structuralism chapter 5:. titchener: structuralism central task of psychology: analysis of...

Structuralism

Chapter 5:

Titchener: Structuralism

Central task of psychology:

analysis of conscious experience

These conscious experiences are dependent on a person

Psychology is different from other sciences because its subject matter requires the presence of a human being

Other sciences – subject matter is independent of experiencing persons

Titchener: Structuralism

Structural psychology: pure science Only legitimate purpose:

to discover the facts (structure) of the mind

Applied aspects are not needed, and not scientific

Only appropriate subjects: normal adult humans

The content of conscious experience

Titchener warned against stimulus error:

Confusing our human experiences of events (mental processes) as the actual events


““apple”apple”

Introspection: Self-observation Trained observers Used detailed, qualitative, subjective reports Of mental activities during the act of introspecting

Opposed Wundt's approach Titchener interested in elements/parts, not

“wholes” Much more mechanisitc than Wundt His observers were passive, impartial,

mechanical instruments recording stimuli


Titchener’s experimental approach Experiment = an observation which

had Frequent repetition

Strict isolation (control)

Vary observations widely


Examples of Some Experiments1. Reagents swallowed a tube,

- Hot water poured down, experience described by reagent- Repeated with cold water

2. Reagents wrote down descriptions of the sensations of urinating and defecating

3. Reagents made notes of sensations during sex, attached devices to measure physiological responses


Proposed three elementary states of consciousness

Sensations: sounds, sights, smells, etc lead to perceptions

Images: ideas made from sensations, memories

Affective states emotion

Elements of consciousness

Each element could be categorized Quality:

attribute differentiating each element from the other , e.g., “cold,” “red”

Intensity: strength, weakness, loudness, or

brightness of sensation Duration:

sensation’s path over time Clearness

refers to amount of attention given to element


Characteristics of mental elements

Discovered 44,000 basic and irreducible elements of sensation

Each is conscious

Each is distinct from all others

Each could combine with others to form perceptions and ideas



Defined three essential problems for psychology

1. Reduce conscious processes to simplest components (the bulk of his work)

2. Determine laws by which elements associated

3. Connect the elements with their physiological conditions

Same aims as natural sciences

Stopped talking about elements, and became more interested in the dimensions you could use to categorize elements (quality, etc.)

Considered changing name of movement (and method of collecting data) to “existential psychology,” which would emphasize experience as it occurs, without analysis or breaking it down to elements

Died before any real changes were made to his system

Later in his Career…

Criticisms of structuralism

Methodology: Introspection

Had been attacked for a century or more Kant, Comte, Maudsley

Titchener could not give an exact definition of what introspection meant

Freud proposes the unconscious, which said that part of our mind cannot be consciously experienced, and greatly affects our behavior

Sterility / artificiality of lab experiments New specialties did not fit with Titchener’s

definition of psychology (child psychology, animal psychology)

Contributions of structuralism

Subject matter clearly defined Research methods: good science Introspection remains a viable

method Impact on cognitive psychology Strong base against which others

could rebel

Precursors to Functionalism

Chapter 6:

Movement from acceptance of biblical creation story to curiosity about …

Many new species discovered: how could they all fit in Noah's ark?

Chimpanzees and orangutans available for viewing

Skeleton of gorilla and human strikingly similar

Fossils and bones of extinct species found

Constant change in everyday life; “Change was the order of the day”

Growing domination of science; industrial revolution

Darwin’s life

HMS Beagle journey: 1831-1836 Worked on his theory of evolution for 22

years Problems with physical health caused by

anxiety Alfred Russel Wallace: wrote Darwin about

a theory of evolution similar to Darwin’s that Wallace developed in 3 days

Darwin’s ethical dilemma

Darwin took friends’ suggestion to have Wallace’s paper and portion of his forthcoming book presented at scientific meeting on same day that Darwin’s son was buried

Darwin overwhelmed with new physical illness

Wallace not bitter over Darwin’s fame; Instead was happy to have brushed fame and content to have unconsciously spurred Darwin to complete his book

Darwin’s life

Not clever, limited ability to follow abstract thought

Poor critic: admired work upon 1st reading; only after reflection perceived deficits

Memory “extensive, yet hazy” Careful, astute, industrious observer and

collector of facts Love of natural science Motivation to explain the observed, and to group

facts under general laws Hypothesis generation: free mind open to

modification Ample leisure; no need to earn income

What Darwin said about himself…

Darwin’s other work 1871: the descent of man

Evidence for human evolution from lower forms of life

Emphasized similarity between animal and human processes

1872: the expression of the emotions in man and animals

Expressions descended from behaviors that originally had a practical function

1877: “A biographical sketch of an infant”; Based on his son’s developmental stages

Darwin’s life

The Theory of Evolution

There is variation among members of a species This variability is inheritable Each member of a species participates in a

struggle for survival Only the fittest survive Natural selection: process that leads to survival

of organisms which adapt to the environment; those that can not adapt die

Generalized from Lamarck's and Malthus’ observations and principles to form his ideas

Recent Data

The finches’ beaks: evolution at work Finches’ evolution occurred quicker than Darwin

predicted Severe drought: food supply = large, “tough spiky

seeds” Only the 15% of finches with thickest beak could open

seeds; many with slender beaks couldn’t and died Thicker beaks = tool for adaptation Offspring inherited that characteristic; 4-5% thicker

beaks Adaptation in one generation Rain and floods: large seeds swept away; Only small

ones left Same cycle but reverse outcome as above: slender

beaks a survival advantage Only the most fit in a given environment lived

Evolution as a challenge to religion

Theory thought to negate Christian God

Laws about teaching evolution in schools

1972, Tenn minister Darwin’s theory “breeds corruption, lust,

immorality, greed, and such acts of criminal depravity as drug addiction, war, and atrocious acts of genocide”

The white supremacy argument

Protests to Evolution

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

Social Darwinism: application of the theory of evolution to human nature and society

Coined the phrase “survival of the fittest” all aspects of universe “evolved,” including

human traits and social institutions Promoted individualism and a laissez-faire

economic system; opposed government interference

Individuals and institutions that fail to adapt should be allowed to perish

Utopian view: human perfection inevitable if nothing interferes with the natural order

Myth of male superiority

Derivative of variability hypothesis based on Darwinian ideas

Hypothesis: “the notion that men show a wider range and variation of physical and mental development than women; The abilities of women are seen as more average.”

Therefore, it was argued, women Less likely to benefit from education Less likely to achieve intellectually Had less evolved brains than men Showed a smaller range of talents than men

Led to common acceptance of inequality between sexes

Darwin’s influence on psychology

Hypothesis: continuity in mental functioning between humans and lower animals

Implied that study animal behavior vital to understanding human behavior

Goal of psychology became how organism functioned in adapting

Methods and techniques were broadened in scope

Increased focus on individual differences and their measurement

Animal psychology and the development of functionalism

Before Darwin: animals considered automata After Darwin: the expression of the emotions

in man and animals Continuity between humans and animals Search for evidence of intelligence in

animals Human emotional behavior: inheritance of

behavior once useful to animals

Individual differences: Francis Galton (1822-1911)

Individual differences The topic was considered

inappropriate for psychology by Wundt and Titchener

Had been examined by Weber, Fechner, Helmhotz

Galton’s life Estimated IQ = 200 Diverse, novel ideas and inventions Youngest of 9 children Wealthy family Pressured by father to study medicine; Didn’t like it Entered Cambridge university to study mathematics Traveled extensively; Wrote popular book, the art of

travel Cousin Charles Darwin published on the origin of

species: Galton fascinated by theory of evolution, which guided his subsequent work

Mental inheritance 1869: hereditary genius

Eminent men have eminent sons Specific forms of genius inherited Founded eugenics: improve inherited

human traits through artificial selection Applied statistical concepts to heredity

problems Eminence not a function of opportunity

Statistical methods Quetelet: first to apply statistical

methods and normal curve to biological and social data

Galton Assumed similar results true of mental

characteristics Developed mean and standard deviation Produced correlation measure

Modern derivatives: methods for validity, reliability, factor analysis

Pearson’s r: for Galton’s discovery of regression toward the mean

Mental tests Originated by Galton, but term from Cattell Assumed: intelligence can be measured in terms of

sensory capacities Developed his own instruments His tests were prototypes for standard psychology lab

equipment 1884: established anthropometric laboratory

Aim: the definition of the range of human capacities of the entire British population

To determine its collective mental resources His data

Statistically reliable (1985) Provided information on developmental trends

structuralism chapter 5:. titchener: structuralism central task of psychology: analysis of...

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