structural geology groundwater
TRANSCRIPT
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Really complex
deformation in
rocks can
produce patterns
as complex as
the swirls in a
foam on a
stream, and
events in one
area don't
necessarily tell
you anything
about events
elsewhere.
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Folding
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Folds are defined asFolds are defined as undulations or bendsundulations or bends that arethat are
developed in the rocks of the Earth¶s crust as adeveloped in the rocks of the Earth¶s crust as a
result of theresult of the stressesstresses to which these rocks haveto which these rocks have
been subjected to, from time to time, in the pastbeen subjected to, from time to time, in the past
history of the Earth.history of the Earth.
FOLDS
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Folds can occur in all scales!Folds can occur in all scales!
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In areas of active mountain building, as for example here in the
front ranges of the Himalayas, folds bulge up the landscape. The
upward moving parts (called antiforms) create hills while the areas
that have gone down relative to the hills (called synforms) collect
detritus eroded from the surrounding countryside.
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These folds from the
island of Syros only
have a wavelength of afew millimetres.
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Buckled folds
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� Rocks with really complex histories often
look like this. Often there is no discernible
pattern to the folding.
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Parts of Fold and TerminologiesParts of Fold and Terminologies
� Limbs
� Axial plane
� Axis of the fold� Plunge of the fold
� Anticline and syncline
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� Limbs are the sides of a fold
� Axial plane is the imaginary planebisecting between the two limbs of a fold
� Axis of the fold is the line of intersection of the axial plane with any bed of the fold
� When the fold axis is inclined the anglewhich it makes with the horizontal asmeasured in a vertical plane is called the
plunge of the fold
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Anticline and syncline:
When the beds are up-folded into an arch like structure, it
is called an anticline
Conversely, when the beds are down-folded into a trough
like form, the structure is called a syncline.
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Axial plane
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Plunge - the inclination of the fold axis
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Folded Structures
1. Anticlines
2. Synclines3. Monoclines
4. Basins
5. Domes
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Types of foldTypes of fold
On the basis of position of Axial planeOn the basis of position of Axial plane
Symmetrical foldSymmetrical fold
Asymmetrical folds Asymmetrical folds
Overturned foldsOverturned folds
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Types of folds
Symmetrical Asymmetrical Overturned
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Recumbent Folds- Fold axis is horizontal
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Based on degree of compression of beds
Open folds
Closed folds
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Miscellaneous foldsMiscellaneous folds
� Monocline
� Homocline
� Chevron folds
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Monocline
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Chevron folds
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Domes are groups of strata centrally uplifted from below and
sloping away in all directions. It always appears as an anticline
Basins are reverse of domes that are centrally depressed andsloping towards a common centre.
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Domes
Oldest rock in center
Basins
Youngest rock in center
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Causes of folding
� Lateral compression
� Intrusion of magma
� Landslides� Creeping of slopes
� Differential compaction
� Isostatic settling� Subsidence due to solution cavities
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Lateral compression
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Folding due to intrusion of magma
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Folding due to landslides
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Creep
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Folding due to differential compaction
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Folding due to isostatic settling
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Folding due to subsidence
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Rocks suitable for studying folds
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Rocks suitable for the study of structures
� Folds may occur in all kinds of rocks such asigneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks!
� But all rocks are not suitable for studying structures
� Sedimentary rocks are ideal for study of structures
as they are characterised by the presence of beddings
� Igneous rocks are not suitable for structures as they
bear uniform textural behaviour
� Metamorphic rocks such as gneisses and schistsalso permits study of structures.
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A common misconception is that rocks
can only fold when they are nearly
molten. These outcrops tell a different
story. Rocks like these limestones can
fold even at the Earth's surface -
provided they are given enough time. A
fold like this could take a hundred
thousand years to grow.
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How Is Rock Deformed?How Is Rock Deformed?
� Tectonics forces continuously squeeze, stretch,
bend, and break rock in the lithosphere.
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StressStress
� Uniform stress is a condition in which the
stress is equal in all directions.
± In rocks it is also confining stress because any
body of rock in the lithosphere is confined by the
rock around it.
� Differential stress is stress that is not equal in
all directions.
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Differential Stress
� The three kinds of differential stress are:
± Tensional stress, which stretches rocks.
± Compressional stress, which squeezes them.
± Shear stress, which causes slippage and
translation.
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Stages of Deformation
� Strain describes the deformation of a rock.
� When a rock is subjected to increasing stress, it
passes through three stages of deformation in
succession: ± Elastic deformation is a reversible change in the volume
or shape of a stressed rock..
± Ductile deformation is an irreversible change in shape
and/or volume of a rock that has been stressed beyond theelastic limit.
± Fracture occurs in a solid when the limits of both elastic
and ductile deformation are exceeded.
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Ductile Deformation Versus
Fracture
� A brittle substance tends to deform by fracture.
� A ductile substance deforms by a change of
shape.� The higher the temperature, the more ductile
and less brittle a solid becomes.
� Rocks are brittle at the Earth¶s surface, but at
depth, where temperatures are high because of
the geothermal gradient, rocks become ductile.
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Confining Stress
� Confining stress is a uniform squeezing of
rock owing to the weight of all of the
overlying strata.
� High confining stress hinders the formation of
fractures and so reduces brittle properties.
� Reduction of brittleness by high confining
stress is a second reason why solid rock can be
bent and folded by ductile deformation.
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Ductile Brittle
Marble sample:
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Strain Rate
� The term used for time-dependent deformation of
a rock is strain rate.
± Strain rate is the rate at which a rock is forced to
change its shape or volume.
� Strain rates in the Earth are about 10-14 to 10-15/s.
� The lower the strain rate, the greater the tendency
for ductile deformation to occur.
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Enhancing Ductility
� High temperatures, high confining stress, and
low strain rates (characteristic of the deeper
crust and mantle):
± Reduce brittle properties.
± Enhance the ductile properties of rock.
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Composition Affects Ductility (1)
� The composition of a rock has pronounced effects on
its properties.
± Quartz, garnet, and olivine are very brittle.
± Mica, clay, calcite,and gypsum are ductile.
� The presence of water in a rock reduces brittleness
and enhances ductile properties.
� Water affects properties by weakening the chemical
bonds in minerals and by forming films around
minerals grains.
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ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONSENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS
� Change in attitude: Due to folding, same layer may be
repeated or a different layer may be encountered. If it
happens unexpectedly and the encountered layers are of
undesirable nature, the safety of the structure will be
adversely affected.
� Shattering of rocks: Folding is the response of the rocks
to the induced stresses. These stresses are often strong
enough to break or shatter or develop cracks at the
points of maximum concentration. The shattered rocksare weak in strength and pervious in character. Such
rocks cannot be trusted as roofs and floors of tunnels or
as foundations in dams. If it is not possible to avoid,
proper treatments has to be given before construction
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ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONSENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS
� Strained nature: The stresses that have acted on the
rocks during their folding are generally absorbed by
undergoing strain. When disturbed, these rocks release
energy leading to rock bursts during tunneling or
excavations.
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Attitude of beds Attitude of beds
� Attitude refers to the three-dimensional
orientation or positioning of a given
geological structures. The attitude of a
planar geological feature like a rock bed or
a joint or a fold is defined by their strike
and dip.
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Dip and StrikeDip and Strike
� The dip is the angle in degrees between a
horizontal plane and the inclined plane,
measured down from horizontal.
� The strike is the compass direction of the
horizontal line formed by the intersection of a
horizontal plane and an inclined plane.
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l
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Fault
Faults are fractures
in the Earth's crust
along which one
side moves with
respect to the
other. There are
many types of faults ranging in
size from a few
tens of meters to
hundreds of
kilometers indimension.
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Aerial view of the Pu`u Kapukapu fault scarp
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Mount St. Helens, Washington
Scientists measure the distance between
two benchmarks spanning the fault scarp of
a thrust fault on the crater floor of Mount St.
Helens. This scarp developed on the crater floor in 1981 as magma rose into the lava
dome (backgound) before erupting onto its
surface. The pressure exerted by the rising
magma against rocks surrounding the
conduit caused the crater floor to fracture
along a plane gently inclined toward thedome.
Material above the fault (person kneeling on
upper surface) was pushed over material
below the fault (person in lower right).
Scientists measured an increasing rate of
movement of this thrust fault before twoeruptions in June and October 1981, which
helped them to predict both eruptions
accurately.
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One of the world's most famous faultsknown is the San Andreas Fault in
California. It stretches 1000 km from
the Imperial Valley in southern
California, to theP
oint Arena on thenorthern coast. The fault line is also
9km in depth. It marks the boundary
between the North America and the
Pacific tectonic plates. San Andreas is
known as a strike slip fault; it hasdisplaced rocks for hundreds of miles.
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Pre-earthquake view of Halape
Post-earthquake view of Halape
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To describe the displacement along a dip-slip
fault, we use nomenclature that arose from
miners who excavated shafts along fault zones
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The rock surface
above the mineralized
fault zone is called thehanging wall (Note the
lantern is hung on the
hanging wall)
The rock surface below
the mineralized fault zoneis the foot wall (Note the
miner is standing on the
foot wall)
f f l
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Faults in which the movement is primarily
parallel to the dip (or inclination) of the fault
surface are called dip-slip f aults.
Types of f ault s
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Dip-slip faults are classified as normal f aults when the hanging
wall block moves down relative to the footwall block.
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Most normal faults are small, having
displacements of only a meter or so
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Reverse f aults are dip-slip faults in which the hanging
wall block moves up relative to the footwall block
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Strike-slip f aults exhibit mainly horizontal
displacement parallel to the strike of the fault surface
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± Strike-slip faults arise from
shear stresses.
± The San Andreas is a
strike-slip fault.
± Apparently, movement
(more than 600 km) has been occurring along it for
at least 65 million years.
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Fractures along which no appreciable
displacement has occurred are called joints
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Columnar joints form when igneous rocks cool and develop
shrinkage fractures that produce elongated, pillar like columns
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E f li ti j i t
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Exfoliation joints
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Gr o undwat e r
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What is ground water and how does it move?
What is the importance of groundwater?
What are the advantages of groundwater?
What are aquifers and their types?
What is groundwater prospecting?
What are some environmental problems with groundwater?
What are the geological work of groundwater?
How is karst topography produced?
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Advantages of Gr ound Water
It has a suitable composition in most cases and is free from turbidity,objectionable colours and pathogenic organisms requiring not much
treatment.
It is relatively much safe from hazards of chemical, radiogenic and
biological pollution to which surface water bodies are badly exposed.
Its supplies are not quickly affected by drought and other climatic
changes and hence are more dependable compared to surface
waters.
Being available locally in many cases may be tapped and
distributed at much lesser costs using very little network of pipes. In
fact, in many areas it is directly pumped up by the users.
S f d t
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Sources of groundwater
�M
eteoric water±It is the water derived mainly from rain.The water directly infiltrated or through streams (influent
streams) finally joins the groundwater.
� Connate water± This is the water that is present right
from the deposition of sediment at the time of formation
of sedimentary rocks
� Juvenile water± Water condensed from steam emanated
from molten magma.
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Hydrological cycle
Zones of groundwater
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Zones of groundwater
W t t bl
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Water table
Infl ent and effl ent streams
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Influent streams Effluent streams
Influent and effluent streams
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Aquifers and wells
� A well is a manmade hole in the ground
from which water can be withdrawn
� Aquifer is a formation that is capable to
yield appreciable quantity of water by
gravity
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Types of aquifers
� Unconfined aquifer
� Confined aquifer
�P
erched aquifer
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Unconfined aquifer
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Confined or Artesian aquifers
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Confined or Artesian aquifers
Figure 17.16
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Perched Aquifer and Perched Water table.
Perched aquifer
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Perched aquifer
CONE OF DEPRESSION
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Yield of wells
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Flow to a well penetrating an unconfined aquifer
Spring
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Spring formed due to the presence
of a fault across a water bearing
formation.
Artesian spring formed when a pervious layer
is sandwiched between two impervious layers.
Spring formed due to slope in a valleySpring formed due to the presence
of an impervious obstruction against
an aquifer or water-table.
Example of land
subsidence due to
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groundwater lowering
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Caverns and Karst Topography
Figure 17.1
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Fig. 20 Speleothems Fig. 21 Soda straw stalactite
Fig. 23 Curtain StalagtitesFig. 22P
opcorn Stalactites
Figure 17.24
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Fig. 24 Infrared image showing an area of
karst topography
Sink hole formed due to collapse of cavern
Geysers occur where extensive underground chambers exist within hot
igneous rocks.
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This geyser emits 45,000 litres of hot water and steam per hour!
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