strategic environmental assessment of the multi-annual ... · 0.1.2. the framework of the strategy...

Strategic Environmental Assessment of the Multi-Annual Energy

Plan

Table of contents 0. Non-technical summary of strategic environmental assessment ..................................................... 5

0.1. General presentation of the PPE ............................................................................................... 5

0.1.1. The Multi-Annual Energy Plan framework set by law ...................................................... 5

0.1.2. The framework of the strategy for the development of clean mobility set by the law ...... 5

0.1.3. Coordination of the PPE with other plans and programs ................................................... 6

0.2. Environmental issues related to action of the PPE: likely significant effects ........................... 8

0.2.1. The PPE issues ................................................................................................................... 8

0.2.2. The SDMP issues ............................................................................................................. 11

0.2.3. Summary of PPE and SDMP environmental issues......................................................... 12

0.3. Explanation of reasons for the decision .................................................................................. 13

0.3.1. Ambitious demand management objectives .................................................................... 13

0.3.2. Mix diversification objectives taking account of deposits, costs, acceptability and

integration into the system ......................................................................................................... 14

0.4. Monitoring of PPE environmental issues................................................................................ 15

1. General presentation of the Multi-Annual Energy Plan and of the strategic environmental

evaluation ........................................................................................................................................... 15

1.1. Objectives and content of the Multi-Annual Energy Plan and of the strategy for the

development of clean mobility ....................................................................................................... 16

1.1.1. The Multi-Annual Energy Plan framework set by law .................................................... 16

1.1.2. The framework of the strategy for the development of clean mobility set by the law .... 16

1.2. Coordination of the PPE with other plans and programs ........................................................ 17

1.2.1. National plans and programs which the PPE takes into account ..................................... 19

1.2.2. Plans and programs which are taken into account by projects undertaken in application

of the PPE................................................................................................................................... 20

1.2.3. Plans and programs that take account of the PPE ............................................................ 21

1.3. Environmental Assessment Method........................................................................................ 23

1.3.1. The approach of strategic environmental assessment ...................................................... 23

1.3.2. The scope of the SEA of the PPE in relation to the SEA of the SNBC ........................... 24

2. Initial state of the environment ...................................................................................................... 26

2.1. Climate and Energy ................................................................................................................. 26

2.1.1. Climate in France ............................................................................................................. 26

2.1.2. State of energy production and consumption in the national territory ............................. 34

2.2. Physical environments ............................................................................................................ 39

2.2.1. Water resources and aquatic environments ...................................................................... 39

2.2.2. Soils .................................................................................................................................. 42

2.2.3. Subsoil resources.............................................................................................................. 48

2.3. Natural environments .............................................................................................................. 49

2.3.1. Biodiversity and natural habitats...................................................................................... 49

2.3.2. Natura 2000 network ........................................................................................................ 57

2.4. Human environments .............................................................................................................. 59

2.4.1. Natural and technological risks ........................................................................................ 60

2.4.2. Pollutants: air, noise, odour and light pollution ............................................................... 64

2.4.3. Public health ..................................................................................................................... 72

2.4.4. Architectural, cultural and archaeological heritage ......................................................... 74

3. Environmental challenges related to the action of the PPE: Probable notable effects .................. 76

3.1. Improvement in energy efficiency and reduction in fossil energy consumption .................... 76

3.1.1. Improvement in energy efficiency ................................................................................... 76

3.1.2. Decrease in consumption of fossil fuels .......................................................................... 77

3.2. Development of the use of renewable and recovered energies ............................................... 78

3.2.1. Heat and cold ................................................................................................................... 78

3.2.2. Liquid fuels ...................................................................................................................... 85

3.2.3. Gas ................................................................................................................................... 86

3.2. 4. Electricity ........................................................................................................................ 88

3.2.5. Supply security ................................................................................................................. 98

3.3. Implementation of the Clean Transport Development Strategy (SDMP) ............................. 102

3.3.1. Managing growing demand for transport....................................................................... 102

3.3.2. Developing low-emission vehicles and fuel-delivery infrastructures, and improving

energy efficiency of vehicles nationwide ................................................................................. 102

3.3.3. Promoting modal shifts for passenger and freight transport .......................................... 105

3.3.4. Making clean mobility accessible to sparsely populated areas and unleashing innovation

.................................................................................................................................................. 108

4. Explanation of reasons for the decision ....................................................................................... 109

4.1. Demand management ............................................................................................................ 109

4.1.1. Ambitious demand management objectives .................................................................. 109

4.1.2. Reducing fossil fuels ...................................................................................................... 109

4.2. Diversifying the energy mix ................................................................................................. 109

4.2.1. The determination of the available potentials according to the environmental constraint

and the realities of the sectors .................................................................................................. 110

4.2.2. An assessment in terms of technology costs and service rendered to the network ........ 114

5. Assessment of the global impact of the PPE................................................................................ 116

5.1. Presentation of the modelling used ....................................................................................... 116

5.1.1. Overall coordination ...................................................................................................... 116

5.2. The PPE’s impact on the environment .................................................................................. 116

5.2.1. Climate and Energy ........................................................................................................ 117

5.2.2. Physical environments ................................................................................................... 118

5.2.3. Natural environments: biodiversity and natural habitats ............................................... 121

5.2.4. Human environments ..................................................................................................... 123

5.3. Indicators for monitoring changes in the environment related to the effect of the PPE ....... 132

6. Appendices ................................................................................................................................... 134

6.1. ERC measures ....................................................................................................................... 134

6.1.1. Wood-based electricity and heat production .................................................................. 134

6.1.2. Geothermal heat pumps (GSHP).................................................................................... 134

6.1.3. Biogas............................................................................................................................. 134

6.1.4. Geothermal electricity and heat ..................................................................................... 135

6.1.5. Biofuels .......................................................................................................................... 135

6.1.6. Hydroelectricity ............................................................................................................. 135

6.1.7. Terrestrial Wind Turbines .............................................................................................. 136

6.1.8. Solar energy ................................................................................................................... 137

6.1.9. Offshore renewable energies (including offshore wind power) ..................................... 137

6.1.10. Storage ......................................................................................................................... 138

6.1.11. Networks ...................................................................................................................... 138

0. Non-technical summary of strategic environmental

assessment

0.1. General presentation of the PPE

0.1.1. The Multi-Annual Energy Plan framework set by law The Law on Energy Transition for Green Growth (LTECV)1 sets the energy policy framework. It defines a

framework that will enable France to fulfil its European and international commitments.

In this framework, the Multi-Annual Energy Plan (PPE) takes the form of a decree 2 that defines the

government's priorities for changes to the energy system in mainland France over the successive five-year

periods 2019-2023 and 2024-2028. The energy policy objectives that the PPE will implement are as follows:

Ensure security of supply. This requirement refers to the need to guarantee that French consumers,

whether individuals or companies, have the energy they need as and when they need it: electricity,

supply of petrol stations with fuel, gas deliveries, etc.

Improved energy efficiency and reductions in primary energy consumption 3, especially fossil fuels:

◦ 40% reduction in GHGs between 1990 and 2030 and 75% reduction ("factor 4") between 1990

and 2050. The government has recently set the goal of achieving carbon neutrality by 2050;

◦ 20% reduction in final energy consumption between 2012 and 2030 and 50% reduction between

2012 and 2050;

◦ 30% reduction in primary energy consumption of fossil fuels between 2012 and 2030.

Increase the share of renewable energy to 32% of gross final energy consumption4 in 2030. Currently,

the objective breaks down as follows:

40% of electricity production;

38% of final heat consumption;

15 % of final fuel consumption;

10 % of gas consumption;

Reduce the share of nuclear energy in electricity generation to 50% by 2025.

Develop networks, storage and management of energy demand in a balanced way.

Safeguard consumer purchasing power and competitive corporate prices;

Evaluate professional skills needs in the energy field.

0.1.2. The framework of the strategy for the development of clean mobility set

by the law The law introduces a number of mobility policies and objectives with the aim of limiting energy consumption,

greenhouse gas emissions and atmospheric pollutant emissions from the transport sector. The State must define

a strategy for the development of clean mobility (SDMP), annexed to the PPE. This strategy relates to the

development of low emissions vehicles, improved energy efficiency of the vehicle fleet, modal shifts, the

development of collaborative modes of transport, and increased vehicle fill rates.

The SDMP shall, in particular5:

include an evaluation of the existing supply of clean mobility;

1 Law No. 2015-992 dated 17 August 2015.

2 Article L141-1 of the energy code.

3 Primary energy is the "potential" energy contained in natural resources before any transformation. It

is distinguished from final energy, which is the energy actually consumed and billed to users after taking

account of losses during fuel processing, production and transportation.

4 This objective comes from Directive 2009/28/EC, the term "gross final consumption" designates the

final energy consumption from all sources, including renewable sources.

5 Article 40 LTECV

set targets for vehicle development and infrastructure deployment, intermodality and freight vehicle

fill rates;

define the priority territories and road networks for the development of clean mobility.

0.1.3. Coordination of the PPE with other plans and programs The PPE must be consistent with the national low carbon strategy that provides guidance for achieving carbon

neutrality by 2050. It is part of an existing public policy framework that it reinforces. The fields of action of

these different plans and programs have interfaces with that of PPE:

Some national strategy documents need to be taken into account in the development of the PPE in that

they set objectives for energy policy, or because they provide information that is needed. These same

documents may need to be revised following the adoption of the PPE so that they can also appear in

the 3rd category;

Some planning documents need to be considered in the project design stage that will result from PPE

as they include recommendations for zoning or techniques used. Since the PPE does not develop

projects directly, it cannot take account of these land use planning documents. The EES reiterates these

issues;

Some sectoral documents are based on the objectives of the PPE for developing a policy related to the

energy sector. This coordination explains that the PPE does not develop certain aspects that are more

specifically addressed in other documents. Sometimes the link is also the other way around when the

PPE relies on information presented to it by these sectoral plans.

The table below explains the existing link with these documents.

Link with PPE Titled Description

Taken into

account by the

PPE

Climate Plan Updates / complements the LTECV climate

goals that the PPE implements.

National Low Carbon Strategy

(SNBC)

Defines the roadmap for climate action and gives

the carbon budgets that the PPE must respect

(compatibility link)

National Biomass Mobilisation

Strategy (SNMB)

Communicates the amount of biomass available

as part of the development of biomass use and

organises its mobilisation

National Climate Change

Adaptation Plan (PNACC)

The PPE anticipates adaptation to climate change

in the field of energy installations.

National Atmospheric Pollutant

Emissions Reduction Plan

(PREPA)

The PPE measures for reducing the use of fossil

fuels and the SDMP measures in favour of

cleaner mobility are part of PREPA's air quality

improvement objectives.

Taken into

account in project

design

National Guidelines for Green and

Blue Belts (ONTVB)

Defines areas to be avoided in order to preserve

ecological continuity.

Action Plan for Marine

Environment (PAMM)


marine biodiversity.

Regional Scheme for Planning,

Sustainable Development and Inter-

Regional Equality (SRADDET)

Defines regional objectives for renewable energy

Regional intermodality schemes Coordinates sustainable mobility policies at

regional level.

Planning, Development and Urban

Development Documents (PCAET,

SCOT, PLU).

Provides guidelines for urban planning.

Takes account of

the PPE


Strategy (SNMB)

Takes account of the amount of biomass devoted

to energy production in its calculation of the

available stock.

National Forest Wood Program

(PNFB)

Takes account of the amount of biomass

mobilised for energy consumption in its

guidelines for forest maintenance.

Resource Scheduling Plan

(Resource Plan)

Must take account of the amount of resource

mobilised in its calculation of available stocks.

National Radioactive Waste And

Materials Management Plan

(PNGMDR)

Takes account of the evolution of the quantity of

radioactive waste to be processed based on

changes in the nuclear park.

National Strategy for Energy

Research (SNRE)

Defines the lines of energy research according to

the priority guidelines of the PPE.

Ten-year Electric Transport

Network Development Scheme

(SDDR)

Must take account of the objectives of the PPE in

its network development projects.

Buildings Energy Renewal Plan

(PREB)

Based on the objectives of the PPE in terms of

energy renewal.

Employment and Skills

Programming Plan (PPEC)

Defines the skills and employment development

requirements in the territories and professional

sectors, in respect of the ecological and energy

transition.

Figure 0-1: Simplified model of the coordination of the PPE with other plans and programs

(This model focuses on the PPE and the projects that flow from it)

0.2. Environmental issues related to action of the PPE: likely

significant effects The objectives of the LTECV whose implementation is ensured by the PPE, commit France in the fight against

climate change and for the preservation of the environment while ensuring the security of supply and viability

of the mix. The PPE provides for reductions in energy consumption, as well as in the use of fossil fuels, and

also plans to develop renewable energies. As a result, the PPE measures reduce greenhouse gas emissions and

air pollutant emissions in the energy sector. To this end, the PPE is a plan for reducing the impacts of human

activity on the environment.

The likely significant effects on the environment are viewed according to whether they are positive or negative,

direct or indirect, temporary or permanent and short, medium or long term. These impacts are assessed in light

of the expected impact of the sector based on the objectives that the PPE attributes to it. For the sake of

simplicity, positive and negative character are symbolised here as follows:

The expected evolution of the sector or the PPE projects will reduce the impact of human

activity on the environmental issue under study

The anticipated evolution of the sector or the PPE projects will increase the impact of human

activity on the environmental issue studied

When the evolution of a sector should not have a significant impact on an environmental issue, it is not

mentioned in the corresponding table.

0.2.1. The PPE issues

Table 0-1: Strategic guidance documents related to the PPE

Probable

significant

effect

Effect type Duration Timescale

Effect of the PPE on climate and energy

Improvement in energy efficiency Direct Permanent ST

Decrease in fossil energy consumption Direct Permanent ST

Increase in renewable heat - Wood Indirect Permanent ST

Increase in renewable heat - Heat Pumps Indirect Permanent ST

Increase in renewable heat - Geothermal Indirect Permanent ST

Increase in renewable heat - Thermal solar Indirect Permanent ST

Increase in renewable heat - Waste recovery Indirect Permanent ST

Increase in renewable liquid fuels - Biofuels Indirect Permanent ST

Increase in renewable gas - Biogas Indirect Permanent ST

Increase in renewable electricity - Hydropower Indirect Permanent MT

Increase in renewable electricity - Terrestrial Wind

Turbines Indirect Permanent MT

Increase in renewable electricity - Photovoltaic Indirect Permanent MT

Increase in renewable electricity - Offshore renewable

energy (including offshore wind energy) Indirect Permanent MT

Reduction in fossil fuel thermal facilities Direct Permanent ST

Increase in electricity storage Indirect Permanent MT

Increase in curtailment Indirect Permanent MT

Increase in heating and cooling networks Indirect Permanent MT

Evolution of electricity grids Indirect Permanent MT

Effect of the PPE on human health and disturbances

Improvement in energy efficiency Direct Permanent ST

Decrease in fossil energy consumption Direct Permanent ST

Increase in renewable heat - Wood Direct Permanent ST

Increase in renewable heat - Heat Pumps Indirect Permanent ST

Increase in renewable heat - Thermal solar Indirect Permanent ST

Increase in renewable heat - Waste recovery Direct Permanent ST




Increase in heating and cooling networks Indirect Permanent MT

Evolution of electricity grids Indirect Permanent MT

Probable

significant

effect


Effect of the PPE on water resources and aquatic environments / biodiversity and natural

habitats / soils and subsoils / landscape and heritage

Improvement in energy efficiency Indirect Permanent MT

Decrease in fossil energy consumption Direct Permanent MT

Increase in renewable heat - Wood Direct Permanent MT

Increase in renewable heat - Thermal solar Indirect Permanent LT

Increase in renewable heat - Waste recovery Direct Permanent ST


Turbines Direct Permanent ST

Increase in renewable electricity - Photovoltaic Direct Permanent MT


energy (including offshore wind energy) Direct Permanent ST

Reduction in nuclear Direct Permanent ST




Effect of PPE on exhaustible resources (excluding fossil energy) and waste

Improvement in energy efficiency Direct Temporary LT

Increase in renewable heat – Wood Direct Permanent MT

Increase in renewable heat - Waste recovery Indirect Permanent ST

Increase in renewable liquid fuels - Biofuels Indirect Permanent ST

Increase in renewable gas - Biogas Direct Permanent ST

Increase in renewable electricity - Wind Turbines Direct Permanent LT

Increase in renewable electricity - Photovoltaic Direct Permanent LT

Reduction in nuclear Direct Permanent LT

Increase in electricity storage Direct Permanent LT


Effect of the PPE on natural and technological risks

Decrease in fossil energy consumption Direct Permanent MT

Increase in renewable heat - Heat Pumps Indirect Permanent MT

Increase in renewable heat - Thermal solar Indirect Permanent MT


Turbines Indirect Permanent MT

Increase in renewable electricity - Photovoltaic Indirect Permanent MT

Probable

significant

effect



energy (including offshore wind energy) Indirect Permanent MT

Reduction in nuclear Direct Permanent MT

Reduction in fossil fuel thermal facilities Direct Permanent MT



0.2.2. The SDMP issues

Probable

significant

effect

Type of

effect Duration Timescale

Effect of the SDMP on climate and energy

Management of the growth of mobility demand Indirect Permanent MT

Development of low-emissions vehicles Direct Permanent MT

Deployment of alternative fuel distribution

infrastructures Indirect Permanent MT

Development of supply of multi-modal mobility and

enhancement of active modes Indirect Permanent MT

Development of collective, shared and collaborative

modes of transportation Indirect Permanent MT

Development of bulk modes for freight Direct Permanent MT

Increase in freight vehicle filling rates Direct Permanent ST

Making clean mobility accessible to sparsely populated

areas and unleashing innovation Indirect Permanent MT

Effect of the SDMT on human health and disturbances




infrastructures Direct Permanent MT


enhancement of active modes Direct Permanent MT


modes of transportation Direct Permanent MT



Making clean mobility accessible to sparsely populated

areas and unleashing innovation Direct Permanent MT

Probable

significant

effect

Type of

effect Duration Timescale

Effect of the SDMP on water resources and aquatic environments / biodiversity and natural

habitats / soils and subsoils / landscapes and heritage


Development of low-emissions vehicles Indirect Permanent MT




enhancement of active modes Indirect Permanent MT

Development of bulk modes for freight Indirect Permanent MT


Effect of SDMP on exhaustible resources (excluding fossil energy) and waste






modes of transportation Indirect Permanent LT

Increase in freight vehicle filling rates Direct Permanent MT

Effect of the SDMP on natural and technological risks


Development of low-emissions vehicles Indirect Permanent MT



0.2.3. Summary of PPE and SDMP environmental issues

A plan for reducing environmental impacts

The objectives that the law on energy transition for green growth assigned to the Multi-Annual Energy Plan

and the Clean Mobility Development Strategy form a plan for reducing environmental impacts. By 2028,

measures to control the energy demand, particularly fossil energy, and the diversification of the energy mix,

in particular to organise the penetration of renewable energies, have positive impacts on:

the decrease in energy consumption: -347TWh;

the decrease in the energy consumption of fossil fuels, which are exhaustible resources: -267TWh;

the decrease of the impact of the energy sector on the greenhouse effect: -59Mte CO2;

the decrease in air pollutant emissions related to energy consumption.

To move towards carbon neutrality, the PPE also increases the use of biomass resources. The significant

orientation of this PPE is towards better use of biomass waste which should reduce the environmental impacts

of these wastes when managing their end of life and enable them to be used instead of fossil fuels, particularly

biogas and biofuels.

Vigilance required on certain issues

The penetration of renewable energies, especially electricity, electricity storage, electric mobility, the use of

new technologies in the management of networks, should increase the consumption of mineral resources and

rare metals. Recycling channels are being set up and need to be supported. This subject should be monitored

over time, particularly through the implementation and monitoring of the Circular Economy Roadmap.

The increase in the use of forest biomass for energy purposes must be part of rational forestry management in

accordance with the National Forest Wood Program and with optimisation of the use of forestry products

among the various possible uses.

Decentralised energy production takes up more space than centralised power generation. Incentives for priority

deployment of projects on degraded areas (brownfields, etc.) must be maintained and the overall development

of land use must be monitored so that it does not occur at the expense of agricultural land.

The environmental issues which must be monitored in the projects to be implemented in

application of the PPE

The PPE is not territorially based. It is the SRADDETs that deal with land use planning issues. In order for the

projects resulting from the PPE, especially in decentralised renewable energies, to be accepted by the

populations, they must be incorporated into territorial projects.

Beyond land use issues, the projects may address issues relating to land or marine biodiversity or the creation

of disturbances for residents. French regulations include numerous provisions for the control and monitoring

of environmental pressures that the projects generate so that they meet socially acceptable thresholds in terms

of their impact. It is imperative that these regulations be rigorously implemented.

0.3. Explanation of reasons for the decision

0.3.1. Ambitious demand management objectives Demand management means that GHG emissions from energy production and consumption can be avoided.

France aims to reduce its energy consumption by 20% between 2012 and 2030.

In order to define sufficiently ambitious objectives for demand management, the potential growth margin of

each sector has been analysed, based on macro-economic assumptions.6 These measures nonetheless serve as

a basis for discussion on the defining of an ambitious, but achievable, scenario, given the observed behavioural

dynamics, the abilities of our economic actors to implement actions, and costs. The PPE takes account of these

elements and reduces energy demand by 17% between 2012 and 2030. The PPE update in 2023 may be an

opportunity to accentuate this trajectory in order to reach the 20% target by taking account of the evolution of

technologies and practices.

One of the main sources of GHG emissions is the burning of fossil fuels. France has a target of a 30% reduction

in primary energy consumption of fossil fuels between 2012 and 2030.

To achieve the fastest possible reduction in emissions from fossil fuel facilities, it was decided to prioritise the

shut-down of power plants, based on the quantity of discharges. Thus, coal-fired power plants will be the first

to be closed because they are the sources of most GHG emissions. Additional actions have been taken to enable

this abandon of coal to assist individuals still using coal as well as businesses, while ensuring their

competitiveness. The reduction in coal consumption will have a significant positive impact on both greenhouse

gas emissions and air pollution.

The goal is then to reduce the use of oil, mainly consumed in transport sector. This includes for instance the

replacement of diesel and petrol with low carbon fuels.

There is no specific measure for reducing gas consumption because it is the least carbon-intensive fossil energy.

This should result from demand management actions not targeting a specific energy vector, in particular the

renovation of buildings. In addition, carbonaceous natural gas will have to be replaced by biogas with its

neutral carbon footprint.

6 These assumptions include demographic projections and economic growth assumptions provided by

INSEE, as well as energy efficiency assumptions provided by the DGEC.

Reduction efforts are therefore distributed so as to enable the fastest possible reduction in the amount of

greenhouse gas emissions. The PPE aims at a more ambitious objective of 40% reduction of fossil energy

consumption between 2012 and 2030.

0.3.2. Mix diversification objectives taking account of deposits, costs,

acceptability and integration into the system In order to limit the cost of the energy transition, emphasis is on the development of the most profitable energies

(wind and ground-level PV). However, it has been decided to develop all sectors in order to diversify energy

sources and to remain open to the possibility of progress in other sectors.

In addition to the costs associated with construction and operation of energy production facilities, it is

necessary to take account of the indirect costs related to the impact of different technologies on the network.

Intermittent energy based facilities, such as solar energy, whose activity varies with the number of daylight

hours, and wind turbines, which depend on wind regimes, do not guarantee continuous production of

electricity .In order to cope with peak consumption and ensure security of supply, controllable facilities such

as hydropower stations with tailings dams, play an important role in the renewable electricity mix.

The development of the use of biomass, energy recovery from waste and renewable gas (power to gas or biogas)

makes it possible to increase the share of renewable energy that can be easily stored. The choice to diversify

energy sources makes it possible to reinforce the resilience of the energy system in the event of a generic

failure of a type of facility.

Issue

Deposits still to be

developed financial7 environmental Feasibility

integration into

the electrical

system

Hydroelectricity 30 → 130 €/MWh Preservation of ecological continuities

Mature technology controllable energy limited

Terrestrial Wind

Turbines 50 → 80 €/MWh

Landscape and

biodiversity impact Limited acceptability

Variable energy

production

non-limiting in the

medium term

Photovoltaics

45 → 75 €/MWh

(ground)

75 → 120 € MWh (roof)

Impact on land use Good acceptability Variable energy

production

non-limiting in the

medium term

Biomass

Variable costs depending on the

sector (waste, wood

energy, biogas)

Resource management

requiring prioritisation of biomass uses)

Medium feasibility

constraints controllable energy

Limited in the medium

term

Geothermal

electricity 170 → 340 €/MWh Impacts related to drilling

Difficult prospecting

of deposits controllable energy limited

Offshore wind

energy 70→ 150 €/MWh

Impacts on marine environments

Acceptability constraint

Variable energy production

Non-limiting

Table 0-2: Summary representation of environmental, economic and technical considerations that led to the

choice of the renewable electricity mix of the PPE

7 Ademe, Cost of renewable energies, 2016 updated by DGEC knowledge.

Issue Deposits still to

be developed financial8 environmental Feasibility

Solid biomass 45 → 110 €/MWh (individual)

62 →125€/Mwh (collective)

45 → 80 € / MWh (industrial)

Constraints on prioritizing uses of

biomass and environmental quality

of forest management

Limited development in

urban areas due to air

pollution issues

non-limiting in the medium term

Heat pumps 105 → 170 €/MWh (individual)

50 → 130 € / MWh (collective)

Small environmental impact

(linked to the electricity mix) Strong non-limiting

Deep

geothermal

energy

65 → 120 €/MWh Difficult prospecting of deposits Good integration into heat

networks

non-limiting in the

medium term

Biogas 96 → 167 €/MWh Constraints on prioritizing uses) Strong demand from the

agricultural world

non-limiting in the

medium term

Thermal solar 155 → 451€/MWh (individual)

46 → 260 €/MWh (collective) No environmental impact

Competition from heat

pumps and PV (uses of

the roofs)

non-limiting in the

medium term

Table 0-3: Summary representation of environmental, economic and technical considerations that led to the

choice of the development objectives of the renewable and recovered heat sectors of the PPE

Key:

NB: Costs are shown within a range that takes account of the different technologies available. Significant

reductions are expected especially in offshore wind energy, PV and thermal solar.

0.4. Monitoring of PPE environmental issues Monitoring indicators of the evolution of pressures on environments will be used to monitor the impact of the

PPE on the environment over time. The objective is to identify indicators using existing and easily usable data

in order to enable regular and effective monitoring. A restricted number of representative indicators of trends

was preferred to a much higher number which would be difficult to group and equally difficult to interpret.

Although not exhaustive, the main point of these indicators are the alerts that they will give about evolutionary

trends, so that a response can be provided in the event of increased pressure on environments.

As the main environmental issues of energy policy have increased pressures on resources and land use,

indicators have been identified to monitor the evolution of these impacts:

The monitoring of space consumption related to PV and wind turbines enables assessments of the

impact of the development of decentralised energy production facilities on land use.

Monitoring the evolution of GHG and air pollutant emissions is used to verify the positive nature of

the impact of the PPE and the SDMP on climate and air pollution.

The monitoring of the main risks using the ARIA database is only used to track accidents / incidents

that contribute to using feedback as a tool for risk prevention and reduction. This database is used to

track trends in the risks associated with energy production facilities.

For the impact on biodiversity and natural habitats, the indicator of pressure on wood resources chosen

is the rate of wood used for energy compared to forest renewal rates.

It is not currently possible to monitor the amount of resources used to set up renewable energy

facilities. The indicator to monitor issues of resource availability would be the recycling rate of the

industries and the reuse rate of electric vehicles batteries at the end of lifetime for other purposes.

1. General presentation of the Multi-Annual Energy Plan and

of the strategic environmental evaluation

8 Ademe, Cost of renewable energies, 2016 actualised by DGEC knowledge.

1.1. Objectives and content of the Multi-Annual Energy Plan and of

the strategy for the development of clean mobility

1.1.1. The Multi-Annual Energy Plan framework set by law The Law on Energy Transition for Green Growth (LTECV)9 sets the energy policy framework. It defines a

framework that will enable France to fulfil its European and international commitments.

In this framework, the Multi-Annual Energy Plan (PPE) takes the form of a decree 10 that defines the

government's priorities for changes to the energy system in mainland France over the successive five-year

periods 2019-2023 and 2024-2028. It seeks to reconcile the different energy policy issues and sets priorities

for action by the public authorities to meet the objectives related to France's climate, security of supply and

economic competitiveness.

The energy policy objectives that the PPE will implement are set out in article L.141-2 of the Energy Code:

Ensure security of supply. This requirement refers to the need to guarantee that French consumers,

whether individuals or companies, have the energy they need as and when they need it: electricity,

supply of petrol stations with fuel, gas deliveries, etc.

Improved energy efficiency and reductions in primary energy consumption11, especially fossil fuels:

The PPE shall contribute to the quantified objectives set by the LTECV (article L100-4 Energy Code):

◦ 40% reduction in GHGs between 1990 and 2030 and 75% reduction ("factor 4") between 1990

and 2050. The government has recently set the goal of achieving carbon neutrality by 2050;

◦ 20% reduction in final energy consumption between 2012 and 2030 and 50% reduction between

2012 and 2050;

◦ 30% reduction in primary energy consumption of fossil fuels between 2012 and 2030.

Development of the use of renewable and recovered energies. The PPE shall contribute to the

quantified objectives set by the LTECV (article L100-4 Energy Code):

◦ Increase the share of renewable energy to 23 % of gross final energy consumption12 in 2020 and

32% in 2030. Currently, the objective breaks down as follows:

40% of electricity production;

38% of final heat consumption;

15 % of final fuel consumption;

10 % of gas consumption;

◦ Reduction in the share of nuclear energy in electricity generation to 50% by 2025.

Develop networks, storage and management of energy demand in a balanced way.

Safeguard consumer purchasing power and competitive corporate prices;

Evaluate professional skills needs in the energy field.

1.1.2. The framework of the strategy for the development of clean mobility set

by the law Part III of the LTECV "Developing clean transport to improve air quality and protect health" introduces a

number of guidelines and objectives relating to mobility, with the aim of limiting energy consumption in the

transport sector. Article 40 of the law provides for: "The State to define a strategy for the development of clean

mobility (SDMP)". The article also specifies that the SDMP is annexed to the PPE, and that it relates to the

9 Law No. 2015-992 dated 17 August 2015.

10 Article L141-1 of the energy code.

11 Primary energy is the "potential" energy contained in natural resources before any transformation. It

is distinguished from final energy, which is the energy actually consumed and billed to users after taking

account of losses during fuel processing, production and transportation.

12 This objective comes from Directive 2009/28/EC, the term "gross final consumption" designates the

final energy consumption from all sources, including renewable sources.

development of low emissions vehicles, the improvement of the energy efficiency of the vehicle fleet, modal

shifts, the development of collaborative modes of transport, and increased vehicle fill rates.

The SDMP shall, in particular13:

include an evaluation of the existing supply of clean mobility;

set targets for vehicle development and infrastructure deployment, intermodality and freight vehicle

fill rates;

define the priority territories and road networks for the development of clean mobility.

The actions listed in the SDMP will improve energy efficiency in the transport sector, while developing the

use of renewable energies, in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and transport-related air pollutant

emissions.

1.2. Coordination of the PPE with other plans and programs Article L141-1 implementing the PPE provides that it must be compatible with the National Low Carbon

Strategy and carbon budgets. This legal association means that the PPE cannot take measures that are directly

contrary to SNBC's guidelines, and more broadly, its effect must be to strengthen its action.

In addition to this legal association, the PPE is part of an existing public policy framework that it reinforces.

The fields of action of these different plans and programs have interfaces with that of PPE: Although not bound

by a legal association, it is useful, in order to guarantee the effectiveness of public action, to verify the

consistency of the PPE with the different planning exercises.

Some national strategy documents need to be taken into account in the development of the PPE in that

they set objectives for energy policy, or because they provide information that is needed. These same

documents may need to be revised following the adoption of the PPE so that they can also appear in

the 3e

category;

Some planning documents need to be considered in the project design stage that will result from PPE

as they include recommendations for zoning or techniques used. Since the PPE does not develop

projects directly, it cannot take account of these land use planning documents. The EES reiterates these

issues:

Some sectoral documents are based on the objectives of the PPE for developing a policy related to the

energy sector. This coordination explains that the PPE does not develop certain aspects that are more

specifically addressed in other documents. Sometimes the link is also the other way when the PPE

relies on information presented to it by these sectoral plans.

Link with PPE Titled Description

Taken into

account by the

PPE

Climate Plan Updates / complements the LTECV climate

goals that the PPE implements.

National Low Carbon Strategy

(SNBC)

Defines the roadmap for climate action and gives

the carbon budgets that the PPE must respect

(compatibility link)


Strategy (SNMB)

Communicates the amount of biomass available

as part of the development of biomass use and

organises its mobilisation

National Climate Change

Adaptation Plan (PNACC)

The PPE anticipates adaptation to climate change

in the field of energy installations.

National Atmospheric Pollutant

Emissions Reduction Plan

(PREPA)

The PPE measures for reducing the use of fossil

fuels and the SDMP measures in favour of

cleaner mobility are part of PREPA's air quality

improvement objectives.

National Guidelines for Green and

Blue Belts (ONTVB)


ecological continuity.

13 Article 40 LTECV

Taken into

account in project

design

Action Plan for Marine

Environment (PAMM)


marine biodiversity.

Regional Model for Organisation,

Sustainable Development and Inter-

Regional Equality (SRADDET)

Defines regional objectives for renewable energy

Regional intermodality models Coordinates sustainable mobility policies at

regional level.

Planning, Development and Urban

Development Documents (PCAET,

SCOT, PLU).

Provides guidelines for urban planning.

Takes account of

the PPE


Strategy (SNMB)

Takes account of the amount of biomass devoted

to energy production in its calculation of the

available stock.

National Forest Wood Program

(PNFB)

Takes account of the amount of biomass

mobilised for energy consumption in its

guidelines for forest maintenance.


(Resource Plan)

Must take account of the amount of resource

mobilised in its calculation of available stocks.

National Radioactive Waste And

Materials Management Plan

(PNGMDR)

Takes account of the evolution of the quantity of

radioactive waste to be processed based on

changes in the nuclear park.

National Strategy for Energy

Research (SNRE)

Defines the lines of energy research according to

the priority guidelines of the PPE.

Ten-year Electric Transport

Network Development Scheme

(SDDR)

Must take account of the objectives of the PPE in

its network development projects.

Buildings Energy Renewal Plan

(PREB)

Based on the objectives of the PPE in terms of

energy renewal.

Employment and Skills

Programming Plan (PPEC)

Defines the skills and employment development

requirements in the territories and professional

sectors, in respect of the ecological and energy

transition.

Figure 1:

Simplified model of the coordination of the PPE with other plans and programs

(This model focuses on the PPE and the projects that flow from it)

1.2.1. National plans and programs which the PPE takes into account The PPE is legally bound only by its associated compatibility with the SNBC. The associations made as part

of this evaluation contribute to making the PPE conform with the public policy framework in which it operates.

Climate Plan

The Climate Plan adopted by the government on 6 July 2017 sets out the measures to be taken to accelerate

the implementation of the Paris Agreement, in particular by setting the objective of achieving carbon neutrality

by 2050. The SNBC scenarios that guide the dynamics of the PPE include this objective.

In terms of the PPE, this plan aims, among other things, to reduce France's dependence on fossil fuels by

shutting down coal-fired power plants by 2022 and by banning the issuance of new hydrocarbon operating

permits. At the same time, the Climate Plan provides for the acceleration of the deployment of renewable

energies as well as research in the field of energy transition.

Regarding the SDMP, this plan provides for the creation of a sustainable mobility fund and for the introduction

of tax measures favourable to alternative fuels.

National Low Carbon Strategy (SNBC)

Also created by the LTECV14, the SNBC defines the procedures to be followed to reduce French greenhouse

gas (GHG) emissions. It targets carbon neutrality by 2050 in accordance with the Climate Plan

In France, the energy sector accounts for 70% of greenhouse gas emissions. For this reason, the legislator

requires that the PPE be legally compatible with the SNBC15, meaning that it cannot take any direction that

contradicts it. The State has devised a prospective energy outlook scenario common to the PPE and the SNBC.

Both documents are revised simultaneously every 5 years. The measures taken by the PPE are operational at

10 years. The scenario runs until 2050, when the SNBC makes recommendations. The PPE complies with the

carbon budgets.

Both policies therefore work to control demand and decarbonise energy production. The PPE specifies the

operational measures to achieve these objectives:

14 Article 173 LTECV.

15 Art L141-1 Energy: The PPE "is compatible with the greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets set

in the carbon budget mentioned in Article L. 222-1 A of the Environment Code, and with the low-carbon

strategy mentioned in Article L. 222-1 B of the same code.”

Table 1: Strategic guidance documents related to the PPE

https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006074220&idArticle=LEGIARTI000031055366&dateTexte=&categorieLien=cid

https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006074220&idArticle=LEGIARTI000031055392&dateTexte=&categorieLien=cid

Reduce energy consumption, in particular by improving energy efficiency;

Decrease fossil energy consumption;

Develop renewable energies and avoid investments in new thermal means, the development of which

would be inconsistent with the medium-term GHG emissions reduction objectives;

Improve the flexibility of the system to increase the share of renewable energies.

Within the energy sector, the transport sector represents 40% of GHG emissions. The Clean Mobility

Development Strategy (SDMP), devised in conjunction with the PPE, also complies with the carbon budgets

set by SNBC. In general, the SDMP recalls and specifies the five levers identified by SNBC for the reduction

of the climate impact of the transport sector.

National Biomass Mobilisation Strategy (SNMB)

The PPE component dedicated to the production of renewable energy through biomass is associated in

particular with the National Biomass Mobilisation Strategy (SNMB) created by LTECV in 201516.

The SNMB aims to present the compatibility between biomass supply and demand in order to ensure the

sustainability of the available stock. Adopted in March 2018, it provides for the distribution of biomass

according to different uses (energy, construction, agriculture). The PPE takes account of the maximum amount

of available biomass indicated by the SNMB. In return, the SNMB will adapt to the biomass demand defined

in the PPE during its revision, a maximum of one year after the revision of the PPE (articles D211-1 and D211-

2 of the Energy Code).

This strategy is subject to environmental assessment (Art R122-17 8°bis).

National Climate Change Adaptation Plan (PNACC)

The climate in the national territory will change over the next century17 . The National Climate Change

Adaptation Plan (PNACC) aims to anticipate the effects of climate change on the economy and society, and to

prepare the national territory as much as possible to support them by 2050 and 210018. It is revised every 5

years. The PNACC2 will be adopted by the end of 2018.

The PNACC addresses the challenges that climate change will raise for energy and transport infrastructures

but does not specify the necessary forms of response. There is no legal association between the two documents,

but the ability to plan for the future of the PPE is linked to consideration of predictable climate changes that

form the basis of the PNACC. These changes may indeed have a significant impact, particularly on energy

production infrastructures.

National Atmospheric Pollutant Emissions Reduction Plan (PREPA)

The PREPA in its current form is a document provided by LTECV19, put in place in 2017 and revised every 5

years. It sets air pollutant emissions reduction targets for 2020, 2025 and 2030 for industry, transportation,

residential-tertiary and agriculture.

The PPE, by organizing the reduction of the share of fossil fuels in the energy mix and by promoting the

development of renewable energies, contributes to the reduction of emissions of atmospheric pollutants20.

Particular attention must however be paid to the development of biomass from the point of view of atmospheric

emissions.

The SDMP component of the PPE, which encourages active mobility and shared transport, as well as the use

of less polluting vehicles, contributes to the fulfilment of the PREPA's emission reduction measures.

1.2.2. Plans and programs which are taken into account by projects undertaken

in application of the PPE

16 Article 175 LTECV.

17 Reference is made here to the fifth IPCC report, dated November 2014.

18 This plan was put in place by Article 42 of the Grenelle1 law of 3 August 2009

19 Article 64 LTECV

20 Article L100-4 6: "the national energy policy aims to contribute to meeting the air pollution

reduction objectives provided by the PREPA."

These localised plans generally provide for zoning that is taken into account in the location of infrastructure

projects.

National Guidelines for Green and Blue Belts (ONTVB)

The objective of the ONTVBs is to preserve ecological continuity of terrestrial and aquatic environments by

limiting construction of structures likely to segment natural areas. These guidelines were adopted in 2014. The

green belt includes protected areas as well as the ecological corridors connecting them. The blue belt covers

rivers and some wetlands.

These continuities will be impacted in particular by hydroelectric projects (blue belts) and wind and

photovoltaic projects (green belts). They are taken into account in project design during the impact study.

These guidelines are subject to environmental assessment (Art R122-17 14°).

Marine Environment Action Plans (PAMM) and Seaboard Strategic Documents (DSF)

The PAMM is the environmental component of the Seaboard Strategic Documents provided for by the National

Strategy for the Sea and the Coast. The PAMMs audit the environmental issues on the four seaboards (Eastern

Channel - North Sea; North Atlantic - Western Channel; South Atlantic; Mediterranean).

The marine renewable energy development projects planned by the PPE must comply with the DSF and the

zonings defined in the PAMM in order to limit the impact that the presence of the energy production

infrastructure has on biodiversity.

Regional Model for Organisation, Sustainable Development and Inter-Regional Equality

(SRADDET)

The SRADDETs provided for by the NOTRe law of 7 August 2015 are intended to bring together different

regional schemes to ensure consistency. They are subject to environmental assessment (Art R122-17 38):

Regional Climate Air Energy Plan (SRCAE)

These plans set out broad guidelines for mitigating climate change and improving air quality. They break down

development objectives for renewable energies at local level by taking account of specific issues in their

respective areas.

These plans were subject to environmental assessment (Art R122-17 §1 9).

Regional Ecological Coherence Scheme (SRCE)

These schemes guaranteed that the territory's environmental characteristics were taken into account. They

managed local usage conflicts that could be associated with the development of power generation, networks

and storage infrastructures. These schemes determined the zoning for management of the implementation of

projects provided for by the PPE and were therefore taken into account as part of the dedicated impact study.

They took account of the national guidelines for the preservation of green and blue belts, as well as the Water

Development and Management Master Plan (SDAGE).

These plans were subject to environmental assessment (Art R122-17 §1 15).

Regional Intermodality Scheme (SRI)

These schemes presented the objectives of the SDMP in respect of the development of intermodalities.

Regional Waste Prevention and Management Plan (PRPGD)

The PRPGD was used as a global planning tool for the prevention and management of all waste produced in

the territory, whether by households or by economic activities. Its role was to put in place the conditions for

achieving the national objectives of reducing waste at source as a priority, with improved waste sorting and

recovery rates as a secondary goal.

The purpose of these schemes is to develop the regional territory in line with the main national political

objectives, including those of the PPE. They set the objectives and the locations of renewable energy projects.

1.2.3. Plans and programs that take account of the PPE National Biomass Mobilisation Strategy (SNMB)

As specified above, the SNMB takes account of the wood energy demand set out in the PPE in its biomass

mobilisation objectives.

National Forest Wood Program (PNFB)

The PNFB was put in place by the laws of 13 October, 2014, for agriculture, food and forestry and is subject

to environmental assessment (Art R122-17 25 and 26 for its regional breakdowns). Adopted in 2017, it will be

revised by 2026.

The purpose of the PNFB is to oversee forestry operations in France in order to ensure sustainable management

of the resource. It assesses all the impacts in terms of biodiversity involved in the use of stocks of wood-energy

resources and provides measures to reduce its impact. Although it is not legally associated to the PPE, its

annexes (Appendix 4b) anticipate increased mobilisation of the resource in connection with the guidelines of

the energy policy.


The Resource Scheduling Plan devised in 2017 as part of the National Strategy for Transition to the Circular

Economy (SNTEC)21 updated every 5 years, assesses issues related to non-food biomass, soils and non-energy

mineral resources. Its objective is to anticipate potential tensions over resources, particularly in the context of

energy transition.

Its first version does not detail the resource stocks, but it would be desirable, in the long term, to include the

objectives of the PPE in the evaluation of needs.

National Radioactive Waste and Materials Management Plan (PNGMDR)

Established by the law of 28 June 2006, the PNGMDR addresses the management of radioactive materials and

waste. It sets requirements for the improvement of existing solutions and the development of new management

methods. Updated every three years, it is a priority tool for ensuring sustainable management of radioactive

materials and waste.

Its main purpose is to draw up a regular review of the management policy for these radioactive substances, to

evaluate new needs and to establish the objectives to be achieved in the future, particularly in terms of studies

and research. The PNGMDR must therefore take account of the guidelines of the PPE on the evolution of the

share of nuclear power in the national electricity mix to assess the needs of the sector in terms of management

capacity and treatment of radioactive waste.

This plan is subject to environmental assessment (Art R122-17 21).

National Strategy for Energy Research (SNRE)

SNRE sets the main guidelines and priority areas for research in France, in order to meet scientific,

technological, environmental and societal challenges identified as important priorities22. This strategy, adopted

in December 2016, is reviewed every 5 years. Challenge No. 2 of the current SNR relates to energy (Challenge

No. 2) and is developed as part of the National Energy Research Strategy. Challenge No. 6 is about sustainable

transport and urban systems.

The national research strategy must take account of the guidelines of the energy and climate policy defined by

the national low-carbon strategy and the Multi-Annual Energy Plan (Article L144-1 of the Energy Code). The

guidelines of the PPE and the SDMP will therefore be taken into account during the next revision of this

strategy.

Ten-year Electric Transport Network Development Scheme (SDDR)

The SDDR, adopted in 2016, lists the network development projects that RTE proposes to implement and

commission within three years and presents the main electricity transmission infrastructures to be envisaged

in the next ten years; beyond this, it sketches the possible adaptation needs of the network based on different

21 Article 69 LTECV: "Every five years, the Government presents Parliament with a national strategy

for transition to the circular economy, including a Resource Scheduling Plan necessary for the key sectors of

economic activities, which is used to identify the potentials of prevention of the use of raw, primary and

secondary materials, in order to use resources more efficiently, as well as strategic resources in terms of

volume or value, and to identify the actions needed to protect the French economy."

22 Established by Article 183 of the LTECV, it appears in Article L144-1 of the Energy Code.

energy transition scenarios. Thus, the SDDR must schedule the infrastructures necessary to meet the

requirements of the PPE.

In parallel with the development of renewable energies in the PPE, the ten-year plan foresees an

adaptation of the transport network so that these new facilities can be accommodated.

◦ Hosting areas have been developed to facilitate the connection of future wind or photovoltaic

farms.

◦ Interconnections are enhanced at local and international levels to pool production risks related to

meteorology.

◦ The networks are adapted to allow self-production and self-consumption practices.

From the perspective of the development of more decentralised energy production, the network will

be adapted to the reduced need for infrastructure capacity serving major power plants. The SDDR thus

takes account of the PPE objective to reduce fossil energy generation.

This plan is subject to environmental assessment (Art R122-17 §1 2).

Buildings Energy Renewal Plan (PREB)

Adopted in April 2018 and revised every 5 years, this plan aims to improve the energy performance of

buildings by promoting their renovation23. It thus contributes to the demand management objective based on

the renovation objectives set out in the PPE. Its action is aimed in particular at creating the conditions for mass

renovation to accelerate energy savings in buildings. As such, it aims to simplify the channels, incentives and

grants for renovation and to encourage staged renovation when more ambitious operations are not possible.

It also contributes to combating fuel poverty by prioritizing public support for disadvantaged households.

Employment and Skills Programming Plan (PPEC)

The PPEC is provided for in Article 182 of the LTECV. It is under development and is expected to be published

by the end of 2018. It aims to identify the skills and employment development requirements in the territories

and in the professional sectors, in respect of the ecological and energy transition.

The reduction in the use of fossil fuels and the development of renewable energies and improvements in energy

efficiency will see some jobs disappear, others created and some skills evolve. The PPEC takes account of the

guidelines set by the PPE (Article 182 II) in order to anticipate these changes and to assess training needs.

1.3. Environmental Assessment Method

1.3.1. The approach of strategic environmental assessment An iterative process that takes account of environmental factors

The environmental assessment of plans and programs known as "Strategic Environmental Assessment" (SEA)

is governed by European Directive 2001/42/EC of 27 June 2001 and the French Environmental Code. It meets

the requirements of Article R122-20 of the Environmental Code. It is defined as an approach to take account

of the environmental impact of a program being developed in order to limit that impact. As part of this exercise,

the environmental components are (art L122-1 of the Environmental Code):

Population and human health;

Biodiversity, especially protected species;

Environments: land, soil, water, air and climate;

Material assets, cultural heritage and landscape;

Interaction between all the above factors.

Evaluation takes the form of a back and forth process between the author of the program and the evaluator,

which continues throughout its design. This exchange makes it possible to change the plan upstream in order

23 Provided by Article 4 of the LTECV, it appears in Article 101-2 of the Construction and Building

Code

to anticipate the main barriers to its implementation. Environmental assessment is not, therefore, an impact

assessment once the strategy is established, but a tool supporting the development of the strategy.

The strategic environmental assessment is also a tool supporting decision-making. By integrating the

environmental component into the decision-making process, the pros and cons of the program as a whole can

be appraised.

Finally, by giving access to the parameters guiding decision-making, the assessment is a transparent public

information tool facilitating citizen involvement in the policy in question and in the acceptability of projects

that result from it.

The SEA is carried out under the responsibility of the Authority in charge of the production of the PPE, the

Directorate General of Energy and Climate of the Ministry of Ecological and Solidarity Transition with the

support of the Directorate General of Infrastructure, Transport and Sea for the part relating to the SDMP. It

must be understood essentially as a preventative, non-normative approach in itself, which enables better

appreciation of the consequences of energy policy on the environment.

The environmental report resulting from these reflections is submitted to the Environmental Authority, which

gives a verdict on the quality of the environmental assessment. This verdict addresses the quality of the

environmental assessment, its completeness, its relevance to the issues of the plan and program, and the way

that the environment is considered in the program.

Criteria for analysing the SEA

The SEA requires the identification and assessment of significant environmental impacts of the program, from

its preparation phase and before its validation. All environmental issues are to be considered. As a result, 9

evaluation themes have been established according to the specifics of the PPE and the provisions of Article

R122-20 of the Environmental Code defining the SEA exercise:

Climate and energy Natural and technological risks Soils and sub-soils

Water resources and aquatic

environments Human health Biodiversity and natural habitats

Pollution: air pollution, olfactory,

sound and light Resources and waste Landscapes and heritage

Table 2: Strategic environmental assessment analysis criteria

These themes have been used to evaluate the different PPE items:

Improvement in energy efficiency and lower fossil energy consumption;

Development of the use of renewable and recovered energies;

Security of supply;

Network and storage infrastructures.

For each of the selected themes, the initial state of the environment made it possible to identify the main issues

and to highlight evolutionary trends. The probable significant impacts of the implementation of the PPE on

each theme could therefore be assessed against a trend scenario.

The assessment leads, when the potentially negative impacts are identified, to changes in the options selected

or measures taken to avoid, reduce and, as a last resort, offset these negative impacts. Monitoring the PPE and

these measures ensures the best possible protection of the environment by limiting or even eliminating the

direct or indirect harm that may be caused by the program.

1.3.2. The scope of the SEA of the PPE in relation to the SEA of the SNBC The PPE and the SNBC are developed jointly within the Directorate General of Energy and Climate. These

two policies are based on the same scenarios but have different timescales: the PPE covers the period 2018-

2028 while the SNBC projects forward to 2050 with carbon budgets between 2018 and 2033. The geographical

scope of these two policies is also different insofar as the PPE only deals with the metropolitan continental

French mainland24, while the SNBC covers the entire French territory.

24 Specific PPEs are produced for Corsica and each overseas territory.

The link between the PPE (including the Clean Mobility Development Strategy) and the SNBC on energy

issues is complex (see diagram below). Two aspects differ: the scopes of the thematic components addressed

and the degree of operational capacity of the recommendations made.

Concerning the scopes of the thematic components, 3 types of case appear:

Some thematic components are more specific to the PPE, even if they are the source of GHG emissions:

for example, it is essentially the PPE that addresses the choices of primary energy sources for the

energy mix and the associated network infrastructures.

Some thematic components are unique to the SNBC, such as non-energy GHG emissions: e.g. carbon

sequestration in soils or biomass, or N20 and CH4 emissions from agriculture.

In some areas the scopes of the two policies overlap, so they are then addressed by both the SNBC and

the PPEs, especially demand management: e.g. demand management is addressed by both policies. It

is detailed in the "Demand Management" component of the PPE and broken down into sectoral

recommendations of the SNBC.

In respect of how each of the thematic components is approached, the SNBC has a strategic approach, while

the PPE is operational: for example, in energy generation, the SNBC does address in detail the development

of renewable energies, particularly in the choice of the energy mix. It defines general "carbon-free energy"

objectives, with general guidelines on the targeting of biomass resources, heat from the environment and

carbon-free electricity. The PPE goes as far as to specify the schedule of calls to tender for electrical renewable

energies as well as the power capacities that will be required.

The link between the metropolitan PPE and the SNBC implies that a number of environmental watch points

mentioned in the SNBC and in its SEA will be developed in more detail by the PPE and by this document.

Thus, the following environmental watch points mainly relate to the PPE and its SEA:

Consumption of non-energy mineral resources required for the development of renewable energies

(batteries, photovoltaic panels etc.)

The environmental impacts of the selected energy mix (solar, wind, nuclear, etc.) and the measures to

be put in place (location areas to be prioritised, avoidance, reduction, compensation measures, etc.).

The main environmental issues involved are land use (and issues of biodiversity, quality of the related

environments, although they are not addressed in great detail at this level) and the management of

resources and waste related to energy transition.

Figure 2: The respective scopes of the SEA of the PPE and of the SNBC

2. Initial state of the environment A summary description of the territory and identification of the main environmental issues associated with the

SNBC.

The intrinsic focus of the SNBC is the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate climate change, so

the initial state begins with a presentation of the problem related to climate and energy which lies at the heart

of the development of a national low-carbon strategy. Each environmental theme is then detailed in terms of

the pressures exerted by human activities.

2.1. Climate and Energy

2.1.1. Climate in France Within this part, each sub-section will include a focus on the outcome’s indicators of the first version of the

SNBC. These indicators represent most recent data tracing developments in climate and energy issues studied

in recent years.

Initial state: the different types of climate in France and climate change

The different types of climates in France

France enjoys a so-called temperate climate, with rainfall distributed throughout the year and relatively mild

temperatures. However, the climate varies greatly by region depending on latitude, altitude, proximity to the

sea or mountains. There are four main types of climate in metropolitan France (see Map below):

The oceanic climate, which is temperate,

is characterised by cool, wet winters and

mild summers with variable weather, with

maximum rainfall during the cold season;

The altered oceanic climate, a transition

zone between the oceanic, mountain and

semi-continental climates. Temperature

differences between winter and summer

increase with distance from the sea.

Rainfall is lower than on the seaboard,

except near the uplands;

The semi-continental climate, with hot

summers and harsh winters, with a large

number of days of snow or frost. Annual

rainfall is relatively high, except in Alsace,

which is sheltered by the Vosges. Rainfall

is higher in summer and is often stormy in

nature;

Figure 3: climate zones in metropolitan France (Source:

Météo France)

The mountain climate, where the temperature falls rapidly with altitude. Minimal cloud in winter and

maximum cloud in summer. Winds and precipitation vary significantly by location;

The Mediterranean climate, with mild winters and hot summers, significant sunshine and frequent high

winds. There are few rainy days, irregularly distributed over the year. Dry winters and summers are

followed by very wet spring and autumns, often in the form of storms.

Recent climate changes

In metropolitan France, the rise in temperatures since 1900 is slightly higher than the world average and subject

to large disparities between the North and South of the country. Currently, no change in the patterns of storms

or strong winds has been detected, but heat waves have already been experiencing significant change since the

start of the century. For precipitation, current projections for metropolitan France do not reveal a marked trend

in the annual average. Nevertheless, some models anticipate lower rainfall in summer (State of the

Environment, 2014). Strong winds should not see discernible change in the metropolis. In the French overseas

territories’ tropical territories, the frequency of strong winds is not expected to change. On the other hand, their

intensity should increase (State of the Environment, 2014).

By 2071-2100, all of these phenomena are expected to increase.

Threats and pressures: greenhouse gas emissions and climate change

Impact of greenhouse gases on climate change

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are naturally present in the atmosphere. They enable the Earth's temperature to stay

at an average of 15°C. However, excessive greenhouse gases emissions into the atmosphere has the effect of

increasing the average temperature and causing considerable global changes. This is called climate

change. Since the industrial revolution, GHG emissions have increased exponentially. Tracking and reducing

these emissions have become paramount.

Human activities are explicitly highlighted as the main cause of this rapid change in climate. Globally, the

greenhouse gas emissions covered by the Kyoto Protocol (CO2, CH4, N2O, HFC, PFC, SF6, NF3) have

Figure 4: Evolution of the average temperature in Metropolitan France. Source: SDES, Key

climate figures - France and World, 2017.

Box 1: Sources of greenhouse gases covered by the Kyoto Protocol

GHG Sources

Carbon dioxide (CO2) Natural: breathing, putrefaction, fires...

Anthropogenic: fossil fuel combustion, some industries (cement production, etc.)

Methane (CH4)

Natural: plant and animal decomposition, animal digestion

Anthropogenic and other: livestock, wood combustion, rice cultivation, household

and composted landfills, oil and gas exploitation

Nitrous oxide (N2O) Natural: wet zones

Anthropogenic: use of nitrogen fertilizers (agriculture), certain chemical processes

Hydrofluorocarbons

(HFC)

Exclusively anthropogenic: aerosol refrigeration system; and insulating foams

Sulfur hexafluoride Exclusively anthropogenic: metallurgy, semiconductor manufacture;

Perfluorocarbons

(PFC)

Exclusively anthropogenic: air conditioners, some refrigeration units and fire

extinguishers

increased by 80% since 1970 and by 45% since 1990, reaching 54 Gt CO2eq. in 201325 compared to 49 Gt CO2eq.

in 2010.

Distribution of GHG emissions by sector

In 2016, the share of GHG emissions from energy use represented 70.3% of total emissions - 321.9 Mt CO2

equivalent. They consist mainly of CO2. Emissions related to energy use decreased by 12.5% between 1990

and 2016. They result mainly from fuel consumption and, marginally, from certain combustions and leaks

generated during the extraction, processing and distribution of fuels, known as "fugitive emissions".

In 2016, the contribution of the different sectors was as follows26:

Share of transport: 30%, of which 95% is from road transport of passengers and freight;

Share of manufacturing and construction industry: 17%:

Share of residential and tertiary (heating, air conditioning, etc.): 20%;

Share of the energy industry: 11%, of which 59% is power generation and district heating and 20%

refining; the low contribution of electricity generation to GHG emissions in France is explained by the

importance of nuclear power generation;

Share of agriculture/forestry: 19 %. The agricultural sector is the largest emitter of N2

O and CH4

. N2

O

emissions from this sector are decreasing due to the lower amounts of mineral fertilisers used on

cultivated soils and the CH4

emissions in agriculture, resulting from the digestion of ruminants and the

management of animal manure, as well as due to the decline in livestock;

Waste share (consisting of 87% CH4

): 3 %. Primarily from organic waste landfills and sewage/sludge

processing, they have been stable since 1990.

Measures and actions to reduce French greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by 2030

Countries signing the Paris Agreement pledged to limit the increase in average temperature to 2°C, and, if

possible, to 1.5°C. To do this, they undertook, in line with the IPCC's recommendations, to achieve carbon

neutrality in the second half of the 21st

century. Developed countries are urged to achieve carbon neutrality as

soon as possible. In France, the Law on Energy Transition for Green Growth (LTECV) sets a greenhouse gas

emissions reduction target of 40% by 2030 and 75% by 2050, compared to 1990, by accelerating in particular

the development of renewable energies, by encouraging greater energy efficiency in all sectors, and through

25 SoeS, Key climate figures - France and World, 2017 edition.

26 CITEPA 2017, SECTEN inventory, available at: https://www.citepa.org/fr/activites/inventaires-des-

emissions/secten

Figure 5: Distribution by source of GHG emissions (excluding LULUCF) in France,

2016.Source: CITEPA 2017

https://www.citepa.org/fr/activites/inventaires-des-emissions/secten


the development of the bioeconomy. The overseas departments must aim for energy self-sufficiency in 2030,

with a target of 30% renewable energy from 2020 in Mayotte and 50% in The Reunion Island, Martinique,

Guadeloupe and Guyana, compared to 23% in mainland France.

These measures include in particular the renovation of buildings and the development of more environmentally

friendly transport. Targets include making 7 million charging points available for electric vehicles by 2030,

ensuring that 10% of energy consumed in all transport modes comes from renewable sources by 2020 and 15%

by 2030, or ensuring that all new buildings meet the "low-energy building" (BBC) standard by 2050.

In this context, the first national low-carbon strategy, published in November 2015, defines the way forward

for reducing GHG emissions throughout France and for complying with the set reduction objectives. For 2015-

2018, 2019-2023 and 2024-2028, it sets carbon budgets of 442, 399 and 358 Mt of CO2eq. respectively per

year. The first carbon budget makes it possible to meet the French commitments by 2020. The levels of the

second and third carbon budgets take account of the objective adopted for 2030 and are part of the European

contribution to the 2015 international climate agreement, namely the reduction of at least 40% in greenhouse

gas emissions by 2030 compared to 1990. These budgets are broken down by major sectors27 and by each gas

with a GHG effect, when justified by the issues. The indicative breakdown by activity sector is as follows:

The adaptation of the territory to climate change is an essential complement to actions to reduce greenhouse

gas emissions. The National Climate Change Adaptation Plan (PNACC), in accordance with article 42 of

the law of 3 August 2009 on the Grenelle Environment Forum Program, presents tangible operational measures

to prepare France to address and take advantage of new climate conditions. This national plan is currently

being revised to define France's adaptation policy in accordance with the Paris Agreement. The aim is to

ensure effective adaptation, from the middle of the 21st century, to a regional climate in both France and the

Overseas Territories consistent with a temperature rise of 1.5 / 2°C at global level compared to the 19th century.

Lastly, at regional level, the PCAET (Climate Air Energy Territory Plans) are now mandatory for EPCIs

with their own taxation of more than 20,000 inhabitants. The PCAET is a planning tool that aims to mitigate

climate change, develop renewable energies and control energy consumption. Its contents, divided into four

sections, is set by law: diagnosis, territorial strategy, action plan and monitoring and evaluation system.

Trends and future outlooks: ongoing climate change despite a general downward trend in

French emissions

Climate change: average temperature rise, but regional disparities

27 ETS (Emission Trading Scheme); sectors covered by the "Sharing of effort" Directive (sectors not

covered by the common emissions market); LULUCF (land use, land use change and forestry)

Figure 6: Indicative breakdown of the carbon budgets of the first SNBC by sector. Source:

SNBC 2015

For metropolitan France, the various studies carried out to date28 make it possible to identify the following

climatic changes by 2050:

An increase in temperatures from 0.3°C to 2°C by 2050

Temperatures are expected to increase in France over the next century. By 2050, the average increase in the

territory will be between 0.3°C and 2°C. This increase will continue to reach 1°C - 3°C in winter and 1.3°C -

5 °C in summer at the end of the century following the different scenarios envisaged. This rise in temperature

will not be uniform over the territory and could, for example, greatly exceed 5°C for the South-East region in

summer.

A decrease in extreme cold days and more heatwaves

By contrast, the number of days of extreme cold is expected to decrease, especially in the North of the country,

and the number of days of extreme heat is expected to increase, particularly in the southeastern quarter of the

country where heatwaves of more than 20 consecutive days may occur.

A change in precipitation patterns

For rainfall, the different climate models do not all agree, thus demonstrating the difficulty of accurately

forecasting global developments on this point. However, two trends seem to be emerging: increased rainfall in

winter and a decrease in summer. Moreover, the European "multi-model" foresees an increase in extreme rains

that may cause floods.

Rising sea levels

For rising sea levels, the most likely range is between 0.3m and 0.8m. It should be noted, however, that this

increase is mainly due to the expansion of the oceans (itself due to the increasing temperature of the oceans).

Indeed, the outcome of the melting of the ice caps cannot be predicted with certainty and the IPCC estimates

that the critical temperature increase that would cause a major melting of these ice caps is most likely above

1°C and probably under 4°C.

The regional distribution of sea level changes is difficult to estimate because it depends on local changes in

several parameters: ocean temperature, salinity, ocean currents, surface pressure, the contribution of

continental waters or changes in the level of the ocean floor and earth movements. Although major trends in

these phenomena have been studied at global level, it is not yet possible to draw precise conclusions for France.

Trends in French GHG emissions

Over the period 1990-2016, there was a decrease in GHG emissions but with disparities by sector however.

Emissions from the transport sector increased by 12%, while those in the residential sector decreased by 2%

and those in the waste sector by 6%. Globally, since 2007, the trend in greenhouse gas emissions across all

sectors has been declining.

28 MTES, 2014. The climate of France in the 21st century - Volume 4 - Regional Scenarios: 2014

edition for metropolitan France and overseas territories.

Global Trends: focus on the outcome indicators of the first SNBC version

In all the graphs below, the "past trend" curve refers to the prolongation of actual trends observed while the

"SNBC scenario" curve refers to the former AMS ("With Additional Measures”) provisional scenario of

SNBC 1. The anticipated trend for the future is the extension of the "past trend" blue line.

Global GHG emissions

The discrepancies from the indicative annual budgets (provisionally adjusted in 2018) are estimated at 3 Mt

CO2eq. for 2015, 13 Mt CO2eq. for 2016 and 31 Mt CO2eq. for 2017.

Source: CITEPA (UNCAC Inventory, "Climate Plan" format for 2016

Figure 7: Greenhouse gas emissions by sector in France, 1990 and 2016.

Figure 8: Global GHG emissions in France. Source: SNBC1 outcomes indicators, January 2018,

SNBC1

Trends by sector: focus on the outcome indicators of the first SNBC version

Transport

For the transport sector, from 2015 there was a deviation from the SNBC trajectory, above the indicative share

of carbon budgets by sector. The 2016 emissions show that the annual target was exceeded by 6%.

Residential - tertiary

For the building sector, results from 2015 show a deviation from the SNBC trajectory, above the indicative

share of carbon budgets by sector despite favourable weather conditions. The 2016 emissions show that the

annual target was exceeded by 11%.

Figure 10: GHG emissions in the transport sector. Source: SNBC1 outcomes indicators, January

2018, SNBC1.

Box 2: Carbon footprint

Carbon footprint characterizes the pressure exerted by a population in terms of greenhouse gas emissions,

depending on consumption. It differs from emissions measured in the territory (the traditional way of

estimating emissions) and takes into account emissions linked to the production and transportation of goods

and services consumed in France. The difference between the two indicators is the balance of emissions

related to imported goods and services consumed in France and that of emissions related to goods and services

produced in France and exported for consumption in another country.

Figure 9: France's carbon footprint (Source: outcome indicators, January 2018, SNBC1)

This indicator illustrates that, alongside the reduction in France's territorial emissions covered by international

agreements, France can also act via more sustainable forms of consumption, with a significant climate impact

given French standards of living.

This indicator also illustrates that a reduction in territorial emissions that would result from "exporting our

emissions" through the deindustrialization of emitting sectors in France compensated by an increase in

imports would not be an improvement from a climate change perspective. The global impact could even be

negative if the production conditions abroad were more carbon-intensive than in France. This phenomenon is

known as "carbon leakage". It is therefore imperative to avoid them. This is why it is important to use an

indicator that reflects the carbon footprint.

Agriculture

For the agriculture sector, results from 2015 show a slight deviation from the SNBC trajectory, above the

indicative share of carbon budgets by sector. The 2016 emissions show that the annual target was exceeded by

3 %.

Industry

For the industry sector, the 2015 results and the 2016 emissions are close to the targeted objectives (margin of

around 1%).

Figure 11: GHG emissions in the residential - tertiary sector. Source: SNBC1 outcomes indicators,

January 2018, SNBC

Figure 12: GHG emissions in the agriculture sector. Source: SNBC1 outcomes indicators,

January 2018, SNBC1.

Box 3: Summary of the impact of the trend scenario (AME 2018) on the climate

For about ten years, French GHG emissions have been declining. However, in the short term, in the last two

years, emissions have stabilized.

Under the SNBC2, the trend scenario modeling GHG emissions, known as the AME 2018 ("with existing

measures"), tends towards a 32% reduction in GHG emissions in 2030 and then 35% in 2050 compared to

1990. This will not achieve the SNBC 2 objective of carbon neutrality by 2050 (see graph below).

Figure 14: Comparison of the reference scenarios (AMEs) and scenarios with supplementary

measures (AMS) of the previous SNBC (1) and the current SNBC (2). Source: DGEC, preparatory work

for SNBC 2, 2018.

2.1.2. State of energy production and consumption in the national territory29 During the second half of the 2000s, while GHG reduction objectives were targeted, a strong link was created

between climate and energy policies: at national level, through the creation of the Directorate-General of

Energy and Climate and in the territories through the introduction of air-energy climate schemes and plans. It

is now clear that energy is one of the main levers for combating climate change, through three courses of action:

lower energy consumption, improved energy efficiency and decarbonised energy sources.

29 All the figures in this section come from France's Energy Balance report 2016 (Edition 2018).

Figure 13: GHG emissions in the industrial sector. Source: SNBC1 outcomes indicators, January

2018, SNBC1.

Initial state: energy production and consumption in France

Sources of primary energy production

Following the establishment of the nuclear program, national primary energy production increased from 44

Mtoe in 1973 (9% of which was nuclear) to 133 Mtoe in 2016 (79% of which was nuclear). Oil, coal and

natural gas production continued to decline, reaching zero for the last two items. Primary production of energy

from renewable sources has been increasing steadily since the mid-2000s, particularly with the development

of wind power, photovoltaics, biofuels and biogas.

Energy consumption

After a steady increase until 2005, reaching a peak at 271 Mtoe, primary energy consumption adjusted for

climate variations has fallen slightly over the past ten years. This downward trend was interrupted in 2015.

The long-term trend is very different depending on energy sources: since 1990, coal and oil consumption fell

by 58% and 19% respectively. On the other hand, gas consumption increased by 43%, primary electricity

increased by 32% and thermal renewable energies and waste increased by 75%.

During 1990-2016, the share of industry (including iron and steel) in final energy consumption decreased from

24% to 19%, while the transport sector was relatively stable at 30% in 1990 and 31% in 2016. The share of

the residential-tertiary sector gained nearly four points (43% to 47%), while agriculture remained around 3%.

Final energy consumption, adjusted for climate variations, all uses combined, fell in the second half of

the 2000s and has been relatively stable since, at around 141 Mtoe. In 2016, it was 141 Mtoe.

Figure

15: Primary energy production by energy in France (Mtoe =

Source: Energy Balance of France 2016 (2018 edition)

Focus on GHG emissions specifically related to energy use (source: CITEPA)

In 2016, 70.3% of total GHG emissions were due to the use of energy, or 321.9 Mt CO2 equivalent. The

transport sector contributes 41% of GHG emissions related to energy use. The other main emission sectors are

the use of residential-tertiary-agricultural buildings (28%), manufacturing and construction (15%) and the

energy industry (14%).

Transport emissions increased rapidly between 1990 and 2004, averaging + 1.2% per year, reaching 143

million tonnes (Mt) CO2eq. This increase was caused by strong growth in road traffic over the period (+ 1.8%

per year), responsible for more than 90% of transport emissions. These emissions then decreased between 2004

and 2009, due to the fall in the development of passenger and freight road traffic (+ 0.6% per year between

2004 and 2009), more than offset by the renewal of the car fleet, supported by the ecological and scraping

bonuses, on the one hand, and the explosion in oil fuel prices and the deployment of biofuels, on the other

hand. Since 2009, transport emissions have stabilised at around 132 Mt CO2eq. while road traffic continued to

grow at a rate of 0.7% per year between 2009 and 2012.

Emissions from the residential-tertiary sector come mainly from heating in buildings: they are therefore

particularly sensitive to weather variations. Between 1990 and 2004, they increased to 116MteCO2

, and since

Figure 16:

Primary energy consumption (adjusted for climate variation) by energy in France

(Source: Energy Balance of France 2016 (2018 edition)

Figure 17:

Final energy consumption (adjusted for climate variations) by sector in France

(Source: Energy Balance of France 2016 (2018 edition)

then they have been slowly decreasing. In 2016 they were 90.5Mte CO2. Since the late 1970s, the share of oil

and coal products in the residential-tertiary sector energy mix has declined in favour of natural gas and

electricity, which emit less CO2. This has helped to contain the sector's emission rates, while its energy

consumption is steadily growing.

Emissions related to fuel consumption in manufacturing and construction fell by one third compared to 1990.

This fall accelerated significantly as a result of the 2008 economic crisis. Improved energy efficiency in

production processes and rebalancing of the energy mix at the expense of oil and coal have also contributed to

a fall in emissions for the sector over a long period. They have been increasing for the last two years: +5 % in

2015 and +8 % in 2016.

70% of emissions from energy combustion in the energy industry come from electricity and heat production,

the rest are from oil refining and coke production. In 2016, these emissions amounted to 45.2 Mt CO2eq. As

in the residential-tertiary sector, they fluctuate a lot depending on heating demand and weather conditions. The

vast majority of electricity production in France is provided by the nuclear and hydro sectors that do not emit

GHGs in the production phase. Thermal power plants, which mainly burn oil, coal and natural gas, are used as

semi-bases and back-ups, covering energy needs at peak consumption times.

In 2016, fugitive emissions were 1.3% of energy-related emissions compared to 2.9% in 1990. This decline is

due to the gradual closure of coal mines, which were sources of CH4 releases CO2 from catalytic cracker

regeneration for oil refining and CH4 emissions escaping from the natural gas transmission and distribution

networks now represent the majority of fugitive emissions30.

Actions and measures prior to SNBC 2

SNBC1 is complemented by the Multi-Annual Energy Plan (PPE), published in October 2016, for 2016-2023,

which sets the government's priorities for management of the different energy sectors. It is currently being

developed for 2019-2028 (see Chapter 2 on the coordination of plans and programs with the SNBC).

It should be noted that Corsica, Guadeloupe, Guyana, Martinique, Mayotte, the Reunion Island and Saint-

Pierre and Miquelon each have their own Multi-Annual Energy Plan (PPE). These PPEs, with the exception

of Corsica, constitute the energy component of the regional climate, air and energy schemes (SRCAE), in order

to avoid a proliferation of planning documents. In the same vein, Prerures, forerunners of SRCAEs in the

Overseas territories, have been repealed.

30 Source: Initial state of the environment 2014

Figure 18: Evolution of GHG emissions due to fuel consumption in France (MteCO2

)

Source: CITEPA

Trends and future outlooks

Energy production

For the energy production sector, the 2015 results and the 2016 forecasts, respectively, offer a margin of -15%

and -8% compared to the annual objectives.

Final energy consumption

There was a decrease of around -1% per year between 2013 and 2015, while the SNBC 1 initial state scenario

foresees a drop of about -1.5% per year.

Transport

Different types of transport (road / air / sea and river / rail) use greenhouse gas

emitting fossil fuels.

Land artificialisation linked to transport infrastructure limits carbon storage

capacity in soils

Residential-

Tertiary Sector

Greenhouse gas emissions are mostly due to the use of energy. Different uses are

distinguished: electricity, heating, cooking, domestic hot water.

Urban forms and the preservation of natural spaces in urban areas have an

impact on local climates (e.g. heat islands).

Figure 19: GHG emissions in the energy production sector. Source: outcomes indicators, January 2018,

SNBC1.

Figure 20: Final energy consumption per unit of GDP. Source: outcome indicators, SNBC

Box 4: Summary of the impact of the energy trend scenario

The estimated trend is a continued decline in GHG emissions, including the planned closure of oil and coal

plants, plus growth in renewable energies and energy efficiency efforts. However, without additional

measures, it is unlikely that this decline will be sufficient to achieve the decarbonization of the sector by 2050.

Transport

Different types of transport (road / air / sea and river / rail) use greenhouse gas

emitting fossil fuels.

Land artificialisation linked to transport infrastructure limits carbon storage

capacity in soils

Urbanisation also contributes to land artificialisation, limiting carbon storage

capacity.

Agriculture

The use of mineral fertilisers spread on cultivated land

The digestion of ruminants and the management of animal waste,

Burning, incineration of crop residues

Forestry - wood

- biomass

The forest-wood-biomass sector contributes to the mitigation of GHG emissions

using four levers: carbon sequestration and storage in living and dead biomass,

storage in wood products, material replacement or chemical molecule, energy

substitution.

Forests play a role in the regulation of local climates (rainfall, temperatures, etc.)

Industry GHG emissions in industry are mostly due to use of energy.

Industrial processes are also a source of GHG emissions

Energy

production

Most GHG emissions are due to energy and heat production (plant operation), as

well as refining, fugitive emissions and the transformation of SMF (solid

mineral fuels).

Waste

The disposal of organic waste and the treatment of sewage sludge are

responsible for most GHG emissions.

Wastewater treatment is also a source of emissions.

Table 3: Threats and pressures on the climate and greenhouse gas emissions

2.2. Physical environments

2.2.1. Water resources and aquatic environments

Initial state: a mixed assessment of water quality in France

State of inland waters

With regard to the Water Framework Directive (WFD) adopted in October 2000, the good quality of surface

water bodies (management and assessment units defined in the Directive) is defined based on the quality of

their ecological status (depending on the biological, chemical and hydro-morphological quality of the water

body in question) and their chemical status (compliance with the pollutant concentrations threshold values set

at European level). The good condition of groundwater bodies is also the result of good chemical status

(compliance with the threshold values) and the good quantitative status (when the volumes of water extracted

do not exceed the renewal capacity of the resource and preserve the supply of ecosystems) of these water

bodies31.

In 2013, 44% of surface water bodies was in good ecological condition and 50% in good chemical condition.

At the same time, 67% of groundwater bodies were in good chemical condition and 90% were in good

quantitative condition32.

31 CGDD, 2014. The environment in France, edition 2014.

32 Ibid.

Condition of marine waters

Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 called the "Marine

Strategy Framework Directive" requires Member States of the European Union to take the necessary measures

to reduce the impacts of human activities on this environment to achieve or maintain a good ecological

condition for the marine environment by 2020 at the latest.

The ecological condition of coastal water bodies is better than the average ecological condition of all surface

water bodies with 57% of French coastal water bodies, DOM included, in good or very good condition. The

situation is less positive for transitional waters and estuaries where less than 30% are in good or very good

ecological condition and one third are in poor condition.

Of half of the coastal water bodies assessed, three-quarters are in good chemical condition (the other half of

the water bodies have not yet been evaluated). Of the evaluated 70% of transitional water bodies, about one in

two bodies has a poor chemical condition, especially on the North Sea and Eastern Channel shorelines.

Threats and pressures: multiple quantitative and qualitative pressures from all sectors

The main sources of pollution of inland waters consist of discharges from urban or industrial wastewater

treatment plants, rainwater run-off, diffuse pollution from agricultural sources or atmospheric debris, as well

as bank and water course development (flow obstacles). This causes the excessive presence of various

pollutants 33 : pesticides, nitrates, phosphorus, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated

biphenyls (PCBs) etc.

In marine waters, more than 80% of pollution comes from the land via rivers or spills from coastal areas. This

pollution consists of suspended particles likely to stifle ecosystems, nutrients causing the proliferation of algae

or macro-waste that can cause the death of marine mammals by ingestion (plastic bags, etc.).

Water resources are also under quantitative pressure associated with possible episodes of marine drought, flood

and / or submersion. These topics are addressed in the section on natural hazards.

Climate change is also a major threat to water resources. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC) shows a decreasing precipitation trend in metropolitan France on average between 1979 and 2005. It

also shows a trend towards widespread increases in heavy precipitation events, caused by an increase in

atmospheric water vapor which is consistent with the warming observed by the IPCC.

These climatic factors should also promote an increase in water temperatures and thus exacerbate many forms

of water pollution including pesticides, nutrients, etc.

33 CGDD, 2014. The environment in France, 2014 edition.

Figure 21: Ecological, chemical and quantitative condition of French surface and groundwater bodies in

2013, excluding Guadeloupe, Martinique and Mayotte. Source: CGDD 2014, The environment in France

2014, according to Water Agencies - Water Boards - Onema, March 2014. Processing: SDES, 2014

Transport Soil sealing and runoff;

Pollution from runoff waters.

Residential-

Tertiary

Sector

Pollution from runoff waters and the problem of soil sealing;

Discharges from urban sewage treatment plants;

Development of banks and watercourses (obstacles to flow);

Emerging pollution: drugs, endocrine disruptors, etc.

Agriculture

Pollution of surface waters and groundwater related to agricultural inputs:

nitrates, phosphorus, pesticides, etc.;

Flooding and runoff issues related to soil management (compaction, etc.);

Water Pollution due to suspended matter related to runoff on farmland;

Extraction of water resources (irrigation).

Forestry -

Wood -

Biomass

Flooding and runoff issues related to soil management (compaction, etc.);

Pollution of water by suspended matter related to runoff.

Industry Discharges from industrial sewage treatment plants;

Pollution due to chlorinated solvents.

Energy

production

Bank and watercourse developments (obstacles to flow) in the case of

hydropower, associated with changes in water temperature in the case of nuclear

generation.

Modification of the marine habitat at marine energy sites: erosion of the seabed,

resuspension of sediments and modifications of the hydrosedimentary system,

risk of pollution with chemicals and lubricants related to the coatings used for

the installations.

Qualitative and quantitative pressures on water resources related to biofuel

production.

Waste Pollution from runoff waters (leaching).

Table 4: Threats and pressures on water resources and aquatic environments by sectors

Trends and future outlooks: organised management struggling to achieve satisfactory results

Actions taken

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) provide a

legal system through which Member States undertake to protect and reclaim the quality of water and marine

aquatic environments. They impose an obligation of result on Member States, so the objective is not only to

implement policies and regulations for the preservation of water resources but above all to prevent the

deterioration of water courses, to restore them to good condition, to reduce surface water pollution due to

priority substances and to progressively phase out releases of priority hazardous substances.

In France, the law of 16 December 1964 defined the six river basins and their management by basin committees

and water agencies. The law of 3 January 1992 imposed water use planning to achieve sustainable management

with the implementation of Master plans for the development and management of the water system (SDAGE),

valid for 6 years. As the WFD was inspired by these French laws, this has made it possible to harmonise water

management for all Member States by submitting a water report every 6 years, in accordance with the criteria

of the WFD defined by the European Commission. The most recent assessment dates from 2015 on the

condition of the basins in 201334.

Other directives support the Framework Directive, including Directive 2006/118 / EC of 12 December 2006

on the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration and Directive 2008/105 / EC of 16

34 Blard-Zakar, A., 2015. Baseline study 2013. Summary of basin data.

December 2008 setting forth environmental quality standards in the area of water. For marine waters, the

Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) is the legal framework for coastal water management.

To reduce the impact of agriculture on water quality and to comply with Council Directive 91/676 / EC of 12

December 1991 on the protection of waters against nitrate pollution from agricultural sources (Nitrate

Directive), the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of the Environment have set up an action plan for the

protection of water against nitrate pollution of agricultural origin. This action plan was recently amended by

the decree of 11 October 2016 modifying the decree of 19 December 2011 on the national action plan for

implementation in vulnerable zones to reduce water pollution by nitrates from agriculture. This amendment

follows the judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union dated 4 September 2014 which condemned

France for failing to properly implement a number of measures of the Nitrate Directive.

Evolutionary trends

The trends observed of different pollutants contaminating rivers are not homogeneous. Indeed, pollution of

watercourses by organic and phosphorus matter decreased significantly between 1998 and 2012 even if this is

still insufficient, as phosphates (from fertilisers, industrial sources, detergents or phosphate detergents, etc.)

remain an important source of degradation of the ecological quality of rivers35.

The ecological quality of surface waters is stabilizing. Over the 2010-2011 period, the condition of diatoms

(unicellular algae, ecological quality indicators) improved slightly compared to the 2009-2010 period. Fish

quality is also a good indicator of the ecological condition of watercourses and this trend is improving: in

2009-2010, more than half of fish quality measurement points are in good or excellent condition.

Pollution from agriculture remains a concern. In particular, nitrate pollution is not improving but is stabilizing

after an increase until 2004. Pollution of watercourses by phosphorus-based matter has greatly decreased over

the past ten years.

The implementation of specific measures to limit pollutant discharges and to restrict or even prohibit the use

of certain substances has led to improvements in several water quality parameters (phosphorus, discharges into

the sea by boats, quality of coastal waters, etc.) but the situation is still worrying for other parameters (nitrogen,

pollutants from dredging of harbour enclosures, macro waste, etc.).

In the long term, the prospective exercise, "Aqua 2030", conducted by the CGDD36 envisages in its trend

scenario an extension of these heterogeneous trends.

2.2.2. Soils

35 CGDD, 2014. State of the Environment, 2014 edition.

36 http://www.territoire-durable-2030.developpement-

durable.gouv.fr/index.php/td2030/programme/?id=aqua#ext-main

Box 5: Summary of the impact of the trend scenario on water resources and aquatic environments

The trend scenario is a prolongation of current trends, as described in the State of the Environment (2014):

Inland waters:

- a decrease in most macropollutants in watercourses;

- the ecological quality of surface waters is stabilizing (43.7% are in good and very good ecological

condition, 53% in average, mediocre or bad ecological condition);

- nitrate pollution persists;

- pesticides remain highly problematic;

- other micropollutants also degrade water condition (metals and metalloids, hydrocarbons, PAHs,

PCBs etc.).

Marine waters:

- Less phosphorus arrives at sea but the quantity of nitrogen is the same;

- The microbiological quality of coastal waters remains at a high level;

- The positive effect of restrictions on the use of certain substances;

- Fewer discharges into the sea from boats;

- A not insignificant contribution of pollutants resulting from the dredging of harbor enclosures;

- Still a lot of macro-waste.

http://www.territoire-durable-2030.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/index.php/td2030/programme/?id=aqua#_blank

http://www.territoire-durable-2030.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/index.php/td2030/programme/?id=aqua#_blank

Initial state: varied and unevenly degraded soils

Typology of metropolitan soils

The soils of the territory have varied characteristics involving different fertility and different sensitivities to

environmental pressures. In metropolitan France, the soil consists of:

25% limestone rocks (Paris Basin, Midi);

25% soils of poorly differentiated alteration;

20% fertile loam formations (Beauce, Île-de-France, Picardy);

7% sandy soils (Landes, Sologne);

11 % clay soils (Sud-Ouest, Nord-Est);

16% other soils.

In forest environments, humus, layers of fragments of more or less transformed dead plants, are strongly linked

to soil types.

In 2012, the metropolitan surface consisted of:

60% agricultural land (33 million hectares - Mha). In 2014, utilised agricultural land (UAL)

represented 27 million hectares (ha). 68% of this area is used as arable land, 4% for permanent crops

and 28% as grassland.;

34% forest and semi-natural environments (19 Mha);

a little less than 6% are artificialised areas (3 Mha).

About 1% is wetlands and water areas.

These proportions have been stable overall since 1990.

The properties of soils largely explain their agricultural use. Major crops mainly occupy the deep silty soils of

the sedimentary basins (Aquitaine, Paris, Limagne). Cattle, pig or poultry breeding (West) and more extensive

beef cattle breeding (Central Massif, Piedmont) is found on soils with little differentiation. Vine cultivation

mainly takes place on gravelly soils of ancient terraces (Bordeaux region), on stony soils (Rhône), on shallow

calcareous soils (Champagne-Ardenne) and on limestone rock soils (Mediterranean rim). Finally, fruit crops

are well established on recent alluvial soils rich in organic matter - in Provence - Alpes - Côte d'Azur.

Storage of organic carbon in soils, synonymous with climate change mitigation and increased fertility

The organic matter of the soil mainly consists of organic carbon and offers several services: it sequesters

carbon and contributes to combating climate change, it increases the biological, chemical and physical fertility

of soils. In sufficient quantity, it enables biological activity to be maintained. When it decomposes, it releases

the nutrients necessary for plant growth. Part of this material is transformed to form a clay-humic complex,

which improves the structural stability of the soil. The soil then becomes less sensitive to degradations such as

compaction and runoff, and it can also retain more water. Organic matter improves soil buffering against other

environments by retaining water, nutrients, pollutants and contaminants. It also increases the resilience of the

soil to external pressures.

Source: UE-SoeS, CORINE Land Cover

Figure 22: Land use in Metropolitan France in 2012, by theme

Soil carbon stocks are relatively variable within the French territory, because of the significant variability in

climate-type determinants of soil-land use. The soils of the French mountains (Alps, Ardennes, Jura, Massif

Central, Pyrenees, Vosges), contain the largest stocks (more than 13 kgC / m², or 130 tC / ha, in the first 30

cm), because of adverse weather conditions that discourage microorganism activity. The agricultural soils of

the Greater Paris Basin and Aquitaine have relatively low stocks of C because of use by field crop systems that

are historically associated with the export of straw. They contrast with the soils of the west with their larger

carbon stocks due to the concentration of livestock and return of effluents to the soil. Forest soils also contribute

to carbon storage.

A reservoir for biodiversity

Soil organic matter also consists of microbial biomass. A soil contains several thousand animal species and as

many as hundreds of thousands of bacterial species and fungi, which provide a formidable biodiversity

reservoir. Soil microbial biomass is highly dependent on land use and associated cultivation / forestry practices.

Grasslands contain more abundant microbial biomass than forests with variability depending on species

(Hardwoods> Conifers). Monocultures, orchards and vines are characterised by the soils with the least

abundant biomass.

Chemical fertility of soils

Soil provides the essential nutrients for plant growth, in particular nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium

(K). When their content is depleted in cultivated soils, the use of mineral or organic fertilisers (manure, slurry,

etc.) is necessary. Nevertheless, when used to excess, N and P combine with water either in dissolved form

(mainly N), or attached to soil particles (mainly P) and contribute to eutrophication. Nitrogen can also cause

air pollution problems, with NH3

as a precursor of particles. In France, agricultural production systems

requiring large amounts of nutrients and chemical and / or organic fertilisation is systematic. N levels used,

are moreover, constantly in excess of plant needs. For P, the soils of certain regions (Brittany, Nord-Pas-de-

Calais, Alsace) contain large quantities (because of the widespread contribution of livestock effluents and

metallurgy slag). Conversely, P levels are low in most cantons in many regions: Aquitaine, Burgundy, Centre,

Franche-Comté, Languedoc-Roussillon, Limousin, Lorraine and Midi-Pyrenees. These levels are insufficient

to ensure adequate yields without fertiliser, regardless of crop type.

Soil pollution due to human activity

Agricultural soils are a particularly important issue because they are subject to many changes (inputs of

livestock effluents, sludge, compost etc.) and can affect human health directly or indirectly or via transfers in

produced food. For example, animal waste is the leading cause of metals in agricultural soils, because of the

dietary supplements used in cattle, pig or poultry farming. Mineral fertilisers are a major source of Cadmium,

Chromium and Selenium.

Source : Gis Sol, IGCS-RMQS, Inra 2017.

Figure 23: national map of organic carbon stocks in metropolitan soils (excluding Corsica

and from 0 to 30 cm deep) included in the world map of the FAO.

Moreover, some of the pesticides used on crops are transferred into the environment via the atmosphere, in

water or retained in the soil and its organic matter. This is the case of Lindane, which was used for 50 years

but is considered toxic for humans and the environment, and has a degradation period of more than 40 years.

Chronic contamination of soils, waters and ecosystems by Chlordecone in the West Indies is an environmental,

health and economic problem (it was used more than twenty years ago to control the banana weevil, a pest

insect). Chronic soil pollution affects nearly one fifth of the utilised agricultural area of Guadeloupe and two

fifths in Martinique.

Finally, metals (cadmium, lead, etc.) and metalloids (boron, arsenic, etc.) are naturally present in soils.

Discharges from industry, households, transport or agriculture contribute to diffuse metal contamination in

soils. They are toxic at varying doses for humans, fauna and flora, and can therefore contaminate ecosystems

via food chains (livestock) and water resources.

Human activity, mainly industrial, can cause localised pollution: accidents during handling or transportation

of pollutants, poor confinement of toxic products on industrial sites, fallout of fumes from factory chimneys.

These polluted sites and soils, which can result from current or old activity, are a real or potential risk for the

environment and human health in accordance with the uses that are made of them.

Soil artificialisation

Tableau 5: Emissions of pollutants into the soil in 2011, declared by the ICPE. Source: The environment in

France, edition 2014

Source: The environment in France, edition 2014

Figure 24: distribution of sectors or activities causing soil-contaminating incidents in 2011

Artificialised soils, including built, paved and stabilised soils (forest and agricultural tracks, roads, car parks,

etc.) increased by 490,000 ha between 2006 and 2014, or 60,000 ha per year on average, at the expense of

agricultural soils mainly, totalling 9.3% of the metropolitan territory in 2014.

49 % of artificialised land between 2006 and 2014 was used for housing (the vast majority of which, 46%, was

for private housing), 20% for transport networks (16% for roads), and the remainder divided among other

economic and leisure activities 31%37. When analysed in terms of sealed soils (built, groomed or paved), the

housing share is lower: 34% vs 28% for transport networks and 38% for other economic and leisure activities.

In fact, lawns and gardens represent 57% of new land in private housing.

The loss of agricultural land is greater in the south-east of France, where agricultural abandonment is increasing

(the regions of Languedoc-Roussillon and Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur have structurally weaker agricultural

land) and where the growth of private housing has increased the most.

Part of the abandoned agricultural land has been transformed into natural areas (brownfields, woodlands, etc.),

which explains why natural surfaces (woods, heaths and brownfields, etc.) have remained relatively stable over

time.

Soils vulnerable to wind and water erosion, landslides and compaction

Wind and water erosion cause soil loss: they truncate the surface soil (the most fertile), reducing its thickness

(and therefore the amount of water it can retain). Soil losses are observed in certain regions (the silty

agricultural soils of the Paris and Aquitaine basins and the Piedmont and Mediterranean areas in particular)

and eventually threaten agro-ecological systems. Soil erosion due to water has caused 1.5 t/ha/yr of soil loss

on average38. Some cultural practices have been identified as causing soil erosion (lack of soil cover in winter

for example), as well as compaction (use of agricultural machinery, for example).

Compaction is mainly due to mechanisation in agriculture and forestry. It depends on the soil, the climate and

farming practices. In addition to declining production, soil compaction promotes nitrate leaching, nitrous oxide

emissions, runoff and erosion. It also affects soil biodiversity.

Landslides occur during the displacement of destabilised soils or rocks caused by natural climatic,

geomorphological or geological phenomena, or by human activity. All of France's regions are sensitive to

landslides and subsidence, although there are significant disparities between territories.

37 Agreste, 2015. Agreste Primeur No.326, Use of the territory.

38 DGEC, 2014. The environment in France, edition 2014.

Figure 25: evolution in total surface area by type of use 1990 - 2012. Source: CGDD, Update on land

use in France, No. 219, December 2015.

Transport Consumption of agricultural and natural spaces, artificialisation and soil

sealing,

Pollution from metals, metalloids and hydrocarbons.

Residential-

Tertiary Sector Consumption of agricultural and natural spaces, artificialisation and soil

sealing,

Pollution from metals and metalloids

Agriculture Artificialisation;

Excessive phosphorus and nitrogen inputs;

Decrease in organic matter content of soils;

Diffuse pesticide contamination;

Pollution with metals and metalloids (via fertiliser applications);

Stimulation of bacterial resistance (input of antibiotics via fertiliser

application).

Forestry - Wood -

Biomass Soil compaction related to the use of forestry machinery;

Decrease in organic matter content of soils (in the case of mass export of

forest residues).

Industry Artificialisation and soil sealing;

Pollution from metals, metalloids and hydrocarbons.

Energy production Artificialisation and soil sealing;

Pollution from metals, metalloids;

Potential additional tension brought about by the use of utilised agricultural

area for the development of solar photovoltaic or the production of biomass

energy (CIVE, biofuels, etc.);

Pollution related to the management of nuclear waste and the

decommissioning of nuclear power stations.

Waste Pollution from metals and metalloids

Table 6: Threats and pressures on soils and subsoils by sectors

Trends and future outlooks: growing awareness but a persistent rate of artificialisation

The absence of a global framework and a sub-thematic approach (carbon storage, artificialisation, resources,

etc.)

Taking account of the soil resource first requires a better knowledge of it. The IGCS Program (Inventory,

Management and soil conservation) managed GIS Sol39, seeks to identify, define and locate the main soil types

in a region or territory, and to characterise their properties of interest to agriculture and the environment.

The draft framework directive on soil protection was a draft European directive of the European Parliament

and the Council proposed by the commission on 22 September 2006 and adopted on its first reading on 14

November 2007 by MEPs. It aimed to fight against soil regression and degradation on a European scale. This

directive has, however, been withdrawn because of the opposition of several Member States which claimed

that they already had regulatory tools to combat soil pollution.

The 4 for 1000 initiative, launched by France, involves pooling the efforts of all public and private sector

voluntary actors (States, local authorities, companies, professional organisations, NGOs, research institutions,

etc.) under the framework of the Lima-Paris action plan. This research program focuses on carbon

sequestration in soils, with the objective of reconciling "food security and the fight against global warming".

Its name comes from the following calculation: if the organic C in soil increased by 4/1000 a year, this would

offset current global greenhouse gas emissions.

The Biodiversity Plan of July 2018 provides for a future target of zero net artificialisation. The Grenelle 2 law

provides for the protection of natural, agricultural and forest areas and indicates that this protection must be

among the objectives of territorial coherence schemes (SCOT). The Agricultural Modernisation Law (AML)

of 2010 provides for a 50% reduction in agricultural land consumption by 2020, a more reasonable goal, largely

39 https://www.gissol.fr/

https://www.gissol.fr/

taken up by local and regional authorities. The roadmap for the ecological transition, published in 2012,

indicated that it wished to curb the artificialisation of soils to achieve stability by 2025, with an 80% reduction

in 2035 and a halt beyond that. At European level, the objective is to bring it to an end in 2050.

Trends and future outlooks: the ongoing artificialisation of soils and the risks related to climate change

Land artificialisation is mainly reflected in the loss of agricultural land. These losses have declined in recent

years, from 114,000 hectares of farmland lost between 2006 and 2008 to 42,000 hectares between 2010 and

201240. This fall is attributable to the drop in activity in the construction and public works sectors and to the

effects of town planning policies stemming from the Grenelle Environment Forum Program. Nevertheless,

between 2012 and 2014, these losses amounted to 80,000 ha per year on average. The CGDD has undertaken

some prospective work: "Sustainable Territories 2030" outlining several forecast scenarios. According to the

scenarios, the surface losses of farmland linked to an urban growth range from 4-6% (of the current land area)

for the territorial cooperation and high metropolitanisation scenarios, to 35% for an urban exodus scenario and

relocation of countryside activities by 2030.

Higher temperatures and atmospheric CO2 levels, lower average precipitation, increased frequency and

magnitude of extreme events are all effects of climate change in France that could degrade soils. The increase

in frequency and magnitude of extreme events also poses a significant risk of increasing wind erosion and

decreasing soil water resources.

2.2.3. Subsoil resources

Initial state

France remains highly dependent on imports of mineral energy resources (fossil fuels: oil, gas or coal): they

currently represent 0.02% of the world's resources - compared to just over 2% of total primary energy

consumption. The already low stocks in its subsoil are almost completely depleted and cover only an

infinitesimally small part of its needs. Additionally, the exploitation of French fossil resources must stop by

2040, as announced in the Climate Plan of 4 July 2017.

French non-energy mineral materials are particularly sought after because of their integration in transport

infrastructure and equipment, housing and various consumer goods (household appliances, computers, etc.),

energy production tools (nuclear, wind, solar), the technical equipment of the productive apparatus and

agriculture (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium hydroxide, etc.).

Non-metallic mineral materials extracted from the subsoil include various materials (clay, gravel, sand, slate,

limestone, chalk, dolomite, granite, sandstone, gypsum, marble, etc.). The total extraction of these materials

was about 370 Mt in France in 2012, covering slightly more than 90% of non-metallic mineral needs41. The

extraction of sand and gravel represents a little over 90% of all these mineral resources. These materials are

mainly used in the building and public works sector.

The extraction of ferrous and non-ferrous minerals almost ceased in France in the early 2000s. Only two

bauxite operations remain, for cement production. Also, in order to meet its needs (extraction in the territory

+ imports), amounting to 51 Mt in 2012, France is almost entirely dependent on its imports.42

Transport Consumption of fossil resources, and of non-energy mineral resources

(metallic and non-metallic), particularly in the context of the development of

electric mobility and alternative fuels (batteries of electric vehicles).

Residential-

Tertiary Sector Consumption of fossil and non-energy mineral resources (metallic and non-

metallic)

Agriculture Consumption of fossil resources and non-energy mineral resources for

synthetic fertilisers

Forestry - Wood -

Biomass Consumption of fossil resources

40 Agreste, 2014. Land use in Metropolitan France, Agreste Primeur, No. 313, June 2014.

41 CGDD (2014). The environment in France, 2014.

42 Ibid.

Industry Consumption of fossil and non-energy mineral resources (metallic and non-

metallic)

Energy production Consumption of fossil resources and of non-energy mineral resources

(metallic and non-metallic), for example: the development of renewable

energies is likely to lead to increased use of certain rare metals such as

indium, selenium or tellurium, used for part of high-performance photovoltaic

panels.

Tension in relation to the world's uranium resources for nuclear production

Waste Landfill-related pollution.

Tableau 7: Threats and pressures on subsoils by sectors

Trends and prospects for development

The preservation of subsoil resources involves the development of the circular economy. The "Circular

economy brochure: the successes of the energy transition law for green growth" is a contribution, summarizing

progress to date, to the establishment of the national strategy for transition to the circular economy. It also sets

up the "2025 waste reduction and recovery plan" and is fully in line with the essential aim of making progress

in applying the waste treatment methods hierarchy. In December 2015, the European Commission also

published an ambitious "Action Plan", consisting of a large number of actions to be rolled out during 2016-

2018 on different work themes related to the circular economy (definition of objectives and waste prevention

and management plans, implementation of a European plastic waste strategy, fight against food waste, etc.).

France is focusing in particular on recycling metals to ensure production in an area where it has insufficient

provision. Thus, 1.79 Mt of non-ferrous metals were recycled in 2016 and 12.1 Mt of ferrous scrap was

collected in 201643.

2.3. Natural environments This part addresses the environmental themes of the natural environment, namely biodiversity and natural

habitats, with a focus on the Natura 2000 network. Ecosystem services and landscapes are also discussed.

Generally, the initial state of the natural environment in France is strongly influenced by its interconnections

with the surrounding natural environments, as well as at other levels: continental or global. However, in line

with the national scale of the SNBC, the condition, threats and measures put in place at the French level are

prioritised here. For European and world level monitoring, it is possible to refer, respectively, to the work of

the European Environment Agency and the Convention on Biological Diversity.

2.3.1. Biodiversity and natural habitats

Initial state: exceptional but threatened diversity

Exceptional diversity of natural habitats

The territory of Metropolitan France, with its large surface area (550,000 km²), significant variations in latitude,

altitude, distance from the sea (climate diversification factors), its highly varied geology (soil diversification

factor), not to mention human influences, hosts a wide variety of ecosystems. It has four biogeographical zones:

Atlantic zone, continental zone, Mediterranean zone, mountain zone.

43 FEREREC, 2016, The recycling market in 2016, FEDEREC Statistical Observatory.

Box 6: Summary of the impact of the trend scenario on soils and sub-soils

The trend scenario is a prolongation of current trends, as described in the State of the Environment (2014):

- The ongoing artificialization of the soil (today 10%, which would rise to 14% in 2050)

- Aggravation of the physicochemical changes of the related soils

- Development of recycling and bio-based materials, but mineral and fossil resources in the subsoil

continue to decline.

6 major types of ecosystems are found in France: forest ecosystems, agricultural ecosystems, urban ecosystems,

wetlands, marine and coastal environments, rocky and high mountain areas (see map below). Some ecosystems

are particularly emblematic, rare or threatened and require special attention: for example, seagrasses, wetlands,

some agro-pastoral environments, cave environments, etc.

A rich genetic and species diversity as a result of the diversity of French geo-climatic conditions

According to the National Inventory of Natural Heritage (INPN)44, France hosts around 6,000 species of native

vascular plants, which puts it close to three other Mediterranean countries: Spain (7,500 species), Italy (5,600

species) and Greece (5,000 species). 900 moss species and 1,700 algae species have also been recorded.

The fauna of metropolitan France is rich and diversified - characteristic of both the northern and Mediterranean

regions of Europe. It is difficult to enumerate all the animal species in France, particularly because there is

insufficient knowledge about invertebrates (there are at least 40,000 insect species). The number of vertebrate

species is better known: About 1,500 species have been identified.

France is home to large populations of certain species, so it has major responsibility for European natural

heritage. For example, 58% of bird species nesting in Europe breed in France45.

However, for vertebrates, only about 15 species (about 1% of the world's species) are found in France. The

number of invertebrates is also low. The rate of endemism is therefore low, except in Corsica, the Pyrenees

and the Alps.

The degree of threat faced by most invertebrate species is unknown. For vertebrates, the situation varies greatly

from one group to another. It is estimated that about 20% of indigenous vertebrates evaluated to date are

threatened with extinction at the French level (according to the Red List of threatened species in France),

ranging from 9% for mammals to 27% for birds.

44 https://inpn.mnhn.fr/

45 https://inpn.mnhn.fr/informations/biodiversite/france

Source:

EFESE 2016, interim report (Mapping based on CORINE Land Cover data 2012 - GIP implementation by

Ecofor)

Figure 26: Distribution of main types of EFESE ecosystems in metropolitan France

https://inpn.mnhn.fr/

https://inpn.mnhn.fr/informations/biodiversite/france

The genetic heritage of species present in France is still poorly known, except for farmed breeds and cultivated

or planted varieties, including old ones. Its diversity is however the condition of species adaptability in a

changing environmental context and is an essential element of biodiversity.

Ecosystem services in France

The expression "services provided" by ecosystems or ecosystem services was defined in the Millennium

Ecosystem Assessment, a study coordinated by the United Nations Environment Program in 2005, as "the

benefits that humans receive from ecosystems". The services provided to the population are sources of tangible

or intangible benefits and of wellbeing for humans. They are the result of ecological functions provided by

ecosystems (forests, grasslands, lagoons, coral reefs, etc.). The quality and effectiveness of these services

depend on the general "good health" of natural environments, as well as on their surface area, location, degree

of connectivity to other environments or the socio-economic context such as population density.

At national level, in 2012, the Ministry of Ecology initiated the "French Evaluation of Ecosystems and

Ecosystem Services" (EFESE) Program, which brings together a series of assessments for better understanding

and communication of the condition of French biodiversity and its multiple values so that they are better taken

into account in public and private decisions.

Source: Méral and Pesche 2016, based on the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA, 2005)

Figure 27: Summary of interactions between ecosystem services and human wellbeing

The diversity of remarkable French landscapes and everyday landscapes

The remarkable landscapes of France bear witness to the diversity of semi-natural habitats, along with the

cultural elements of the territory: historical elements, ancient practices, etc.

The everyday landscapes that surround us also contribute to the richness of the metropolitan landscapes. Their

quality and diversity are a key issue for land use planning. They are vulnerable to several degradation elements

(proliferation of peripheral commercial zones, urban sprawl and homogenisation of housing, etc.).

Two types of landscapes rub shoulders in France: more or less artificialised landscapes (artificialised rural

areas, artificialised coastline, crop areas strongly marked by building, etc.) and natural or semi-natural

landscapes (grasslands, forests, large open fields, etc.), as identified on the map below.

The pressures threatening these landscapes are many (degradation, standardisation, destructuring) and are

attributable to many factors, such as the development of urbanisation; the evolution of agricultural practices;

natural dynamics linked, for example, to the aging or abandonment of a site and the gradual disappearance of

farms in abandoned areas; commercial tourism or over-frequentation, etc.

Five main factors of pressure on biodiversity

According to the 3rd

report of the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity on the global

biodiversity outlook46, the 5 major causes of loss of global as well as national biodiversity are:

The loss, degradation and fragmentation of natural habitats: according to the WWF47, worldwide, the

loss, degradation and fragmentation of natural habitats is the chief source of the threat of extinction of

85% of the populations evaluated in the report (3,430 populations). In inland water ecosystems, habitat

loss and degradation are mainly due to the unsustainable use of water resources and the drying of land

for conversion to other uses, such as agriculture and human settlement. Agricultural production is a

major cause of the loss and degradation of natural habitats (crops or grasslands);

Overexploitation of biological resources, the main pressure on marine ecosystems; from the beginning

of the 1950s until the mid-1990s, fish catch volumes quadrupled. The total catch volume then

decreased, despite increased fishing efforts, suggesting that many stocks are no longer able to recover

(Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 2010);

Pollution, especially the accumulation of nutrients: Nitrogen deposition is considered to be a key

driving force behind specific developments in different ecosystems in temperate regions, especially

the grasslands of Europe. In inland and coastal ecosystems, the accumulation of phosphorus and

nitrogen, mainly from agricultural runoff and wastewater pollution, stimulates the growth of algae and

certain types of bacteria, which jeopardises the provision of services by lake and coral ecosystems,

causing a decline in water quality;

The harmful effects of invasive alien species (IAS), non-native species, whose intentional or accidental

introduction by humans, establishment and propagation, threaten native ecosystems, habitats or

indigenous species with negative ecological, economic, environmental or health consequences.

Climate change and acidification of the oceans, associated with the increase in greenhouse gases in

the atmosphere;

Climate change will have a certain impact on ecosystems through changes in the way they function:

carbon stocks, tree mortality and loss of forest habitats, risks of invasion by invasive alien species

(IAS)... and their quantity and distribution.

Focus on a major challenge in France: the fragmentation of natural environments

Surface depletion and splitting up of natural environments increase their fragmentation, a factor that often

leads to loss of ecosystem functionality, linked in particular to population isolation and confinement.

46 Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2010. 3rd

edition of the Global Biodiversity

Outlook. Montreal.

47 WWF, 2014. Living Planet Report, publication 2014.

Accordingly, several animal or plant species may encounter difficulties in completing their life cycle or in

adapting to climate change.

The fragmentation of the territory is measured in particular by the actual size of the networks of natural

environments, i.e. the average network of non-fragmented natural areas. Metropolitan France had an actual

network size of 99.97 km² in 2006 compared to 100.44 km² in 1990, reflecting increased fragmentation of

natural environments (see map above).

The fragmentation of natural habitats may also affect rivers (to date, 76,800 validated obstacles out of an

estimated 120,000 have been logged in the database managed by the National Office of Water and Aquatic

Environments).

Source: Cemagref from EU - SOeS (CORINE Land Cover 2006), IGN 2006, IFN 2010.

Figure 28: fragmentation of French natural habitats. Source: National Biodiversity Observatory

2016.

Transport /

Residential-

Tertiary /

Industry

Loss or modification of natural habitats;

Landscape fragmentation;

Disturbance of species (visual and auditory);

Risk of collisions;

Pollution linked to maintenance of infrastructure verges (herbicides)

Pollution linked to water flows

Deterioration of landscapes

Greenhouse gas emissions;

Atmospheric pollution;

Effects linked to the production of materials (extraction, processing, etc.).

Agriculture

Loss or modification of natural habitats (meadows, hedges and isolated trees, etc.;

Soil and water pollution caused by inputs (fertilisers, pesticides, etc);

Soil disturbances (meadow conversion, composting, etc.);

Modification of landscapes.

Forestry -

Wood -

Biomass

Loss or modification of natural habitats (dead woods, old woods, etc.);

Disturbance of species, visual and auditory disruption;

Soil disturbances (meadow conversion, composting, etc.);

Deterioration of landscapes.

Energy

production48

Loss and modification of habitats (notably hydroelectric energy, bio-energy and

biofuels due to direct and indirect changes in soil use; the latter may be considered

within the concept of the carbon footprint.);

Mortality and trauma (notably wind energy, bio-energy and marine energy);

Disturbance of biological behaviours (notably solar and wind energy);

Competition for water use (notable hydroelectric and nuclear);

Water and soil pollution;

Chemical, noise and electromagnetic pollution in the case of installations in marine

environments;

Modifications to local micro-climates (notably solar energy and nuclear);

Greenhouse gas emissions (methane and carbon dioxide emissions from reservoirs

of hydroelectricity, bio-energy and biofuels, in certain cases);

Atmospheric pollution (notably bio-energy and biofuels);


Waste

Water and soil pollution;


Visual and auditory disturbances.

Table 8: Threats to biodiversity and pressures on natural habitats by sector

Trends and prospects for development: strong protective measures remain insufficient to slow

down deterioration

Increase in protected areas

France has an exceptional wealth of natural heritage to protect. According to the National Inventory of Natural

Heritage, 13.7% of land in mainland France is covered by at least one of the following protective measures:

Regulatory protection: orders issued by local prefectures regarding the protection of biotopes,

untended nature reserves in national parks and core zones, biological reserves (whether tended or

untended by the National Forests Office), regional nature reserves, national hunting and wild fauna

reserves, townships affected by the “Coastline” law, and townships affected by the “Mountains” law.

48 FRB, 2017. Summary of “Renewable Energy and Biodiversity: implications for achieving a green

economy”, summary of article by Alexandros Gasparatos, Christopher N.H. Doll, Miguel Esteban,

Abubakari Ahmed, Tabitha A. Olang. 2017. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 70, 161–184.

Contractual protections: regional nature parks, peripheral zones around national parks and marine

nature parks;

Protection via property development management: coastline conservation areas, natural spaces

conservation areas, sensitive natural spaces designated by individual Departments;

Protections provided under European or International conventions and agreements: the Natura 2000

Network, wetlands with international importance (Ramsar sites), UNESCO biosphere reserves, the

Bern convention.

The proportion of land area in mainland France classed as “protected areas” (high level of protection) has

increased slightly in recent years, rising from 1.27% of land in 2011 to 1.35% in 201649.

Protection of species in France

At the international level, the CITES convention on international trade in species of wild flora and fauna

threatened with extinction regulates the passage of some 35,000 plant and animal species across national

borders. The objective of CITES is to guarantee that international trade in animals or plants (whether living

or dead) listed in the appendices of the treaty, as well as parts thereof or products derived from them, does not

impede biodiversity conservation and is based on sustainable use of wild species.

At the European level, Appendices I and II of the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) designate habitats and

species, some of which are classed as priority cases in terms of conservation efforts, which require the

designation of special conservation areas (See paragraph on Natura 2000). Appendix IV of this directive

indicates the animal and plant species that must be the subject of strict protective measures, while the removal

(hunting, picking, harvesting) of species listed in Appendix V must be regulated.

At the national level, Article L. 411-1 of the Environmental Code outlines a strict protection system for species

of wild flora and fauna listed in the ministerial order. In particular, the capture, transport or intentional

disturbance of these species is prohibited. These bans may be extended to habitats of protected species, and

regulatory texts can allow for bans on the destruction, deterioration or alteration of such habitats. Failure to

adhere to these rules can lead to criminal penalties, as outlined in article L. 415-3 of the Environmental Code.

The National Action Plans aim to define necessary actions for the conservation and restoration of the most at-

risk species. This biodiversity protection tool has been in use in France for the last 15 years. The plans were

reinforced following the Grenelle de l’Environnement lawmaking conference.

Finally, the 2011-2020 National Biodiversity Strategy aims to incite a major commitment from various

stakeholders at all territorial levels, both in mainland France and in overseas territories, in order to achieve the

objectives set. It establishes the shared ambition to preserve and restore, enhance and galvanise biodiversity,

ensuring sustainable and equitable use of natural resources by successfully guaranteeing the involvement of

all stakeholders across all sectors. Six additional strategic directions have been identified:

A. Generate desire to take action for biodiversity

B. Preserve living things and their ability to evolve

C. Invest in the common good and ecological capital

D. Ensure sustainable and equitable use of biodiversity

E. Ensure coherence between policies, and effectiveness of actions taken

F. Develop, share and enhance knowledge on the subject.

Implementation of Green and Blue belts

In order to combat the fragmentation of natural environments, France’s national and local governments are

contributing to the implementation of a green and blue belt, at various levels of public action. These belts are

formed by terrestrial and aquatic ecological continuities, i.e. Biodiversity reservoirs and corridors (articles L.

371-1 and R. 371-19 of the Environmental Code). They are indexed in various planning documents.

Law no. 2010-788 of 12 July 2010 on the national commitment to the environment outlines the development

of national positions on the preservation and restoration of ecological continuities, which must be taken into

account in regional ecological adherence plans, co-developed between the regional governments and the State.

Planning documents and projects carried out at the national level, in particular the State’s major linear

infrastructures and public establishments, must be compatible with these national positions. The first French

SRCE (Regional Climate and Energy Plan) was approved by the Regional Council of Île-de-France on 26

49 Observatoire national de la biodiversité / French National Observatory on Biodiversity, 2016 data.

September 2013. As of 2016, all French regions had adopted their own SRCE. These SRCEs must now be

integrated into Regional Schemes for Organisation, Sustainable Development and Inter-regional Equality

(SRADDETs), which are currently being drawn up in all French regions.

Measures and actions to preserve natural landscapes

A number of measures exist to preserve and enhance remarkable landscapes, which in regulatory terms are

identified and recognised through measures such as the “Grands Sites de France” scheme, registered and

classified sites, UNESCO world heritage sites, etc.

The regulatory establishment of a compendium of such landscapes in each Department enables the

identification, qualification and characterisation of all the landscapes within a given area, in order to contribute

to the acquisition of new knowledge, raise awareness among stakeholders and make appropriate decisions

regarding territorial development.

Various trends in the evolution of pressure on biodiversity

At the national level, the five direct change factors contribute to altering biodiversity to various degrees across

all French ecosystems. The table below summarises the significance of the ecological impacts associated with

these factors within various ecosystems, and the current trajectory of their development.

Decline in ordinary biodiversity, and sustained levels of exceptional biodiversity within conservation islands

There is currently no modelled and quantified scenario for the evolution of the state of biodiversity at the

national level over the coming years. However, it is possible to define a baseline scenario based on the trend-

based scenario developed during the “Biodiversity and Regions 2030” collective forecasting exercise.

In the trend-based scenario, the environment is considered a second-rank policy; environmental regulation is

stronger but rulings still tend to favour socio-economic concerns. The resulting projections for 2030 show a

drop in ordinary biodiversity due to environmental fragmentation and artificialisation, but also an increase in

generalist species, which are the only ones capable of resisting increasing artificialisation. Exceptional

biodiversity will be sustained within a few conservation islands.

Figure 29: Relative importance (colour) and current developmental trends (arrow) of the presumed impact

of various change factors in the general development of biodiversity within French ecosystems (Source: EFESE

2016, intermediary report).

The 2017 report compiled by the French National Observatory on Biodiversity50 confirmed these trends. In

terms of species, this report shows a drop of almost a quarter (-23%) in the number of common birds sensitive

to ecosystem deterioration between 1989 and 2015; this was also the case for almost half (-46%) of bat

populations between 2006 and 2014. Around a third (31%) of species evaluated under the UICN-MNHN Red

List are under threat, with significant disparities between groups of species. As of 2016, 5% of the territory of

mainland France was affected by the presence of a large predator (wolf, lynx, bear).

Regarding habitats and natural environments, the situation is not much more encouraging. Over half of wetland

habitats (52%) and less than half of surface waters (43%) are in a healthy state, while only 22% of all natural

environments of European interest are deemed to be in a healthy state of conservation. Monitoring stations

report that two thirds (64%) of coral reefs were stable or in a state of improvement. The loss of surface area

of natural environments in exceptional nature sectors (ZNIEFF) in mainland France stood at -36,749ha

between 1990 and 2012.

As regards agricultural territory – which represents half of the land in mainland France – large planted spaces

fell significantly, by -7.9% between 2000 and 2010 and -3.3% between 2010 and 2013, while the status of the

12% of meadows, woods and heaths in agricultural areas, which were also under pressure but still present in

2012 (first assessment carried out in 2015 by the ONB), is not yet known.

2.3.2. Natura 2000 network

Baseline status: A solid network with 1758 sites in France

The Natura 2000 network is made up of European nature zones, both terrestrial and marine, which have been

identified due to the rareness or fragility of their natural habitats and wild species of plants or animals. Natura

2000 sites are covered by two European directives:

The “Birds” Directive (directive 2009/147/EC of the European Parliament and Council of 20

November 2009), outlining the designation of Special Protection Zones (SPZs) for the conservation

50 French National Observatory on Biodiversity, 2017 data. 2017 Report on the state of biodiversity in

France

Box 7: Summary of impacts in the trend-based scenario on biodiversity and natural habitats

The trend-based scenario is based on the continuation of trends in ecological pressures, as described in the

report on the state of biodiversity compiled by the French National Observatory on Biodiversity in 2017:

- The destruction, deterioration or normalisation of natural habitats continues (with 67,000ha

destroyed on average each year via artificialisation in mainland France);

- The increase in invasive exotic species in mainland France continues at a rate of at least six

additional species per department every ten years, as has been the case for the past 30 years;

- Pollution continues to negatively affect biodiversity, with contrasting developments (decrease in

pollution of waterways by nutrients and pesticides);

- Demographic pressure persists, notably along coastlines;

- The effects of climate change are becoming more and more acute: frost, which has a very

significant impact on species, is becoming less frequent; glaciers in mainland France are shrinking,

etc.

The rate of biodiversity deterioration is holding steady, for example,

- in specialist bird species (e.g. losses of between -9% and -32% of common specialist bird

populations between 1990 and 2015). In generalist species, the situation is more contrasting;

- for threatened mammal species: in 2017, 33% of terrestrial species and 32% of marine species were

listed as under threat or at-risk, up from 23% and 25% respectively in 2009.

A few individual cases of trend stabilization or improvement have also been observed: for example, coral

reefs or some threatened species are showing more favourable results (monk vulture, Eurasian spoonbill,

Iberian ibex, greater horseshoe bat, etc.).

of wild bird species listed in Appendix 1 and regularly-appearing migratory species not listed in

Appendix 1, as well as the habitats necessary to their survival;

That “Habitats” Directive (Council directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992) outlining the designation of

Special Conservation Zones (SCZs) whose aim is to facilitate the conservation of the types of natural

habitats and animal or plant species listed in Appendices I and II.

The Natura 2000 network covers up to 18.4% of land in the European Union: 5491 sites are classed as Special

Protection Zones for birds (SPZs), 22, 594 sites are classed as Special Conservation Zones (SCZs). 233 habitats,

1563 animal species and 966 plant species are recognised as being of Community interest.

In France, 1758 terrestrial sites are listed, of which 392 fall under the Birds directive and 1366 are covered by

the Habitats directive. They cover 12.6% of landmass, and are notably spread over 30% of agricultural land,

32% of forests and 16% of heaths and open landscapes – areas which may potentially be affected by biomass

mobilisation activities.

Threats and pressures on these sites are identical to those indicated in the “Biodiversity and natural habitats”

topic (See table above showing corresponding threats and pressures).

Trends and prospects for development: conservation status struggling to improve

Measures and actions implemented:

The implementation, as well as the maintenance or re-establishment, of conservation status for these sites is

an obligation for France with regard to the European Commission. The aim is to enhance biodiversity by

ensuring the maintenance or re-establishment of conservation status favouring natural habitats and Community

interest species.

Each Natura 2000 site is overseen by a director designated during the site’s creation. A steering committee,

made up of representatives of stakeholders for the site, monitors the application of regulations and proper

management of the site. The “Objectives” document reports on the state of affairs for the site and establishes

management objectives for the conservation of natural heritage, as well as public information and awareness

campaigns. Natura 2000 contracts are drawn up with various stakeholders for each site. These define the

nature and terms of governmental aid available, as well as services to be provided in return by the recipient.

Government assessment of the state of habitat and species conservation

In addition to the designation and preservation of Natura 2000 sites, the Habitats-Fauna-Flora Directive

(92/43/EEC) and Birds Directive (2009/147/EC) require Member States to carry out regular assessments of

the status and trends of species and habitats classed as being of Community interest. These evaluations are

carried out every seven years by each country; France’s last evaluation was in 2013.

As defined in the Directive, the global objective to be achieved is a favourable conservation status for all types

of habitats and all Community interest species. This status may reflect a thriving location, habitat type or

species (based on qualitative and quantitative criteria), in which prospects for the vitality of species populations

or habitat structures are favourable, and in which the ecological elements intrinsic to host ecosystems, or the

geoclimatic conditions for its habitats, are favourable. The evaluation is carried out across Europe based on a

common protocol.

For habitats analysed during the latest evaluation in 2013, the global state of conservation remained the same

as in the previous evaluation (2007): only a fifth of evaluations found a favourable habitat status (See graph

below). Broken down by type of environment, the most-affected areas were peat bogs, wetlands, agro-pastoral

areas and coastal habitats. Conversely, sclerophyll thickets (populated by bushes and undergrowth typical of

Mediterranean landscapes), as well as rocky environments and caves, are well-preserved. Heaths, scrublands

and forests showed slightly improved status.

Elsewhere, over half of the species assessments showed an “unfavourable” conservation status (31%

inadequate and 24% poor), while 27% were in a “favourable” state and 18% were “unknown.” The latter

category mostly refers to marine species, lichens and certain species of invertebrates.

2.4. Human environments

Figure 30: Conservation status of Community interest habitats by wider environment type (2007-2012

period) - Source: MNHN (SPN), 2013.

Figure 31: Conservation status of Community interest species by taxonomic group (2007 – 2012 period).

Source: MNHN (SPN), 2013, processed by: MNHN – SDES

Box 8: Impact summary of the trend-based scenario on the Natura 2000 Network

The trend-based scenario is based on the continuation of current trends described in the last European report

exercise assessing the conservation status of community interest habitats and species (Habitats-Fauna-Flora

Directive, article 17) and on the scale of the Natura 2000 sites (article 5 of the same Directive).

The conservation status of Community interest natural habitats and species is stable, but insufficient:

developments over the 2007-2012 period show that only 22% of Community interest natural habitats and

28% of Community interest species (aside from birds) enjoy healthy conservation status in France. These

figures are similar to those documented in 2001-2006.

This section deals with environmental topics in human-inhabited areas, i.e. natural and technological risk

factors, pollution (atmospheric, noise and light), human health, and architectural, cultural and archaeological

heritage.

2.4.1. Natural and technological risks Initial state

A risk factor is a potential danger (to a certain degree predictable), which may cause human, material or

environmental damage51. These risk factors are divided into two categories: natural and technological risks.

Natural risks

The most common natural disasters to occur in France are storms and floods: Of all the level-3 events (very

serious events causing between 10 and 99 deaths and between €30 to €300 million worth of material damage)

recorded between 1900 and 2012, 31% were floods and 38% were storms. Over this same period, forest fires

accounted for 9% of events, while droughts made up 3% of the total number of 130 harmful natural events.52

This significant proportion of the occurrence of floods is particularly linked to increasing urbanisation in flood-

prone areas, which is accompanied by the prevalence of non-draining surfaces; 20,000 towns (over half of

townships in mainland France) are now exposed to the risk of flooding.

Transport Non-adaptation of transport infrastructures to climate change-related natural

risks

Residential-

Tertiary Sector Non-adaptation of building stock to seismic activity, tsunamis and cyclones

Agriculture Non-adaptation of agriculture to instances of major flooding

Non-adaptation of agriculture to instances of drought

Forestry - Wood -

Biomass Non-adaptation of silviculture to instances of major flooding

Non-adaptation of silviculture to periods of drought

Non-adaptation of silviculture to storms

Industry Non-adaptation of industrial facilities to the most destructive natural risks:

fires, tsunamis, cyclones, seismic activity, avalanches, etc.

Energy production See Industry

Modification of the use of renewable energy depending on climate conditions

Waste See Industry

Table 9: Summary of threats and pressures regarding exposure to natural risk factors, by sector

Technological risks

51 Lopez-Vazquez, E., 1999. Perception of risk, stress and adjustment strategies for subjects at risk of natural or industrial

catastrophes, using a social psychology approach to risk. Université de Toulouse II. 52 Ministry for Energy and Solidary Transition (2012). Harmful natural events Consulted on 26 February 2018 at the

following address: http://www.statistiques.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/lessentiel/ar/368/1239/evenements-naturels-

dommageables.html.

Figure 32: Level 3 or higher Natural disasters in France from 1900 to 2012.

Source: International Disaster Database, Catholic University of Louvain (Belgium)

http://www.statistiques.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/lessentiel/ar/368/1239/evenements-naturels-dommageables.html

http://www.statistiques.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/lessentiel/ar/368/1239/evenements-naturels-dommageables.html

As opposed to natural risk, technological risk refers to risks that are solely man-made. Five major sources of

technical risks exist in France: industrial facilities, nuclear facilities, large dams, transport of hazardous

materials and mining sites. The most frequent types of accidents to occur are fires, hazardous material spillages

and explosions53.

In 2016, 827 such accidents and incidents were recorded in French facilities, down from 846 in 2015.

The year 2016 saw a significant number of external natural barrages: 31 establishments incurred flood damage

between 29 May and 15 June, equivalent to €347 million in material damage and profitability losses. A number

of establishments were also affected by lightning and forest fires.

Transport

The transport sector accounted for 45 accidents in 2016, or 5% of all

accidents and incidents occurring that year.

The transport of hazardous materials was the most likely activity to expose

goods and individuals to technological accidents. In 2016, 142 of these

accidents were recorded in France, one of which occurred on a waterway and

one at sea. 50% of accidents resulted in human injury or death.

Residential-

Tertiary Sector

The lack of technological risk prevention around residential zones may

exacerbate the impact of a technological accident by causing human and

material losses in these zones.

Commercial premises were the source of 74 technological accidents in 2016,

or 9% of all accidents and incidents occurring in that year.

Agriculture

Agriculture was the source of 70 technological accidents in 2016, or 8.5% of

all accidents and incidents occurring in that year.

This sector is particularly subject to the risk of fire and spillages of

dangerous materials.

Forestry - Wood -

Biomass

Wood production was the source of 28 accidents in 2016, or 3% of all


This sector is particularly subject to the risk of fire.

Industry

The manufacturing industry is the most affected by technological risks, with

308 technological accidents or incidents recorded in 2016, or 37% of all

accidents and incidents occurring in that year.

Energy production Energy production was the source of 31 accidents or incidents in 2016, or 4%

of all accidents and incidents occurring in that year.

53 Bureau d’analyse des risques et pollutions industriels / Risk and Industrial Pollution Analysis Office,

2017. Inventory of technological accidents in 2016 20p.

Figure 33: Breakdown of accidents and accidental phenomena by sector of activity in 2016.

Source:

Bureau d’analyse des risques et pollutions industriels / Risk and Industrial Pollution Analysis Office, 2017.

Hydraulic facilities are set apart from regulated facilities in terms of the type

of risk factors they carry. In 2016, 48 events occurred and caused damage to

certain work sites, flooding of a protected zone and deterioration of

embankments due to flooding of the Loing and Seine rivers. The probability

of a major disaster occurring remains low.

The transport of gas via pipeline led to 11 events in 2016, and the urban gas

distribution network saw 89 events. Roadworks being carried out near

facilities were responsible for 68 leaks or instances of damage to pipeline

connections.

Nuclear risk - The probability of a major disaster is low.

Waste

Waste management is another sector particularly affected by technological

risks, with 165 accidents or incidents recorded in 2016, or 20% of all


This sector is particularly vulnerable to fire risks.

Table 10: Summary of threats and pressures regarding exposure to technological risks by sector


Natural risks

Natural risks, although difficult to predict, are the subject of a regulatory framework aiming to prevent these

types of risks. In 1982, the law regarding compensation for victims of natural disasters paved the way for the

“risk exposure plan”, which in 1995 would become the Natural Risk Prevention Plan, developed under the

authority of local prefects along with their local councils. The prevention plan aims to reduce exposure to these

risks, while also making people and property less vulnerable to their effects. The plan identifies zones exposed

to the effects of predictable natural risks, whether direct or indirect, and characterises the potential intensity of

these phenomena. Even in the absence of a Risk Prevention Plan (natural, technological or mining), the Local

Urbanisation Plan (PLU) may define at-risk zones and specific rules to be observed in these areas54.

Climate change represents a significant factor in the evolution of natural risks (see fig. below).

Climate change is likely to increase the frequency of extreme weather events:

54 Ministry for Energy and Solidary Transition, 2017. Natural risk prevention. Consulted on 1 March

2018 at the following address: https://www.ecologique-solidaire.gouv.fr/prevention-des-risques-naturels

https://www.ecologique-solidaire.gouv.fr/prevention-des-risques-naturels

In overseas territories, an increase in both the frequency and intensity of violent winds has been

observed;

Heatwaves;

Rising sea levels leading to floods, threatening low-lying areas of mainland France (areas hatched in

blue on the map);

Major risk of drought in areas indicated in yellow (half of the southern portion of the country), with

significant consequences for agriculture and frequency of forest fires.

Technological risks

Technological risks are covered by a wider regulatory framework, due to the fact that they may vary widely in

nature. As we have previously seen, the majority of technological risks are industrial in nature, in particular

involving Regulated Environment Protection Facilities (ICPE). The ICPE nomenclature constitutes a

regulatory framework for facilities with the potential to affect the environment. Such facilities may be classed

at one of three levels: declaration, registration or authorisation. These three groups indicate the hazard level

posed by the facility to the environment, with “authorisation” representing the highest level of danger (this

group also includes a classification enabling regulation of the most dangerous facilities, which are also referred

to as SEVESO facilities). This nomenclature thereby guarantees safety standards in these facilities by allowing

the local prefect to determine safety rules to be applied. These safety and security rules are also applied via

other regulatory texts, pushing industrial operators to improve their systems in order to lower their facilities’

risk level as much as possible.

At local level, Technological Risk Prevention Plans (PPRT) are implemented in order to resolve challenging

situations in terms of urbanism, with the objective of providing a more solid framework for future urbanism in

order to reduce, as far as possible, the level of exposure of individuals, goods and environments to

technological risks. As such, the PPRTs can define protective zones for both present and future populations

living near SEVESO sites, such as;

Future urbanisation control zones;

Sectors in which property development measures will be implemented for existent buildings

(expropriation, abandonment);

Advisory zones for existent buildings.

The chart below indicates towns exposed to technological risks55:

55 Ministry for Energy and Solidary Transition (2012). Technological risks. Consulted on 7 March

2018 at the following address: http://www.statistiques.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/lessentiel/s/risques-

technologiques.html

http://www.statistiques.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/lessentiel/s/risques-technologiques.html

http://www.statistiques.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/lessentiel/s/risques-technologiques.html

Technological risks are managed via the implementation of public policies. The baseline status indicates a

decrease in the number of accidents between 2015 and 2016.

Finally, the number of accidents and their breakdown across the various sectors of activity is fairly stable year

on year, aside from:

The food production and processing industry, which saw a rise of 30%;

Wood production and paper/cardboard production, which dropped by 35 to 45%.

2.4.2. Pollutants: air, noise, odour and light pollution Initial state

Phenomena or substances are classed as pollutants when they are damaging to quality of life, or pose a

significant danger to human health or the environment. Pollution therefore covers air, noise, odour and light

pollution.

Air pollution

In the Environmental Code, atmospheric pollution is defined as the “direct or indirect human introduction, into

the atmosphere and enclosed spaces, of harmful substances with the potential to endanger human health,

damage biological resources of ecosystems, influence climate change, damage material goods, or provoke

excessive olfactory discomfort or distress.”

External air pollution is harmful to human health but also to the environment, via the acidification or

eutrophication of water or soil, and may also contribute to decreasing agricultural yields. Interior air pollution

is also a major public health issue. Indeed, most individuals spend 85% of their time in an enclosed

environment, the majority of which is in their living environment.

When examining the issue of atmospheric pollution and air quality, it is necessary to distinguish between two

fundamental notions:

Pollutant emissions refer to a quantity of pollutants (often expressed in tonnes or kilotonnes) directly

produced via human activity (transport, wood burning, industry, etc.) or natural means (volcanoes, sea

spray, forest fires, sand storms, etc.)

Concentrations of pollutions indicate the quality of the air we breathe; they are most often expressed

in micrograms per cubic metre (µg / m3

). However, these concentrations depend heavily on two factors,

particularly as regards exterior air quality: meteorological conditions and the quantity of pollutants

Source: MEDDTL, GASPAR database, April 2011 & ©IGN, GEOFLAB, 2006. Data

processed by the SOeS

Figure 35: Towns exposed to technological risk.

emitted into the atmosphere. For interior air quality, the level of exposure for occupants depends on

the ventilation and aeration conditions, as well as the structure’s proximity to sources of pollution.

The link between emissions and concentrations is neither proportional nor linear.

Atmospheric pollutants are divided into two categories: primary pollutants, which refer to pollutants emitted

directly into the atmosphere, and secondary pollutants, which are those substances formed from the physico-

chemical reactions between primary pollutants under certain specific meteorological conditions.

Atmospheric pollutants may be emitted by human activity or natural events, but this report will focus primarily

on man-made sources. These sources of man-made emissions often originate from the combustion of organic

material (wood, waste) or fossils (coal, oil, gas, etc.) for transport, heating of buildings, or industry, but may

also originate in agricultural operations (working the soil and spreading of pesticides or mineral / organic

fertilisers). Certain pollutants are also emitted by solvents, etc. and are particularly problematic in terms of

interior air quality.

The report on ambient air quality in mainland France for the year 2016 showed that emissions of primary

pollutants had decreased overall between 2000 and 2016, except for emissions of ammonia, which have tended

to stagnate (as illustrated in the graph below).

Concentrations of pollutants also fell over the 2000-2016 period, except for concentrations of ozone in

metropolitan areas:

In metropolitan areas, despite an overall decrease in concentrations of pollutants, a number of regulatory

thresholds (particularly for NO2

, PM10

and O3

) set for human health were still not being met in large cities (due

Source: CITEPA (mainland France)

Figure 36: Evolution of emissions (in t) of sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ammonia

(NH3), PM10

and PM2.5

particles

to the significant number of pollution sources present), as well as in other areas in which geographical and

meteorological conditions allow for build-ups of pollutants56.

Regarding interior air quality, the pollutants involved are not exactly the same: carbon monoxide (CO),

acetaldehyde, acrolein, benzene, n-decane, n-undecane, 1,4-dichlorobenzene, ethylbenzne, hexaldehyde,

styrene, tetrachloroethalyne, toluene, xylene, tricholoroethylene, fine particles. The sources of these emissions

56 CGDD, 2017. Review of Air Quality in France, 2016.

Figure 37: Evolution of concentrations of sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone

(O3) and PM10

particles over the 2000-2016 period

Figure 38: Summary of human health protection standards not being upheld

also vary: heating equipment, smoking, construction products, furnishings and decor, maintenance products,

paint, varnish, etc.

A national inquiry into the state of air quality in French households carried out in 2007 revealed that 50% of

households had PM2.5

levels greater than 19.1µg / m3

, and over 31.3µg / m3

for PM10

. The percentage of French

households registering higher internal concentrations of volatile organic compounds than present in the

external atmosphere varied between 68.4% (trichlorethylene) and 100% (formaldehyde). Aldehydes were

among the most common and most concentrated molecules found in households57.

Transport

Use of combustion engine vehicles, source of NOx emissions and fine particles

Diesel vehicles are particularly problematic in that they emit higher quantities

of fine particles than petrol engines, and therefore are considered to have a

greater impact on public health (See 3.3.3).

Residential-tertiary

sector

The use of low-performance wood heating units is a significant factor in the

deterioration of interior and exterior air quality. These types of devices

produce mediocre combustion of fuel and emit a significant quantity of fine

particles (and other emissions), meaning they have a significant impact on

human health.

Open-air burning of green waste is also a significant source of pollution, as the

combustion process is even less efficient than in a heating unit, and the

combustible materials have not been dried beforehand.

Internal air quality can also be altered by poor building ventilation and

exposure to pollutants emitted by construction materials and furnishings.

Domestic use of solvents is a significant source of NMVOC emissions.

Agriculture

Activities pertaining to working the soil emit fine particles.

Animal waste and the spreading of fertilisers are responsible for the majority

of ammonia emissions (64% and 34% respectively).

There is insufficient information available in France regarding the impact of

the spreading of phytopharmaceutical products on air quality, but it should be

noted that 30 to 50% of these substances are lost into the atmosphere once

sprayed.

Finally, the use of open fires in agriculture (slash and burn, land clearing) are

also sources of highly-localised emissions of fine particles, volatile organic

compounds and other hazardous pollutants, for the same reasons as open-air

burning of green waste by individuals58.

Forestry - Wood -

Biomass

Silviculture has a very marginal impact on air pollution. Only the vehicles

used in silviculture are considered to have any significant impact on pollution.

Otherwise, this sector produces natural emissions of volatile organic

compounds.

Biomass combustion is a major source of fine particles emissions (See

residential-tertiary sector).

Industry

The industrial sector is responsible for the majority of sulphur dioxide

emissions, due primarily to metalworking with ferrous metals (12%), the

production of non-metallic minerals and construction materials (11%) and the

chemicals industry (10%).

Industry is also responsible for some slight emissions of fine particles (PM10

and PM2.5)

Energy production

Oil refineries and electricity production mainly emit sulphur dioxide (29.2%

of SO2 emissions) and persistent organic pollutants (the incineration of

domestic waste with energy retention emits 49% hexachlorobenzene – HCB).

57 Observatory of indoor air quality (2007). National inquiry into air quality in French households.

58 CITEPA, 2017. SECTEN inventory, 2017. Consulted at the following address:



Waste

The waste processing sector remains the primary contributor of organic

pollutants, with 28% of polychlorobiphenyl (PCB) emissions originating in

this sector.

Table 11: Summary of threats and pressures on air quality by sector

Noise Pollution

Sources of noise are multiple, but noise caused by transport is often cited as the main source of noise pollution

by 54% of French citizens (survey carried out by TNS-Sofrès in May 2010, entitled “Noise pollution and the

French” on behalf of the Ministry of the Environment).

Exposure to noise pollution can have significant impact on human health, both physical and mental. Repeated

exposure to noise disturbs sleep patterns, provokes arterial hypertension, reduces the field of vision, and

increases nerve irritation leading to fatigue and depression. According to the WHO, noise pollution is the

second leading cause of morbidity, after atmospheric pollution, out of all environmental risks in Europe. 59

Transport

Road transport represents the source of noise pollution to which the largest

number of inhabitants are exposed. As such, there is a significant challenge

in terms of regional planning in order to improve noise levels in the most

affected zones.

Air transport is also a significant source of noise. Even if technological

progress allows aircraft to operate less noisily, in certain areas the local

population is exposed to up to 500 flights per day, at a noise level that is

almost continuous and more intense than that of a vehicle highway60.

However, the number of inhabitants exposed to this type of pollution is lower

than for road transport.

Residential-

Tertiary Sector

Noise pollution examined in this sector refers to noise generated by

neighbours. Collective accommodation naturally requires increased

proximity between inhabitants, which can cause significant disturbances

where there is no soundproofing between apartments.

Agriculture Agricultural activity can be a source of disturbances for neighbouring areas

in rural zones, due to agricultural machinery and animal noise.

Forestry - Wood -

Biomass

Silviculture operations may be considered as sources of noise pollution due

to the equipment used in this industry. However, for this to cause a

disturbance there must be housing located nearby.

Industry

Proximity between industrial and residential zones can be a source of

conflict. Industrial activity emits noise that can disturb neighbouring

households (operation of equipment, presence of heavy vehicles for the

transport of raw materials, etc.)


Wind turbines can present issues in terms of noise pollution.

Waste See Industry

Table 12: Summary of threats and pressures on the auditory environment by sector

Olfactory disturbances

Smell is the brain’s interpretation of signals provided by the olfactory receptors when stimulated by odorous

substances61. “Aside from the toxicity aspect, olfactory disturbances are often ranked as an everyday nuisance

59 Bottin, A., Joassard, I., & Morard, V. (2014). The environment in France.

60 Centre for noise information (sine data). Air transport noise. Consulted on 2 March 2018 at the

following address: http://www.bruit.fr/boite-a-outils-des-acteurs-du-bruit/bruit-des-transports-aeriens/

61 Achimi, B., 2008. Best Practices Guide for Methanisation Projects Consulted at the following

address: http://www.gimelec.fr

http://www.bruit.fr/boite-a-outils-des-acteurs-du-bruit/bruit-des-transports-aeriens/

http://www.gimelec.fr/

much like noise, despite the fact that they can provoke very real physical and vegetative symptoms (nausea,

headaches, loss of appetite), and can also cause stress." - 62

Transport Combustion-engine vehicles contribute significantly to the presence of

odours in cities.

Residential-

Tertiary Sector

Olfactory disturbances may be considered as neighbourhood problems in

residential environments.

Agriculture The spread and storage of organic material (livestock effluent) emits intense

odours, which may bother local residents.

Forestry - Wood -

Biomass N/A.

Industry

Certain factories emit odours caused by the chemical products they use,

which may not necessarily be toxic to humans but can produce very

unpleasant odours.

Energy production

Energy transformation operations (such as oil refining) can emit sulphurous

odours.

The process of methanisation requires the handling and transport of foul-

smelling materials, along with the storage of organic materials in certain

agricultural operations.

Waste

Pumping, water purification and sewage processing stations can represent

significant sources of olfactory pollution when operating in proximity to

residential or tourism zones;

Dumping or movement of waste containing organic materials.

Table 13: Summary of threats and pressures on the olfactory environment by sector

Light pollution

Artificial lighting in towns and cities plays a valuable role in society (pedestrian and road traffic safety at night,

traffic signalling, decoration, etc.). However, external lighting, which has become considerably more

widespread in the second half of the 20th century, with more light and more types of light source available,

can cause disturbances for both humans and the environment.

Light pollution is defined under French law (article 41 of law no. 2009-967 of 3 August 2009, on planning

pertaining to the implementation of the Grenelle de l’environnement initiative) as “emissions of artificial light

of a type which may present dangers or cause excessive harm to persons, fauna, flora or ecosystems, leading

to energy wastage or preventing the observance of the night sky (...).”

According to the CGEDD (General Council for the Environment and Sustainable Development), “artificial

light constitutes a pollutant, counteracting the environmental asset that is the night. The loss of quality of this

asset can therefore lead to a loss of environmental quality (abandonment of nests, modifications to intra- and

inter-species balance, loss of biodiversity, or – from a health point of view – the disturbance of several

metabolic functions via hormonal desynchronisation.” - 63

Light pollution affects biodiversity in multiple ways. In a general sense, sudden changes in luminosity can

dazzle or blind individuals, leading to increased risks of collision and vulnerability to predators. Light

pollution also causes displacement of certain photophobic species (which flee from light sources), such as

certain species of bat, for example. Artificial light can also disturb the orientation of migratory birds. Similarly,

lighting near beaches, combined with coastal development, reduces crossing areas for turtles.

62 Delmas, V., & Léger, C., 2011. Les odeurs : Mieux les connaître pour pouvoir les combattre.

(“Understanding odours to prevent their occurrence”) L’Air Normand, 6p.

63 CGEDD, 2014. Foreign legislation and regulations combating light pollution.

Transport The lighting of roadways is a major contributor to light pollution and

disturbances to the nocturnal environment.

Considering the characteristics of light diffusion, lighting of roadways along

coastlines can also disturb the environment across a large area beyond the

coast.

Residential-

Tertiary Lighting of offices and commercial premises that are unoccupied at night

contributes to light pollution and disturbances to the nocturnal environment.

Agriculture N/A

Forestry - Wood -

Biomass N/A

Industry Lighting of certain industrial facilities during the night contributes to light

pollution and the disturbance of the nocturnal environment.

Energy production See Industry. Wind turbines are particularly concerned.

Waste N/A

Table 14: Summary of threats and pressures on the nocturnal environment by sector


Air pollution

Emissions of atmospheric pollution are regulated at international level by the Convention on Long-Range

Trans-Boundary Air Pollution, and more specifically by the Gothenburg Protocol. This convention has been

transposed into European law via Directive 2016/2284/EU of 14 December 2016, which sets a number of new

objectives in terms of atmospheric pollution emissions for the 2020-2029 period and from 2030 onwards, as

well as objectives for PM2.5

. This Directive imposes commitments to reduce Gothenburg Protocol emissions,

amended in 2012 for 2020, as well as more ambitious objectives for 2030.

Regulation regarding concentrations of pollutants is contained in Directive 2008/50/EC on ambient air quality

and cleaner air for Europe. This Directive establishes various types of regulatory threshold in order to reduce

concentrations of pollutants in the air. Adherence to these thresholds indicates improved air quality. Any

failure to meet the targets set by this Directive can result in legal action being taken. Based on the foundations

of this Directive, France is currently involved in a legal dispute with the European Commission for failure to

respect PM10

thresholds (formal warning) and NO2

thresholds (formal notice) for several areas in France. The

European Union is also working to improve the environmental performance of road vehicles (EURO standards)

and ships (Directive 2012/33/EU of 21 November 2012, amending Directive 1999/32/EC regarding the sulphur

content of marine fuels). Industrial manufacturing and production / transformation facilities are subject to

regulations regarding “Regulated Environment Protection Facilities” (ICPE), which impose thresholds on

emissions of atmospheric pollutants. As regards emissions in the agricultural sector, certain facilities are also

subject to ICPE regulations. Regarding pesticides, the National Agency for Health, Food Safety and Working

Conditions (ANSES) has recently put forward, at the request of the ministries of Agriculture, Ecological

Transition and Health, a list of 90 priority substances to be monitored in ambient air which would enable

harmonisation of the measurement of pesticides in the air 64.

France has also implemented several action plans at the national level (National Atmospheric Pollutant

Emissions Reduction Plan (PREPA), Action Plan for Active Means of Transport), as well as at local level:

Regional Air Energy and Climate Scheme (SRCAE), Atmosphere Protection Plan (PPA), Local Air Energy

and Climate Plan (PCAET), in order to contribute to the improvement of air quality. Urban planning

documents (Territorial Coherence Plan (SCOT), Local Urbanism Plan (PDU), Urban Travel Plan (PDU)), are

also affected by requirements in terms of air quality: the PDU, in particular, must include objectives for the

reduction of pollutants contained in the PPA, where relevant.

The entirety of this legislative and political arsenal contributes significantly to the reduction of emissions and

concentrations of atmospheric pollutants, even though several areas of France continue to exceed the NO2

,

64 ANSES. (2017). Proposed methods for monitoring pesticides in ambient air. 306p

PM10

and O3

thresholds to various extents. Air quality is tending to improve across France as a whole, as

demonstrated by the evolution of emissions and concentrations since 2000.

Noise

European Directive 2002/49/EC regarding the assessment and management of environmental noise requires

noise maps for major terrestrial transport infrastructures, large airports and within large urban zones as defined

by Insee, in order to better evaluate persons exposed to noise pollution.

As such, the following are affected:

The 34,800km of roadways hosting traffic of more than 3,000,000 vehicles per year;

The 7000km of railways hosting annual traffic of over 30,000 trains;

The 24 urban areas with over 250,000 inhabitants, which together account for 23,000,000 inhabitants;

The 36 urban areas with a total population of between 100,000 and 250,000 inhabitants, which together

account for 5,400,000 inhabitants;

Aerodromes with annual traffic of over 50,000 flight plans (9 aerodromes).

For urban areas whose total population is between 100,000 and 250,000 inhabitants and for which noise maps

have been drawn up, the primary source of noise pollution also appears to be road transport, and to a lesser

extent rail transport.

The National Anti-Noise Action Plan of 6 October 2003 specifies actions to be taken by the State regarding

soundproofing of accommodation units subject to excessive noise from transport, as well as combating

everyday noise (information, awareness, regulation), and preparing for future challenges via support for

research programmes.

Noise monitoring is carried out at a local level; there is no national overview of the evolution in the

population’s exposure to noise pollution.

Odours

There is currently no national evaluation or observatory of odours capable of providing an indication of the

limitation of olfactory pollution for the activities in question. However, the limitation of offensive odours can

be ensured via regulation and best practices. The limitation of odours from industrial facilities and certain

agricultural operations is guaranteed under the ICPE regulations. As such, odour-producing activities are

subject to legal orders enabling olfactory pollution to be reduced as much as possible. Agricultural best

practices such as, for example, covering of slurry pits, enable operators to limit both emissions of atmospheric

pollution and odours. In order to ensure regulatory requirements are properly implemented, local initiatives

have been drawn up with the support of Air Normand or the SPPPI Estuaire Ardour, which have established

systems allowing citizens to alert industrial facilities when residents are affected by the odours they produce.

Light pollution

The law stipulates that the minister can prohibit or limit, via decree, either temporarily or permanently, the use

of certain light sources based on their nature or local characteristics. These decrees are issued upon the advice

of the National Council for the protection of nature, and may only affect:

Light-emitting installations such as sky tracers, whose output exceeds 100,000 lumens, or laser beams;

Light installations located in protected natural spaces and exceptional astronomical observation sites.

Since 2013, regulation has limited the duration of non-essential lighting of building facades, store windows

and unoccupied buildings65. At the local level, under the framework of Territorial Air Energy and Climate

Plans, when the combined local authorities behind the plan exercise legal authority over light emissions, the

action plan includes a specific section pertaining to the control of energy consumption for public lighting and

associated light pollution.

According to the monitoring efforts carried out by the National Association for the Protection of the Sky and

Nocturnal Environments (ANPCEN), the overall level of night-time light emissions is constantly rising, as is

65 The decree of 25 January 2013 regarding nocturnal lighting of non-residential buildings limits light

pollution and energy consumption.

the number of light points and the overall light emissions detected by nocturnal species between 1992 and

201266.

2.4.3. Public health Initial state

According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), health is a state of complete physical, mental and social

well-being, and does not consist solely of the absence of disease or infirmity. Its physical, mental and social

aspects are linked to the biological and genetic characteristics of each individual, but also to environmental

and socio-economic factors affecting that individual. The table below presents the main causes of morbidity

and mortality in France in 2013, using the latest data then available.

Number

of deaths

Variations

over 2002-2013

(%)

1 Malignant tumours (malignant tumours or the larynx, trachea, bronchial

tubes and lungs) 272.2 -15%

2 Diseases of the circulatory system (Ischemic cardiomyopathy, cerebro-

vascular diseases) 222.9 -33.9%

3 Diseases of the respiratory system (flu, pneumonia, chronic diseases of the

lower airways and asthma) 62.5 -19%

4 Violent deaths (accidents, suicides and other external causes of death) 59.1 -25%

5 Endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases (diabetes) 31.6 -23.2%

6 Infectious and parasitic diseases (tuberculosis, AIDS, viral hepatitis) 17.4 -19.5%

7 Undefined symptoms and morbidities (sudden infant death syndrome) 84.6 +16.7%

Table 15: Main causes of death in France (excl. Mayotte) in 2013.

Under 25 years 25 - 64

years

65 years or

older

Asthma 9.1% 7.7% 11.6%

Chronic bronchitis, COPD or emphysema 3.4% 4.3% 10.5%

Myocardial infarction 0.9% 0.6% 3.2%

Coronary artery disease, angina pectoris 0.1% 0.9% 6.3%

Arterial hypertension 0.5% 10.2% 35%

Stroke 0.1% 0.4% 3.4%

Non-spinal osteoarthritis 0.3% 13.9% 38.1%

LBP or other chronic back issue 12.9% 30.2% 38.1%

Cervicalgia or other chronic cervical issue 5.8% 15.6% 22.5%

Diabetes 3.4% 8% 19.8%

Allergies 15.2% 14.3% 13%

Cirrhosis of the liver 0% 0.1% 0.4%

Urinary incontinence 1.1% 3.2% 14.5%

Renal problems 0.5% 1.7% 4%

Depression 2.7% 6.3% 6.6%

66 National Association for the Protection of the Sky and Nocturnal Environment, 2015. Constructing a

policy of prevention and limitation of light pollution in France.

Other chronic diseases 3.4% 9.3% 16.6%

No pathology or health problems declared 63% 38.6% 12.8%

Table 16: Main causes of morbidity declared in 2013 by age group.

Transport

Various modes of transport using fossil fuel combustion engines have a

significant impact on public health, in terms of respiratory and cardiovascular

diseases (as previously indicated in the section on air pollution).

The lack of regular physical activity that accompanies the use of cars for

daily journeys (along with a sedentary working life) can have an impact on

mental health, quality of sleep, cardiovascular diseases and diabetes.67

Residential-

Tertiary Sector

As previously indicated, accommodation is the source of a multitude of

harmful elements: interior air quality, noise from neighbours, water quality,

available safety equipment, etc.

The high density of accommodation units linked to low densities of green

spaces, as well as low-quality housing, leads to heightened levels of

psychological distress for their inhabitants68.

67 Aquatias, S., Arnal, J., Rivière, D., & Bilard, J., 2008. Physical activity: contexts and effects on

health Institut National de la santé et de la recherche médical / French National institute for health and

medical research Consulted at the following address: http://lara.inist.fr/handle/2332/1447

68 Berry, H. L., 2007. “Crowded suburbs” and “killer cities”: a brief review of the relationship between

urban environments and mental health. New South Wales public health bulletin, 18(11-12), 222-7.

https://doi.org/10.1071/NB07024

Box 9: A closer look at causes of death due to selected environmental factors

Heatwave

The heatwave that occurred between 17 - 25 June 2017 led to a 6% increase in mortality (or 580 deaths), and more

precisely, a 13% rise in deaths among 15 to 64-year olds (or 215 deaths). During the 2015 heat wave period (three

heat waves occurred between June and August), a 6.5% spike in mortality was recorded (or 3300 additional deaths

compared to the number anticipated during heatwave periods).

Air pollution

Atmospheric pollution represents a major environmental risk for public health and ecosystems, as well as a lesser

(but distinct) risk to architectural heritage. According to Public Health France, atmospheric pollution linked to

fine particles (PM2.5

) is responsible for 48,282 additional deaths in France among adults aged 30 or over. The finer

the particles, the more dangerous they are for our health, due to their ability to penetrate and lodge themselves

deep within lung tissue, even to the point of penetrating the pulmonary barrier and entering the bloodstream (for

the finest particles: PM2.5

and PM1

).

Moreover, numerous epidemiological studies have also shown the impact of ozone on human health. This

pollutant is created via the physico-chemical transformation that occurs between volatile organic compounds and

nitrogen oxides when they come into contact with UV rays and heat.

As such, peak periods of ozone pollution are very frequent during the summer, often coinciding with heat waves.

Acute exposure to high concentrations of ozone can lead to higher numbers of deaths from respiratory or

cardiovascular causes.

Vector-borne diseases

The gradual spread of Aedes albopicus (tiger mosquito) across mainland France is an effective vector for the

transmission of viruses, and requires a reinforcement of the links between public health, animal health and

environmental management. This also requires adapted measures to combat the spread of vector-borne diseases;

otherwise, these illnesses will be likely to occur more frequently as a result of global warming

http://lara.inist.fr/handle/2332/1447

Agriculture

Numerous epidemiological studies have demonstrated a link between

exposure to pesticides and certain chronic pathologies (cancers, neurological

diseases, problems with reproduction and infant development)69.

These health risks affect, in particular, farmers who apply these pesticides to

their crops, as well as the families of said farmers.

The exposure of the general public to pesticides is characterised by low-dose

exposure repeated over long periods of time. According to the WHO, food is

the primary source of exposure to pesticides. However, other sources of

exposure should not be overlooked, and it is therefore difficult to determine

the role of pesticides in overall exposure70.

Forestry - Wood -

Biomass N/A

Industry

Industrial waste and emissions can affect public health, notably in the case of

atmospheric emissions (see 3.3.2) and environmental contamination (see 3.1

and 3.2)


Waste See Industry

Table 17: Summary of threats and pressures on human health by sector


It is difficult to trace future trends in the state of national public health, as this subject is influenced by a myriad

of factors. However, it is possible to demonstrate how the public health effects of climate change will evolve

if new measures are not implemented.

The National Observatory for the Effects of Climate Change (ONERC) mentions, for example, a higher

incidence of heatwaves in France, while storms, cyclones and floods also represent a growing threat to the

health and safety of the general public. The increase in greenhouse gas emissions could also have an effect on

the concentration levels of atmospheric pollutants. Urban planning therefore plays a highly important role in

the adaptation of infrastructures to global warming, notably via the limitation of urban heat islands, the

implementation of environmental performance standards for buildings, and the management of water and

urban atmospheric pollution.

In order to address these new public health challenges, the National Health & Environment Plan (PNSE) and

the National Plan for Adaptation to Climate Change (PNACC) outline adaptive measures designed to limit the

effects of climate change on public health. The PNSE takes into account the increased risks of epidemics of

vector-borne diseases in the context of climate change. The PNACC, which is currently being revised, aims to

strengthen preventative measures and resistance to climate change, including via increased recognition of its

public health effects: combating the effects of urban heat islands, improving suitability of buildings, and

redoubling exploratory research efforts on the topic of “heat in cities.”

2.4.4. Architectural, cultural and archaeological heritage Initial state

Within the baseline status established by the SNBC’s environmental evaluation, the focus on architectural

heritage has emerged as a priority. However, the level of impact on cultural and archaeological heritage does

not appear critical in this context, and so here we will only discuss architectural heritage.

France’s architectural heritage is an extremely important factor, given the country’s history and the vast

number of historic buildings that carry listed status due to their historic, artistic, architectural, technical or

scientific interest. The “historic monument” status is a sign of the nation’s recognition of a building’s heritage

value. This protective status implies a shared responsibility between the owners and the local council regarding

69 ANSES, 2016. Exposure to pesticides from agricultural occupations. Vol. 1, 215p.

70 ANSES, 2014. OPINION of the National Agency for Environmental and Food Health and Working

Conditions, and work relating to the updating of indicators used to measure dietary risks associated with

pesticide residues. 122p.

its preservation. As of 1 February 2015, 43,600 buildings were listed as French historic monuments, of which

29.6% were places of worship and over half were private properties. Their owners are therefore responsible as

the contracting authority for all upkeep and restoration work on these buildings, although the Ministry of

Culture is in charge of the renovation of major monuments such as cathedrals and large national estates. 71.

Older buildings not listed as national monuments are still part of the country’s architectural heritage, but it is

more difficult to establish an inventory of these buildings.

Transport

Discolouration of buildings can be caused by pollution generated by

combustion-engine vehicles and the fine particles of nitrogen oxide they

emit.

Residential-

Tertiary sector

Discolouration of buildings can be caused by pollution generated by

households and the emissions of fine particles (notably soot) they generate

via low-performance wood-burning heating units.

The Energy Transition for Green Growth Act has introduced an objective to

carry out 500,000 major renovations per year. Given that these types of

renovations may potentially alter aspects of historic architectural heritage, the

law stipulates that listed historic buildings, or those listed on the historic

inventory, are not required to adhere to thermal performance regulations in

cases where this would require an unacceptable modification to their character

or appearance. However, a significant amount of heritage buildings exist that

are not classed as historical monuments, but are listed in the Heritage PLU or

are the subject of a Heritage Review, or which are adjacent to a historical

monument or located in a protected district. It is for these buildings in

particular that conflicts may arise regarding energy renovation operations.

Agriculture N/A.

Forestry - Wood N/A.

Industry

Sulphur dioxide emissions from the industrial sector contribute to the

discolouration of building facades, as well as to a loss of transparency in

glass and superficial damage to ancient stained glass made using potassium

and calcium (acid rain). However, this type of phenomenon occurs much less

frequently in the present day.

Energy production

See Industry.

The integration of energy production facilities within the landscape can also

pose problems in terms of landscape heritage (notably wind turbines, for

which a “landscape” component is included in impact studies).

Waste N/A

Table 18: Summary of threats and pressures on the quality of architectural heritage


Regarding the impact of air pollution on building facades and glass windows, trends are showing improvement

due to the fact that the emissions and concentrations of pollutants that cause this type of damage have been in

decline for around ten years, or even longer in the case of sulphur dioxide.

In accordance with France’s ambitions in terms of energy-efficient building renovations, alterations to the

facades of old buildings remain possible. However, methods exist to limit the impact this type of renovation

will have on building facades. For example, the insulation of wall interiors, roofs, attics and wood floors can

enable energy-proofing without direct alteration to the building’s facade.

71 Ministry of Culture and Communication (sine data). Historical monuments Consulted on 5 March

2018, at the following address: http://www.culturecommunication.gouv.fr/Thematiques/Monuments-

historiques-Sites-patrimoniaux-remarquables/Presentation/Monuments-historiques

3. Environmental challenges related to the action of the PPE:

Probable notable effects The LTECV objectives, the implementation of which is guaranteed by the PPE, assure France's commitment

to combating climate change and to preserving the environment, while ensuring supply security and the

viability of the mix. The PPE aims to reduce energy consumption as well as the use of fossil fuels, and to

develop renewable energies. The measures of the PPE aim to reduce GHS and atmospheric pollutant emissions

in the energy sector. In that way, the PPE plans to reduce the impact of human activity on the environment.

The global impact of the PPE is therefore positive for the climate and the environment, but it would be wise

to reduce, as far as possible, the localised effects of implementing these equipment and infrastructure projects.

The risks of environmental impact linked to the roll-out of projects in each of the areas covered by the PPE

are detailed below, and will be the subject of particular scrutiny during the implementation of each project.

Article R. 122-20 of the Environmental Code stipulates: “The likely notable effects on the environment are

examined based on their positive or negative character, whether direct or indirect, temporary or permanent,

occurring in the short, medium or long-term, or based on the repercussions arising from the accumulation of

these effects."

These impacts are weighed in relation to the expected impact of the sector in question, based on the objectives

attributed to that sector by the PPE (PPE impact) and in terms of the expected effect of projects that will be

carried out in order to apply the PPE (project impact). The qualitative summary table includes two lines, each

indicating one of these impacts. In the event that the impact cannot be attributed to a particular project, the

table will only include a single line to qualify the overall impact of the PPE. Conversely, in certain cases the

probable effect of the PPE will be neutral, and therefore no notable impact is likely. However, for projects

requiring a higher level of scrutiny, an analysis will be presented.

In order to make these easier to read, the positive, negative or neutral effect is symbolised here as follows:

The planned development of the sectors or projects covered in the PPE should reduce the

impact on the environmental issue studied

The planned development of the sectors or projects covered in the PPE should increase the

impact on the environmental issue studied

The planned development of the sectors or projects covered in the PPE should not have any

significant impact on the environmental issue studied

Applies only to projects, and indicates increased operational vigilance: the project in itself will

likely generate pressure on the environmental challenge in question, but adherence to existing

regulations will enable the project to maintain a level that is considered impact-neutral.

3.1. Improvement in energy efficiency and reduction in fossil energy

consumption

3.1.1. Improvement in energy efficiency The PPE includes measures to effectively manage energy demand, notably in the building (renovation) and

transport sectors.

Climate and Energy / Public health and Pollutants

Probable notable effects Type of effect Duration Timescale

PPE impact

Positive Direct Permanent Short-term

Project impact


The PPE’s actions to effectively manage energy demand will lead to a decline in energy consumption, and will

therefore decrease both the use of environmental resources necessary to produce this energy and the

consequences arising from its production and use. These effects will be felt primarily in terms of greenhouse

gas emissions, waste production and air quality.

Water resources and aquatic environments / Biodiversity and natural habitats / Soils and sub-soils / Landscapes

and Heritage


PPE impact

Positive Indirect Permanent Short-term

Project impact Neutral

The drop in energy consumption and atmospheric emissions will lead to a reduction in the level of

environmental pollutants, and will therefore reduce pressure on biodiversity.

Non-renewable resources (excluding fossil energy sources) and waste


PPE impact Negative Direct Temporary Long-term

Project impact Operational vigilance Direct Temporary Medium-term

The measures to ensure effective management of energy demand require investments in terms of infrastructure

and new technologies, which will require significant quantities of materials for their construction. The scale of

renovations envisaged in order to improve the energy efficiency of buildings requires careful forward planning

to handle the waste that will be produced. Similarly, the widespread use of electric vehicles will have an impact

on demand for lithium, a resource necessary for the production of batteries for this type of vehicle. The projects

could mitigate these impacts by adopting an eco-design approach.

3.1.2. Decrease in consumption of fossil fuels The PPE includes specific measures to decrease fossil fuel energy consumption.

Climate and Energy / Public health and Pollutants / Water resources and aquatic environments / Biodiversity

and natural habitats / Soils and sub-soils / Landscapes and Heritage


PPE impact Positive Direct Permanent Short-term

Project impact Positive Direct Permanent Short-term

The reduction in the use of fossil energies should have a positive impact across all environmental subjects.

The decline in greenhouse gas emissions and atmospheric pollution caused by the combustion of fossil fuels

will contribute to mitigating climate change, and enable improvements in the state of various environments

adversely affected by this type of pollution. This improvement in physical environments (soils and sub-soils,

aquatic environments, air quality) will have an impact on both natural spaces (biodiversity and natural habitats)

and human environments (public health, landscapes and heritage).

Natural and technological risks


PPE impact Positive Direct Permanent Medium-term

Project impact Positive Direct Permanent Short-term

The decline in fossil-based energy production, if replaced by renewable energy sources, will help reduce

technological risks.

3.2. Development of the use of renewable and recovered energies

3.2.1. Heat and cold The PPE plans to increase the proportion of renewable energy used to produce heat: solid biomass, heat pumps,

geothermal, energy recovery from waste and residues. These will take the place of either fossil fuels or

electricity.

Heat production using wood

The PPE aims to increase the production of energy using wood. Challenges regarding the production of

electricity from biomass are similar to those concerning heat production.

Climate and Energy


PPE impact


Operational impact

Operational vigilance Direct Temporary Long-term

The impact of wood combustion on climate change is considered to be neutral, as the CO2 emitted will be

captured by vegetation as part of the renewal process.

Using wood to produce energy could replace the use of fossil fuels. The overall carbon footprint of wood-

energy varies based on the mode of energy production and the way in which resources are utilised. There are

currently no studies that provide a quantitative indication of the wood (and wood-energy) sector’s overall

carbon footprint in France. Available studies tend to focus on the uncertainties that exist, and possible methods

of action to improve the carbon footprint of the wood-energy sector.72.

In order to reduce the impact of the use of wood on the environment, it will be necessary to manage forests in

a sustainable manner and steer the use of wood energy towards more efficient methods. Indeed, studies show

that effective forest management enables greater carbon stability over the long-term, compared to an

72 See ADEME’s opinion on Forestry - Wood Production, which is based largely on the following

sources: The Research Agency of the Forestry Commission, Review of literature on biogenic carbon and life

cycle assessment on forest bio-energy (2014); European Commission Joint Research Centre (JRC), Carbon

accounting of forest bio-energy (2013); International Energy Agency, Timing of Mitigation Benefits of Forest-

Based Bio-energy (2013); IGN CITEPA: Development of emissions and greenhouse gas absorption levels

linked to the forestry sector and development of biomass energy in France, by 2020 & 2030 (2014); CdC

Climat, Carbon recovery and the Wood-Forestry sector in France (2010).

unmanaged or poorly-managed forest (although a phenomenon of carbon debt can be observed in the short-

term due to heavy use of wood and early felling operations that require a period of several years to recover)73.

If the use of wood-energy can be steered towards more efficient forms of use, the long-term gains in terms of

greenhouse gas emissions could be substantial. However, the increase in the use of wood-energy could, in the

short-term, lead to global increases in CO2 emissions if the demand on the resource outstrips the growth of

carbon sinks.

Provisions have already been implemented in order to mitigate the effects of biomass on climate change. As

such, for collective, tertiary, industrial and agricultural installations (which benefit from the Heat Fund),

operators must use a minimum quantity of certified wood.

Public health and Pollutants


PPE impact


Combustion

impact


The PPE aims to develop the use of wood, as well as the replacement of old fireplaces with high-performance

units. These measures would have a positive impact on air quality, as traditional wood burning heaters emit

high levels of atmospheric pollutants. The new units are much better-performing in terms of energy efficiency

and reduction of atmospheric emissions. Special attention should be paid to the roll-out of new wood heating

systems. Indeed, replacing oil or gas heating systems by wood heating systems increases pollutants emissions.

In order to reduce the impact on air quality from the development of the wood-energy sector, the PPE’s strategy

will be to:

Pursue efforts to replace individual units, notably in areas where air quality represents a serious issue.

The Energy Transition tax credit already requires recipients to adhere to the 5-star “green” certification;

in addition, the eco-design directive will impose new requirements on water heaters and independent

wood-burning units as of 1 January 2020;

Promote biomass heating in collective residences, tertiary and industrial buildings, provided that the

units are equipped with filters designed to reduce emissions of atmospheric pollutants;

Promote supply methods that limit emissions from combustion (untreated dry wood) and transport of

the combustible materials;

Organize a public-awareness campaign on the proper domestic use of wood which is a key factor to

reduce air pollutant emissions.


and Heritage


PPE impact

Neutral

Operational impact

Operational vigilance Direct Permanent Short-term

The use and production of wood should not have any impact on soils or biodiversity, provided that actions are

carried out in accordance with the PNFB.

In this regard, projects should pay careful attention to certain issues:

The choice of vehicle fuel (fuels not adapted to the local environment or medium- / long-term climate

developments, which could disrupt the functioning of local ecosystems in the medium-term).

73 Op.cit.

Limiting trampling and disturbance of local fauna caused by forestry operations;

Limiting the artificialisation of ground surfaces when creating roads and access paths to the plots of

land being used, which can damage soils and water quality (runoffs), as well as landscapes and

biodiversity.



PPE impact

Positive Direct Permanent Medium-term

Operational impact


Developing the use of biomass will enable recovery from a number of waste types, which are currently unused.

The mobilisation of biomass must respect sustainable management of forests and agricultural zones, and limit

vulnerability to imports. Increasing the use of wood energy within the overall energy mix will allow the supply

of energy to metropolitan areas to be supplemented using resources produced in France. This will enable us

to reduce our vulnerability in terms of fuel supplies and our dependence on imports, particularly in terms of

fossil fuels.

Local availability of resources in the medium-term is the reason behind the establishment of the Regional

Biomass Schemes (SRB). These schemes, along with the SNMB, take into account the multitude of uses that

depend on wood resources. Conflicts regarding the use of biomass could emerge within mainland France,

meaning that imports could increase (at least for a temporary period) due to the lack of availability of biomass

for wood-energy. Were this the case, a re-examination of the sustainability criteria might need to be applied.

Geothermal heat pumps (GSHP)

The PPE aims to increase the number of aerothermic heat pumps being installed, continuing the current level

of deployment. The number of geothermal heat pumps installed should eventually increase, but to a less

significant degree.



PPE impact


Impact of heat

pumps

Operational vigilance Direct Temporary Short-term

The PPE aims to develop the use of heat pumps (HP). These pumps generate 2.5 units of renewable heat per

unit of electricity consumed74. HPs therefore enable a reduction in primary energy consumption, and as such

bear the same advantages in terms of energy management. The scale of their environmental benefit depends

on the method of heating they replace. Assuming that they are used to replace fossil-based energy sources,

HPs will contribute to reducing both GHG emissions and atmospheric pollution.

In the medium- to long-term, the use of HPs will enable the production of renewable cool air in the summer,

which is significant given the predicted rise in temperatures.

74 By using an external supply of heat / cold, HPs produce a yield rate of more than 1. This means that

their effectiveness is superior to the energy input. Any device that surpasses the yield factor of 1 is considered

a renewable energy source. An HP becomes 100% renewable when the energy it consumes also comes from a

renewable source.

However, the frigorific fluids used in cooling systems have serious potential to exacerbate global warming. It

is therefore essential to avoid any leakage of these liquids. To this end, it has been decided that all installations

with a capacity of 12kW or more will be subject to regular inspections75.

When active, heat pumps can produce a slight amount of noise. This factor should be taken into consideration

with regard to the installation of heat pumps, which are subject to the same regulations as traditional heating

units76.


and Heritage


PPE impact

Neutral Direct Permanent Medium-term

Impact of

aerothermic heat

pumps


Impact of

geothermic heat

pumps

Operational vigilance Direct Permanent Medium-term

The majority of heat pumps installed are aerothermic models, which draw heat from the ambient air, or surface-

level geothermic pumps (at a depth of less than 1m).

Certain heat pumps are equipped with vertical geothermic sensors, which (in rare cases) can have an adverse

effect on the soil by removing too much subterranean heat. Such alterations to the thermal gradient can affect

biodiversity. These installations do not have any impact on water resources. Research is underway to

document the effects of a multiplication in shallow-depth installations.

In order to mitigate the risks associated with these types of devices, legislation requires the sinking of heat

pumps to be approved by an expert, or given official authorisation in sensitive geographical areas77.



PPE impact

Positive Indirect Permanent Medium-term

Operational impact

Neutral

Heat pumps do not pose any risk, and – when used to replace combustion heating – can also reduce the

technological risks associated with these types of heating systems.

Geothermal electricity and heat

The PPE plans to increase the use of geothermal energy.

Climate and Energy

75 Decree no. 2010-349 of 31 March 2010 on the inspection of air conditioning systems and

reversible heat pumps 76 Eco-design regulation issuing from EU Directive 813-2013

77 Decree no. 2015-15 of 8 January 2015 allows the installation of shallow-depth heat pumps provided

they are officially declared, as long as the area in question is not listed as a sensitive zone in terms of sub-

soils.


PPE impact


Operational impact

Neutral Direct Temporary Short-term

The use of geothermal devices does not generate any GHG emissions, and can replace the use of fossil fuels

(particularly for heat production). Its development will therefore enable a decline in GHG emissions, as well

as decreasing France’s dependence on imports of combustible fossil fuels.

The digging and equipping of geothermal wells is the cause of most GHG emissions from this sector. These

emissions are due to the use of fossil fuels for digging and drilling machines, as well as the road transport

necessary to evacuate the earth removed from the site78. At this point, the emission levels involved are

comparable to those generated by the installation of a fossil fuel well.



PPE impact

Neutral

Operational impact


The trial phase can lead to emissions of atmospheric pollutants (CO, CO2, NOx).

Water resources and aquatic environments / Biodiversity and natural habitats / Soils and sub-soils / Landscapes and Heritage


PPE impact

Neutral

Impact of drilling


Drilling into geothermal wells carries the risk of bringing separate aquifers into contact with one another. In

order to avoid risk to subterranean bodies of water, soils and sub-soils, the development of new geothermal

projects is subject to rules and authorisation applicable to drilling operations 79 , as well as by the

recommendations included in the SDAGE.

Overly-intensive removal of heat from below the surface could cause this thermal resource to dry up. In order

to plan ahead for thermal wells drying up, possible ways of re-injecting heat into the wells are being studied.

As is the case for heat pumps, the possibility exists of using geothermal stations to create cold air by inverting

their mode of operation.



PPE impact


78 Pratiwi, Ravier, Genter - Life Climate change impact assessment of EGS plants in the Upper Rhine

Valley, 2018

79 Article L. 112-1 of the Mining Code

Project impact


The construction of a geothermal well requires large quantities of steel, concrete and asphalt80. A large number

of such drilling operations would therefore have an impact on demand for materials, although this can be offset

over a 30-year period of use.

During the operational phase, certain materials can enter the wells and be put to use. This can include resources

such as lithium, which is usually supplied via imports.



PPE impact

Neutral

Operational impact

Operational vigilance Direct Temporary Medium-term

The development of geothermal projects can have localised seismic effects. The trial phase can lead to

emissions of atmospheric pollutants (CO, CO2, NOx). In addition, their operation can lead to the unearthing

of radioactive materials.

However, these risks are marginal and are already accounted for in regulations applicable to oil and gas

drilling81, under the framework for local authorisations.

Thermal solar

The PPE will increase heat production via solar thermal energy.



PPE impact


Impact of panels


The production of heat via solar energy does not emit any greenhouse gases or atmospheric pollutants, and

contributes to reducing GHG emissions by decreasing the use of fossil fuels.



PPE impact

Neutral Indirect Permanent Long-term

Impact of panels


The installation of solar thermal panels on buildings can have an effect on architectural heritage. The nature

and extent of this impact depends on the local urban context in which the solar measures are being implemented.

80 Pratiwi, Ravier, Genter - Life Climate change impact assessment of EGS plants in the Upper Rhine

Valley, 2018

81 Decree no. 2006-649 of 2 June 2006

Solar thermal energy has no impact on landscapes (nor on the use of soils and associated biodiversity issues)

as these panels are only installed on roofs.



PPE impact

Neutral Direct Permanent Short-term

Impact of panels


The development of the solar thermal sector requires the use of materials for the construction of panels. It is

therefore necessary to immediately begin planning for the recycling of these panels, in order to ensure the

resources they contain are reused. Solar thermal panels do not require any rare resources.



PPE impact


Operational impact

Neutral

Heat pumps do not pose any risk, and – when used to replace combustion heating – can also reduce the

technological risks associated with these types of heating systems.

Energy recovery from waste

The PPE aims to increase the quantity of waste and residue (in particular liquid manure) from which energy is

recovered.

Climate and Energy


PPE impact


Impact of energy

recovery from

waste


Energy recovery from waste can replace the use of combustible fossil fuels to produce energy. Incinerating

waste in an ICPE would enable a reduction in GHG emissions caused by the end-of-life management of this

waste (notably storage emissions and emissions arising from inefficient recovery), and by replacing fossil fuels.

The recovery of energy from liquid manure would also help reduce methane emissions from muck spreading.



PPE impact


Combustion

impact


The combustion of waste generates emissions of atmospheric pollutants (nitrogen oxides, dioxins, dust, etc.),

which must be properly treated for public health reasons. These emissions are covered by regulations regarding

the Regulated Environment Protection Facilities (ICPE), which have enabled a decrease in their occurrence.

This also enables a reduction in the environmental impact of waste disposal. Waste items can become

contaminated over the course of their lifetime. This is why they must be recovered in ICPE facilities, which

carry the necessary safety guarantees.

Water resources and aquatic environments / Biodiversity and natural habitats / Soils and sub-soils / Landscapes and Heritage / Non-renewable resources (excluding fossil energy sources) and waste


PPE impact


Impact of energy

recovery from

waste


Combustion

impact


Increased energy recovery from waste will mean less pressure on the supply of combustible materials, provided

that energy recovery operations only use waste that could not have been recycled or reused in other ways. The

incineration of waste also frees up space and avoids the need to develop storage facilities for non-hazardous

waste, which can have an impact on landscapes and create water quality risks due to liquid run-off.

Particular attention must be paid during the energy recovery process to ashes (which contain concentrations of

pollutants left over from the combustion process), in order to avoid any pollution of soils and sub-soils.

3.2.2. Liquid fuels Oil-based products

The PPE aims to decrease the use of oil-based products.

Climate and Energy


PPE impact


The use of petroleum products, particularly in transport, accounts for 30% of GHG emissions, as well as a

significant proportion of atmospheric pollutants (SO2

during refinement, COV, NOx and PM during

combustion). These pollutant emissions have an indirect effect on various natural environments (water, soils,

biodiversity), as they cause modifications to the chemical composition of organisms.

Combustion-engine vehicles will gradually be replaced by electric vehicles, which do not emit GHG. Given

that electricity has a low carbon footprint in France, the net result is positive in terms of the greenhouse effect.

The decrease in the use of petrol and diesel means less use of oil, which is a non-renewable resource, overall.



PPE impact

Neutral Direct Permanent Long-term

The growth in electric transport will increase pressure on rare resources needed to produce batteries. Public

policy must remain vigilant in this regard, encouraging further research to reduce consumption of these

resources, as well as promoting more economic solutions using less rare and more recyclable materials.

Biofuels

The PPE does not aim to increase the use of first-generation biofuels (created using edible plants), but does

aim to increase the use of second-generation biofuels (created using agricultural waste and residue).

Climate and Energy / Non-renewable resources (aside from fossil energy sources) and waste


PPE impact


Combustion

impact


The combustion of biofuels is considered to be GHG-neutral, as the CO2 emitted is absorbed by biomass during

the growth phase. The use of biofuels therefore enables a reduction in vehicle GHG emissions, as they can

replace the use of fossil fuels.

The effect of biofuels on climate change depends on the inputs used to create them: 1st

-generation biofuels

created from agricultural crops have a greater ecological impact than 2nd

-generation biofuels (which are

produced using waste residue), as the former can lead to changes in the way farmland is used and therefore

reduce the number of carbon sinks available. 2nd

-generation biofuels do not have this effect, as they only use

existing waste residue.

The PPE does not aim to increase the use of 1st

-generation biofuels, but does aim to increase the use of 2nd

-

generation biofuels. This will replace the use of other resources, particularly fossil fuels.

3.2.3. Gas Natural gas

The PPE aims to decrease the consumption of natural gas.

Climate and Energy / Public health and Pollutants / Natural and Technological Risks


PPE impact


The use of natural gas causes emissions of atmospheric pollutants (in 2016 this stood at 500 tonnes of SO2

,

6400 tonnes of NOx, 35,000 tonnes of CO82) and GHGs (73Mt CO2e in 201683).

Given that the gas is 95% methane, its accidental release into the air poses the risk of increasing climate change.

Its use also carries other risks, due to its flammable and explosive properties (when compressed). A reduction

in the consumption of natural gas will therefore reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

The use of natural gas also makes France dependent on its suppliers. It is a fossil resource, and supply is finite.

A reduction in its use via the PPE will have a positive impact on the preservation of gas resources.

Biogas

The PPE aims to increase the production and consumption of biogas.

Climate and Energy


PPE impact


Impact of

anaerobic digesters


Combustion

impact

Neutral Indirect Permanent Medium-term

The use of biogas can act as a replacement for natural fossil gas. The effect of biogas combustion on global

warming is considered to be neutral, as the CO2 emitted (0.8kg CO2 /kg84) will be absorbed during the renewal

of the biomass stocks from which the gas is obtained. In addition, by using liquid manure as an energy source,

biogas reduces the methane emissions generated by this substance.

Biogas is composed of methane, and as such must be subject to the same precautions in term of production,

storage and distribution as natural gas, in order to avoid leaks (as this gas has a potential global warming factor

of 25). Various strategies exist in order to limit GHG emissions.

During the methanisation phase: reducing storage time and opting for storage in closed buildings with

air conditioning.

During recovery: optimisation of motor settings.

Installation of torches, enabling any gas released due to over-pressurisation to be burned.

Methanisation facilities are covered by the ICPE regulatory framework in order to manage accidental pollution

and disturbances.



PPE impact


Impact of

anaerobic digesters


82 Secten Report – Combustibles 2017. Source: CITEPA

83 Ibid 84 ADEME carbon database

http://www.bilans-ges.ademe.fr/documentation/UPLOAD_DOC_FR/index.htm?renouvelable.html

The recovery of waste or other biomass resources to produce biomethane can, in certain cases, cause olfactory

disturbances for neighbouring residents. The methanisation process itself does not generate odours, but

improper care in the storage and transport of effluent matter can cause these types of disturbances. These types

of incidents are covered by regulations applying to Regulated Environment Protection Facilities (ICPE).

The recovery of liquid slurry to produce energy will reduce the quantities available for spreading, and thereby

reduce the olfactory pollution associated with this practice.



PPE impact


Impact of

anaerobic digesters


The increase of renewable gas in the energy mix will enable a reduction in waste sent to ISDNDs (dumps) or

UIOMs (incinerators), as well as in the resulting environmental impact. It involves recovering substances that

are traditionally not seen as energy resources, and thereby means less use of non-renewable resources.

It is important to organise the management of this sector, so as to avoid any possible conflicts regarding the

availability of biomass for the development of renewable energy sources (biogas, biofuels, wood-energy, etc.),

in order to ensure that these uses do not compromise the production of biomass for food. In France, the use of

edible biomass resources is limited to a maximum of 15% of a facility’s overall supply. Biogas is therefore

generated using mostly waste and residue.

3.2. 4. Electricity The PPE aims to increase the capacities of renewable electricity installations, which should increase their

contribution to the electrical mix and lead to a relative decrease in the proportion of nuclear energy used, via

the closure of reactors.

Hydroelectricity and STEPs

The storage of electricity in pumped energy transfer stations (STEPs) presents the same challenges as in dam-

operated power stations. The PPE aims to prioritise the optimisation of existing hydroelectric facilities, as

well as the equipment of dams that do not currently produce electricity.

Climate and Energy


PPE impact


Impact of

hydroelectric

power stations


The hydroelectric sector should undergo slow growth, meaning that the net impact of this sector is neutral.

The use of hydraulic energy does not cause GHG emissions. Power stations equipped with a retaining dam

also have the advantage of being controllable, which means they can replace fossil fuels to ensure security of

supply during periods of peak consumption.

The stagnation of water in the retention basins can occasionally encourage the development of CO2-emitting

aquatic flora. These effects vary depending on the location, the size of the installation and the frequency of

their use.



PPE impact


Impact of dams


The development of hydroelectricity and STEPs storage stations can cause adverse effects on aquatic

environments, during both the construction and operational phases: disruption of ecological continuity,

alteration of the hydromorphology of waterways, localised warming of bodies of water, and modifications to

aquatic and alluvial habitats upstream and downstream from the dams.

The ecological health of waterways can be severely affected by physical objects that prevent the flow of water,

impede transport of sediments and disrupt the life cycles of aquatic species. The scale of these effects may

vary depending on the location and size of the facility, and occur mainly due to the presence of hydroelectric

power stations using a retention basin.

Management of the environmental impact of hydroelectric power stations is taken into account during the

environmental authorisation process for these facilities. This authorisation process ensures that environmental

factors are taken into account during the project development phase, as well as the facility’s compatibility with

the Waterways Management and Development Plan (SDAGE) and the National Operations for the

Preservation and Restoration of Ecological Continuity (ONPRCE).

Regulations pertaining to the preservation of ecological continuity stipulate that water flow rates must remain

sufficient to mitigate the impact of dams on sediment circulation and aquatic species. Regulations also require

passageways to be left for fish, so as not to disturb migratory patterns of catadromous species (those which

move between salt and freshwater environments) who come to rivers to reproduce.

In the longer term, climate developments may well influence hydroelectricity production capacities

(modification of pluviometric and hydrological cycles, increased frequency of droughts, etc.). Maintaining the

ecological health of waterways is therefore an essential step to ensuring the long-term sustainable production

of hydroelectric energy (by making waterways more resilient to climate change).

Terrestrial wind turbines

The PPE will increase the power capacity of wind turbine installations, and – to a lesser extent – their number.

This increase will not be proportional, however, as wind turbines are becoming more and more powerful.

Climate and Energy


PPE impact


Impact of wind

turbines


The production of electricity via wind energy does not emit any greenhouse gases or atmospheric pollutants,

and contributes to reducing GHG emissions by decreasing the use of fossil fuels.



PPE impact


Impact of wind

turbines


Due to their height and the movement of their blades, wind turbines can cause disturbances for residents,

including noise, electromagnetic waves, projection of shadows, stroboscopic effects, etc. Studies conducted so

far show that these negative effects are negligible at a distance of 500m, which is the minimum distance to be

maintained between wind turbines and residences, as stipulated under French law85.

In addition to the challenges identified, the perception of these negative effects by residents is a major issue in

the feasibility of these projects. Getting local populations involved in the early stages of the project helps

make it easier for them to accept the presence of turbines.

Due to the rapid movement of metallic parts in operational wind turbines, the structures can cause

electromagnetic disturbances capable of disrupting radar signals. Although stationary, the masts also play a

role in radar interference. This interference can affect meteorological radar readings, as well as civil aviation

and military radars. The level of interference could worsen as the turbines increase in size. This is an important

issue to keep in mind during project development.

All these disturbances are taken into account in ICPE regulations, which have been applicable to wind turbines

since 2011.

Water resources and aquatic environments / Biodiversity and natural habitats / Soils and sub-soils


PPE impact

Negative Direct Permanent Short-term

Impact of wind

turbines


A wind farm can have negative effects on biodiversity, and project developers must remain vigilant to these

risks: disturbances to avian species and chiroptera (birds and bats), occasional destruction of vegetation at the

installation site, disturbance of local fauna, etc. Aside from the risk of collision from flying species (which is

relatively low compared to other structures of the same height)86, it is wise to pay close attention to the

“barricading” effect of the widespread deployment of wind farms. The cumulative effects of wind farms can

disturb the migration paths of certain species, which may take detours in order to avoid them.

It should be noted that the extent of negative effects on biodiversity will vary greatly depending on the

geographic location of the turbines. Wind farms are subject to advance planning and a specific management

process, as part of the administrative authorisation procedure applied to each project. Any plan to erect a wind

farm is subject to a comprehensive examination of how the turbines will be integrated into the local

environment, as well as whether operational risks have been properly accounted for. An impact study is also

carried out. Projects must take into account zoning laws stipulated by various environmental protection plans:

Application of the “National Orientations for the Preservation and Restoration of Ecological

Continuities” initiative (ONPRCE) stipulates that wind farms should not be erected in areas that fall

within daily flight routes or bird migration paths;

Observation of the Natura 2000 zones helps lessen the impact of turbines on protected species.

Finally, the authorisation permit can include specific advisory provisions in order to reduce the negative effects

identified, and may even implement compensatory measures. In particular, the following provisions may be

included:

85 As such, French regulations are among the most protective in this regard, making wind turbines

subject to ICPE legislation (Decree 2011-984 of 23 August 2011, adopted following the “Grenelle 2” law).

86 A 2017 study carried out by the Bird Protection League on “French wind farms and their impact on

avian species” estimates that wind farm-related mortalities account for between 0.3 to 18.3 bird deaths per

turbine per year, compared to 80 to 120 birds killed per year for every kilometre of high-voltage power lines.

https://eolien-biodiversite.com/IMG/pdf/eolien_lpo_2017.pdf

Incitement to install wind turbines within intensive agricultural zones. One of the notable advantages

of this measure is to reduce the number of collisions, as well as to minimise the land use requirements

of wind farms, whose presence does not preclude the use of land for other activities (such as farming);

Encouragement of “repowering”, which helps limit the impact of the turbines’ installation by situating

them on sites that are already being used for such purposes, and which do not pose any problems to

bird species. Conversely, it is preferable for old wind farms located in sensitive areas to be moved.

Landscapes and Heritage


PPE impact


Impact of wind

turbines


Due to their height, wingspan, position and numbers, wind turbines modify the landscapes on which they are

erected. It is therefore necessary to carefully plan the installation of wind farms, taking into account the context

of the local landscape, the feelings of the local population, and the presence of other wind farms (existing or

planned) in the area. Any project that fails to take these factors into account cannot receive authorisation. In

order to improve the integration of wind farms into their landscapes, it is recommended that local residents be

involved in the process of selecting the location of the farm.

In the long-term, the development of wind energy does carry risks in terms of territorial saturation. Once the

most mutually-favourable sites for the development of wind energy have been made operational, new project

developers may well turn their attention to less consensual locations. It is important that this consideration not

be overlooked as the sector continues to develop.



PPE impact

Negative Direct Permanent Long-term

Impact of wind

turbines


The development of the wind energy sector requires an increase in the use of a large number of materials for

the construction of the turbines, notably including the use of rare earth metals. It is therefore necessary to

immediately begin planning for the recycling of the materials used in turbine construction, in order to ensure

these resources are reused:

The blades are made up of glass and carbon fibre, which at present are difficult to recycle. Currently-

available solutions involve recovering these resources as heat sources, or grinding them down to

produce cement;

At the end of a turbine’s life cycle, the reinforced concrete foundations are only levelled off to a height

of 1 metre, meaning that the remainder of the structure is left in the ground (roughly 3-4 metres of

reinforced concrete). It would be worthwhile to support any projects that aim to reuse these

foundations during the repowering of a wind farm site. This would not only reduce the cost of the

facility, but would also alleviate the need to engage in further invasive use of the soil after the

abandonment of 1m-deep concrete structures.

In the same way, the issue of repowering should be studied regarding offshore wind farms;

The rotors of certain wind turbines (primarily those located offshore) operate using permanent magnets

made from rare earth metals (dysprosium, neodymium), and it will be necessary to improve options

for reprocessing these materials in order to limit the environmental impact of their extraction. The

Bureau for Geological Research and Mining estimates that the construction of a 7MW wind turbine

requires the consumption of about one tonne of rare earth metals.87. The same is true, albeit in a more

long-term fashion, for the copper reels used in the rotors.



PPE impact


Operational impact

Neutral

Wind turbines do not pose any risk, and – when used to replace thermal or nuclear methods of electricity

production – can also reduce the technological risks associated with these methods.

Photovoltaics

The PPE aims to increase the number of solar panels installed.

Climate and Energy


PPE impact


Impact of panels


The production of electricity via solar energy does not emit any greenhouse gases or atmospheric pollutants,

and contributes to reducing GHG emissions by decreasing the use of fossil fuels.

The production of solar panels causes the majority of GHG emissions in this sector, particularly during the

silicon refining process88. It is therefore important to make the production process as efficient as possible.



PPE impact

Negative Direct Permanent Medium-term

Impact of ground

panels


Impact of roof

panels


The establishment of solar farms with ground-mounted panels increases the solar sector’s use of land, as well

as affecting biodiversity in and around the host site. In order to reduce this impact, it is preferable to give

priority to installations in areas with low agronomic and ecological value. It should be noted that the use of

ground space by these installations can be reduced by developing additional uses of the land in question. Solar

panels may be elevated above ground level or set in the “shield” position (inclined towards the sun), both of

which are compatible with animal farming activities.

Increasing the use of roof-mounted solar panels helps avoid all conflicts regarding land use.

87 Geo-scientific issues report, “Rare Earth metals” - BGRM, 2017

88 Solar energy systems: production and environmental impact - HESPUL, 2009



PPE impact


Impact of panels


Ground-mounted solar panels modify the landscape in which they are installed. It will be necessary, therefore,

to include landscape-related considerations in the development phase of these infrastructures. Any project

that fails to take these factors into account cannot receive authorisation.

When solar panels are installed on buildings, they can have negative effects on architectural heritage,

depending on the urban context in which the solar facilities are being developed.



PPE impact


Impact of panels


The development of the solar panel sector requires the use of a wide range materials for the construction of

panels. It is therefore necessary to immediately begin planning for the recycling of these panels, in order to

ensure the resources they contain are reused (as has already been outlined in both national and European

regulation). The recyclability rate has already reached 95%89. Certain technologies (which at present are not

commonly used in France) require the use of rare metals such as silver (CdTe90) or indium (CIGS91), which

risk increasing the demand pressure on these resources. In order to reduce the demand for rare resources, it is

necessary to continue improving recycling methods and researching manufacturing techniques which are less

resource-intensive (or which use materials with less limited supply).

The most commonly-used technique in France requires the use of silicon, whose chemical processing currently

constitutes the main source of CO2 emissions and pollutants in this sector. Replacing this chemical processing

technique with physical procedures is both feasible and preferable in order to limit the environmental impact

of this sector’s development. While silicon supplies are generally not considered to be under great pressure,

the level of purity required for the development of monocrystalline panels (which offer higher energy yields)

could potentially put pressure on silicon supply.



PPE impact


Operational

impact

Neutral

Solar farms do not pose any risk, and – when used to replace thermal or nuclear methods of electricity

production – can also reduce the technological risks associated with these methods.

89 Source: PV Cycle, the leading operator in the recycling of PV solar panels.

90 Cadmium telluride (potentially toxic).

91 Copper, indium, gallium, selenide.

Renewable marine energy (including offshore wind turbines)

The PPE aims to increase the use of offshore wind turbines. The challenges regarding resources and waste

from this sector are addressed jointly with onshore issues.

Climate and Energy


PPE impact


Impact of wind

turbines


The production of electricity via wind energy does not emit any CO2, and contributes to reducing GHG

emissions by decreasing the use of fossil fuels.



PPE impact


Impact of wind

turbines


Due to the movement of metallic parts in operational wind turbines, the structures can cause electromagnetic

disturbances capable of disrupting radar signals. Even when stationary, the masts also play a role in radar

interference. This interference can affect meteorological radar readings, as well as civil aviation and military

radars. While the exact extent of this interference depends on the technical and physical characteristics of the

wind farm and the type of radar in question, it is necessary to take these considerations into account in order

to ensure the successful development of this sector, from the identification of favourable sites to the

development of future farms.



PPE impact


Impact of wind

turbines


Information regarding the negative effects of renewable marine energy is currently insufficient to establish a

clear diagnostic analysis. Offshore wind is the most well-documented sector, and is subject to the

environmental authorisation system.

The installation of offshore wind farms carries two types of environmental impact:

During construction: the noise generated by the installation of “monopile” structures, as well as

resuspended sediments, can endanger certain species. Measures can be taken to suspend installation

work during the reproductive cycles of local fauna.

These impacts on biodiversity do not apply to floating wind farms, which require only minimal anchoring to

the sea floor;

During the operational phase: collisions and the “barricading” effect created by multiple installations

can disturb the migratory patterns and life cycles of birds and bats. A study is currently being carried

out in order to plan the implementation of migration corridors (which may include measures to

temporarily suspend the operation of the wind farm) in order to limit these effects.

Throughout the operational phase, products used to protect the submerged structures (anti-fouling paint,

galvanic anodes) can also affect the quality of the surrounding water. It is recommended that the use of priority

hazardous substances (cadmium, nickel, lead and mercury), which are commonly used for port facilities, be

avoided.

Taking into account the potential impact of offshore wind farms on biodiversity (within the framework of a

prior public debate on the determination and location of development bids) contributes to an approach that will

reduce wind energy’s negative impact on the environment.

More generally, the negative effects of the mobilisation of other marine energy sources on biodiversity remain

highly uncertain, inasmuch as these emerging sectors are still in the R&D stage in France. Research work is

being carried out in order to produce a clearer picture of these effects.



PPE impact


Impact of wind

turbines


The development of marine energy production facilities, especially offshore wind farms, can have an impact

on coastal landscapes. Due to their large size and high visibility, wind turbines have an impact on the landscape

they occupy, and this factor should be taken into account in each project. Any project that fails to take these

factors into account cannot be green-lit.

The organisation of a prior public debate in order to determine the location of proposed bids would help to get

local populations more involved in the development of projects, and therefore enhance support for wind energy

on a local level.

It should be noted that floating wind turbines, which can be installed at greater depths, represent significant

benefits in terms of landscape impact compared to fixed wind turbines, as they can be set up further from the

coast at distances of over 20-25km (which is currently the maximum distance for French wind farms presently

in development). However, further research and development regarding the tethering of these installations to

the sea floor is necessary before these distances can be safely achieved. The long-term development of floating

wind farms represents an opportunity in terms of coastal landscape preservation.



PPE impact


Operational impact

Neutral

Renewable marine energy does not pose any risk, and – when used to replace thermal or nuclear methods of

electricity production – can also reduce the technological risks associated with these methods.

Nuclear

The PPE aims to reduce the production of nuclear energy.

Climate and Energy


PPE impact

Neutral Direct Permanent Long-term

Impact of closures


The production of electricity via nuclear energy causes virtually no emissions of GHGs or atmospheric

pollutants. In terms of life cycle analysis, nuclear energy emits only 6g / kWh CO2e, placing it in the same

order of magnitude as renewable energy92.

The PPE is built around the principle that nuclear energy will be replaced by renewable energies. The impact

of the PPE on this issue is therefore neutral.



PPE impact


Impact of closures


The PPE will lead to a relative decrease in the production of electricity from nuclear energy, and will therefore

reduce the negative impacts it carries.

Nuclear power stations have negative effects on water resources, in that they remove water from the

environment to cool their reactors. This water is then released into the natural environment at a different

temperature, and contains chemical residues that may disturb the ecological health of bodies of water.

However, this wastewater is covered by industry regulation.

In the longer term, the increase in temperatures and the global warming of water bodies could affect the

productivity of nuclear power stations, as they might have to lower their production rates in order to avoid the

risk of overheating. One of the consequences of global warming could therefore be a decline in nuclear

electricity production.



PPE impact

Positive Direct Permanent Long-term

Impact of closures

Positive Direct Permanent Long-term

The reduction in electricity produced via nuclear energy would lead to a decrease in the use of uranium and

nuclear waste to be processed.

The long periods for which radioactive elements remain active implies that our current methods of energy

production will have a major impact over extremely long time frames. The persistent nature of this risk could

92 ADEME carbon database

http://www.bilans-ges.ademe.fr/documentation/UPLOAD_DOC_FR/index.htm?renouvelable.html

eventually lead to serious health problems or environmental damage (sub-soils) if storage facilities were shown

to be deficient.

While a sector does exist to recycle combustible nuclear materials, research work is currently being carried

out in order to optimise this reprocessing cycle. Waste generated during the dismantling of nuclear power

stations should be handled by a processing sector specially adapted to the nature of this waste. It should be

noted that this waste is made up of 80% standard waste, notably rubble and metals, and 20% radioactive waste.



PPE impact


Impact of closures


A reduction in the production of electricity via nuclear energy will lead to a decline in the risk of generic

technical failures and accidents.

The risk level associated with nuclear power stations is extremely serious, but low-probability. The

dismantling of nuclear power stations could produce new risks, which must be thoroughly anticipated. Long-

term operational life of reactors will be subject to periodic reviews of France’s Nuclear Safety Authority

(ASN).

In the long-term, climate change could influence the exposure of nuclear facilities to risk (extreme climate

events, droughts, floods, etc.) and lead to an increase in exposure to “Natech” risks. 93 This long-term

perspective will be taken into account in ASN examinations.

Fossil-fuelled thermal power stations

The PPE will decrease the production of energy from fossil fuels, and will therefore reduce the environmental

impact of these facilities. In particular, those facilities with the highest emissions levels – i.e. coal power

stations – will be closed.

Climate and Energy / Public health and Pollutants / Water resources and aquatic environments / Biodiversity and natural habitats / Soils and sub-soils / Landscapes and Heritage


PPE impact


Impact of closures


Thermal power stations are sources of GHG emissions and atmospheric pollutants. Emissions from

combustion required to produce the equivalent of 1kWh of energy are94:

Oil: 283g CO2e

Coal: 346g CO2e (364g CO2e for lignite)

Natural gas: 205g CO2e

93 “NaTech”: increase in technological risks cause by the rise in natural risks.

94 GHG report by ADEME; values are valid only for the combustion phase.

NB: The production of 1kWh of energy does not equate to 1kWh of electricity, meaning that each facility's

yield rate must also be taken into consideration.

In 2016, emissions of atmospheric pollutants from thermal power stations burning fossil fuels stood at95:

NOx: 13kt. Nitrogen oxides affect the respiratory system, and are potentially 40 times more harmful

than CO96. These gases exacerbate global warming by participating in the formation of photochemical

ozone and acid rain.

SO2

: 5kt. Sulphur dioxide affects the respiratory system, causing irritation. It also contributes to the

acidification of natural habitats97.

PM (10 and 2.5): 0.5kt. Due to their size, fine particles can penetrate deep within the respiratory

pathways and cause serious health problems depending on their chemical makeup (the term “fine

particle” refers only to their size)98.

These emissions represent a major issue in terms of climate change, as well as a threat to human health and

natural environments. Measures to limit their prevalence are enshrined within the regulatory framework

governing Regulated Environment Protection Facilities (ICPE).

The use of fossil-based energy also makes France dependent on its suppliers. Stocks of these resources are

limited. A reduction in their use via the PPE will have a positive impact on the preservation of resources.



PPE impact


Impact of closures


The PPE’s reduction of the use of fossil-fuelled thermal power stations will lead to a decrease in the risks

associated with these facilities.

Risks associated with fossil-fuelled power stations are due to the high concentration of combustible materials

in the same location. Coal power stations represent a major fire risk. Gas and oil power stations carry the risk

of fire and explosion. These risks must be considered alongside the physical proximity of some of these

facilities with other ICPE installations.

Regulations governing Regulated Environment Protection Facilities (ICPE) take careful consideration of the

risks associated with these types of facilities.

3.2.5. Supply security Electricity storage (not including STEPs)

The PPE aims to increase electricity storage levels.



PPE impact


Impact of storage

measures


95 Secten report – Combustibles 2017. Source: CITEPA

96 Nitrogen oxides – NOx. Source: CITEPA

97 Sulphur dioxide – SO2. Source: CITEPA

98 Airborne dust particles Source: CITEPA

Storage facilities do not emit any GHGs, and as such it is feasible to predict that increasing the capacities of

storage facilities would indirectly contribute to a reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases and pollutants.

Indeed, in the medium-term, this would enable a move away from thermal energy sources and increase the

proportion of renewable energies.



PPE impact


Impact of storage

measures


The batteries used in innovative storage technologies are made up of strategic materials (rare earth metals,

lithium, nickel, etc.), the use of which will increase under PPE objectives. Some of these materials require

specialised recycling processes. Methods currently used to recycle these materials are suited to existing

technologies, but could, in the medium-term, become ill-adapted to the needs of new storage technologies.

The recycling of certain types of lithium battery cells, in particular, still poses problems.

It is necessary to continue researching manufacturing techniques that are less resource-intensive, or those

which use resources with less limited supply. In addition, efforts aiming to recycle these materials – in order

to ensure that the development of electricity storage does not lead to increased pressure on reserves of strategic

materials – should be continued. While the potential negative effects of this kind of pressure would be felt in

the medium-term, anticipation of these risks is essential in the short-term (notably via the use of a resource

plan). The National Circular Economy Strategy should contribute to structuring recycling sectors.

The development of storage capacities will also enable a reduction in demand for the resources necessary to

construct certain extensions of the transport and electricity distributions networks.



PPE impact


Impact of storage

measures


The technological risks associated with peaking power plants, which are necessary to respond to peaks in

demand, may also be reduced in comparison to development trajectories (no need to build new plants)

There are no particular risks associated with electricity storage facilities.

Load management

The PPE aims to increase the use of load management methods.

Climate and Energy / Public health and Pollutants / Water resources and aquatic environments / Biodiversity and natural habitats / Soils and sub-soils / Landscapes and Heritage / Non-renewable resources (excluding fossil energy sources) and waste / Natural and Technological Risks


PPE impact


Real-time navigation of demand is one possible method of avoiding the use of peaker plants (which are often

gas-burning and emit high levels of GHG and pollutants) in order to respond to peaks in demand for electricity.

The marginal gains involved would be significant, considering that hours of peaking production currently

represent 15% of GHG emissions in the electricity production sector (for around 1/16th

of consumption hours).

Developing the use of load management should contribute to a reduction in pressure on resource supply during

peak demand times. Pressure on resources used for the construction of peaking power plants, as well as certain

network infrastructures, would also be reduced, as would associated construction waste.

There are no particular risks associated with electricity load management.

The technological risks associated with peaking power plants, which are necessary to respond to peaks in

demand, may also by reduced in comparison to development trajectories (no need to build new plants)

Energy infrastructures

Heating and cooling networks

The PPE aims to further develop heating and cooling networks.



PPE impact


Impact of

networks


The development of heating networks contributes indirectly to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and

pollutants. Indeed, using these networks rather than individual devices enables heat resources to be managed

in a more efficient fashion, by drawing value from additional resources (notably reclaimed heat). They also

offer excellent flexibility of use, thereby contributing to greater flexibility in the energy system as a whole.

In addition, the use of heat networks allows for further development of renewable energies (notably the use of

wood energy) while also limiting emissions of atmospheric pollutants. The combustion devices used in

collective residences are equipped with filters, which are better maintained and more efficient than those found

in individual devices. Their emissions are covered by the ICPE regulatory framework.



PPE impact


Impact of

networks


The establishment of heat networks could lead to localised alterations of ecological environments (terrestrial

or aquatic), as well as occasional artificialisation of certain natural and agricultural surfaces. The harmful

effects of each project over their respective timeframes will be identified and specified within the framework

of the authorisation procedures to which these networks are subject.

Liquid fuel network

The PPE does not aim to make any significant modifications to this network.

Gas network

The PPE does not aim to make any significant modifications to this network.

Electrical networks

The distribution network requires certain reinforcements in order to integrate the use of decentralised

renewable energies as stipulated by the PPE. Infrastructure plans are also evaluated under the environmental

evaluation framework of the Ten-Year Development Plan for the Electricity Transport Network (RTE).

Climate and Energy / Public health


PPE impact


Impact of

networks


The development of electricity networks contributes indirectly to a reduction in emissions of GHG and

atmospheric pollutants by increasing the market penetration of non-carbon electricity, at the expense of fossil

fuels. The main connection projects being planned aim to enable the integration of decentralised renewable

energies; as such, their construction will contribute to the energy transition.

The sulphur hexafluorides (SF6

) used to insulate electrical lines have a global warming potential of 22800.

Particular care must be taken not to allow these substances to escape into the environment during insulation

operations.



PPE impact

Neutral

Impact of

electrical lines


Major linear infrastructures extending over large distances can have an impact on ecological continuities. The

growing use of submerged (buried) networks could help limit the impact on landscapes.

Building these infrastructures will have an impact on biodiversity during the construction phase, whether the

lines are buried or not. The installation of electrical substations will have an impact on the use of soils and on

associated biodiversity issues.

During the operational phase, aerial electricity lines represent a danger to bird species through collisions. The

maintenance or these lines (both aerial and submerged) involves removing trees from the vertical spaces above

or below the lines in order to avoid interference. These cleared sectors have an effect on the landscape and the

continuity of green belts.

The ecological effects of infrastructure plans are specified and evaluated at a local level as part of the

assessment procedures to which they are subject. It should be noted that every major infrastructure project

must be compatible with the strategic directions set by the green and blue belts. All such projects must take

into account local regulations and ecological concerns (as identified within the SRCE, Natura 2000 zones, etc.).

Distribution infrastructures will not be built if they are shown to have a negative impact on biodiversity.

Recharging infrastructures for alternative fuels

These aspects are covered in more detail in the following section on the Clean Transport Development Strategy.

3.3. Implementation of the Clean Transport Development Strategy

(SDMP)

3.3.1. Managing growing demand for transport The SDMP includes a number of measures designed to help manage the growth in transport demand. These

measures will help to:

Reduce the number of journeys taken;

Modify behaviours and modes of transport in favour of options that have less impact on the

environment;

Take transport issues into account when making consumption choices;

Suggest organisational models that enable a reduction in negative environmental effects.

Climate and Energy / Public health and Pollutants / Water resources and aquatic environments / Biodiversity and natural habitats / Soils and sub-soils / Landscapes and Heritage / Non-renewable resources (excluding fossil energy sources) and waste / Natural and Technological Risks


SDMP impact


Project impact


The reduction in the need for transport will help to slow down urban sprawl, and consequently in the levels of

energy consumption and atmospheric pollution associated with this phenomenon.

The reduction in energy consumption via transport will limit the use of fossil fuels and France’s dependence

on imported fossil fuels.

The modification of behaviours and methods of consumption is an effective strategy in decreasing road traffic

(in particular of merchandise) and infrastructure requirements. The transport sector’s impact on regional

development, land use, biodiversity and landscapes will therefore be reduced, as will pollution and the risk of

transport-related accidents.

3.3.2. Developing low-emission vehicles and fuel-delivery infrastructures, and

improving energy efficiency of vehicles nationwide The sections examining the development of low-emissions vehicles and those using alternative fuels can often

cause near-identical effects. In order to avoid any analytical redundancy, negative effects directly linked to

vehicles themselves are presented in the first section, while incidences linked to the development of the

infrastructures needed or to supply sectors are presented in the second.

Development of low-emissions vehicles

The PPE and the SDMP aim to replace the combustion-engine vehicle fleet with low- CO2 emissions vehicles.



SDMP impact


Impact of vehicles


The widespread deployment of low-emissions vehicles would help limit emissions of greenhouse gases and

atmospheric pollutants, in that the vehicles themselves produce less pollution during their operational phase

than traditional vehicles. Replacing combustion-engine vehicles with low-emissions vehicles could therefore

have a positive impact on climate change. The level of reduction achieved depends on the type of fuel used:

Fuel-efficient combustion vehicles emit less pollutants and greenhouse gases;

Electricity, when sourced from renewable or nuclear energy, does not cause any emissions of GHG or

atmospheric pollutants;

Hydrogen does not cause any emissions of GHG or atmospheric pollutants (provided electrolysis is

achieved via renewable or nuclear energy);

When consumed, natural gas emits 205g / kWh CO2e, which is lower than the 270g / kWh CO2e

emitted by liquid fuels99. Emissions of atmospheric pollutants from natural gas are generally around

ten times lower than those from liquid fuels.

By diversifying the energy sources used in the sector, the development of low-emissions vehicles using

alternative fuels will help reduce France’s dependence on oil imports (to which the transport sector is

particularly sensitive), which would also contribute greatly to supply security for oil-based products. However,

where NG vehicles are used, oil imports would simply be replaced by imports of natural gas, as France relies

on imports for practically its entire gas supply.

Water resources and aquatic environments / Biodiversity and natural habitats / Soils and sub-soils / Landscapes and Heritage / Natural and Technological Risks


SDMP impact


Impact of vehicles


Noise levels of low-emissions vehicles can vary depending on the type of vehicle in question, but their noise

emissions are generally lower than traditional combustion-engine vehicles. Low-emissions vehicles therefore

represent an opportunity to reduce transport-related noise pollution, which not only affects populations but

also animal species.

At low speeds (<25km/h), vehicles equipped with electric motors (electric, hybrid and hydrogen vehicles) run

almost silently

100

, which offers the possibility of reducing noise pollution caused by traffic in urban areas.

Vehicles running on NG are also less noisy than traditional combustion engine vehicles. A study by ADEME

comparing the various technological sectors

101

found that “The combustion of natural gas fuel occurs more

slowly than that of other hydrocarbons. This leads to a significant reduction in vibrations, and consequently

decreases the noise generated by these types of engines. The noise level is lowered by around 4 decibels, which

is half the level generated by a diesel engine."


99 ADEME – GHG report

100 ADEME, 2012: Development (using life cycle analysis) of forecasts for energy use, GHG emissions

and other environmental impacts across all electric vehicle sectors and combustion-engine vehicles by 2012

and 2020

101 ADEME, April 2007: Environmental Advisory Reports - Energy: technological sectors for the

coach industry


SDMP impact


Impact of electric

vehicles


Increased use of electric and hybrid vehicles using batteries made of strategic materials (cobalt, manganese,

lithium, etc.) requires planning for their recycling, in order to ensure that the development of clean transport

does not lead to increased pressure for imports of these materials. The management of waste, notably lithium

batteries, remains a significant issue in the development of electric transport.

Deployment of recharging infrastructure for alternative fuels

The PPE and SDMP aim to increase the development of recharging infrastructures for alternative fuel vehicles,

in particular electricity, hydrogen and natural gas (LNG102 and CNG103).



SDMP impact


Impact of

recharging stations


Vastly increasing the number of recharging solutions available to everyone will help boost the number of

electric cars on the road, by making journeys easier to plan and complete (particularly over long distances).

The deployment of electric transport solutions will help achieve the objective of halting sales of GHG-emitting

vehicles by 2040. As a result of this measure, air quality in urban areas will improve, notably due to the

reduction in fine particle emissions.

The development of electric transport solutions could also bring indirect benefits in terms of climate change.

Indeed, the integration of electric vehicles into the network could improve its flexibility, by serving as energy

storage devices. This increase in flexibility could, in time, help facilitate the integration of intermittent

renewable energy sources.

A certain level of vigilance will be necessary regarding storage, in order to avoid any leakage of natural gas.

Both LNG and CNG are composed primarily of methane (CH4

) whose global warming potential is 25 times

greater than that of CO2.

Water resources and aquatic environments / Biodiversity and natural habitats / Soils and sub-soils / Landscapes and Heritage / Non-renewable resources (excluding fossil energy sources) and waste


SDMP impact


Impact of electric

charging stations


102 Liquefied Natural Gas

103 Compressed Natural Gas

Impact of

hydrogen charging

stations


Electrical charging stations take up much less space than hydrogen stations (as they are connected to a network

and do not require large storage spaces), and are generally installed within spaces that have already been

artificialised (car parks, collective or individual parking spaces); however, they will also be much more

numerous than hydrogen charging stations. Electric charging stations will therefore have an impact on land

use in urban areas, except in cases where they are installed in users’ home parking facilities.

The development of hydrogen charging infrastructures will have an impact on land use, as well as biodiversity

and landscapes in the areas they occupy. Increasing the number of charging points will require the

artificialisation of new surfaces.

In the same vein, the construction of new charging stations will require the use of additional resources.



SDMP impact


Impact of electric

charging stations


Impact of

hydrogen charging

stations


The development of alternative fuels does not imply an increase in the risks linked to the use of vehicles, as

these fuels are no more and no less hazardous than traditional fuels. The challenge lies in managing the specific

risks associated with their use.

For example, hydrogen is a highly flammable gas; it is very light and often transported and handled when

highly pressurised. It also possesses specific corrosive properties, requiring certain precautions regarding the

materials used for its transport and handling. Adaptive measures will therefore be necessary, without

significantly increasing the overall risk.

Electric charging stations pose no risks. Hydrogen charging stations are covered by regulations applying to

Regulated Environment Protection Facilities (ICPE).

3.3.3. Promoting modal shifts for passenger and freight transport The SDMP aims to increase the number of available options for the modal shift of passengers and freight:

Passengers: road → active, collective, collaborative and shared modes of transport.

Freight: road → mass modes of transport such as river and rail transport.

Promoting modal shifts for passenger transport

Developing multi-modal transport options and promoting the use of active modes



SDMP impact


Project impact


Actions undertaken to promote a modal shift must enable a reduction in the number of passenger-kilometres

travelled by road transport, thereby limiting emissions of GHG and atmospheric pollutants over the same

journey travelled.

As regards passenger transport, the modal shift from road transport (94t CO2 / Mpass-km) towards active,

collaborative, shared and collective modes of transport (16t CO2 / Mpass-km for collective modes104) should

enable a reduction in emissions caused by the use of individual private vehicles. The development of active

transport will have a positive impact on human health by increasing physical activity amongst users.

The replacement of road transport with rail and active transport options is likely to cause a decline in residual

aquatic pollution, caused by the flow of rainwater polluted with hydrocarbon particles from roads into

waterways.

The decrease in road transport achieved via the modal shift should also reduce noise pollution caused by

vehicles.

Developing collective, shared and collaborative modes of transport

Climate and energy / Human health and Pollutants / Non-renewable resources (excluding fossil energy sources) and waste


SDMP impact


The increase in the occupation rate of individual vehicles and the use of car-sharing should enable a reduction

in the number of motorised vehicles in circulation, thereby reducing emissions of GHG and atmospheric

pollution caused by their use.

The development of car-sharing schemes is likely to reduce urban noise and atmospheric pollution, since car-

sharing helps reduce the number of vehicles on the roads.

104 Data calculated based on transport statistics (SDES) by multiplying energy intensity by energy

carbon content.

Promote the modal shift and efficiency of freight transport

Develop bulk modes for freight

Climate and Energy / Public health and Pollutants / Natural and Technological Risks


SDMP impact


Project impact


Actions to promote modal shift should reduce the number of tonne-kilometres travelled on the road and thus

limit GHG and air pollutant emissions.

For freight, the modal shift from road transport (84 tCO2/Mt-km) to river (69.3 tCO2/Mt-km) or rail transport

(7.3 tCO2/Mt-km) would limit transport of goods by truck-related emissions105.

The reduction in road transport permitted by the modal shift should reduce the noise pollution related to road

traffic, the main source of noise in France.



SDMP impact


Project impact


Modal shift measures reduce the need for road infrastructure but increase the need for rail and river

infrastructure. The construction of this new infrastructure will require many resources but will have a reduced

impact on land use.

Water and Aquatic Resources / Biodiversity and Natural Habitats / Soils and Subsoils / Landscape and Heritage


SDMP impact


Project impact


The substitution of rail, river and active transport means for road transport is likely to lead to a reduction in

residual water pollution due to the run-off of rainwater contaminated with hydrocarbons on the roadways.

The increase in the number and size of barges linked to the increase in river freight is likely to increase the

pressure on aquatic environments due to the multiplication of pollutant discharges into the water.

The increase in port and river traffic may involve the use of larger shipping and river vessels, requiring greater

channel depth and hence the dredging of certain waterways and port areas. This is likely to destabilise or even

alter marine and river ecosystems to the extent that substantial volumes of materials from the bottom of water

bodies will be displaced. Ballast water taken on board prior to departure and discharged upon arrival is likely

105 Data calculated based on transport statistics (SDES) by multiplying energy intensity by energy carbon

content.

to disturb aquatic ecosystems by altering the characteristics of the water and introducing foreign organisms

into the environment.

The development of new railway lines is likely to interrupt, on an ad hoc basis, certain ecological continuities

and to alter or destroy certain natural environments that contribute to the overall functioning of the green and

blue corridor. These issues must be taken into account when drawing lines.

Increase the filling rate of freight vehicles

Climate and Energy / Human Health and Disturbances / Resources and Waste / Soils and Subsoils / Biodiversity and Natural Habitats / Landscapes and Heritage


SDMP impact


The increase in the fill rate and use of freight vehicles reduces the number of vehicles in circulation and the

emissions of GHGs and air pollutant emissions associated with road traffic. The reduction of traditional fuel

consumption linked to the optimisation of existing vehicles will limit France's dependence on imported fossil

fuels.

Optimizing existing networks should reduce the need for infrastructure and so reduce the impact of the sector

on land use, biodiversity and landscapes. Disturbance and the risk of accidents related to transport will also be

reduced.

3.3.4. Making clean mobility accessible to sparsely populated areas and

unleashing innovation Promoting the emergence of new mobility solutions, especially in rural areas, should enable landlocked areas

to benefit from their own mobility as well.

Climate and Energy / Public health


SDMP impact


Project impact


Placing rural and low-density areas at the heart of these innovations would avoid the development of two-

speed mobility and reduce the cases of fuel poverty related to transport for vulnerable groups.

In these areas, where cars remain the preferred means of transportation, bringing new solutions based on

cleaner modes would reduce GHG and air pollutant emissions.

Facilitating the experimentation of new mobility solutions would have an indirect impact on the environment,

depending on the nature of the experimentation and its need for natural and spatial resources.

4. Explanation of reasons for the decision

4.1. Demand management LTECV sets the objectives of the French energy policy. One of the objectives is to fight climate change by

reducing GHG emissions. The government has strengthened these objectives by setting 2050 as the date for

achieving carbon neutrality. The PPE must make it possible to put France on the trajectory to reach this

objective which thus serves as a guideline to the elaboration of the prospective energy.

In order to implement these objectives to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the PPE provides for measures to

control demand, particularly fossil fuels, as well as measures to diversify the energy mix, including the

penetration of renewable energies. These measures have the indirect effect of improving air quality by also

reducing the release of air pollutant emissions.

4.1.1. Ambitious demand management objectives Demand management means that GHG emissions from energy production and consumption can be avoided.

France aims to reduce its energy consumption by 20% between 2012 and 2030.

In order to define sufficiently ambitious objectives for demand management, the potential growth margin of

each sector has been analysed, based on macro-economic assumptions.106 These measures nonetheless serve

as a basis for discussion on the defining of an ambitious, but achievable, scenario, given the observed

behavioural dynamics, the abilities of our economic actors to implement actions, and costs. The PPE takes

account of these elements and reduces energy demand by 17% between 2012 and 2030. The PPE update in

2023 may be an opportunity to accentuate this trajectory in order to reach the 20% target by taking account of

the evolution of technologies and practices.

4.1.2. Reducing fossil fuels One of the main sources of GHG emissions is the burning of fossil fuels. France has a target of a 30% reduction

in primary energy consumption of fossil fuels between 2012 and 2030.

To achieve the fastest possible reduction in emissions from fossil fuel facilities, it was decided to prioritise the

shut-down of power plants, based on the quantity of discharges. Thus, coal-fired power plants will be the first

to be closed because they are the sources of most GHG emissions. Additional actions have been taken to enable

this abandon of coal to assist individuals still using coal as well as businesses, while ensuring their

competitiveness. The reduction in coal consumption will have a significant positive impact on both greenhouse

gas emissions and air pollution.

The goal is then to reduce the use of oil in both electricity generation and transportation. Given the difficulty

of reducing mobility demand, it has become necessary to replace diesel and petrol with low-carbon fuels.

There is no specific measure for reducing gas consumption because it is the least carbonised fossil energy. It

should result from non-targeted demand management actions on a specific energy vector, particularly building

renovation. In addition, carbonaceous natural gas will have to be replaced by biogas with its neutral carbon

footprint.

Reduction efforts are therefore distributed so as to enable the fastest possible reduction in the amount of

greenhouse gas emissions.

4.2. Diversifying the energy mix France aims to increase the share of renewable energy to 23% of final energy consumption in 2020 and 32%

in 2030.

The objectives for increasing the share of renewable energies correspond to the maximum development

potential of each sector, taking into account environmental, technical, social and economic criteria.

106 These assumptions include demographic projections and economic growth assumptions provided by

INSEE, as well as energy efficiency assumptions provided by the DGEC.

French Environment & Energy Management Agency (ADEME) studies107 show that the optimal mix never

saturates a technology because of the complementarity between sectors concerning their impact on the

environment, their contribution to the network, their consumption of resources and their feasibility. The

assessment of these multiple criteria makes it possible to construct a balanced energy mix that does not

prejudge the choices that can be made thereafter.

4.2.1. The determination of the available potentials according to the

environmental constraint and the realities of the sectors The development potential of a sector generally corresponds to the exploitable deposit or potential. The

determination of this potential takes into account the environmental constraint when its use is likely to increase

the pressure on the environments. The potentials are thus determined so as to control the environmental stakes

related to the deployment of the sectors (land use, biodiversity, etc.). The choice to diversify the sources of

energy makes it possible not to saturate any one type of environment.

Except for the use of biomass, the quantitative issue of the exhaustible resources mobilised by these different

sectors has not been a determining factor in the choices made for this Multi-Annual Energy Plan since it is not

yet critical. However, it is the subject of particular attention and will be taken into account in the context of

the implementation of the circular economy roadmap. The development of recycling channels will be

supported.

Electricity mix

On the 2050 horizon, carbon neutrality will require the electrification of many applications. In the shorter term,

efforts to control demand should be higher than or equal to these first transfers, which will lead to a stable or

slightly lower electricity consumption.

The diversification of the mix and decentralisation of production will be continued for the full term of the PPE

while gathering speed over the 2nd period

France is engaged in diversifying its electricity mix in order to make it more sustainable, increase its resilience

and foster technological progress. This development of renewables should enable us to produce more energy

from sources present on French territory and progressively reduce the share of nuclear.

The development of renewables is a global movement and particularly present in Europe, a continent which is

at the cutting-edge of the fight against climate change. The European Union has therefore set a goal of 32%

renewable energy across Europe for 2030 (on all energies: electricity, gas, heat). This dynamic has contributed

to a sharp drop in the production costs of electricity from renewable energy, making ground-based solar or

wind the most competitive sources today, as long as the electricity systems do not need the addition of storage

to manage the intermittent nature of these electricity sources.

The government is committed to an unprecedented development of its renewable electricity production while

paying careful attention to environmental issues, local feasibility, conflicting uses

The Energy Transition for Green Growth Act set a target of 40% electricity from renewable sources in national

production in 2030. In 2017, renewables accounted for 17 % of national production (2017 RTE electricity

balance). The main channels that can enable this goal to be met are hydroelectricity, photovoltaic solar (PV)

and onshore wind power, then progressively offshore wind power whose production will increase during the

second PPE period. These are the most competitive channels: the sharp drops in costs observed in these

channels make it possible to develop significant capacity with less public support compared to previous

projects (for which we are currently paying because the support to electric renewables is granted during 15 to

20 years after the beginning of production). The pace of their rollout is intended to increase compared to the

objectives of the previous PPE, which are at 3 GW/year for PV and 2 GW/year for onshore wind.

Photovoltaic solar will be proportionately more developed in big solar power stations than it is nowadays,

because it is the most competitive channel and big projects (>50MW) will progressively be developed without

107 ADEME, October 2015, A 100% renewable electricity mix? Analyzes and optimizations

subsidy which will increase the average size of the systems. The government will ensure that these projects

respect biodiversity and agricultural land, by prioritising the use of industrial wasteland, neglected motorway

space, military areas or even the solarisation of big roof areas which will gradually become mandatory.

Wind power will be developed partly through renovation of existing systems that have reached the end of their

life, which will enable us to increase the energy produced while keeping an identical or smaller number of

masts. In total, the transition from 15 GW in 2018 to 34.1 GW in 2028 will lead to a progression in the wind

farm capacity from 8,000-masts at the end of 2018 to approximately 14,500 in 2028, i.e. an increase of 6,500

masts.

Marine energies will provide a significant complement, all the more so because their level of availability

(>4000hrs/year) will enable the electricity network to be stabilised, particularly in the Brittany peninsula. The

first 6 offshore wind projects, which were subject to renegotiation, will all be operational at the start of the 2nd

period of the PPE. In order to capitalise on the industrial channel created in this way, 3 calls for tender for

fixed equipment and 3 calls for tender for floating equipment, totalling 3.25 GW, will be launched in the first

period of the PPE. The floating farms in Brittany and in the Mediterranean will be world firsts, and will ensure

France becomes a leader in these technologies with a very big market potential.

Hydroelectricity still accounts for the biggest part of the renewable electricity produced in France. Its

development is however limited by physical capacity. During the period of the PPE, the reopening of

competition for franchises that have passed their deadline and work connected with the extension of the Rhône

franchise will enable the installed power to be pushed up by developing new capacity without new damming

of water. Furthermore, research into optimising the existing sites will be carried out and some new projects

will be developed.

Considering the costs of producing geothermal and biomass electricity, support for these sectors will be

reserved for heat production in order to optimise the overall cost of meeting the renewable energy goals and

encourage the most energy efficient solutions. Innovative projects, where appropriate, may be supported within

the framework of provisions for R&D. Equally, tidal power technologies do not appear sufficiently mature to

stimulate commercial development in sustainable economic conditions before the end of the PPE.

The government is defining a credible and realistic program for reducing the share of nuclear energy in

electricity production with a goal of 50 % in 2035.

The Fessenheim nuclear power station should be shut down with effect from spring 2020, by applying a cap

to installed electronuclear power and to enable the commissioning of the Flamanville EPR.

Beyond this first stage, the government is pursuing a goal of diversifying the electricity mix to reach 50 %

electricity production from nuclear. This diversification policy is a response to several different issues:

A more diversified electricity system, if it succeeds in integrating an increased volume of variable

renewable energies, can be an electricity system that is more resilient to external impacts such as, for

example, a drop in the production capacity of reactors following an incident or a generic failing leading

to the non-availability of several reactors;

The vast majority of the nuclear electricity power station system was built over a short period of time,

about 15 years. We should therefore anticipate the shutdown of certain reactors in the existing system

to avoid a “cliff edge“ effect which would not be sustainable, neither in terms of social impact nor for

the electricity system. This anticipation is also necessary to spread out investment in new electricity

production capacity;

Several channels for electricity production from renewable sources have shown their ability to compete

and will make up a significant part of the long-term electricity mix, at least until a massive electricity

storage need appears;

Diversification on this scale towards renewable energy should be smoothed out over the course of time

because the new renewable capacity will be installed in a diffuse and decentralised way by means of

small projects and channels requiring a gradual stepping up in power.

It seems impossible to reach the goal of 50% of electricity in production being sourced from nuclear by 2025,

except by risking disruptions to France’s energy supply or by restarting the construction of combustion power

plants which would run contrary to our goals to fighting climate change.

Therefore, the government has set the achievement of 50 % electricity from nuclear in the mix as an objective

for 2035. Such a progression is consistent with our climate commitments: it will be completed without building

any new fossil fuel thermal power plants, it will not lead to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions from our

electricity production and it is compatible with the closure of all our coal-fired power plants between now and

2022. It is also consistent with the challenges of maintaining a closed cycle for fuel and sustaining the cycle

facilities and will enable the regions and employees to prepare better, to undertake their reconversion well in

advance and to structure the dismantling channel.

The government has chosen to show a clear programming for the changes to nuclear capacity, including beyond

the term of the PPE (2028), so as not to task our successors with designing the modalities for putting this

diversification into action. Therefore, to achieve this 50 % electricity production goal in 2035, the government

sets the following guidelines:

14 nuclear reactors will be shut down between now and 2035, including those at the Fessenheim plant;

The final version of the PPE will identify the sites for which these closures will be prioritised. During

the PPE consultation period, EDF should send the government a list of the nuclear sites concerned, by

prioritising reactor shutdowns that do not lead to the complete shutdown of any site in order to

minimise the social and economic impact of these closures. The State’s preliminary analysis, based on

the age of the sites, the dates of their ten-year inspections, and the industrial and economic vision

described by EDF in its contribution to the public debate on the PPE, steers us towards a prioritised

closure of 12 reactors from amongst those at the sites of Tricastin, Bugey, Gravelines, Dampierre,

Blayais, Cruas, Chinon and Saint-Laurent;

The general principle will be the shutdown of the 12 reactors (excluding Fessenheim) with a deadline

falling at the latest at their 5th ten-year inspection. The shutdowns at the 5th ten-year inspection enable

a scenario that is consistent with EDF’s industrial strategy which will amortise the accounts of the 900

MW reactors over a period of 50 years, the Government considers therefore that these shutdowns will

not give rise to compensation.

Nonetheless, in order to smooth reactor shutdown to facilitate its implementation socially, technically

and politically, 2 reactors will be shut down in advance of their 5th ten-year inspections in 2027 and

2028, except in cases of non-compliance with security of supply criteria or sudden shutdown of other

reactors for safety reasons;

2 reactors could also be shut down in the next five-year presidency, in 2025-2026, under two

conditions: security of supply is assured and if our European neighbours speed up their energy

transition, reduce their production capacity from coal and massively develop renewable energy, which

would lead to low electricity prices on European markets that could lower the profitability of the

extension of existing reactors. These conditions presuppose coordination with our neighbours on the

evolution of European electricity systems. The analysis of these conditions will be the subject of a

report submitted by the Commission for Energy Regulation (Commission de régulation de l’énergie,

CRE) to the government before 1st December 2022 and based on RTE expertise.

The early closures will be confirmed 3 years before their implementation based on data available at that time,

in order to ensure that the above-mentioned criteria are complied with. This will begin after the coal-fired

power plants have been shut down, since the priority is to decarbonise electricity production. These closures

will be systematically supported by the state, principally by means of establishing ecological transition

contracts in order to enable the regions to participate in new development dynamics.

Furthermore, the strategy for treating-recycling nuclear fuel will remain over the PPE period and beyond, until

the 2040s, when a large portion of the facilities and workshops of the Hague plant will reach the end of their

life. To this end, and to compensate for the closures of the MOX fuelled 900 MW reactors over this period,

the moxing of a sufficient number of 1300-MW reactors will be undertaken in order to maintain the French

cycle sustainable.

Beyond this timeline, the government, in association with the channel, should assess the strategic direction it

desires for its fuel cycle policy, based on R&D efforts which will be pursued over the term of the PPE in the

field of closing the fuel cycle.

Heat mix

Heating represented 42% of final energy consumption in 2016, i.e. 741 TWh. The main production source is

gas at 40%, followed by renewable energies (biomass, heat pumps, geothermal, biogas, solar thermal) at 21%,

electricity and petrol at 18% and 16% respectively, and only marginal amounts of coal at 5%. Achieving

decarbonisation in heating is therefore a priority.

The residential-tertiary sector accounts for 65 % of final heat consumption, while industry accounts for 30 %;

the share for agriculture is low. As a result of the measures to control energy demand, heating needs should be

at 690 TWh in 2023 and 631 TWh in 2028.

The PPE intends to accelerate the growth rate of the share of renewable heat by an average of 1.2% per year,

i.e. 1.5 times faster than that recorded between 2010 and 2016. In 2028, renewable heat production should be

somewhere between 218 and 247 TWh.

Geothermal potential for heat production is limited due to the difficulty of finding exploitable sites. Prospecting

operations are lengthy and costly, as they must involve exploratory drilling in addition to geological analyses

in order to find deep enough and sufficiently permeable geological formations where the water has warmed up

deep in contact with the rocks.

The biomass potential is assessed under the SNMB (National Strategy for the Mobilisation of the Biomass)

based on the potential for renewal. The use of the biomass resource has been favoured for the production of

heat rather than for the production of electricity in order to optimise its use in the production facilities

benefiting from the best yields. Optimising resources makes it possible to limit the impact of its exploitation

on the environment.

The potential of thermal solar is competing with the solar photovoltaic potential on the roof. It also depends

on the sunlight conditions, but does not raise any environmental issues. On the other hand, no particular

potential limitation prevents from developing heat pumps installation.

Gas

Natural gas is today crucial to the French energy system. Its storage capacity is vital to meet the demand during

heat and electricity spikes in winter. Besides, natural gas is the least carbon-rich fossil fuel and therefore

enables us to reduce CO2 emissions and atmospheric pollutants when it substitutes petroleum, for example in

transport. However, natural gas is no less a fossil fuel and therefore needs to be replaced in the long term by

biogas or new synthetic gas produced with renewable energy: hydrogen or power-to-gas (manufacture of

synthetic gas, principally methane, by using renewable electricity).

The advantages of biogas are already evident today, this renewable energy:

can be stored easily;

can be produced by farmers, offering them the opportunity to earn some extra income;

allows waste to be used as fertilizers that would necessary be safe for health and environment;

allows the use of an energy network already in existence over a large part of the territory which serves

industry and transport.

Production costs for renewable gas are today about four times that of natural gas, but prospects of a lower cost

have been indicated by players in these channels. Developing a higher production capacity should enable costs

to come down, principally by means of economies of scale. The PPE provides for an adaptation of the pace of

construction of new production capacity based on real time observations of the costs coming down.

NGV (Natural Gas for Vehicles) is an alternative solution to fossil fuel which enables atmospheric emissions

to be limited. Furthermore, through the use of bioNGV, it could become a completely carbon-free fuel. This

new use is being developed for heavy vehicles and is destined to grow. It seems sensible for the markets to

direct biogas production mainly towards the means of transport that are difficult to make carbon-free rather

than towards uses in buildings where other low-carbon alternatives exist.

The objective of the PPE is for biogas to reach 7 % of gas consumption in 2030 if the lower costs targeted in

the baseline trajectory indeed come about, and up to 10 % if there is an even greater drop in costs.

Liquid fuels

Liquid fuels, petroleum derivatives, represent a significant share of French CO2 emissions in uses that are often

difficult to substitute: transport in particular is heavily dependent on oil. The 10 years of the PPE are key to

developing alternative energies to petroleum products in transport. The drop in consumption and the

substitution of liquid fuels by other energy vectors (electricity, gas) will be the main lever, but it is neither

sufficient in the short-term nor for certain specific uses like air or long-distance maritime transport: as such

more environmentally friendly biofuels also need to be developed.

The consumption of liquid fuel should be about 432 TWh in 2028, driven by energy control measures. The

goal of incorporating 1st generation biofuels will not exceed 7% of the energy contained in fuel, by 2023 and

2028. Increasing the share of bio-sourced materials in fuel will thus be done exclusively by developing

advanced biofuels, that is to say, those made from waste, residue or non-food primary materials.

There will be a major focus on meeting sustainability criteria and on the traceability of the raw materials to

achieve the goals set. In conformity with the European framework, biofuels produced from materials with a

high risk of impacting changes in land use will be capped and then reduced to zero

4.2.2. An assessment in terms of technology costs and service rendered to the

network In order to limit the cost of the energy transition, the accent is on the development of the most profitable

energies (wind and PV on the ground). However, it has been decided to develop all sectors in order to diversify

energy sources and to remain open to the possibility of progress in other sectors.

In addition to the costs associated with the facilities and operation of energy production facilities, it is necessary

to take account of the indirect costs related to the impact of different technologies on the network.

Facilities using intermittent energies, such as solar energy, whose activity varies with the number of daylight

hours, and wind turbines, which depend on wind regimes, do not guarantee continuous production of electricity.

It is therefore necessary to continuously develop operating facilities such as run-of-the-river hydropower

stations and geothermal power plants that provide stable electricity production as a basis for grid balance. In

order to cope with peak consumption and ensure security of supply, the controllable facilities such as

hydroelectric plants with dam hold an important place in the renewable electricity mix.

The development of the use of biomass, energy recovery from waste and renewable gas (power to gas or biogas)

makes it possible to increase the share of renewable energy that can be easily stored. The choice to diversify

energy sources makes it possible to reinforce the resilience of the energy system in the event of a generic

failure of a type of facility.

Issue

Deposits still to be

developed financial108 environmental Feasibility

integration into

the electrical

system

Hydroelectricity 30 → 130 €/MWh Preservation of ecological

continuities Mature technology controllable energy limited

Terrestrial Wind

Turbines 50 → 80 €/MWh

Landscape and

biodiversity impact Limited acceptability

Variable energy

production

non-limiting in the

medium term

Photovoltaics

45 → 75 €/MWh

(ground)

75 → 120 € MWh

(roof)

Impact on land use Good acceptability Variable energy production


Biomass

Variable costs

depending on the

sector (waste, wood energy, biogas)

Resource management requiring prioritisation of

biomass uses)

Medium feasibility

constraints controllable energy

Limited in the medium

term

Geothermal

electricity 170 → 340 €/MWh Impacts related to drilling

Difficult prospecting

of deposits controllable energy limited

Offshore wind

energy 70→ 150 €/MWh

Impacts on marine

environments

Acceptability

constraint

Variable energy

production Non-limiting

Table 19: Summary representation of environmental, economic and technical considerations that led to the

choice of the renewable electricity mix of the PPE

108 Ademe, Cost of renewable energies, 2016 updated by DGEC knowledge.

Issue Deposits still to

be developed financial109 environmental Feasibility

Solid biomass 45 → 110 €/MWh (individual)

62 →125€/Mwh (collective)

45 → 80 € / MWh (industrial)

Constraints on prioritizing uses of

biomass and environmental quality

of forest management

Limited development in

urban areas due to air

pollution issues


Heat pumps 105 → 170 €/MWh (individual)

50 → 130 € / MWh (collective)

Small environmental impact

(linked to the electricity mix) Strong non-limiting

Deep

geothermal

energy

65 → 120 €/MWh Difficult prospecting of deposits Good integration into heat

networks

non-limiting in the

medium term

Biogas 96 → 167 €/MWh Constraints on prioritizing uses) Strong demand from the

agricultural world

non-limiting in the

medium term

Thermal solar 155 → 451€/MWh (individual)

46 → 260 €/MWh (collective) No environmental impact

Competition from heat

pumps and PV (uses of

the roofs)

non-limiting in the

medium term

Table 20: Summary representation of environmental, economic and technical considerations that led to the

choice of the development objectives of the renewable and recovered heat sectors of the PPE

Key:

NB: Costs are shown within a range that takes account of the different technologies available. Significant

reductions are expected especially in offshore wind energy, PV and thermal solar.

109 Ademe, Cost of renewable energies, 2016 actualised by DGEC knowledge.

5. Assessment of the global impact of the PPE

5.1. Presentation of the modelling used

5.1.1. Overall coordination

The energy and climate scenarios of the Ministry of Ecological and Solidarity Transition (MTES) underlying

the work of the Multi-Annual Energy Plan (PPE) and the National Low Carbon Strategy (SNBC) are the "With

Existing Measures” (AME) and "With Additional Measures” (AMS) scenarios.

The AME scenario includes all the public policy measures put in place before 1 July 2017. The AMS scenario

aims to achieve the country's climate and energy objectives, in particular carbon neutrality by 2050. Both

measure energy consumption as well as greenhouse gas emissions and air pollutant emissions in different

sectors of the economy.

Regarding renewable energies, AME scenario considers all calls for tenders scheduled in the first PPE and

extend deployment pace after 2023. It is assumed in the scenario, that new investments would be needed to

renew power generation system. Nuclear production is identical in both scenarios because it is impossible to

define the trajectory of nuclear production with existing policies.

Regarding objectives set out by law, AME scenario does not take over the objective of reducing final energy

consumption because, even if some measures exist, there are not sufficient to conclude that the objective will

be met. However, the objective of 100€/tCO2 is kept for the carbon component of TICPE because there is a

dedicated instrument to reach the target.

On the 2019-2028 period, the AMS scenario for the SNBC and the PPE are identical. This means the scenario

was designed to:

be the most realistic, because the PPE is a planning exercise which should lead France in ecological

transition without putting at risk security of supply

commit energy system toward carbon neutrality in 2050. In order to build this scenario, a first

reflection was made based on a carbon-neutral France. This allowed to explore several opportunities

and to identify necessary steps to reach climate and energy targets in all sectors.

5.2. The PPE’s impact on the environment The following section presents the analysis of the likely general and cumulative impacts of implementing the

PPE on the environment. These impacts are broken down according to the themes raised in Part 1 and are

analysed with regard to the potential pressures identified in Part 2: Initial state of the environment.

The analysis is performed quantitatively when data exists and qualitative synthesized in a table when data is

not available.

The actions carried out by the PPE have the effect of increasing the pressure on the studied

environmental theme

The actions carried out by the PPE have the effect of decreasing the pressure on the studied

environmental theme

The actions carried out by the PPE have no impact on the environmental theme studied with

regard to the potential pressure identified.

It should be noted that an increase in pressure does not necessarily have a negative impact on the environment

if it is contained below the threshold generating impacts. Regulatory compliance generally helps to prevent

negative environmental impacts of the activities concerned. Particular attention is paid to these topics in the

project design.

5.2.1. Climate and Energy Regarding the reduction of energy demand, the AME scenario would lead to reaching a final energy

consumption level of 1,550 TWh in 2028. The AMS scenario would contain energy consumption at a level of

1,418 TWh, a reduction of 132 TWh.

Primary energy consumption drops by an additional 347 TWh in the framework of the AMS scenario compared

to the AME scenario.

Primary consumption of fossil fuels is falling faster than primary consumption of total energies. The AMS

scenario reduces primary fossil fuel consumption by an additional 267 TWh compared to the AME scenario.

The graph below shows the evolution of energy consumption in one or the other scenario. It shows that PPE

should reduce energy consumption, particularly fossil fuels: this involves a reduction of impact on exhaustible

resources as well as a reduction of environmental impacts linked to energy consumption.

Figure 39: Evolution of primary energy consumption, primary fossil energy and final energy consumption in

the AME and AMS scenarios (TWh) - Data corrected for climatic variations

Thus, the AME scenario would lead to GHG emissions due to energy consumption of 285 Mt CO2e by 2028.

The PPE is expected to contain GHG emissions at a level of 226 Mt CO2e, a reduction of 59 Mt CO2e. PPE

leads to a significant reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and thus to a positive impact on climate change.

Figure 40: Evolution of greenhouse gas emissions related to energy combustion (MteCO) – Data corrected

for climatic variations

5.2.2. Physical environments Water Resources and Aquatic Environments

Transport Pollution from runoff waters. Decline in the use of

fossil fuels

Residential-

Tertiary

Sector

Pollution from run-off water and problem of

soil sealing,

Effluent from urban sewage treatment

plants;

Development of banks and rivers (obstacles

to flow);

Emerging pollution: drugs, endocrine

disruptors, etc.

The PPE has no impact

on these issues

Agriculture

Pollution related to agricultural inputs:

nitrates, phosphorus, pesticides...;

Flooding and run-off issues related to soil

management (settlements, etc.);

Water pollution from suspended matter

linked to run-off water on farmland;

Extraction of water resources (irrigation).


on these issues

Forest -

wood -

biomass

Flooding and runoff issues related to soil

management (compaction, etc.);

Pollution of water by suspended matter

related to runoff.

Development of the

exploitation of solid

biomass

Industry Effluent from industrial treatment plants;

Pollution due to chlorinated solvents.


on these issues

Energy

production

Shoreline and waterway developments

(impediments to flow) in the case of

hydropower, associated with changes in

water temperature in the case of nuclear

production.

Low hydropower

development and

nuclear decline

Modification of marine habitat at sites of

marine energies: erosion of the sea and

riverbeds, resuspension of sediments and

modifications of the hydro-sedimentary

regime, risk of pollution with chemicals and

lubricants related to coatings used for

facilities.

Development of

offshore wind energy

and marine renewable

energies

Qualitative and quantitative pressures on

water resources related to biofuel

production.

No increase in 1G

biofuel production,

small increase for 2G

biofuels

Waste Pollution from runoff waters (leaching).

Reduction of the amount

of waste disposed of by

energy recovery.

Table 26: Direction of the evolution of the pressure of human activities by sector on water resources and

aquatic environments because of the PPE

Soils and sub-soils

Transport

Consumption of agricultural and natural

spaces, artificialisation and sealing,

Reduced transport

demand and reduced

need for infrastructure.

Pollution from metals, metalloids and

hydrocarbons.

Decline in the use of

fossil fuels

Residential-

Tertiary

Sector

Consumption of agricultural and natural

spaces, artificialisation and sealing;

Pollution from metals and metalloids


on these issues

Agriculture

Artificialisation;

Excessive inflow of phosphorous and

nitrogen;

Decrease in organic matter content of soils;

Diffuse pesticide contamination;

Pollution with metals and metalloids (via

fertiliser applications);

Stimulation of bacterial resistance (input of

antibiotics via fertiliser application).


on these issues

Forest -

wood -

biomass

Soil compaction related to the use of forestry

machinery;

Decrease in organic matter content of soils

(in the case of mass export of forest

residues).

Development of the


biomass

Industry

Artificialisation and sealing;

Pollution from metals, metalloids and

hydrocarbons.

Decrease of fossil

energy consumption in

industry and therefore

decrease in discharges

Energy

production

Artificialisation and sealing of soils

increasing tension on available land.

PV development, no

increase in biofuels.

Pollution from metals, metalloids; Replacement of the

fossil fuel thermal park

with renewable energies.

Pollution related to the decommissioning of

nuclear power plants

The decline in nuclear

power implies an

increase in the amount

of waste associated with

the decommissioning of

nuclear power stations.

Waste

Pollution from metals and metalloids Reduction of the amount

of waste disposed of by

energy recovery.

Table 27: Direction of the evolution of the pressure of human activities by sector on soils and subsoils due to

the PPE

The rise in the coming years of renewable energies in the French energy system will coincide with a gradual

decentralisation of the energy system and will necessarily call into question the organisation of territories and

modes of land management. Specific measures are planned within the PPE to anticipate possible conflicts of

use with the agricultural, forestry or even housing construction industries in certain territories with high land

pressure.

Estimates based on PPE forecasts for the photovoltaic industry show that the corresponding space consumption

(based on hypotheses of 1 ha/MW and 3 ha/MW) could represent around 4,658 ha to 13,974 ha by 2018 and

from 11,325 ha to 33,974 ha at most by 2023 (upper bound estimates), i.e. an 8-fold increase by 2023 of the

surface area currently occupied by ground-based power plants. They will thus represent approximately 0.68%

of the artificialised surfaces in metropolitan France110.

This PPE limits the development of first-generation biofuels to their current level, which avoids an increase in

the need for agricultural land.

Demand management for transport will limit new infrastructure needs and thus reduce transport-related land

use.

The impact on the soil linked to the increase of logging will be limited so that it respects the recommendations

of the PNFB.

Resources and waste

The development of renewable energies increases the use of certain specific resources, particularly some rare

metals such as dysprosium and neodymium for offshore wind turbines using permanent magnets (onshore

wind turbines have a much lower consumption of resources because of the technology used). The development

of innovative energy storage means will also lead to additional pressure on certain strategic materials such as

lithium, cobalt and manganese for the production of electric vehicle batteries.

It is difficult to assess the impact that PPE will have on the demand for resources because of the lack of

reporting on the subject. The SURFER project led by the CNRS aims to determine the unitary requirements

for raw materials for the various technologies of the main renewable energy sectors.

Continuing to search for less resource intensive technologies or alternative materials and anticipating the

structuring of appropriate recycling channels will reduce France's dependence on these resources whose

limited reserves are controlled by a small number of countries making supply sensitive to the geopolitical

context. Studies carried out (in particular within the framework of the SNRE) will have to take into account

the entirety of electromobility and not only individual electric vehicles.

Beyond the use of rare earths, energy transition mobilises a large number of materials necessary for the

construction of energy production infrastructures. The implementation of PPE has the effect of increasing the

demand for materials such as steel, copper, concrete or cement. In order to limit this consumption of resources,

it is necessary to anticipate the recycling of building materials.

Similarly, the transition to sustainable mobility will require anticipating the management of waste associated

with major infrastructure projects involving work and the planned reduction of the particular car fleet which

will result in a temporary increase in the volume of car wastes. Supporting the transition to sustainable mobility

involves further research into the composition and recycling of batteries.

110 Source: SSP - Agreste - Teruti-Lucas study 2012. The artificialized surfaces are estimated at 5 Mha

or 9% of the metropolitan territory.

Transport Increase in the consumption of rare earths

Development of electric

mobility (lithium

batteries)

Residential-

Tertiary

Sector

Consumption of fossil and non-energy

mineral resources (metallic and non-

metallic)


on these issues

Agriculture N/A

Forest -

wood -

biomass

N/A

Industry

Consumption of fossil and non-energy

mineral resources (metallic and non-

metallic)

Decrease of fossil

energy consumption in

the industry.

Energy

production

Consumption of fossil resources and of non-

energy mineral resources (metallic and non-

metallic), for example: the development of

renewable energies is likely to lead to

increased use of certain rare metals such as

indium, selenium or tellurium, used for part

of high-performance photovoltaic panels.

Development of wind

turbines (dysprosium,

neodymium), PV

(Cadmium, Indium,

Gallium, Selenium) and

storage (lithium).

Uranium consumption for nuclear

production

Nuclear decline and

further research on the

closure of the uranium

cycle.

Table 28: Direction of the evolution of the pressure of human activities by sector on soils and subsoils due to

the PPE

5.2.3. Natural environments: biodiversity and natural habitats

Transport /

Residential-

Tertiary /

Industry

Loss or change in natural habitats;

Landscape fragmentation;

Disturbance of species (visual and auditory);

Risk of collisions;

Pollution related to maintenance of

infrastructure boundaries (herbicides)

Pollution related to water runoff;

Deterioration of landscapes

Greenhouse gas emissions;

Effects linked to the production of materials

(extraction, processing, etc.).

Reduction of GHGs and

air pollutant emissions

Agriculture

Loss or change in natural habitats

(grasslands, hedges and isolated trees, etc.;

Soil and water pollution related to inflows

(fertilisation, pesticides, etc.);

Soil disturbances (meadow conversion,

composting, etc.);

Modification of landscapes.


on these issues

Forest -

wood -

biomass

Loss of or change in natural habitats (dead

wood, old wood, etc.)

Disturbance of species, visual and auditory

disruption;

Soil disturbances (meadow conversion,

composting, etc.);


Development of the


biomass

Energy

production

Loss and modification of habitats (including

hydropower, bioenergy and biofuels, with

direct and indirect changes in land use);

Low development of

hydropower and

bioenergy are developed

on waste and residues.

Mortality trauma (including wind energy,

bioenergy and ocean energy), and disruption

of biological behaviours (including solar and

wind energy)

Development of wind

energy (land and sea)

and PV.

Competition for the uses of water (especially

hydroelectric and nuclear energy);

Low hydropower

development and

nuclear decline

Chemical, noise and electromagnetic

pollution in the case of installations in

marine environments;

Development of

offshore wind energy

Greenhouse gas emissions and atmospheric

pollution

Replacement of the




Development of wind

turbines and PV (if the

landscape impact is

considered

unacceptable, the project

will not be done)

Waste

Soil and water pollution;


Visual and auditory disturbances.

Reduction of the

quantity of waste and

their emissions by

energy recovery

(incineration, biogas)

Table 29: Direction of the evolution of the pressure of human activities by sector on biodiversity and natural

habitats due to the PPE

The overall improvement of the quality of the air and the water enabled by the reduction of emissions related

to the use of fossil energy, promotes the maintenance of biodiversity in the medium-long term.

The reduction of eutrophication in aquatic and terrestrial environments reduces the proliferation of

species that develop at the expense of other living organisms.

The reduction of the acidity of water and soil makes it possible to guarantee the survival of local

ecosystems by limiting the pH change of their living environment.

The development of renewable energies induces a largely decentralised energy production system that

generates localised impacts on biodiversity. If biodiversity impacts vary by energy, they are regulated and will

be considered in project design in order to reduce them. This approach will involve not only efforts at the local

level but also conducting or pursuing in-depth studies on the impacts of each sector and integrating the

feedback of projects developed. With regard to energy infrastructure, particular attention should be given to

the issue of ecological continuity.

The impact on biodiversity linked to the increase of logging will be limited insofar as it respects the

recommendations of the PNFB.

The specific impacts related to transport infrastructure, in connection with the SDMP, should also be

anticipated.

5.2.4. Human environments Natural and technological risks

Transport

Non-adaptation of transport infrastructures

to natural risks associated with climate

change

The transport sector was responsible for 45

accidents in 2016, or 5% of all accidents

and incidents in the same year

The transportation of hazardous materials is

the most likely to expose people and

property to technological accidents. In 2016,

142 events were recorded for France,

including one river and one maritime event.

50% of accidents resulted in human injury

or death.

Reduction of road

transport by promoting

modal shift towards

"safer" modes of

transport (rail, river)

Residential-

Tertiary

Sector

Failure to adapt built-up park to

earthquakes, tsunamis and cyclones

The lack of prevention of technological

risks around residential areas can worsen the

impact of a technological accident by

causing loss of life and property in these

areas

Businesses were responsible for 74

technological accidents in 2016, or 9% of all

the accidents and incidents that occurred

that same year

The PPE has no direct

impact on these issues

Agriculture

Non-adaptation of agriculture to major flood

events

Non-adaptation of agriculture to major

drought events

Non-adaptation of silviculture to storms

Agriculture was responsible for 70

technological accidents in 2016, or 8.5% of

all the accidents and incidents that occurred

that same year

This sector is particularly prone to fire and

hazardous materials releases


on these issues

Forest -

wood -

biomass

Non-adaptation of silviculture to instances

of major flooding

Non-adaptation of forestry to major drought

events. This sector is particularly prone to

fire risks

Woodwork was responsible for 28 accidents

in 2016, or 3% of all accidents and incidents

in the same year

The development of the


biomass will have no

impact on the overall

risk

Industry

Non-adaptation of industrial facilities to the

most destructive natural hazards: tsunamis,

cyclones, earthquakes, avalanches...

The manufacturing sector is the most

affected by technological risks with 308

accidents or technological incidents in 2016,

or 37% of all accidents or incidents that

occurred in the same year.


on these issues

Energy

production

Non-adaptation of energy production

facilities to the most destructive natural

hazards: tsunamis, cyclones, earthquakes,

avalanches...


on these issues

Energy production was responsible for 31

technological accidents in 2016, or 4% of all

the accidents and incidents that occurred

that same year


on these issues

The risk associated with hydraulic

installations exists but the probability of a

large-scale incident is very low.

The small increase in

hydropower will have no

impact on overall risk

Gas pipeline transport experienced 11

events in 2016 and the gas distribution

network in the city experienced 89 events.

Roadworks near the structures were

responsible for 68 leaks or damage to

connections.

Reducing gas use should

help reduce the risks

associated with

transportation networks

The risk associated with nuclear

installations exists but the probability of a

large-scale incident is very low.

Reducing the role of

nuclear in the mix

should reduce the

associated risk

Waste

Non-adaptation of waste treatment facilities

to the most destructive natural hazards:

tsunamis, cyclones, earthquakes,

avalanches...

Waste treatment is also a sector particularly

affected by technological risks with 165

accidents or technological incidents in 2016,

or 20% of all accidents and incidents that

occurred that same year


on these issues

Table 30: Direction of the evolution of the pressure of human activities by sector on the exposure to natural

and technological risks due to the PPE

Disturbances

Air Quality

The following charts show the evolution of emissions of pollutants in both AME and AMS scenarios. They

show that policies exposed in the PPE should reduce emissions, especially nitrogen oxides emissions, partly

because of policies in transports. For ammonia emissions, additional measures are needed to reduce emissions.

It should be noted that scenarios take into account measures and policy to reduce consumption, but only partly

measures specific to pollutants emission reduction. Results do not reflect all measures to reduce atmospheric

pollution.

Figure 41: SO2 emissions (in kt)

Figure 41: NOx emissions (in kt)

Figure 43 : NMVOC emissions (in kt)

Figure 44 : NH3 emissions (in kt)

Figure 41: Fine particles emissions (in kt)

Transport

Use of thermal vehicles sources of NOx

emission and fine particles

Diesel vehicles are particularly problematic

in that they emit a greater number of fine

particles than gasoline vehicles, and the

impact on health is considered very

significant.

Control the demand for

road transport and

reduce the use of fossil

fuels.

Residential-

Tertiary

Sector

The use of wood-burning appliances can

lead to the emission of particles in varying

amounts depending on the performance of

the equipment and the wood used.

Replacement of the most

polluting equipment by

more efficient

equipment or PACs.

Open burning of green waste is a source of

significant pollution.

Improving the energy

recovery of green waste

collected upstream

Indoor air quality can be affected by poor

ventilation of buildings and exposure to

pollutants from building and furniture

materials.


on these issues

Agriculture

Animal waste and fertiliser applications

account for the majority of ammonia

emissions (64% and 34% respectively).

Activities pertaining to working the soil emit

fine particles.

The impact of the application of plant

protection products on air quality is still

little known in France, but it should be noted

that 30% to 50% of these substances are lost

in the atmosphere following their spraying.

Lastly open fires practiced in agriculture

(stubble burning, slash-and-burn) are also

sources of very localised emissions of fine

particles, volatile organic compounds and

other dangerous pollutants.

Improvement of energy

recovery including

slurry

Forest -

wood -

biomass

Forestry machinery emissions.

Biomass combustion is a significant source of

fine particles emissions

Development of the


biomass

Industry

The industrial sector is mainly responsible

for sulphur dioxide emissions mainly from

ferrous metallurgy (12%), non-metallic

minerals and building materials (11%) and

the chemical industry (10%).

The industry is also responsible for the

emission of fine particles to a lesser extent.


fossil resources

Energy

production

Petroleum refining and electricity generation

emit primarily sulphur dioxide (29.2% of

SO2

emissions) and persistent organic

pollutants

Replacement of the



Waste

The waste treatment sector is the main

contributor of organic pollutants with 28%

of PCB emissions from this sector.


on these issues

Table 31: Direction of the evolution of the pressure of human activities by sector on air quality due to the PPE

Noise pollution

Transport

Road transport

Demand management

for road transport and

development of electric

vehicles

Air transport The PPE has no impact

on these issues

Residential-

Tertiary

Sector

Neighbourhood troubles due to lack of

insulation

Thermal insulation

should have a positive

effect on the sound

insulation of homes.

Agriculture

Agricultural activities can be a source of

neighbourhood disturbance in rural areas

because of agricultural machinery or animal

noise.


on these issues

Forest -

wood -

biomass

Noise related to forestry machinery

Development of the


biomass

Industry Noise related to industrial activity The PPE has no impact

on these issues

Energy

production Noise related to energy production facilities

The noise associated

with wind turbines is

regulated so as not to

increase noise pollution.

Waste N/A The PPE has no impact

on these issues

Table 32: Direction of the evolution of the pressure of human activities by sector on the sound environment

due to the PPE

The SDMP has levers to act on noise pollution and maximise the potential benefits on the sound environment.

As such, the recommended measures should lead to a reduction in noise pollution in city centres and close to

major roads, thanks to demand management, modal shift towards public transport or soft mobility, or

optimisation measures to increase the fill rate of vehicles. In addition, vehicles running on alternative fuels

(electricity, gas) are generally less noisy than traditional thermal vehicles, and their deployment therefore

presents an opportunity for the reduction of noise pollution, mainly in built-up areas. However, this feature

also presents risks, with a potentially higher accident rate, especially for pedestrians accustomed to hearing

vehicles approaching. The EES therefore recommends to anticipate these evolutions and to deploy research

efforts on the various possible solutions, reconciling safety and noise pollution.

On the other hand, the impact of the other components of the PPE will be negligible, although risks at local

level should be anticipated. The noise and electromagnetic disturbances associated with the operation of wind

turbines and the noise associated with the use of heat pumps is of a very low level of impact, provided that

projects develop in compliance with applicable regulations (impact studies, respect of the distance of 500 m

for houses from wind turbines) and in consultation with the territories concerned.

Noise related to the installation of infrastructures (offshore wind turbines, geothermal drilling...) will be taken

into account in project design, but have only a temporary impact.

Olfactory pollutants

Transport Thermal vehicles contributing in particular

to smells in the city


road transport and


fuels.

Residential-

Tertiary

Sector

Olfactory pollutants can be considered as

disturbances of the neighbourhood in a

residential environment


on these issues

Agriculture

The spreading or storage of organic matter

(livestock effluents) emits intense odours

and is potentially annoying for residents

Energy recovery of

slurry reduces the

quantities spread

Forest -

wood -

biomass

N/A The PPE has no impact

on these issues

Industry

Certain factories emit odours caused by the

chemical products they use, which may not

necessarily be toxic to humans but can

produce very unpleasant odours.


on these issues

Energy

production

Energy processing like oil refining can emit

sulphur odours


on these issues

Anaerobic digestion leads to the handling

and transport of smelly materials in

connection with the storage of organic

materials in agricultural activities

Increase in the use of

anaerobic digestion.

Waste

Pumping stations, water purification and

sludge treatment can be significant sources

of odour pollution.


on these issues

Table 33: Direction of the evolution of the pressure of human activities by sector on the olfactory

environment due to the PPE

Night time environment

Transport

The lighting of traffic lanes contributes

significantly to light pollution disruption of

the night environment

Considering the scattering characteristics of

light, traffic lane lights along the coastline

can disturb the environment over a fairly

wide area beyond the coastline.


on these issues

Residential-

Tertiary

Sector

The lighting of shops and offices

unoccupied at night contributes to light

pollution and disruption of the night

environment.


on these issues

Agriculture N/A The PPE has no impact

on these issues

Forest -

wood -

biomass


on these issues

Industry

The lighting of some industrial installations

during the night contributes to light


environment


on these issues

Energy

production

The lighting of some production facilities

during the night contributes to light


environment

Development of

decentralised energy

production facilities (i.e.

wind turbines) that are

lit at night


on these issues

Table 34: Direction of the evolution of the pressure of human activities by sector on the night environment

due to the PPE

Human health

Transport

Atmospheric pollutant emissions


road transport and


fuels.

Lack of physical activity Increase in soft modes

of transport

Residential-

Tertiary

Sector

Lack of green spaces The PPE has no impact

on these issues

Agriculture Exposure to pesticides The PPE has no impact

on these issues

Forest -

wood -

biomass


on these issues

Industry Pollutant discharges and environmental

contamination


fossil resources

Energy

production

Atmospheric releases (PM, Nox) and

environmental contamination (SO2

).

Replacement of the



Health problems related to fuel poverty Reduction of fuel

poverty

Waste Pollutant discharges and environmental

contamination

Energy recovery from

waste generates

emissions into the air

that are not generated by

storage facilities

Table 35: Direction of the evolution of the pressure of human activities by sector on human health due to the

PPE

Landscapes and heritage

Transport Blackening of buildings (NOx and PM)


road transport and


fuels.

Residential-

Tertiary

Sector

Blackening of buildings (PM related to

heating)

Replacement of the most

polluting heating

equipment

Thermal renovation of outstanding

unprotected buildings


on these issues

Agriculture N/A The PPE has no impact

on these issues

Forest -

wood -

biomass


on these issues

Industry Blackening of buildings (NOx) Decline in the use of

fossil resources

Energy

production

Blackening of buildings (NOx)

Replacement of the



Impact of energy production and

transmission infrastructure on landscapes

and heritage.

Development of

decentralised energy

production facilities

(wind turbines, PV...)


on these issues

Table 36: Direction of the evolution of the pressure of human activities by sector on landscapes and heritage

due to the PPE

5.3. Indicators for monitoring changes in the environment related to

the effect of the PPE Monitoring indicators of the evolution of pressures on environments will be used to monitor the impact of the

PPE on the environment over time. The objective is to identify indicators using existing and easily usable data

in order to enable regular and effective monitoring. A restricted number of representative indicators of trends

was preferred to a much higher number which would be difficult to group and equally difficult to interpret.

Although not exhaustive, the main point of these indicators are the alerts that they will give about evolutionary

trends, so that a response can be provided in the event of increased pressure on environments.

As the main environmental issues of energy policy have increased pressures on resources and land use,

indicators have been identified to monitor the evolution of these impacts:

Monitoring the evolution of GHG and air pollutant emissions is used to verify the positive nature of

the impact of the PPE and the SDMP on climate and air pollution.

The monitoring of space consumption related to PV and wind turbines enables assessments of the

impact of the development of decentralised energy production facilities on land use.

The monitoring of the main risks using the ARIA database is only used to track accidents / incidents

that contribute to using feedback as a tool for risk prevention and reduction. This database tracks trends

in the risks associated with risks from energy production facilities.

For the impact on biodiversity and natural habitats, the indicator of pressure on wood resources chosen

is the rate of wood used for energy compared to forest renewal rates

It is not currently possible to monitor the amount of resources used to set up renewable energy

facilities. The indicator to monitor issues of resource availability would be the recycling rate of the

industries and the reuse rate of electric vehicles batteries at the end of lifetime for other purposes.

Affected

environment Indicator Unit Methodology Frequency

Climate and

Energy

1. Atmospheric

emissions related to

energy consumption

2. Atmospheric

emissions from the

energy sector

3. Atmospheric

emissions from

transport

3.A) Goods

3.B) Passengers

Mt

CO2e

1. Source: CITEPA

(Secten inventory)

2. Source: CITEPA

(Secten inventory)

3. Source: CITEPA

(Secten inventory)

3.A) Trucks, light

commercial

vehicles

3.B) Personal vehicles

and two-wheeled

vehicles

Annual

Human

health

t NOx, t

PM2.5

t

PM10

Resources

and waste

1. Recycling rate of

wind turbines.

2. Reuse rate of electric

vehicles batteries

3. Quantity of recycled

solar panels

Kg

1. Survey among

professionals

2. Survey among

professionals

3. Source: Ademe,

SYDEREP report111

1. Biennial

2. Biennial

3. Annual

Soils and sub-

soils

Land use linked to the

installation of photovoltaic

panels m²

Source: CRE, occupied area

declaration

Annual

Natural and

technological

risks

Number of accidents linked to

energy production

installations

Number

accidents

Source: BARPI, ARIA

database on sources of energy

production.

Annual

Water

Resources

and Aquatic

Environments

Annual

Biodiversity

and natural

habitats

Rate of forest-wood use

compared to forest renewal

rate

Number of onshore turbines

equipped with avifauna

detection equipment

% IFN Biennial

Table 37: Indicators for monitoring environmental pressures resulting from the PPE

111 https://www.ademe.fr/rapport-annuel-registre-dechets-dequipements-electriques-electroniques-

donnees-2016 (to be changed depending on the year)

https://www.ademe.fr/rapport-annuel-registre-dechets-dequipements-electriques-electroniques-donnees-2016

https://www.ademe.fr/rapport-annuel-registre-dechets-dequipements-electriques-electroniques-donnees-2016

6. Appendices

6.1. ERC measures

6.1.1. Wood-based electricity and heat production Measures to avoid, reduce or offset the impacts of logging to produce energy are provided by other documents

with which the PPE is articulated, they are repeated here.

The SNMB and the PNFB provide the various measures and best practices to adopt to ensure a

sustainable supply of the resource.

PREPA provides measures to limit emissions of pollutants related to wood combustion.

Avoid

1. Adapt the periods of exploitation, activity, maintenance of the forest over the year in order to preserve

the flora and fauna species when they are the most vulnerable112.

2. Raise public awareness about good practices on wood heating use to limit air pollutant emissions.

Reduce

1. Promote the replacement of the most polluting equipment with more efficient facilities113.

2. Mark protected arboreal species114 to preserve them.

3. Adapt operating conditions to limit soil erosion115 and settlement116.

Compensate

1. Restore ecological corridors117 during replanting of forest species118.

6.1.2. Geothermal heat pumps (GSHP) Reduce

1. Prevent soil depletion by reducing the number of boreholes in sensitive areas119.

6.1.3. Biogas Methanisers are installations subject to regulations on classified installations for the protection of the

environment (ICPE) of the environmental code, which means that pressures on the environment which they

generate are monitored so that they respect socially acceptable thresholds in terms of their impact.

Reduce

1. Promote the professionalisation of the sector by means of a training plan for project leaders to limit

disturbances and enhance the acceptability of projects.

2. Reduce the pressure on the biomass supply by taking into account SNMB recommendations.

112 E4.2a and R3.2a - Adaptation of operating / activity / maintenance periods to the year

113 R2.1j and R2.2b- Device for limiting disturbances for human populations

114 R1.2b - Definitive marking or definitive protection of habitats of species or remarkable trees

115 R2.1e - Preventive device for controlling soil erosion

116 R2.1g - Device limiting impacts related to the passage of operating gear

117 C2.1f - Ecological Corridor Restoration

118 C2.1d - Resettlement of degraded environments, replanting, restoration of existing but degraded

hedges

119 Decree no. 2015-15 of 8 January 2015 allows the installation of shallow-depth heat pumps provided

they are officially declared, as long as the area in question is not listed as a sensitive zone in terms of sub-

soils.

3. Reduce storage time and promote storage in closed buildings with air treatment to avoid GHG

emissions120.

4. Installation of torches to burn the released gases in case of overpressure121.

6.1.4. Geothermal electricity and heat Geothermal drilling is a facility subject to the regulations on classified installations for the protection of the

environment (ICPE) of the environmental code, which means that the pressures on the environment they


Avoid

1. Adaptation of the period of the works over the year122 in order not to affect fauna and flora species

when they are most vulnerable.

Reduce

1. Focus on transportation modes that emit less GHG for the transportation of materials and the disposal

of drilling muds123.

2. Set up noise reduction devices (noise merlons)124

3. Develop the use of drilling equipment that uses electricity rather than diesel to reduce the carbon

impact of the industry.

4. Optimise the management of excavation sludge to limit the need for transportation to evacuate it125.

5. Reusing an old well, after making a lining of the column to reinforce it, makes it possible not to have

to drill a new well.

6.1.5. Biofuels Reduce

1. Prioritise the development of second-generation biofuels in order to limit the land-use changes

necessary for the cultivation of inputs mobilised by 1st

generation biofuels.

6.1.6. Hydroelectricity Hydroelectric installations are supervised installations, according to their size, either by the regulation on the

installations, operations, works and activities (known as IOTA) of the environment code, or by the regulation

on the hydroelectric concessions of the energy code Thus, the pressures they generate on the environment are

monitored to meet socially and environmentally acceptable thresholds.

Avoid

1. Avoid the construction of new obstacles to ecological continuity by favouring the optimisation of

existing power stations and the operation of existing dams.

2. Avoid the installation of new facilities on watercourses classified in list 1 for the protection of the

environment (these zones are not taken into account in the determination of the hydroelectric potential

for the new dams)126.

Reduce

1. Maintaining minimum flow at dams permanently guaranteeing the life, circulation and reproduction

of species present127.


121 E3.1a - Absence of release into the natural environment (air, water, soil, subsoil)

122 E4.1a and R3.1a - Adaptation of the period of work over the year

123 R2.1b - Special method for importing materials and/or disposal of materials, excavated material and

site residues: river transport, rail transport, etc.


125 R2.1c and R2.2n - Optimization of materials management (excavated and fill material)

126 E1.1a - Avoidance of known populations of protected or high-risk species and/or their habitats

127 R2.1l and R2. 2i- Maintaining a minimum "biological" flow of watercourses

2. Arrangements or measures (periods of transparency, fish passes, bypasses, water releases equivalent

to a morphogenic flood) in order to ensure ecological continuity, in particular so as not to oppose the

movements of migratory species128.

3. Provide for measures to limit the impact of locks in sensitive areas129.

4. Consideration of environmental criteria in competitive procedures for hydropower.

Compensate

1. Equipping existing facilities impacting the same watercourse to allow passage of sediments and

migratory species130. This equipment consists of implementing reduction measures, but for a work that

is not originally concerned by the project.

2. Levelling of certain obstacles, not filling a use, located on the watercourse to restore ecological

continuity131.

6.1.7. Terrestrial Wind Turbines Wind turbines are installations subject to the regulations on installations classified for the protection of the

environment (ICPE) of the environmental code, which means that the pressures on the environment they


Avoid

1. Locate projects taking into account environmental and landscape sensitivities. Wind farm

projects will have to take into account the different zonings determined by the National Guidelines for

Green and Blue Belts so as not to destroy the ecological continuities necessary for the preservation of

biodiversity132.

Reduce

1. Limit impacts on birdlife by maintaining migration corridors that take into account the cumulative

effect of different parks133. Limit wildlife mortality by taking Natura 2000134 zoning into account and

installing anti-collision devices.135

2. Develop ancillary uses of wind turbine sites. Some activities may be compatible with the establishment

of a wind farm; it will be necessary to deepen studies on these interactions between wind farms and

ecosystems. If the possibility of installing wind turbines in agricultural areas is already known, it is

conceivable that other innovative solutions may exist and be developed in order to reduce the footprint

associated with the deployment of a wind farm136. It is also recommended to conduct studies on

electromagnetic disturbances due to wind turbines and to develop technologies that can reduce these

impacts.

3. Give priority to "repowering" (replacement of existing wind turbine installations with higher power

installations). Renewing the facilities on the same site avoids the emergence of new environmental

impacts and better anticipates those related to the location of the project based on feedback. Efforts to

allow the reuse of foundations from previous facilities must be pursued to reduce the ground impact

associated with the installation of new wind turbines.

4. Reduce the visual disturbances related to the nocturnal signage of the parks137. The presence of wind

turbines is signalled by means of flash lights that would be better synchronised at the scale of different

128 R2.2h - Fish crossing device

129 R2.2m - Technical device limiting impacts on hydraulic continuity

130 C2.2g - Modification or existing work equipment

131 C2.2h - Leveling or down-leveling of a transverse obstacle, a threshold, a feedthrough

132 E1.1b - Avoidance of sites with major environmental and landscape stakes in the territory

133 R2.2f - Wildlife passage device


135 R2.2d - Anti-collision and scaring device (excluding specific fencing)

136 E2.2f - Positioning the project on a sector of lower stakes


parks to reduce their cumulative effect. The use of a sodium lamp for the lighting of the installations

would make it possible to avoid attracting insects, thus also limiting the risk of collision with bats138.

5. To reduce the auditory pollution related to the operation of wind turbines by favouring models with

low acoustic power139, and by respecting the regulations relating to the distance from residential areas.

Compensate

1. In the case of implantation on a site previously exploited, it is possible to provide for the removal of

foundations that have not been levelled during the decommissioning of previous installations140.

6.1.8. Solar energy Avoid

1. Encourage the installation of photovoltaic panels on roofs in order to limit the impacts on the ground

and the consequences on the associated biodiversity141.

2. Prohibit the installations of ground-based solar power plants in agricultural area.

Reduce

1. Encourage locating projects in order to preserve natural142 and agricultural areas. Degraded land could

thus be privileged in tenders for the implantation of new sites143.

Support

1.

2. Continue research of alternative processes to chemical treatment for the manufacture of solar panels

composed of silicon crystals144.

3. Continue efforts to recycle panels to limit resource consumption145.

6.1.9. Offshore renewable energies (including offshore wind power) The installations are installations subject to regulations on classified installations for the protection of the

environment (ICPE) of the environmental code, which means that pressures on the environment that they


Avoid

1. Continue to locate projects outside the most environmentally sensitive and landscaped areas before

launching the next tenders. The location should take into account the PAMMs to avoid Natura 2000

areas146 as well as UNESCO heritage sites147. This measure is reinforced by the holding of a public

debate prior to the determination of the location of tenders.

2. Give priority to the least harmful implantation techniques for aquatic fauna.

3. Adapt work148 and operation periods149 over the year to avoid impacts on bird migration movements

or periods of vulnerability (reproduction, nesting) of marine mammals.

Reduce

138 R2.1k and R2.2c- Wildlife disturbance limitation device

139 E3.2b - Redefinition / Modifications / adaptations of development choices, project characteristics

140 C2.1a - Removal of previous arrangements (deconstruction) other than water works

141 E1.1c - Redefinition of project characteristics


143 E2.2f - Positioning the project on a sector of lower stakes

144 A4.1c and A4.2c - Financing of research programs

145 A4.1c and A4.2c - Financing of research programs


147 E1.1b - Avoidance of sites with major environmental and landscape stakes in the territory

148 E4.1a and R3.1a - Adaptation of the period of work over the year

149 E4.2a and R3.2a - Adaptation of operating / activity / maintenance periods to the year

1. Limit noise-related aquatic wildlife mortality associated with foundation piling of wind turbines by

soft-start and noise-reduction devices (bubble curtain).

2. Limit the disruption of migratory routes by providing migratory corridors between wind farms150.

3. Promote the reef effect of the installations by favouring the use of anti-fouling paints less intensive in

biocides. Sacrificial anodes to prevent corrosion of submerged parts could be replaced in favour of an

impressed current protection151.

4. Optimisation of the geometry of the project so as to favour its landscape integration (symmetrical

installations)152.

6.1.10. Storage Avoid

1. Support the search for storage technologies that consume fewer resources with the help of SNRE.

Reduce

1. Continue to structure the recycling of batteries to reduce the pressure on scarce resources needed for

their manufacture.

6.1.11. Networks Avoid

1. Favour line crossings underground to avoid breaking ecological continuity and impacts on

biodiversity153.

Reduce

1. Increase the size of vegetation near power lines to force flying species to gain altitude and avoid

collisions with facilities154.

150 R2.2f - Wildlife passage device

151 E4.2a - Total absence of use of plant protection products and of any product polluting or likely to

have a negative impact on the environment

152 E2.2d - Direction measurement of an installation or optimization of project geometry

153 E1.1c - Redefinition of project characteristics

154 R2.2k - Up-over slope planting (green springboard)