effectively impossible Hawking held aparty open to all complete with hors doeuvres and iced champagne but publicised the party only after it was over so that only time-travellers would know to attend as expected nobody showed up to the party[211]

On 20 July 2015 Hawking helped launch Breakthrough Initiatives an effort to search for extraterrestrial life[212] Hawking createdStephen Hawking Expedition New Earth a documentary on space colonisation as a 2017 episode of Tomorrows World[213][214]

In August 2015 Hawking said that not all information is lost when something enters a black hole and there might be a possibility toretrieve information from a black hole according to his theory[215] In July 2017 Hawking was awarded an Honorary Doctorate fromImperial College London[216]

When Hawking was a graduate student at Cambridge his relationship with Jane Wilde a friend of his sister whom he had met shortlybefore his late 1963 diagnosis with motor neurone disease continued to develop The couple became engaged in October1964[120][217] ndash Hawking later said that the engagement gave him something to live for[218] ndash and the two were married on 14 July1965[81]

During their first years of marriage Jane lived in London during the week as she completed her degree and they travelled to theUnited States several times for conferences and physics-related visits The couple had difficulty finding housing that was withinHawkings walking distance to the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics (DAMTP) Jane began a PhD

Hawking holding a public lecture atthe Stockholm Waterfront congresscentre 24 August 2015

Personal life

Marriages

programme and a son Robert was born in May 1967[219][220] A daughter Lucy was born in 1970[221] A third child Timothywas born in April 1979[116]

Hawking rarely discussed his illness and physical challenges even ndash in a precedent set during their courtship ndash with Jane[222] Hisdisabilities meant that the responsibilities of home and family rested firmly on his wifes increasingly overwhelmed shouldersleaving him more time to think about physics[223] Upon his appointment in 1974 to a year-long position at the California Institute ofTechnology in Pasadena California Jane proposed that a graduate or post-doctoral student live with them and help with his careHawking accepted and Bernard Carr travelled with them as the first of many students who fulfilled this role[224][225] The familyspent a generally happy and stimulating year in Pasadena[226]

Hawking returned to Cambridge in 1975 to a new home and a new job as reader Don Page with whom Hawking had begun a closefriendship at Caltech arrived to work as the live-in graduate student assistant With Pages help and that of a secretary Janesresponsibilities were reduced so she could return to her thesis and her new interest in singing[227]

By December 1977 Jane had met organist Jonathan Hellyer Jones when singing in a church choir Hellyer Jones became close to theHawking family and by the mid-1980s he and Jane had developed romantic feelings for each other[119][228][229] According to Janeher husband was accepting of the situation stating he would not object so long as I continued to love him[119][230][231] Jane andHellyer Jones determined not to break up the family and their relationship remained platonic for a long period[232]

By the 1980s Hawkings marriage had been strained for many years Jane felt overwhelmed by the intrusion into their family life ofthe required nurses and assistants[233] The impact of his celebrity was challenging for colleagues and family members while theprospect of living up to a worldwide fairytale image was daunting for the couple[234][180] Hawkings views of religion alsocontrasted with her strong Christian faith and resulted in tension[180][235][236] In the late 1980s Hawking had grown close to one ofhis nurses Elaine Mason to the dismay of some colleagues caregivers and family members who were disturbed by her strength ofpersonality and protectiveness[237] Hawking told Jane that he was leaving her for Mason[238] and departed the family home inFebruary 1990[143] After his divorce from Jane in 1995 Hawking married Mason in September[239][143] declaring Itswonderful ndash I have married the woman I love[240]

In 1999 Jane Hawking published a memoir Music to Move the Stars describing her marriage to Hawking and its breakdown Itsrevelations caused a sensation in the media but as was his usual practice regarding his personal life Hawking made no publiccomment except to say that he did not read biographies about himself[241] After his second marriage Hawkings family felt excludedand marginalised from his life[236][242] For a period of about five years in the early 2000s his family and staff became increasinglyworried that he was being physically abused[242][243] Police investigations took place but were closed as Hawking refused to makea complaint[242][244][245]

In 2006 Hawking and Mason quietly divorced[246][247] and Hawking resumed closer relationships with Jane his children and hisgrandchildren[180][247] Reflecting this happier period a revised version of Janes book called Travelling to Infinity My Life withStephen appeared in 2007[242] and was made into a film The Theory of Everything in 2014[248]

Hawking had a rare early-onset slow-progressing form of motor neurone disease (also known as amyotrophic lateral sclerosisALS or Lou Gehrigs disease) that gradually paralysed him over the decades[20]

Hawking had experienced increasing clumsiness during his final year at Oxford including a fall on some stairs and difficulties whenrowing[249][250] The problems worsened and his speech became slightly slurred and his family noticed the changes when hereturned home for Christmas and medical investigations were begun[251][252] The diagnosis of motor neurone disease came whenHawking was 21 in 1963 At the time doctors gave him a life expectancy of two years[253][254]

In the late 1960s Hawkings physical abilities declined he began to use crutches and could no longer give lectures regularly[255] Ashe slowly lost the ability to write he developed compensatory visual methods including seeing equations in terms ofgeometry[256][257] The physicist Werner Israel later compared the achievements to Mozart composing an entire symphony in his

Disability

head[258][259] Hawking was fiercely independent and unwilling to accept help or make concessions for his disabilities He preferredto be regarded as a scientist first popular science writer second and in all the ways that matter a normal human being with thesame desires drives dreams and ambitions as the next person[260] His wife Jane Hawking later noted Some people would call itdetermination some obstinacy Ive called it both at one time or another[261] He required much persuasion to accept the use of awheelchair at the end of the 1960s[262] but ultimately became notorious for the wildness of his wheelchair driving[263] Hawkingwas a popular and witty colleague but his illness as well as his reputation for brashness distanced him from some[261]

Hawkings speech deteriorated and by the late 1970s he could be understood by only his family and closest friends To communicatewith others someone who knew him well would interpret his speech into intelligible speech[264] Spurred by a dispute with theuniversity over who would pay for the ramp needed for him to enter his workplace Hawking and his wife campaigned for improvedaccess and support for those with disabilities in Cambridge[265][266] including adapted student housing at the university[267] Ingeneral Hawking had ambivalent feelings about his role as a disability rights champion while wanting to help others he also soughtto detach himself from his illness and its challenges[268] His lack of engagement in this area led to some criticism[269]

During a visit to CERN on the border of France and Switzerland in mid-1985 Hawking contracted pneumonia which in hiscondition was life-threatening he was so ill that Jane was asked if life support should be terminated She refused but theconsequence was a tracheotomy which required round-the-clock nursing care and the removal of what remained of hisspeech[270][271] The National Health Service was ready to pay for a nursing home but Jane was determined that he would live athome The cost of the care was funded by an American foundation[272][273] Nurses were hired for the three shifts required toprovide the round-the-clock support he required One of those employed was Elaine Mason who was to become Hawkings secondwife[274]

For his communication Hawking initially raised his eyebrows to choose letters on a spelling card[275] but in 1986 he received acomputer program called the Equalizer from Walter Woltosz CEO of Words Plus who had developed an earlier version of thesoftware to help his mother-in-law who also suffered from ALS and had lost her ability to speak and write[276] In a method he usedfor the rest of his life Hawking could now simply press a switch to select phrases words or letters from a bank of about 2500ndash3000that were scanned[277][278] The program was originally run on a desktop computer Elaine Masons husband David a computerengineer adapted a small computer and attached it to his wheelchair[279] Released from the need to use somebody to interpret hisspeech Hawking commented that I can communicate better now than before I lost my voice[280] The voice he used had anAmerican accent and is no longer produced[281][282] Despite the later availability of other voices Hawking retained this originalvoice saying that he preferred it and identified with it[283] Originally Hawking activated a switch using his hand and could produceup to 15 words a minute[151] Lectures were prepared in advance and were sent to the speech synthesiser in short sections to bedelivered[281]

Hawking gradually lost the use of his hand and in 2005 he began to control his communication device with movements of his cheekmuscles[284][285][286] with a rate of about one word per minute[285] With this decline there was a risk of his developing locked-insyndrome so Hawking collaborated with Intel researchers on systems that could translate his brain patterns or facial expressions intoswitch activations After several prototypes that did not perform as planned they settled on an adaptive word predictor made by theLondon-based startup SwiftKey which used a system similar to his original technology Hawking had an easier time adapting to thenew system which was further developed after inputting large amounts of Hawkings papers and other written materials and usespredictive software similar to other smartphone keyboards[286][276][180][287] By 2009 he could no longer drive his wheelchairindependently but the same people who created his new typing mechanics were working on a method to drive his chair usingmovements made by his chin This proved difficult since Hawking could not move his neck and trials showed that while he couldindeed drive the chair the movement was sporadic and jumpy[276][288] Near the end of his life he was experiencing increasedbreathing difficulties requiring a ventilator at times and was hospitalised several times[180]

Starting in the 1990s Hawking accepted the mantle of role model for disabled people lecturing and participating in fundraisingactivities[289] At the turn of the century he and eleven other luminaries signed the Charter for the Third Millennium on Disabilitywhich called on governments to prevent disability and protect the rights of the disabled[290][291] In 1999 Hawking was awarded the

Disability outreach

Julius Edgar Lilienfeld Prize of the American Physical Society[292]

In August 2012 Hawking narrated the Enlightenment segment of the 2012 Summer Paralympics opening ceremony inLondon[293] In 2013 the biographical documentary film Hawking in which Hawking himself is featured was released[294] InSeptember 2013 he expressed support for the legalisation of assisted suicide for the terminally ill[295] In August 2014 Hawkingaccepted the Ice Bucket Challenge to promote ALSMND awareness and raise contributions for research As he had pneumonia in2013 he was advised not to have ice poured over him but his children volunteered to accept the challenge on his behalf[296]

In late 2006 Hawking revealed in a BBC interview that one of his greatestunfulfilled desires was to travel to space[297] on hearing this Richard Bransonoffered a free flight into space with Virgin Galactic which Hawkingimmediately accepted Besides personal ambition he was motivated by thedesire to increase public interest in spaceflight and to show the potential ofpeople with disabilities[298] On 26 April 2007 Hawking flew aboard aspecially-modified Boeing 727ndash200 jet operated by Zero-G Corp off the coastof Florida to experience weightlessness[299] Fears the manoeuvres wouldcause him undue discomfort proved groundless and the flight was extended toeight parabolic arcs[297] It was described as a successful test to see if he couldwithstand the g-forces involved in space flight[300] At the time the date ofHawkings trip to space was projected to be as early as 2009 but commercialflights to space did not commence before his death[301]

Hawking died in his home in Cambridge England early in the morning of 14 March 2018 at the age of 76[302][21][303] His familystated that he died peacefully[304][305] He was eulogised by figures in science entertainment politics and otherareas[306][307][308][309] The Gonville and Caius College flag flew at half-mast and a book of condolences was signed by studentsand visitors[310][311][312] A tribute was made to Hawking in the closing speech by IPC President Andrew Parsons at the closingceremony of the 2018 Paralympic Winter Games in Pyeongchang South Korea[313] Hawkings final broadcast interview about thedetection of gravitational waves resulting from the collision of two neutron stars occurred in October 2017[314] His final words tothe world appear posthumously in April 2018 in the form of a Smithsonian TV Channel documentary entitled Leaving Earth OrHow to Colonize a Planet[315][316]

Hawking was born on the 300th anniversary of Galileos death and died on the 139th anniversary of Einsteins birth[317] Hawkingsprivate funeral took place at 2pm on the afternoon of 31 March 2018 the 291st anniversary of Newtons passing[318] at Great StMarys Church Cambridge[318][319] Guests at the funeral included Eddie Redmayne and Felicity Jones[320] Following hiscremation his ashes will be interred in Westminster Abbey on 15 June 2018 during a Thanksgiving service His ashes will be interredin the Abbeys nave next to the grave of Sir Isaac Newton and near that of Charles Darwin[1][320][321] He directed at least fifteenyears before his death that the BekensteinndashHawking entropy equation be his epitaph[322][323][note 1]

In 2006 Hawking posed an open question on the Internet In a world that is in chaos politically socially and environmentally howcan the human race sustain another 100 years later clarifying I dont know the answer That is why I asked the question to getpeople to think about it and to be aware of the dangers we now face[326]

Plans for a trip to space

Hawking taking a zero-gravity flight in areduced-gravity aircraft 2007

Death

Personal views

Future of humanity

Hawking expressed concern that life on Earth is at risk from a sudden nuclear war agenetically engineered virus global warming or other dangers humans have not yet thoughtof[298][327] Such a planet-wide disaster need not result in human extinction if the human racewere to be able to colonise additional planets before the disaster[327] Hawking viewedspaceflight and the colonisation of space as necessary for the future of humanity[298][328]

Hawking stated that given the vastness of the universe aliens likely exist but that contactwith them should be avoided[329][330] He warned that aliens might pillage Earth forresources In 2010 he said If aliens visit us the outcome would be much as when Columbuslanded in America which didnt turn out well for the Native Americans[330]

Hawking warned that superintelligent artificial intelligence could be pivotal in steeringhumanitys fate stating that the potential benefits are huge Success in creating AI would bethe biggest event in human history It might also be the last unless we learn how to avoid therisks[331][332]

Hawking argued that computer viruses should be considered a new form of life and statedthat maybe it says something about human nature that the only form of life we have createdso far is purely destructive Talk about creating life in our own image[333]

At Googles Zeitgeist Conference in 2011 Hawking said that philosophy is dead He believed that philosophers have not kept upwith modern developments in science and that scientists have become the bearers of the torch of discovery in our quest forknowledge He said that philosophical problems can be answered by science particularly new scientific theories which lead us to anew and very different picture of the universe and our place in it[334]

Hawking was an atheist[335] and believed that the universe is governed by the laws of science He stated There is a fundamentaldifference between religion which is based on authority [and] science which is based on observation and reason Science will winbecause it works[336] In 2008 Hawking stated The laws may have been decreed by God but God does not intervene to break thelaws[337] In an interview published in The Guardian Hawking regarded the brain as a computer which will stop working when itscomponents fail and the concept of an afterlife as a fairy story for people afraid of the dark[21][138] In 2011 narrating the firstepisode of the American television series Curiosity on the Discovery Channel Hawking declared

We are each free to believe what we want and it is my view that the simplest explanation is there is no God No onecreated the universe and no one directs our fate This leads me to a profound realisation There is probably no heavenand no afterlife either We have this one life to appreciate the grand design of the universe and for that I amextremely grateful[338][339]

In September 2014 he joined the Starmus Festival as keynote speaker and declared himself an atheist[340] In an interview with ElMundo he said

Before we understand science it is natural to believe that God created the universe But now science offers a moreconvincing explanation What I meant by we would know the mind of God is we would know everything that Godwould know if there were a God which there isnt Im an atheist[335]

President Barack Obamatalks with Hawking in theWhite House before aceremony presenting himwith the Presidential Medalof Freedom on 12 August2009

Science vs philosophy

Religion and atheism

Politics

Hawking was a longstanding Labour Party supporter[341][342] He recorded a tribute for the 2000 Democratic presidential candidateAl Gore[343] called the 2003 invasion of Iraq a war crime[342][344] supported the academic boycott of Israel[345][346]

campaigned for nuclear disarmament[341][342] and supported stem cell research[342][347] universal health care[348] and action toprevent climate change[349] In August 2014 Hawking was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to TheGuardian expressing their hope that Scotland would vote to remain part of the United Kingdom in Septembers referendum on thatissue[350] Hawking believed a United Kingdom withdrawal from the European Union (Brexit) would damage the UKs contributionto science as modern research needs international collaboration and that free movement of people in Europe encourages the spread ofideas[351] Hawking was disappointed by Brexit and warned against envy and isolationism[352]

Hawking was greatly concerned over health care and maintained that without the UK National Health Service he could not havesurvived into his 70s[353] He stated I have received excellent medical attention in Britain and I felt it was important to set therecord straight I believe in universal health care And I am not afraid to say so[336]

Hawking feared privatisation He stated The more profit is extracted from the system the more private monopolies grow and themore expensive healthcare becomes The NHS must be preserved from commercial interests and protected from those who want toprivatise it[354] Hawking alleged ministers damaged the NHS he blamed the Conservatives for cutting funding weakening theNHS by privatisation lowering staff morale through holding pay back and reducing social care[355] Hawking accused Jeremy Huntof cherry picking evidence which Hawking maintained debased science[353] Hawking also stated There is overwhelming evidencethat NHS funding and the numbers of doctors and nurses are inadequate and it is getting worse[356]

In June 2017 Hawking endorsed the Labour Party in the 2017 UK general election citing the Conservatives proposed cuts to theNHS But he was also critical of Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn expressing scepticism over whether the party could win a generalelection under him[357]

Hawking feared Donald Trumps policies on global warming could endanger the planet and make global warming irreversible Hesaid Climate change is one of the great dangers we face and its one we can prevent if we act now By denying the evidence forclimate change and pulling out of the Paris Climate Agreement Donald Trump will cause avoidable environmental damage to ourbeautiful planet endangering the natural world for us and our children[358] Hawking further stated that this could lead Earth tobecome like Venus with a temperature of two hundred and fifty degrees and raining sulphuric acid[359]

In 1988 Stephen Hawking Arthur C Clarke and Carl Sagan were interviewed inGod the Universe and Everything Else They discussed the Big Bang theory Godand the possibility of extraterrestrial life

At the release party for the home video version of the A Brief History of TimeLeonard Nimoy who had played Spock on Star Trek learned that Hawking wasinterested in appearing on the show Nimoy made the necessary contact andHawking played a holographic simulation of himself in an episode of Star Trek TheNext Generation in 1993[360][361][362] The same year his synthesizer voice wasrecorded for the Pink Floyd song Keep Talking[363][174] and in 1999 for anappearance on The Simpsons[364] Hawking appeared in documentaries titled TheReal Stephen Hawking (2001)[291] Stephen Hawking Profile (2002)[365] andHawking (2013) and the documentary series Stephen Hawking Master of theUniverse (2008)[366] Hawking also guest-starred in Futurama[180] and The Big Bang Theory[367]

Hawking allowed the use of his copyrighted voice[368][369] in the biographical 2014 film The Theory of Everything in which he wasportrayed by Eddie Redmayne in an Academy Award-winning role[370] Hawking was featured at the Monty Python Live (Mostly) in2014 He was shown to sing an extended version of the Galaxy Song after running down Brian Cox with his wheelchair in a pre-recorded video[371][372]


Hawking at the White House withPresident Clinton

Play media

Hawking used his fame to advertise products including a wheelchair[291] National Savings[373] British Telecom Specsavers EggBanking[374] and Go Compare[375] In 2015 he applied to trademark his name[376]

Broadcast in March 2018 just a week or two before his death Hawking was the voice of The Book Mark II on The HitchhikersGuide to the Galaxy radio series and he was the guest of Neil deGrasse Tyson on StarTalk[377]

Hawking received numerous awards and honours Already early in the list in1974 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) At that time hisnomination read

Hawking has made major contributions to the field of generalrelativity These derive from a deep understanding of what isrelevant to physics and astronomy and especially from amastery of wholly new mathematical techniques Followingthe pioneering work of Penrose he established partly alone andpartly in collaboration with Penrose a series of successivelystronger theorems establishing the fundamental result that allrealistic cosmological models must possess singularities Usingsimilar techniques Hawking has proved the basic theorems onthe laws governing black holes that stationary solutions ofEinsteins equations with smooth event horizons mustnecessarily be axisymmetric and that in the evolution andinteraction of black holes the total surface area of the eventhorizons must increase In collaboration with G EllisHawking is the author of an impressive and original treatise onSpace-time in the Large

The citation continues Other important work by Hawking relates to the interpretation of cosmological observations and to thedesign of gravitational wave detectors[378]

Hawking received the 2015 BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in Basic Sciences shared with Viatcheslav Mukhanovfor discovering that the galaxies were formed from quantum fluctuations in the early Universe At the 2016 Pride of Britain AwardsHawking received the lifetime achievement award for his contribution to science and British culture After receiving the awardfrom Prime Minister Theresa May Hawking humorously requested that she not seek his help with Brexit[379]

Hawking was a member of the Advisory Board of the Starmus Festival and had a major role in acknowledging and promotingscience communication The Stephen Hawking Medal for Science Communication is an annual award initiated in 2016 to honourmembers of the arts community for contributions that help build awareness of science[380] Recipients receive a medal bearing aportrait of Stephen Hawking by Alexei Leonov and the other side represents an image of Leonov himself performing his famousspace walk and the iconic Red Special Brian Mays guitar

The Starmus III Festival in 2016 was a tribute to Stephen Hawking and the book of all Starmus III lectures Beyond the Horizonwas also dedicated to him The first recipients of the medals which were awarded at the festival were chosen by Hawking himselfThey were composer Hans Zimmer physicist Jim Al-Khalili and the science documentary Particle Fever

Awards and honours

Stephen Hawking being presented by hisdaughter Lucy Hawking at the lecture hegave for NASAs 50th anniversary

Stephen Hawking Medal for Science Communication

Black Hole discovery dedication

In March 2018 it was announced that two Russian astronomers who discovered GRB180316A a newborn black hole in theOphiuchus constellation on 16 March 2018 had dedicated their find to Stephen Hawking having discovered it two days after hisdeath[381]

A Brief History of Time (1988)[198]

Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays (1993)[382]

The Universe in a Nutshell (2001)[198]

On the Shoulders of Giants (2002)[198]

God Created the Integers The Mathematical Breakthroughs That Changed History (2005)[198]

The Dreams That Stuff Is Made of The Most Astounding Papers of Quantum Physics and How They Shook theScientific World (2011)[383]

My Brief History (2013)[198]

The Nature of Space and Time (with Roger Penrose) (1996)The Large the Small and the Human Mind (with Roger Penrose Abner Shimony and Nancy Cartwright) (1997)The Future of Spacetime (with Kip Thorne Igor Novikov Timothy Ferris and introduction by Alan Lightman RichardH Price) (2002)

A Briefer History of Time (with Leonard Mlodinow) (2005)[198]

The Grand Design (with Leonard Mlodinow) (2010)[198]

Black Holes amp Time Warps Einsteins Outrageous Legacy (Kip Thorne and introduction by Frederick Seitz) (1994)

Co-written with his daughter Lucy

Georges Secret Key to the Universe (2007)[198]

Georges Cosmic Treasure Hunt (2009)[198]

George and the Big Bang (2011)[198]

George and the Unbreakable Code (2014)George and the Blue Moon (2016)


Stephen Hawkings Universe (1997)[385][230]

Hawking ndash BBC television film (2004) starring Benedict Cumberbatch

Horizon The Hawking Paradox (2005)[386]

Masters of Science Fiction (2007)[387]

Stephen Hawking and the Theory of Everything (2007)

Stephen Hawking Master of the Universe (2008)[388]

Into the Universe with Stephen Hawking (2010)[389]

Brave New World with Stephen Hawking (2011)[390]

Publications

Popular books

Co-authored

Forewords

Childrens fiction

Films and series

Stephen Hawkings Grand Design (2012)[391]

The Big Bang Theory (2012 2014ndash2015 2017)

Stephen Hawking A Brief History of Mine (2013)[392]

The Theory of Everything ndash Feature film (2014) starring Eddie Redmayne[393]

Genius by Stephen Hawking (2016)

Hawking SW Penrose R (1970) The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology Proceedings of theRoyal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences 314 (1519) 529ndash548Bibcode1970RSPSA314529H doi101098rspa19700021Hawking S (1971) Gravitational Radiation from Colliding Black Holes Physical Review Letters 26 (21) 1344ndash1346 Bibcode1971PhRvL261344H doi101103PhysRevLett261344Hawking SW (1972) Black holes in general relativity Communications in Mathematical Physics 25 (2) 152ndash166Bibcode1972CMaPh25152H doi101007BF01877517 Archived from the original on 13 January 2012Hawking SW (1974) Black hole explosions Nature 248 (5443) 30ndash31 Bibcode1974Natur24830Hdoi101038248030a0Hawking SW (1982) The development of irregularities in a single bubble inflationary universe Physics Letters B115 (4) 295ndash297 Bibcode1982PhLB115295H doi1010160370-2693(82)90373-2Hartle J Hawking S (1983) Wave function of the Universe Physical Review D 28 (12) 2960ndash2975Bibcode1983PhRvD282960H doi101103PhysRevD282960Hawking S (2005) Information loss in black holes Physical Review D 72 (8) 084013 arXivhep-th0507171 Bibcode2005PhRvD72h4013H doi101103PhysRevD72084013

1 This equation establishes the relationship between a black holes entropy and its size as[322][324]

where is the black hole entropy is the surface area of the black hole event horizon is Boltzmanns constant is Einsteins speed of light is Plancks constant and is Newtons gravitational constant The subscript BH standsfor either black hole or BekensteinndashHawking This relationship between concepts from the disparate fields ofgeneral relativity quantum mechanics and thermodynamics implies the existence of deep connections betweenthem and may presage their unification It can be more simply expressed as a proportionality between twodimensionless ratios

where is the Planck area (the unit of area in quantum mechanics) Use of Planck units (in which and are set to unity) simplifies it further to

Bekenstein had conjectured the proportionality Hawking confirmed it and established the constant of proportionalityat [303][103] Calculations based on string theory first carried out in 1995 have been found to yield the sameresult[325]

1 Shirbon Estelle (20 March 2018) Stephen Hawking to Join Newton Darwin in Final Resting Place (httpswwwreuterscomarticleus-britain-hawking-ashesstephen-hawking-to-join-newton-darwin-in-final-resting-place-idUSKBN1GW2GV) London Reuters Retrieved 21 March 2018

Selected academic works

Notes

References

2 Stephen Hawking (httpswwwgenealogymathndsunodakeduidphpid=78459) at the Mathematics GenealogyProject

3 Ferguson 2011 p 29

4 Allen Bruce (1983) Vacuum energy and general relativity (httpulmss-newtonlibcamacukvwebvholdingsInfobibId=5544) (PhD thesis) University of Cambridge

5 Bousso Raphael (1997) Pair creation of black holes in cosmology (httpulmss-newtonlibcamacukvwebvholdingsInfobibId=18697) (PhD thesis) University of Cambridge

6 Carr Bernard John (1976) Primordial black holes (httpulmss-newtonlibcamacukvwebvholdingsInfobibId=6798) (PhD thesis) University of Cambridge

7 Dowker Helen Fay (1991) Space-time wormholes (httpulmss-newtonlibcamacukvwebvholdingsInfobibId=7858) (PhD thesis) University of Cambridge

8 Galfard Christophe Georges Gunnar Sven (2006) Black hole information amp branes (httpulmss-newtonlibcamacukvwebvholdingsInfobibId=28782) (PhD thesis) University of Cambridge

9 Gibbons Gary William (1973) Some aspects of gravitational radiation and gravitational collapse (httpulmss-newtonlibcamacukvwebvholdingsInfobibId=8671) (PhD thesis) University of Cambridge

10 Hertog Thomas (2002) The origin of inflation (httpulmss-newtonlibcamacukvwebvholdingsInfobibId=23554)(PhD thesis) University of Cambridge

11 Laflamme Raymond (1988) Time and quantum cosmology (httpulmss-newtonlibcamacukvwebvholdingsInfobibId=10575) (PhD thesis) University of Cambridge

12 Page Don Nelson (1976) Accretion into and emission from black holes (httpthesislibrarycaltechedu7179) (PhDthesis) California Institute of Technology

13 Perry Malcolm John (1978) Black holes and quantum mechanics (httpulmss-newtonlibcamacukvwebvholdingsInfobibId=12538) (PhD thesis) University of Cambridge

14 Wu Zhongchao (1984) Cosmological models and the inflationary universe (httpulmss-newtonlibcamacukvwebvholdingsInfobibId=15549) (PhD thesis) University of Cambridge

15 Centre for Theoretical Cosmology Outreach Stephen Hawking (httpwwwctccamacukoutreachstephen_hawkingphp) University of Cambridge Retrieved 23 June 2013

16 About Stephen (httpswebarchiveorgweb20150830050622httpwwwhawkingorgukabout-stephenhtml)Stephen Hawking Official Website Archived from the original (httpwwwhawkingorgukabout-stephenhtml) on 30August 2015 Retrieved 23 June 2013

17 Gardner Martin (SeptemberOctober 2001) Multiverses and Blackberries (httpwwwcsicoporgsishowmultiverses_and_blackberries) Notes of a Fringe-Watcher Skeptical Inquirer Volume 25 No 5

18 Price Michael Clive (February 1995) THE EVERETT FAQ (httpwebarchiveprojectorg32699) Archived (httpswebarchiveorgweb20160420235958httpwebarchiveprojectorg32699) 20 April 2016 at the Wayback MachineDepartment of Physics Washington University in St Louis Retrieved 17 December 2014

19 Mind over matter How Stephen Hawking defied Motor Neurone Disease for 50 years (httpswwwindependentcouknewssciencemind-over-matter-how-stephen-hawking-defied-motor-neurone-disease-for-50-years-6286313html) The Independent 26 November 2015

20 How Has Stephen Hawking Lived to 70 with ALS (httpwwwscientificamericancomarticlestephen-hawking-als) Scientific American 7 January 2012 Retrieved 23 December 2014 Q How frequent are these cases of veryslow-progressing forms of ALS A I would say probably less than a few percent

21 Overbye Dennis (14 March 2018) Stephen Hawking Dies at 76 His Mind Roamed the Cosmos (httpswwwnytimescom20180314obituariesstephen-hawking-deadhtml) The New York Times Retrieved 14 March 2018

22 Henry David (14 March 2018) Stephen Hawking physicist who reshaped cosmology passes away at 76 (httpseconomictimesindiatimescommagazinespanachephysicist-stephen-hawking-passes-awayarticleshow63294700cms) The Economic Times Retrieved 15 March 2018

23 Anon (2015) HAWKING Prof Stephen William (httpwwwukwhoswhocomviewarticleoupwwwhoswhoU19510)ukwhoswhocom Whos Who (online Oxford University Press ed) A amp C Black an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishingplc doi101093ww978019954088401319510 (httpsdoiorg1010932Fww2F978019954088401319510) (subscription required)

24 Frank Hawking (httpswwwgenicompeopleFrank-Hawking5213819130880079421) Genicom

25 Larsen 2005 pp xiii 2


27 Isobel Eileen Hawking (httpswwwgenicompeopleIsobel-Hawking5213817386800112081) Genicom

28 Mind over matter Stephen Hawking (httpwwwheraldscotlandcomnews12304843Mind_over_matter_Stephen_Hawking) The Herald Glasgow

29 Ferguson Kitty (6 January 2012) Stephen Hawking Equal to Anything [Excerpt] (httpswwwscientificamericancomarticlestephen-hawking-biography) Scientific American

30 White amp Gribbin 2002 p 6

31 Edward Frank David Hawking (httpswwwgenicompeopleEdward-Hawking5389264336990128284) Genicom

32 Larsen 2005 pp 2 5


34 Larsen 2005 p xiii


36 Ferguson 2011 pp 22ndash23

37 White amp Gribbin 2002 pp 11ndash12


39 Larsen 2005 p 3

40 Hawking Stephen (7 December 2013) Stephen Hawking Im happy if I have added something to ourunderstanding of the universe (httpwwwradiotimescomnews2013-12-07stephen-hawking-im-happy-if-i-have-added-something-to-our-understanding-of-the-universe) Radio Times



43 My brief history ndash Stephen Hawking (2013)


45 Larsen 2005 p 4








53 Hoare Geoffrey Love Eric (5 January 2007) Dick Tahta (httpswwwtheguardiancomnews2007jan05guardianobituariesobituaries) The Guardian London Retrieved 5 March 2012






59 White amp Gribbin 2002 pp 46ndash47 51


61 Hawking 1992 p 44

















78 Stephen Hawkings PhD thesis explained simply (httpswwwweforumorgagenda201710stephen-hawkings-phd-thesis-explained-simply)


80 Hawking Stephen William (1966) Properties of Expanding Universes (httpsdoiorg1017863CAM11283) (PhDthesis) University of Cambridge doi1017863CAM11283 (httpsdoiorg10178632FCAM11283)OCLC 62793673 (httpswwwworldcatorgoclc62793673) EThOS ukblethos601153 (httpethosblukOrderDetailsdouin=ukblethos601153)



83 Larsen 2005 p xix


85 Ferguson 2011 pp 61 64



88 Hawking Stephen Penrose Roger (1970) The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and CosmologyProceedings of the Royal Society A 314 (1519) 529ndash548 Bibcode1970RSPSA314529H (httpadsabsharvardeduabs1970RSPSA314529H) doi101098rspa19700021 (httpsdoiorg1010982Frspa19700021)



91 Larsen 2005 p 38



94 Larsen 2005 p 33

95 RD Blandford (30 March 1989) Astrophysical Black Holes In Hawking SW Israel W Three Hundred Years ofGravitation (httpsbooksgooglecombooksid=Vq787qC5PWQC) Cambridge University Press p 278 ISBN 978-0-521-37976-2

96 Larsen 2005 p 35


98 Larsen 2005 p 39



101 Larsen 2005 p 41

102 Hawking Stephen W (1974) Black hole explosions Nature 248 (5443) 30ndash31 Bibcode1974Natur24830H (httpadsabsharvardeduabs1974Natur24830H) doi101038248030a0 (httpsdoiorg1010382F248030a0)

103 Hawking Stephen W (1975) Particle creation by black holes (httpswwwbrainmastercomsoftwarepubsphysicsHawking20Particle20Creationpdf) (PDF) Communications in Mathematical Physics 43 (3) 199ndash220Bibcode1975CMaPh43199H (httpadsabsharvardeduabs1975CMaPh43199H) doi101007BF02345020(httpsdoiorg1010072FBF02345020)



106 Larsen 2005 pp 42ndash43


108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






118 Larsen 2005 pp xv


120 Larsen 2005 p xiv

121 Stephen Hawking to retire as Cambridges Professor of Mathematics (httpswwwtelegraphcouknewsuknews3248858Stephen-Hawking-to-retire-as-Cambridges-Professor-of-Mathematicshtml) The Daily Telegraph 23 October2008 Retrieved 15 March 2018





126 Susskind Leonard (7 July 2008) The Black Hole War My Battle with Stephen Hawking to Make the World Safe forQuantum Mechanics (httpsbooksgooglecombooksid=f3_rnRVxGIsCamppg=PT9) Hachette Digital Inc pp 9 18ISBN 978-0-316-01640-7



129 See Guth (1997) for a popular description of the workshop or The Very Early Universe ISBN 0-521-31677-4 edsGibbons Hawking amp Siklos for a detailed report

130 Hawking SW (1982) The development of irregularities in a single bubble inflationary universe Phys Lett B 115(4) 295 Bibcode1982PhLB115295H (httpadsabsharvardeduabs1982PhLB115295H) doi1010160370-2693(82)90373-2 (httpsdoiorg1010162F0370-269328822990373-2)



133 Hartle J Hawking S (1983) Wave function of the Universe Physical Review D 28 (12) 2960Bibcode1983PhRvD282960H (httpadsabsharvardeduabs1983PhRvD282960H)doi101103PhysRevD282960 (httpsdoiorg1011032FPhysRevD282960)

134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130

138 Sample Ian (15 May 2011) Stephen Hawking There is no heaven its a fairy story (httpswwwtheguardiancomscience2011may15stephen-hawking-interview-there-is-no-heaven) The Guardian Retrieved 17 May 2011

139 Yulsman 2003 pp 174ndash176


141 Ferguson 2011 p 182


143 Larsen 2005 pp xndashxix

144 Ferguson 2011 p 114

145 No 48837 (httpswwwthegazettecoukLondonissue48837supplement8) The London Gazette (Supplement)30 December 1981 p 8


147 White amp Gribbin 2002 pp 205 220ndash21

148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143


155 Radford Tim (31 July 2009) How God propelled Stephen Hawking into the bestsellers lists (httpswwwtheguardiancomscience2009jul30stephen-hawking-brief-history-time) The Guardian Retrieved 5 March 2012


157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149



162 Larsen 2005 p xvi


164 No 48837 (httpswwwthegazettecoukLondonissue48837supplement18) The London Gazette (Supplement)16 June 1989 p 18

165 Peterkin Tom (2008-06-15) Stephen Hawking warns Government over disastrous science funding cuts (httpswwwtelegraphcouknewssciencescience-news3344540Stephen-Hawking-warns-Government-over-disastrous-science-funding-cutshtml) The Telegraph Retrieved 2018-04-02

166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190

170 Hawking SW Thorne KS Preskill (6 February 1997) Black hole information bet (httpwwwtheorycaltechedu7Epreskillinfo_bethtml) Pasadena California Retrieved 20 April 2013

171 Hawking SW (2005) Information loss in black holes Physical Review D 72 (8) 084013 arXivhep-th0507171 (httpsarxivorgabshep-th0507171) Bibcode2005PhRvD72h4013H (httpadsabsharvardeduabs2005PhRvD72h4013H) doi101103PhysRevD72084013 (httpsdoiorg1011032FPhysRevD72084013)

172 Preskill John John Preskills comments about Stephen Hawkings concession (httpwwwtheorycaltechedu~preskilljp_24jul04html) Retrieved 29 February 2012


174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97



179 Highfield Roger (26 June 2008) Stephen Hawkings explosive new theory (httpswwwtelegraphcouknewssciencescience-news3345641Stephen-Hawkings-explosive-new-theoryhtml) The Daily Telegraph Retrieved 9 April2012

180 Highfield Roger (3 January 2012) Stephen Hawking driven by a cosmic force of will (httpswwwtelegraphcouknewssciencestephen-hawking8989060Stephen-Hawking-driven-by-a-cosmic-force-of-willhtml) The DailyTelegraph London Retrieved 7 December 2012

181 Hawking SW Hertog T (2006) Populating the landscape A top-down approach Physical Review D 73 (12)123527 arXivhep-th0602091 (httpsarxivorgabshep-th0602091) Bibcode2006PhRvD73l3527H (httpadsabsharvardeduabs2006PhRvD73l3527H) doi101103PhysRevD73123527 (httpsdoiorg1011032FPhysRevD73123527)

182 Ferguson 2011 p 233

183 Fonseca Prize 2008 (httpwwwuscesencursosconcienciapremio_fonseca2008html) University of Santiago deCompostela Retrieved 7 August 2009

184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269




190 Kwong Matt (28 January 2014) Stephen Hawkings black holes blunder stirs debate (httpwwwcbccanewstechnologystephen-hawking-s-black-holes-blunder-stirs-debate-12514299) CBC News Retrieved 14 March 2018

191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236

192 Ferguson 2011 pp 94ndash95 236

193 Wright Robert (17 July 2012) Why Some Physicists Bet Against the Higgs Boson (httpswwwtheatlanticcomtechnologyarchive201207why-some-physicists-bet-against-the-higgs-boson259977) The Atlantic Retrieved 1 April2013

194 Stephen Hawking loses Higgs boson particle bet ndash Video (httpswwwtheguardiancomsciencevideo2012jul05stephen-hawking-higgs-boson-bet-video) The Guardian London 5 July 2012 Retrieved 1 April 2013

195 Higgs boson breakthrough should earn physicist behind search Nobel Prize Stephen Hawking (httpnationalpostcomnewshiggs-boson-stephen-hawking) National Post Agence France-Presse 4 July 2012 Retrieved 1 April2013

196 Amos Jonathan (8 October 2013) Higgs Five decades of noble endeavour (httpwwwbbccouknewsscience-environment-24445325) BBC News Retrieved 10 May 2016


198 Books (httpwwwhawkingorgukbookshtml) Stephen Hawking Official Website Retrieved 28 February 2012

199 100 great British heroes (httpnewsbbccouk2hientertainment2208671stm) BBC News 21 August 2002Retrieved 10 May 2016

200 Oldest space-travelled science prize awarded to Hawking (httpwwwcamacuknewsoldest-space-travelled-science-prize-awarded-to-hawking) The Royal Society 24 August 2006 Retrieved 29 August 2008

201 MacAskill Ewen (13 August 2009) Obama presents presidential medal of freedom to 16 recipients (httpswwwtheguardiancomworld2009aug13obama-hawking-medal-freedom) The Guardian London Retrieved 5 March2012

202 2013 Fundamental Physics Prize Awarded to Alexander Polyakov (httpbreakthroughprizeorgNews11)Fundamental Physics Prize Retrieved 11 December 2012

203 Komar Oliver Buechner Linda (October 2000) The Stephen W Hawking Science Museum in San SalvadorCentral America Honours the Fortitude of a Great Living Scientist (httpswebarchiveorgweb20090730162105httpgeocitiescomCapeCanaveralHall5046articlehtml) Journal of College Science Teaching XXX (2) Archivedfrom the original (httpwwwgeocitiescomCapeCanaveralHall5046articlehtml) on 30 July 2009 Retrieved28 September 2008

204 The Stephen Hawking Building (httpwwwbbccoukcambridgeshirecontentarticles20070418hawking_building_featureshtml) BBC News 18 April 2007 Retrieved 24 February 2012

205 Grand Opening of the Stephen Hawking Centre at Perimeter Institute (httpwwwperimeterinstitutecaoutreachgeneral-publicspecial-eventsgrand-opening-2011) (Press release) Perimeter Institute Retrieved 6 June 2012


207 Time to unveil Corpus Clock (httpwwwcambridgenetworkcouknewstime-to-unveil-corpus-clock)Cambridgenetworkcouk 22 September 2008 Retrieved 10 September 2015

208 Hawking gives up academic title (httpnewsbbccouk2hiuk_newsenglandcambridgeshire8282358stm) BBCNews 30 September 2009 Retrieved 1 October 2009


210 Professor Stephen Hawking to stay at Cambridge University beyond 2012 (httpswwwtelegraphcoukeducationeducationnews7528596Professor-Stephen-Hawking-to-stay-at-Cambridge-University-beyond-2012html) The DailyTelegraph London 26 March 2010 Retrieved 9 February 2013

211 Billings Lee (2 September 2014) Time Travel Simulation Resolves Grandfather Paradox (httpwwwscientificamericancomarticletime-travel-simulation-resolves-grandfather-paradox) Scientific American Retrieved 2 September2016

212 Katz Gregory (20 July 2015) Searching for ET Hawking to look for extraterrestrial life (httpapnewsexcitecomarticle20150720eu--britain-extraterrestrials-e52c157915html) Associated Press Retrieved 20 July 2015

213 Tomorrows World returns to BBC with startling warning from Stephen Hawking ndash we must leave Earth (httpswwwtelegraphcoukscience20170502tomorrows-world-returns-bbc-startling-warning-stephen-hawking) TheTelegraph 2 May 2017 Retrieved 5 May 2017

214 Stephen Hawking will test his theory that humans must leave Earth Lets hope hes wrong (httpswwwusatodaycomstorytechnation-now20170504stephen-hawking-test-his-theory-humans-must-leave-earth-lets-hope-hes-wrong310545001) USA Today 4 May 2017 Retrieved 5 May 2017

215 Stephen Hawking says he has a way to escape from a black hole (httpswwwnewscientistcomarticledn28090-stephen-hawking-says-he-has-a-way-to-escape-from-a-black-hole) New Scientist

216 Stephen Hawking awarded Imperial College Londons highest honour (httpwwwimperialacuknews180588stephen-hawking-awarded-imperial-college-londons) Imperial College London Retrieved 19 July 2017









225 Hawking Stephen (1994) Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays (httpsbooksgooglecombooksid=NU9SoEwgdskCamppg=PT20) Random House p 20 ISBN 978-0-553-37411-7



228 Larsen 2005 pp xiv 79

229 Hawking 2007 pp 279ndash80

230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185


236 Adams Tim (4 April 2004) Brief History of a first wife (httpswwwtheguardiancomtheobserver2004apr04featuresreview17) The Observer London Retrieved 12 February 2013

237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192

242 Welcome back to the family Stephen (httpswebarchiveorgweb20081203111754httpwwwtimesonlinecouktolnewsukarticle1751518ece) The Times 6 May 2007 Archived from the original (httpwwwtimesonlinecouktolnewsukarticle1751518ece) on 3 December 2008 Retrieved 6 May 2007

243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225

244 Harrison David (25 January 2004) Police plan to ask Stephen Hawking about abuse claims (httpswwwtelegraphcouknewsuknews1452516Police-plan-to-ask-Stephen-Hawking-about-abuse-claimshtml) The Daily TelegraphLondon Retrieved 3 February 2013

245 Adams Tim (4 April 2004) Tim Adams talks to Jane Hawking about her ex husband Stephen (httpswwwtheguardiancomtheobserver2004apr04featuresreview17) The Observer London

246 Sapsted David (20 October 2006) Hawking and second wife agree to divorce (httpswwwtelegraphcouknewsuknews1531891Hawking-and-second-wife-agree-to-divorcehtml) The Daily Telegraph Retrieved 18 March 2007

247 Ferguson 2011 p 225

248 Eddie Redmayne wins first Oscar for Theory of Everything (httpswwwreuterscomarticleus-awards-oscars-actoreddie-redmayne-wins-first-oscar-for-theory-of-everything-idUSKBN0LR0AF20150223) Reuters 10 May 2016Retrieved 7 March 2015


250 Donaldson Gregg J (May 1999) The Man Behind the Scientist (httpswebarchiveorgweb20050511104943httpwwwmdtaporgTT1999051-arthtml) Tapping Technology Archived from the original (httpwwwmdtaporgTT1999051-arthtml) on 11 May 2005 Retrieved 23 December 2012








258 Ridpath Ian (4 May 1978) Black hole explorer (httpsbooksgooglecombooksid=kmxb4_WjDUYCamplpg=PP1amppg=PA307) New Scientist Retrieved 9 January 2013


260 White amp Gribbin 2002 p viii



263 Ferguson 2011 p 162


265 Mialet 2003 pp 450ndash51

266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136

276 Medeiros Joao (13 January 2015) How Intel Gave Stephen Hawking a Voice (httpswwwwiredcom201501intel-gave-stephen-hawking-voice) Wired Retrieved 14 March 2018



279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138

282 Greenemeier Larry (10 August 2009) Getting Back the Gift of Gab Next-Gen Handheld Computers Allow the Muteto Converse (httpswwwscientificamericancomarticleassistive-communication) Scientific American Retrieved11 September 2012

283 Stephen Hawking says pope told him not to study beginning of universe (httpusatoday30usatodaycomlifepeople2006-06-15-hawking_xhtm) USA Today 15 June 2006 Retrieved 12 December 2012

284 Ferguson 2011 p 224

285 de Lange Catherine (30 December 2011) The man who saves Stephen Hawkings voice (httpswwwnewscientistcomarticledn21323-the-man-who-saves-stephen-hawkings-voice) New Scientist Retrieved 18 June 2012

286 Boyle Alan (25 June 2012) How researchers hacked into Stephen Hawkings brain (httpswebarchiveorgweb20150830052332httpcosmiclognbcnewscom_news2012062512401493-how-researchers-hacked-into-stephen-hawkings-brainlite) NBC News Archived from the original (httpcosmiclognbcnewscom_news2012062512401493-how-researchers-hacked-into-stephen-hawkings-brainlite) on 30 August 2015 Retrieved 29 September 2012

287 Start-up attempts to convert Prof Hawkings brainwaves into speech (httpwwwbbccouknewstechnology-18749963) BBC 7 July 2012 Retrieved 29 September 2012

288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178

290 Call for global disability campaign (httpnewsbbccouk2hihealth441912stm) London BBC 8 September1999 Retrieved 12 February 2013

291 Ferguson 2011 p 196

292 Julius Edgar Lilienfeld Prize (httpwwwapsorgprogramshonorsprizeslilienfeldcfm) American Physical SocietyRetrieved 29 August 2008

293 Paralympics Games opening promises journey of discovery (httpwwwbbccouknewsuk-19411225) BBC 29August 2012 Retrieved 29 August 2012

294 DeWitt David (13 September 2013) The Brilliance of His Universe (httpswwwnytimescom20130913movieshawking-a-documentary-on-stephen-hawkinghtml) The New York Times Retrieved 13 September 2013

295 Duffin Claire (17 September 2013) We dont let animals suffer says Prof Stephen Hawking as he backs assistedsuicide (httpswwwtelegraphcouknewsscience10315476We-dont-let-animals-suffer-says-Prof-Stephen-Hawking-as-he-backs-assisted-suicidehtml) The Daily Telegraph London

296 Culzac Natasha (29 August 2014) Stephen Hawking MND sufferer does ice bucket challenge with a twist (httpswwwindependentcouknewspeoplestephen-hawking-mnd-sufferer-does-ice-bucket-challenge-with-a-twist-9698539html) The Independent Retrieved 29 August 2014

297 Hawking takes zero-gravity flight (httpnewsbbccouk2hisciencenature6594821stm) BBC News 27 April2007 Retrieved 17 June 2012

298 Overbye Dennis (1 March 2007) Stephen Hawking Plans Prelude to the Ride of His Life (httpswwwnytimescom20070301science01hawkinghtmlref=stephenwhawking) The New York Times New York NYTC Retrieved9 February 2013


300 Leonard T Osborne A (27 April 2007) Branson to help Hawking live space dream (httpswwwtelegraphcouknewsworldnews1549898Branson-to-help-Hawking-live-space-dreamhtml) The Telegraph Retrieved 15 March2018

301 Dean James (14 March 2018) Stephen Hawking felt freedom of weightlessness during KSC visit (httpswwwfloridatodaycomstorytechsciencespace20180314stephen-hawking-experienced-freedom-weightlessness-during-kennedy-space-center-visit424663002) USA Today Retrieved 15 March 2018

302 Rees Martin (2018) Stephen Hawking (1942ndash2018) World-renowned physicist who defied the odds Nature 555(7697) 444ndash444 doi101038d41586-018-02839-9 (httpsdoiorg1010382Fd41586-018-02839-9) ISSN 0028-0836 (httpswwwworldcatorgissn0028-0836) PMID 29565379 (httpswwwncbinlmnihgovpubmed29565379)

303 Penrose Roger (14 March 2018) Mind over matter Stephen Hawking (httpswwwtheguardiancomscience2018mar14stephen-hawking-obituary) The Guardian Retrieved 14 March 2018

304 Allen Karma (14 March 2018) Stephen Hawking author of A Brief History of Time dies at 76 (httpabcnewsgocomInternationalaward-winning-scientist-stephen-hawking-dies-76storyid=53729818) ABC News Retrieved14 March 2018

305 Barr Robert Physicist Stephen Hawking dies after living with ALS for 50-plus years (httpswwwsfgatecomworldarticlePhysicist-Stephen-Hawking-dies-after-living-with-12751523php) San Francisco Chronicle Retrieved14 March 2018

306 Overbye Dennis (14 March 2018) Stephen Hawkings Beautiful Mind (httpswwwnytimescom20180314sciencestephen-hawking-timelinehtml) The New York Times Retrieved 15 March 2018

307 Mlodinow Leonard (14 March 2018) Stephen Hawking Force of Nature (httpswwwnytimescom20180314opinionstephen-hawking-death-html) The New York Times Retrieved 14 March 2018

308 Brown Benjamin We lost a great one today World reacts to Stephen Hawkings death on social media (httpwwwfoxnewscomscience20180314world-reacts-to-stephen-hawkings-death-on-social-mediahtml) Fox NewsChannel Retrieved 14 March 2018

309 Stephen Hawking Tributes pour in for inspirational physicist (httpwwwbbccomnewsscience-environment-43398187) BBC News 14 March 2018 Retrieved 14 March 2018

310 Marsh Sarah (14 March 2018) Cambridge colleagues pay tribute to inspirational Hawking (httpswwwtheguardiancomscience2018mar14cambridge-students-pay-tribute-to-inspirational-hawking) The Guardian Retrieved14 March 2018

311 Queue of people sign book of condolence at Stephen Hawkings former college (httphomebtcomnewsuk-newsqueue-of-people-sign-book-of-condolence-at-stephen-hawkings-former-college-11364258015099) BT News PressAssociation 14 March 2018 Retrieved 14 March 2018

312 Overbye Dennis (15 March 2018) Stephen Hawking Taught Us a Lot About How to Live (httpswwwnytimescom20180314sciencestephen-hawking-lifehtml) The New York Times Retrieved 15 March 2018

313 administrator IPC to Pay Tribute to Stephen Hawking During PyeongChang Paralympics Closing Ceremony (httpswwwpyeongchang2018comenparalympicsnewsipc-to-pay-tribute-to-stephen-hawking-during-pyeongchang-paralympics-closing-ceremony) Retrieved 2018-03-20

314 Ghosh Pallab (26 March 2018) Stephen Hawkings final interview A beautiful Universe (httpwwwbbccomnewsscience-environment-43499024) BBC news Retrieved 26 March 2018

315 Taylor Dan (24 March 2018) Stephen Hawkings incredible last words will stun you (httpswwwmorningtickercom201803stephen-hawkings-astonishing-last-words-will-stun-you) MorningTickercom Retrieved 24 March 2018

316 Tasoff Harrison (13 March 2018) 4 Smithsonian Space Documentaries You Dont Want to Miss (httpswwwspacecom39950-smithsonian-channel-space-specialshtml) Spacecom Retrieved 24 March 2018

317 Larsen 2005 p 51

318 Elliott Chris (31 March 2018) The day Cambridge said goodbye to Stephen Hawking - one of our citys greatestever academics (httpswwwcambridge-newscouknewscambridge-newsstephen-hawking-funeral-14479609)Cambridge News Retrieved 31 March 2018

319 The Associated Press (31 March 2018) At Stephen Hawking Funeral Eddie Redmayne and Astronomer RoyalGive Readings (httpswwwnytimescom20180331worldeuropestephen-hawking-funeral-eddie-redmaynehtml)The New York Times Retrieved 31 March 2018

320 Prof Stephen Hawking funeral Legacy will live forever (httpwwwbbccouknewsuk-england-cambridgeshire-43582950) BBC News Published 31 March 2018 Retrieved 31 March 2018

321 Westminster Abbey raquo Professor Stephen Hawking to be honoured at the Abbey (httpwwwwestminster-abbeyorgpressnews2018marchprofessor-stephen-hawking-to-be-honoured-at-the-abbey)

322 Roger Highfield (20 February 2002) A simple formula that will make a fitting epitaph (httpswwwtelegraphcouknewssciencescience-news4768008A-simple-formula-that-will-make-a-fitting-epitaphhtml) Telegraph Media Group

323 Clark Stuart (2016) The Unknown Universe Pegasus p 281 ISBN 978-1-68177-153-3

324 Griffin Andrew (14 March 2018) Stephen Hawking death The equation the professor asked to be put on histombstone (httpswwwindependentcouknewssciencestephen-hawking-death-dies-equation-discovery-tombstone-radiation-nobel-a8254966html) The Independent Retrieved 17 March 2018

325 Strominger A Vafa C (1996) Microscopic origin of the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy Physics Letters B 379 99arXivhep-th9601029 (httpsarxivorgabshep-th9601029) Bibcode1996PhLB37999S (httpadsabsharvardeduabs1996PhLB37999S) doi1010160370-2693(96)00345-0 (httpsdoiorg1010162F0370-269328962900345-0)

326 Sample Ian (2 August 2006) The great mans answer to the question of human survival Er I dont know (httpswwwtheguardiancomscience2006aug03scientistsspaceexploration) The Guardian Retrieved 14 March 2018

327 Prof Stephen Hawking disaster on planet Earth is a near certainty (httpswwwtelegraphcouknewssciencescience-news12107623Prof-Stephen-Hawking-disaster-on-planet-Earth-is-a-near-certaintyhtml) The Daily Telegraph

328 Highfield Roger (16 October 2001) Colonies in space may be only hope says Hawking (httpswwwtelegraphcouknewsuknews1359562Colonies-in-space-may-be-only-hope-says-Hawkinghtml) The Daily Telegraph LondonRetrieved 5 August 2007

329 Hickman Leo (25 April 2010) Stephen Hawking takes a hard line on aliens (httpswwwtheguardiancomcommentisfree2010apr26stephen-hawking-issues-warning-on-aliens) The Guardian Retrieved 24 February 2012

330 Stephen Hawking warns over making contact with aliens (httpnewsbbccouk2hiuk_news8642558stm) BBCNews 25 April 2010 Retrieved 24 May 2010

331 Hawking Stephen Tegmark Mark Wilczek Frank (1 May 2014) Stephen Hawking Transcendence looks at theimplications of artificial intelligence ndash but are we taking AI seriously enough (httpswwwindependentcouknewssciencestephen-hawking-transcendence-looks-at-the-implications-of-artificial-intelligence-but-are-we-taking-9313474html) The Independent Retrieved 3 December 2014

332 Stephen Hawking warns artificial intelligence could end mankind (httpwwwbbccomnewstechnology-30290540)BBC News 2 December 2014 Retrieved 3 December 2014

333 Ferguson 2011 p 179

334 Warman Matt (17 May 2011) Stephen Hawking tells Google philosophy is dead (httpswwwtelegraphcouktechnologygoogle8520033Stephen-Hawking-tells-Google-philosophy-is-deadhtml) The Daily Telegraph LondonRetrieved 17 June 2012

335 Boyle Alan (23 September 2014) Im an Atheist Stephen Hawking on God and Space Travel (httpwwwnbcnewscomsciencespaceim-atheist-stephen-hawking-god-space-travel-n210076) NBC News Retrieved 12 January2017

336 Stephen Hawkings Religion and Political Views (httpshollowversecomstephen-hawking) Hollowverse

337 Stewart Phil (31 October 2008) Pope sees physicist Hawking at evolution gathering (httpswwwreuterscomarticleus-pope-hawkingpope-sees-physicist-hawking-at-evolution-gathering-idUSTRE49U6E220081031) ReutersRetrieved 22 May 2009

338 Stephen Hawking ndash There is no God There is no Fate (httpswwwyoutubecomwatchv=7L7VTdzuY7Y)Retrieved 4 July 2013

339 Lowry Brian (4 August 2011) Curiosity Did God Create the Universe (httpsvarietycom2011tvreviewscuriosity-did-god-create-the-universe-1117945762) Variety Retrieved 14 March 2018

340 David Edwards (24 September 2014) Stephen Hawking comes out Im an atheist because science is moreconvincing than God (httpswwwrawstorycom201409stephen-hawking-comes-out-im-an-atheist-because-science-is-more-convincing-than-god) Raw Story Retrieved 25 September 2014


342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195

344 Scientist Stephen Hawking decries Iraq war (httpusatoday30usatodaycomnewsworld2004-11-03-hawking-iraq_xhtm) USA Today 3 November 2004 Retrieved 18 February 2013

345 Diplomacy and politics Stephen Hawking reaffirms support of Israel boycott (httpwwwjpostcomDiplomacy-and-PoliticsStephen-Hawking-reaffirms-support-of-Israel-boycott-312505) Retrieved 26 October 2014

346 Kershner Isabel (8 May 2013) Stephen Hawking Joins Boycott Against Israel (httpswwwnytimescom20130509worldmiddleeaststephen-hawking-joins-boycott-against-israelhtml) The New York Times Retrieved 8 May 2013

347 Andalo Debbie (24 July 2006) Hawking urges EU not to stop stem cell funding (httpswwwtheguardiancomscience2006jul24geneticseuropeanunion) The Guardian London Retrieved 18 February 2013

348 Ferguson 2011 p 242

349 Lean Geoffrey (21 January 2007) Prophet of Doomsday Stephen Hawking eco-warrior ndash Climate Change ndashEnvironment (httpswwwindependentcoukenvironmentclimate-changeprophet-of-doomsday-stephen-hawking-ecowarrior-433064html) The Independent London Retrieved 18 February 2013

350 Celebrities open letter to Scotland ndash full text and list of signatories (httpswwwtheguardiancompolitics2014aug07celebrities-open-letter-scotland-independence-full-text) The Guardian London 7 August 2014 Retrieved26 August 2014

351 Radford Tim (31 May 2016) Trumps popularity inexplicable and Brexit spells disaster says Stephen Hawking (httpswwwtheguardiancomscience2016may31stephen-hawking-donald-trump-popularity-inexplicable-and-brexit-spells-disaster) The Guardian Retrieved 31 May 2016

352 Stephen Hawkings political views (httpwwwbbccouknewsuk-politics-43399019) 14 March 2018 Retrieved19 March 2018 ndash via wwwbbccouk

353 Hawking v Hunt What happened (httpwwwbbccouknewsavhealth-40990288stephen-hawking-i-wouldn-t-be-here-without-the-nhs) BBC News 20 August 2017 Retrieved 14 March 2018

354 Triggle Nick (19 August 2017) Stephen Hawking Im worried about the future of the NHS (httpwwwbbccomnewshealth-40967309) BBC News Retrieved 14 March 2018

355 Campbell Denis (18 August 2017) Stephen Hawking blames Tory politicians for damaging NHS (httpswwwtheguardiancomscience2017aug18stephen-hawking-blames-tory-politicians-for-damaging-nhs) The GuardianRetrieved 14 March 2018

356 Kennedy Maev (27 August 2017) Jeremy Hunt continues war of words with Stephen Hawking over NHS (httpswwwtheguardiancompolitics2017aug27jeremy-hunt-continues-war-of-words-with-stephen-hawking-over-nhs) TheGuardian Retrieved 14 March 2018

357 Griffin Andrew (6 June 2017) Stephen Hawking announces he is voting Labour The Tories would be a disaster (httpswwwindependentcouknewssciencestephen-hawking-jeremy-corbyn-labour-theresa-may-conservatives-endorsement-general-election-a7774016html) The Independent Retrieved 6 June 2017

358 Ghosh Pallab (2 July 2017) Hawking says Trumps climate stance could damage Earth (httpwwwbbccouknewsscience-environment-40461726) BBC News Retrieved 14 March 2018

359 Eleftheriou-Smith Loulla-Mae (3 July 2017) Stephen Hawking says Donald Trump could turn Earth into Venus-likeplanet with 250C and sulphuric acid rain (httpswwwindependentcouknewssciencestephen-hawking-donald-trump-paris-climate-change-agreement-earth-brink-global-warming-us-fossil-a7820336html) The IndependentRetrieved 14 March 2018



362 Okuda amp Okuda 1999 p 380


364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221

366 Wollaston Sam (4 March 2008) Last nights TV Stephen Hawking Master of the Universe (httpswwwtheguardiancomculturetvandradioblog2008mar04lastnightstvstephenhawking) The Guardian London Retrieved10 February 2013

367 Professor Stephen Hawking films Big Bang Theory cameo (httpwwwbbccouknewsentertainment-arts-17337778) BBC News 12 March 2012 Retrieved 12 March 2012

368 Mialet Heacutelegravene (28 June 2012) Hawking Incorporated Stephen Hawking and the Anthropology of the KnowingSubject (httpsbooksgooglecombooksid=sGCBQPZMyqICamplpg=PA211ampdq=22stephen20hawking2220(22copyright227C22copyrighted227C22trademark227C22trademarked22)20(22voice227C22synthesizer227C22synthesiser22)amppg=PA211v=onepageampq=22stephen20hawking2220(22copyright227C22copyrighted227C22trademark227C22trademarked22)20(22voice227C22synthesizer227C22synthesiser22)ampf=false) p 211 ISBN 978-0-226-52226-5 Retrieved 12 July2015

369 Edgar James (30 May 2014) Have you still got that American voice Queen asks Stephen Hawking (httpswwwtelegraphcouknewsuknewsqueen-elizabeth-II10866057Have-you-still-got-that-American-voice-Queen-asks-Stephen-Hawkinghtml) The Telegraph Retrieved 12 July 2015

370 Setoodeh Ramin How Eddie Redmayne Became Stephen Hawking in The Theory of Everything (httpsvarietycom2014filmnewseddie-redmayne-theory-of-everything-stephen-hawking-1201340498) Variety Retrieved24 February 2015

371 McAfee Melonyce (14 April 2015) Stephen Hawking sings Monty Pythons Galaxy Song (httpeditioncnncom20150414entertainmentfeat-stephen-hawking-sings-galaxy-song) CNN Retrieved 12 January 2017

372 Grow Korry (14 April 2015) Hear Stephen Hawking Sing Monty Pythons Galaxy Song (httpswwwrollingstonecommoviesvideoshear-stephen-hawking-sing-monty-pythons-galaxy-song-20150414) Rolling Stone Retrieved12 January 2017

373 Haurant Sandra (3 June 2008) Savings Heavyweight celebrities endorse National Savings (httpswwwtheguardiancommoney2008jun03savings) Retrieved 25 February 2013

374 Could Hawkings parody be sincerest form of flattery (httpswwwtelegraphcoukfinancepersonalfinancecomment4454268Could-Hawkings-parody-be-sincerest-form-of-flatteryhtml) Telegraph Media Group Limited 13 June2000 Retrieved 19 February 2013

375 Usborne Simon (1 January 2013) Stephen Hawking Go Compare and a brief history of selling out (httpswwwindependentcouknewsmediaadvertisingstephen-hawking-go-compare-and-a-brief-history-of-selling-out-8434612html) The Independent Retrieved 19 February 2013

376 Buchanan Rose Troup (20 March 2015) Professor Stephen Hawking to trademark name (httpswwwindependentcouknewspeopleprofessor-stephen-hawking-to-trademark-name-10142840html) The Independent Retrieved2 April 2015

377 Tufnell Nicholas (9 March 2018) The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy is back with the original cast (httpswwwcnetcomnewsthe-hitchhikers-guide-to-the-galaxy-is-back-with-the-original-cast) CNET Retrieved 14 March 2018and StarTalk Season 4 Episode 20 Stephen Hawking (httpchannelnationalgeographiccomstartalkvideosstephen-hawking) National Geographic Partners LLC 4 March 2018 Retrieved 14 March 2018

378 Certificate of election Hawking Stephen EC197412 (httpswwwwebcitationorg6N82r0VChurl=httproyalsocietyorgDServedserveexedsqIni=DserveiniampdsqApp=ArchiveampdsqDb=CatalogampdsqCmd=showtclampdsqSearch=28RefNo3D3D27EC2F19742F122729) London The Royal Society Archived from the original (httproyalsocietyorgDServedserveexedsqIni=DserveiniampdsqApp=ArchiveampdsqDb=CatalogampdsqCmd=showtclampdsqSearch=(RefNo==27EC2F19742F1227)) on 4 February 2014

379 Corkery Claire (1 November 2016) Pride of Britain 2016 Stephen Hawking makes Brexit joke at PM TheresaMays expense (httpswwwexpresscoukshowbiztv-radio727766Pride-of-Britain-awards-2016-Stephen-Hawking-Brexit-Theresa-May-Carol-Vorderman) Express Retrieved 14 March 2018

380 Stephen Hawking Medals For Science Communication (httpswwwstarmuscomstephen-hawking-medals-for-science-communication) STARMUS Retrieved 16 May 2017

381 Russian astronomers devote newly-discovered black hole to Stephen Hawking (httpswwwrtcomnews421874-astronomers-devote-black-hole-hawking) Russia Today 21 March 2018

382 Black Holes and Baby Universes (httpswwwkirkusreviewscombook-reviewsstephen-hawkingblack-holes-and-baby-universes) Kirkus Reviews 20 March 2010 Retrieved 18 June 2012

383 How Physics got Weird (httpswwwwsjcomarticlesSB10001424052970204791104577110461358473418) TheWall Street Journal 5 December 2016

384 A Brief History of Time Synopsis (httpwwwerrolmorriscomfilmbhothtml) Errol Morris Retrieved 18 June 2012

385 Stephen Hawkings Universe (httpswwwpbsorgprogramstephen-hawkings-universe) PBS Retrieved 26 June2012

386 The Hawking Paradox (httpwwwbbccouksntvradioprogrammeshorizonhawking_prog_summaryshtml) BBCRetrieved 9 February 2012

387 Richmond Ray (3 August 2007) Masters of Science Fiction too artistic for ABC (httpswwwreuterscomarticlereview-television-masters-dcmasters-of-science-fiction-too-artistic-for-abc-idUSN0242298520070803rpc=92)Reuters Retrieved 7 December 2012

388 Walton James (4 March 2008) Last night on television Stephen Hawking Master of the Universe (Channel 4) ndashThe Palace (ITV1) (httpswwwtelegraphcoukculturetvandradio3671613Last-night-on-television-Stephen-Hawking-Master-of-the-Universe-Channel-4-The-Palace-ITV1html) The Daily Telegraph Retrieved 14 March 2018

389 Into the Universe with Stephen Hawking (httpswebarchiveorgweb20110325010542httpdscdiscoverycomtvstephen-hawkingaboutabouthtml) Discovery Channel Archived from the original (httpdscdiscoverycomtvstephen-hawkingaboutabouthtml) on 25 March 2011 Retrieved 25 April 2010

390 Moulds Josephine (17 October 2011) Brave New World with Stephen Hawking episode one Channel 4 review(httpswwwtelegraphcoukculturetvandradio8824454Brave-New-World-with-Stephen-Hawking-episode-one-Channel-4-reviewhtml) The Daily Telegraph Retrieved 14 March 2018

391 Stephen Hawkings Grand Design (httpspressdiscoverycomukdscprogramshawking-grand-design)Discovery Channel UK Retrieved 25 October 2012

Official websiteStephen Hawking on FacebookStephen Hawking on IMDbStephen Hawking at the Internet Speculative Fiction DatabasePortraits of Stephen William Hawking at the National Portrait Gallery London Archival material relating to Stephen Hawking UK National ArchivesStephen Hawking collected news and commentary The New York TimesStephen Hawkings publications indexed by the Scopus bibliographic database a service provided by Elsevier(subscription required)

Stephen Hawking at Encyclopaeligdia Britannica

392 Wollaston Sam (9 December 2013) Stephen Hawking A Brief History of Mine ndash TV review (httpswwwtheguardiancomtv-and-radio2013dec09stephen-hawking-brief-history-mine-tv-review) The Guardian Retrieved 14 March2018

393 Labrecque Jeff (6 August 2014) Eddie Redmayne plays Stephen Hawking in Theory of Everything trailer (httpwwwewcomarticle20140806stephen-hawking-theory-of-everything-trailer) Entertainment Weekly Retrieved6 August 2014

Hawking Stephen (2013) My Brief History Bantam ISBN 978-0-345-53528-3 Retrieved 9 September 2013

Baird Eric (2007) Relativity in Curved Spacetime Life Without Special Relativity Chocolate Tree Books ISBN 978-0-9557068-0-6

Boslough John (1989) Stephen Hawkings universe an introduction to the most remarkable scientist of our timeAvon Books ISBN 978-0-380-70763-8 Retrieved 4 March 2012

Ferguson Kitty (2011) Stephen Hawking His Life and Work Transworld ISBN 978-1-4481-1047-6

Gibbons Gary W Hawking Stephen W Siklos STC eds (1983) The Very early universe proceedings of theNuffield workshop Cambridge 21 June to 9 July 1982 Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-31677-4

Hawking Jane (2007) Travelling to Infinity My Life With Stephen Alma ISBN 978-1-84688-115-2

Hawking Stephen W (1994) Black holes and baby universes and other essays Bantam Books ISBN 978-0-553-37411-7

Hawking Stephen W Ellis George FR (1973) The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time Cambridge UniversityPress ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6

Hawking Stephen W (1992) Stephen Hawkings A brief history of time a readers companion Bantam BooksISBN 978-0-553-07772-8

Hawking Stephen W Israel Werner (1989) Three Hundred Years of Gravitation Cambridge University PressISBN 978-0-521-37976-2

Larsen Kristine (2005) Stephen Hawking a biography ISBN 978-0-313-32392-8

Mialet Heacutelegravene (2003) Is the end in sight for the Lucasian chair Stephen Hawking as Millennium Professor InKnox Kevin C Noakes Richard From Newton to Hawking A History of Cambridge Universitys LucasianProfessors of Mathematics Cambridge University Press pp 425ndash460 ISBN 978-0-521-66310-6

Mialet Heacutelegravene (2012) Hawking Incorporated Stephen Hawking and the Anthropology of the Knowing SubjectUniversity of Chicago Press ISBN 978-0-226-52226-5

Okuda Michael Okuda Denise (1999) The Star Trek Encyclopedia A Reference Guide to the Future PocketBooks ISBN 978-0-671-53609-1

Pickover Clifford A (2008) Archimedes to Hawking laws of science and the great minds behind them OxfordUniversity Press ISBN 978-0-19-533611-5 Retrieved 4 March 2012

White Michael Gribbin John (2002) Stephen Hawking A Life in Science (2nd ed) National Academies PressISBN 978-0-309-08410-9

Yulsman Tom (2003) Origins the quest for our cosmic roots CRC Press ISBN 978-0-7503-0765-9

Sources

External links

Appearances on C-SPANWorks by or about Stephen Hawking in libraries (WorldCat catalog)Stephen Hawking collected news and commentary The Guardian Stephen Hawking at TED Stephen Hawking at 70 Exclusive interview New Scientist 4 January 2012The Universe and Beyond with Stephen Hawking StarTalk video

Retrieved from httpsenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=Stephen_Hawkingampoldid=833980661

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PenrosendashHawkingtheorems

BekensteinndashHawking formula

Hawking energy

GibbonsndashHawking ansatz

GibbonsndashHawking effect

GibbonsndashHawking space

GibbonsndashHawkingndashYorkboundary term

ThornendashHawkingndashPreskillbet

Spouse(s) Jane Wilde (m 1965div 1995)

Elaine Mason (m 1995div 2006)

Children 3 including LucyHawking

Awards Adams Prize(1966)

Eddington Medal(1975)

Maxwell Medaland Prize (1976)

Heineman Prize(1976)

Hughes Medal(1976)

Albert EinsteinAward (1978)

RAS Gold Medal(1985)

Dirac Medal(1987)

Wolf Prize (1988)

Prince of AsturiasAward (1989)

Personal viewsFuture of humanityScience vs philosophyReligion and atheismPolitics


Awards and honoursStephen Hawking Medal for Science CommunicationBlack Hole discovery dedication

PublicationsPopular books

Co-authoredForewords

Childrens fictionFilms and seriesSelected academic works

Notes

ReferencesSources

External links

Hawking was born on 8 January 1942[23] in Oxford to Frank (1905ndash1986)[24] andIsobel Eileen Hawking (neacutee Walker 1915ndash2013)[25][26][27] Hawkings mother wasborn into a family of doctors in Glasgow Scotland[28][29] His wealthy paternalgreat-grandfather from Yorkshire had over-extended himself buying farm land andthen gone bankrupt in the great agricultural depression during the early 20thcentury[29] His paternal great-grandmother saved the family from financial ruin byopening a school in their home[29] Despite their families financial constraints bothparents attended the University of Oxford where Frank read medicine and Isobelread Philosophy Politics and Economics[26] Isobel worked as a secretary for amedical research institute and Frank was a medical researcher[26][30] Hawking hadtwo younger sisters Philippa and Mary and an adopted brother Edward FrankDavid (1955ndash2003)[31][32]

In 1950 when Hawkings father became head of the division of parasitology at theNational Institute for Medical Research the family moved to St AlbansHertfordshire[33][34] In St Albans the family was considered highly intelligent andsomewhat eccentric[33][35] meals were often spent with each person silently readinga book[33] They lived a frugal existence in a large cluttered and poorly maintainedhouse and travelled in a converted London taxicab[36][37] During one of Hawkingsfathers frequent absences working in Africa[38] the rest of the family spent fourmonths in Majorca visiting his mothers friend Beryl and her husband the poetRobert Graves[39]

Early life and education

Family




Albert Medal(1999)

Copley Medal(2006)





Scientific career


Quantum gravity





Doctoraladvisor

Dennis Sciama[2]


Robert Berman[3]

Doctoralstudents

Bruce Allen[2][4]









Undergraduate years

RaphaelBousso[2][5]

Bernard Carr[2][6]

Fay Dowker[2][7]


Gary Gibbons[2][9]

ThomasHertog[2][10]


Don Page[2][12]

MalcolmPerry[2][13]

WuZhongchao[2][14]

29 others[2]

Signature






Graduate years

Career

1966ndash1975







1975ndash1990







1990ndash2000










2000ndash2018

















Personal life

Marriages











Disability







Disability outreach









Death

Personal views

Future of humanity













Politics












Play media









Awards and honours






























Publications

Popular books

Co-authored

Forewords

Childrens fiction

Films and series













Notes

References































32 Larsen 2005 pp 2 5







39 Larsen 2005 p 3






45 Larsen 2005 p 4














































91 Larsen 2005 p 38



94 Larsen 2005 p 33


96 Larsen 2005 p 35


98 Larsen 2005 p 39



101 Larsen 2005 p 41







108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






















134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130




141 Ferguson 2011 p 182



144 Ferguson 2011 p 114




148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links








Albert Medal(1999)

Copley Medal(2006)





Scientific career


Quantum gravity





Doctoraladvisor

Dennis Sciama[2]


Robert Berman[3]

Doctoralstudents

Bruce Allen[2][4]









Undergraduate years

RaphaelBousso[2][5]

Bernard Carr[2][6]

Fay Dowker[2][7]


Gary Gibbons[2][9]

ThomasHertog[2][10]


Don Page[2][12]

MalcolmPerry[2][13]

WuZhongchao[2][14]

29 others[2]

Signature






Graduate years

Career

1966ndash1975







1975ndash1990







1990ndash2000










2000ndash2018

















Personal life

Marriages











Disability







Disability outreach









Death

Personal views

Future of humanity













Politics












Play media









Awards and honours






























Publications

Popular books

Co-authored

Forewords

Childrens fiction

Films and series













Notes

References































32 Larsen 2005 pp 2 5







39 Larsen 2005 p 3






45 Larsen 2005 p 4














































91 Larsen 2005 p 38



94 Larsen 2005 p 33


96 Larsen 2005 p 35


98 Larsen 2005 p 39



101 Larsen 2005 p 41







108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






















134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130




141 Ferguson 2011 p 182



144 Ferguson 2011 p 114




148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links





RaphaelBousso[2][5]

Bernard Carr[2][6]

Fay Dowker[2][7]


Gary Gibbons[2][9]

ThomasHertog[2][10]


Don Page[2][12]

MalcolmPerry[2][13]

WuZhongchao[2][14]

29 others[2]

Signature






Graduate years

Career

1966ndash1975







1975ndash1990







1990ndash2000










2000ndash2018

















Personal life

Marriages











Disability







Disability outreach









Death

Personal views

Future of humanity













Politics












Play media









Awards and honours






























Publications

Popular books

Co-authored

Forewords

Childrens fiction

Films and series













Notes

References































32 Larsen 2005 pp 2 5







39 Larsen 2005 p 3






45 Larsen 2005 p 4














































91 Larsen 2005 p 38



94 Larsen 2005 p 33


96 Larsen 2005 p 35


98 Larsen 2005 p 39



101 Larsen 2005 p 41







108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






















134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130




141 Ferguson 2011 p 182



144 Ferguson 2011 p 114




148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links











1975ndash1990







1990ndash2000










2000ndash2018

















Personal life

Marriages











Disability







Disability outreach









Death

Personal views

Future of humanity













Politics












Play media









Awards and honours






























Publications

Popular books

Co-authored

Forewords

Childrens fiction

Films and series













Notes

References































32 Larsen 2005 pp 2 5







39 Larsen 2005 p 3






45 Larsen 2005 p 4














































91 Larsen 2005 p 38



94 Larsen 2005 p 33


96 Larsen 2005 p 35


98 Larsen 2005 p 39



101 Larsen 2005 p 41







108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






















134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130




141 Ferguson 2011 p 182



144 Ferguson 2011 p 114




148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links











1990ndash2000










2000ndash2018

















Personal life

Marriages











Disability







Disability outreach









Death

Personal views

Future of humanity













Politics












Play media









Awards and honours






























Publications

Popular books

Co-authored

Forewords

Childrens fiction

Films and series













Notes

References































32 Larsen 2005 pp 2 5







39 Larsen 2005 p 3






45 Larsen 2005 p 4














































91 Larsen 2005 p 38



94 Larsen 2005 p 33


96 Larsen 2005 p 35


98 Larsen 2005 p 39



101 Larsen 2005 p 41







108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






















134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130




141 Ferguson 2011 p 182



144 Ferguson 2011 p 114




148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links













2000ndash2018

















Personal life

Marriages











Disability







Disability outreach









Death

Personal views

Future of humanity













Politics












Play media









Awards and honours






























Publications

Popular books

Co-authored

Forewords

Childrens fiction

Films and series













Notes

References































32 Larsen 2005 pp 2 5







39 Larsen 2005 p 3






45 Larsen 2005 p 4














































91 Larsen 2005 p 38



94 Larsen 2005 p 33


96 Larsen 2005 p 35


98 Larsen 2005 p 39



101 Larsen 2005 p 41







108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






















134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130




141 Ferguson 2011 p 182



144 Ferguson 2011 p 114




148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links



















Personal life

Marriages











Disability







Disability outreach









Death

Personal views

Future of humanity













Politics












Play media









Awards and honours






























Publications

Popular books

Co-authored

Forewords

Childrens fiction

Films and series













Notes

References































32 Larsen 2005 pp 2 5







39 Larsen 2005 p 3






45 Larsen 2005 p 4














































91 Larsen 2005 p 38



94 Larsen 2005 p 33


96 Larsen 2005 p 35


98 Larsen 2005 p 39



101 Larsen 2005 p 41







108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






















134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130




141 Ferguson 2011 p 182



144 Ferguson 2011 p 114




148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links















Disability







Disability outreach









Death

Personal views

Future of humanity













Politics












Play media









Awards and honours






























Publications

Popular books

Co-authored

Forewords

Childrens fiction

Films and series













Notes

References































32 Larsen 2005 pp 2 5







39 Larsen 2005 p 3






45 Larsen 2005 p 4














































91 Larsen 2005 p 38



94 Larsen 2005 p 33


96 Larsen 2005 p 35


98 Larsen 2005 p 39



101 Larsen 2005 p 41







108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






















134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130




141 Ferguson 2011 p 182



144 Ferguson 2011 p 114




148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links











Disability outreach









Death

Personal views

Future of humanity













Politics












Play media









Awards and honours






























Publications

Popular books

Co-authored

Forewords

Childrens fiction

Films and series













Notes

References































32 Larsen 2005 pp 2 5







39 Larsen 2005 p 3






45 Larsen 2005 p 4














































91 Larsen 2005 p 38



94 Larsen 2005 p 33


96 Larsen 2005 p 35


98 Larsen 2005 p 39



101 Larsen 2005 p 41







108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






















134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130




141 Ferguson 2011 p 182



144 Ferguson 2011 p 114




148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links













Death

Personal views

Future of humanity













Politics












Play media









Awards and honours






























Publications

Popular books

Co-authored

Forewords

Childrens fiction

Films and series













Notes

References































32 Larsen 2005 pp 2 5







39 Larsen 2005 p 3






45 Larsen 2005 p 4














































91 Larsen 2005 p 38



94 Larsen 2005 p 33


96 Larsen 2005 p 35


98 Larsen 2005 p 39



101 Larsen 2005 p 41







108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






















134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130




141 Ferguson 2011 p 182



144 Ferguson 2011 p 114




148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links

















Politics












Play media









Awards and honours






























Publications

Popular books

Co-authored

Forewords

Childrens fiction

Films and series













Notes

References































32 Larsen 2005 pp 2 5







39 Larsen 2005 p 3






45 Larsen 2005 p 4














































91 Larsen 2005 p 38



94 Larsen 2005 p 33


96 Larsen 2005 p 35


98 Larsen 2005 p 39



101 Larsen 2005 p 41







108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






















134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130




141 Ferguson 2011 p 182



144 Ferguson 2011 p 114




148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links
















Play media









Awards and honours






























Publications

Popular books

Co-authored

Forewords

Childrens fiction

Films and series













Notes

References































32 Larsen 2005 pp 2 5







39 Larsen 2005 p 3






45 Larsen 2005 p 4














































91 Larsen 2005 p 38



94 Larsen 2005 p 33


96 Larsen 2005 p 35


98 Larsen 2005 p 39



101 Larsen 2005 p 41







108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






















134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130




141 Ferguson 2011 p 182



144 Ferguson 2011 p 114




148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links













Awards and honours






























Publications

Popular books

Co-authored

Forewords

Childrens fiction

Films and series













Notes

References































32 Larsen 2005 pp 2 5







39 Larsen 2005 p 3






45 Larsen 2005 p 4














































91 Larsen 2005 p 38



94 Larsen 2005 p 33


96 Larsen 2005 p 35


98 Larsen 2005 p 39



101 Larsen 2005 p 41







108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






















134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130




141 Ferguson 2011 p 182



144 Ferguson 2011 p 114




148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links































Publications

Popular books

Co-authored

Forewords

Childrens fiction

Films and series













Notes

References































32 Larsen 2005 pp 2 5







39 Larsen 2005 p 3






45 Larsen 2005 p 4














































91 Larsen 2005 p 38



94 Larsen 2005 p 33


96 Larsen 2005 p 35


98 Larsen 2005 p 39



101 Larsen 2005 p 41







108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






















134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130




141 Ferguson 2011 p 182



144 Ferguson 2011 p 114




148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links

















Notes

References































32 Larsen 2005 pp 2 5







39 Larsen 2005 p 3






45 Larsen 2005 p 4














































91 Larsen 2005 p 38



94 Larsen 2005 p 33


96 Larsen 2005 p 35


98 Larsen 2005 p 39



101 Larsen 2005 p 41







108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






















134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130




141 Ferguson 2011 p 182



144 Ferguson 2011 p 114




148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links



































32 Larsen 2005 pp 2 5







39 Larsen 2005 p 3






45 Larsen 2005 p 4














































91 Larsen 2005 p 38



94 Larsen 2005 p 33


96 Larsen 2005 p 35


98 Larsen 2005 p 39



101 Larsen 2005 p 41







108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






















134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130




141 Ferguson 2011 p 182



144 Ferguson 2011 p 114




148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links



























91 Larsen 2005 p 38



94 Larsen 2005 p 33


96 Larsen 2005 p 35


98 Larsen 2005 p 39



101 Larsen 2005 p 41







108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






















134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130




141 Ferguson 2011 p 182



144 Ferguson 2011 p 114




148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links







108 Larsen 2005 p 44


110 Ferguson 2011 pp 82 86


112 Ferguson 2011 pp 150189 219






















134 Baird 2007 p 234


136 Ferguson 2011 p 129

137 Ferguson 2011 p 130




141 Ferguson 2011 p 182



144 Ferguson 2011 p 114




148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links








148 Ferguson 2011 p 134


150 Ferguson 2011 p 135

151 Ferguson 2011 p 137


153 Ferguson 2011 p 143




157 Ferguson 2011 p 146


159 Ferguson 2011 p 149







166 Ferguson 2011 p 180

167 Ferguson 2011 p 188


169 Ferguson 2011 p 190





174 Ferguson 2011 p 178

175 Ferguson 2011 p 189

176 Larsen 2005 p 97






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links






182 Ferguson 2011 p 233


184 Ferguson 2011 p 239

185 Ferguson 2011 p 269

186 Ferguson 2011 p 197269





191 Ferguson 2011 pp 95 236







































230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links



























230 Larsen 2005 p 79

231 Hawking 2007 p 285



234 Ferguson 2011 p 185



237 Ferguson 2011 p 145

238 Ferguson 2011 p 165


240 Ferguson 2011 p 187

241 Ferguson 2011 pp 187 192


243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links






243 Ferguson 2011 pp 197 225




247 Ferguson 2011 p 225
















263 Ferguson 2011 p 162



266 Ferguson 2011 pp 79 149








274 Ferguson 2011 p 139

275 Ferguson 2011 p 136




279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links





279 Ferguson 2011 p 140


281 Ferguson 2011 p 138



284 Ferguson 2011 p 224




288 Ferguson 2011 p 240

289 Ferguson 2011 pp 164 178


291 Ferguson 2011 p 196


























317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links


















317 Larsen 2005 p 51
















333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links












333 Ferguson 2011 p 179









342 Ferguson 2011 p 223

343 Ferguson 2011 p 195





348 Ferguson 2011 p 242
















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links



















364 Ferguson 2011 p 192

365 Ferguson 2011 p 221
















































Sources

External links














































Sources

External links





stephen hawking - goadsbook.com · stephen hawking ch cbe frs frsa hawking at nasa's starchild...

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