studies on growth and development in japan
DESCRIPTION
(Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 1984) K. Kimura.TRANSCRIPT
YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 27:179-214 (1984)
Studies on Growth and Development in Japan KUNIHIKO KIMURA Department ofAnatomy, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Saitama 359, Japan
KEY WORDS ical fitness, Secular trends
Japanese, Growth, Development, Maturation, Twins, Phys-
A B S T R A C T Studies of growth and development in Japan since 1900 and especially after World War I1 are summarized in several topical areas: physi- cal growth, development of physical fitness, longitudinal and allometric stud- ies, dental development, skeletal maturation, studies of twins, growth of various groups of Japanese, i.e., Ainu children, children of Okinawa, Japa- nese Americans and Japanese-American hybrids, and the secular trend. In general, Japanese growth and development are somewhat delayed compared to Americans and Europeans until childhood, but then develop more rapidly, reaching maturity at almost the same time. The secular trends for accelera- tion in growth and an increase in stature are observed in Japanese during these eight decades. More recently, the secular trends seem to be arriving a t its final stage.
Scientific studies on growth and development in Japan began with investigations of physical measurements of schoolchildren by Hashiba (1888,1889) and Izumizawa (1889). They measured stature, span of arms, and several head and face dimensions of 31-52 boys 6-13 years of age. Results of the physical examination of army conscripts (20-year-old males) were also published every year from 1892 to 1931. Since 1900, the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture has annually reported on the physique (stature, body weight, and chest girth or sitting height) of school- children and teachers (The Statistical Report of School Health). These studies ex- panded rapidly from 1910 to the 1940s to include almost all aspects of growth and development. In 1902, Mishima published a small book on the growth of Japanese, followed by Shindo (1926). Yoshida (1926) discussed Japanese physique based on the stature, body weight, and chest girth of conscripts, while Akita (1930) and Akita and Suzuki (1933, 1934) considered the growth and bodily proportions of schoolchildren in detail. Yagi (1936) reviewed many papers by Japanese researchers and others, including the variability of physical dimensions and external factors affecting them during growth and development. Growth studies were more or less temporarily suspended during World War 11.
After the war, studies on growth and development began again. Since 1945 and 1949, the Ministries of Health and Welfare, and of Education, Science, and Culture have prepared reports entitled The Present Condition of National Nourishment and The Report of Investigation of the Physical Strength and Motor Performance, respec- tively, every 5 years. Both publications present data on the physique and the physical fitness of the Japanese across a broad age range. Several books on human growth and development were also published by various authors: for example, Nakagawa and Natori (19581, Kimura and Yamaguchi (19601, Baba (1966, 19671, Kimura (1966, 19791, Yamagishi (19771, and Matsuura (1982). At the 15th General Assembly of the Japan Medical Congress, Funakawa (1959) reported the physical growth of Japanese children, while Kawahata (1974) reviewed the studies of growth and development in physical education. More recently, Kimura (1975a, 1983a) re-
0 1984 Alan R. Liss, Inc.
180 YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [Vol. 27, 1984
ported on growth studies of Japanese in the Japanese International Biological Program Synthesis and in the Recent Progress of Natural Sciences in Japan, while Ikai (1962) and Sawada (1964a,b, 1977) reviewed the studies on physical fitness of Japanese.
Up to the present, human growth and development have been studied by Japanese researchers in various fields, including anatomy, anthropology, hygiene and public health, home economics, pediatrics, physical education, physiology, and psychology, and has involved a wide variety of problems and approaches. The present review introduces several topical areas of these studies of growth and development in Japan.
PHYSICAL GROWTH
Physical growth has been studied by many researchers in order to develop norms for various dimensions and characteristics in Japanese. Growth of children is an extremely sensitive indicator of the general state of health. Systematic physical measurements are an important diagnostic tool in pediatrics and physical education, as well as in morphology and anthropology. In the appraisal of physical condition by this technique there are two major considerations: evaluation of status and progress. Table 1 gives means and standard deviations for stature, body weight, sitting height, and chest girth in Japanese males and females in 1981 as reported by the Ministry of Health and Welfare (1983). Although the data are cross-sectional, it is estimated that the peak velocity in these physical measurements occurs between 11 and 12 years of age in females and 12 and 13 years in males, and that the measurements reach a plateau a t or about 16 years in females and 17 years in males. Young adult stature is about 170 cm in males and 157 cm in females, corresponding to the lower range for Europeans and the higher range for Asians.
Growth of the Head and Face Onishi (1919-19211, Suda (1941), Nagao (1951), Kakimoto (1953b), Kaneko (19561,
Maeno and Yasunaga (1961), Terada (1969), and others have discussed growth of head dimensions. Facial dimensions were studied by Takaoka et al. (19431, Hori (1952), and Maeno and Yasunaga (1961), and age changes of facial form based on measurements (Ono, 1960; Fukawa, 1961) and on anthroposcopic observations (Hash- imoto, 1957) were also described. Sat0 (1957) considered head dimensions of a longi- tudinal series of infants over 1 year, while Terada and Hoshi (1965a-c) followed a longitudinal series for 3 years after birth. Growth in various head dimensions for different intervals between 6 and 14 years was reported by Kida et al. (19651, Tsubaki and Shimaguchi (1966), and Konoto et al. (1978). In general, head breadth increases more rapidly than head length up to 12 months and then grows more slowly. Thereafter, head length grows more rapidly, followed by head height, then breadth. Growth patterns of these head dimensions show the neural type until about 10 years of age and then follow the general type (Kimura, 1966). Growth patterns in head breadth and circumference appear different from those for head length (Kida et al., 1965). Age curves of the cephalic index show an inital increase and then a subsequent decrease, with maximum values around 6 months in boys and 7 months in girls (Nagao, 1951; Sato, 1957; Terada and Hoshi, 1965a-c). In Formosan infants, Tsai (1968) reported the same trend at about 5 months in boys and 6 months in girls. The corresponding point appears a t 8 or 9 months of age in Europeans (Ewing, 1950; Barber and Hewitt, 1956). Head length continues to increase until 40 years of age in males and 25 years in females, while head breadth increases until 24 years and 19 years in males and females, respectively (Kakimoto, 1953b). The head-stature index decreases from 5.4 in boys and 5.3 in girls a t 4 years of age to 7.1 and 6.9 in each sex respectively at 20 years (Murakami and Otsuka, 1957).
With a head spanner developed after Todd (1924), the distance of each craniometric point from porion on the head profile was measured by several researchers (Asao, 1953; Inaba, 1956; Nakamura, 1959). Head dimensions were also studied roentgeno- cephalometrically primarily by odontologists using the technique of Broadbent (1931).
Kimura] GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 18 1
These include cross-sectional (Iizuka, 1958; Sakamoto, 1959; Ono, 1960; Komuro, 1960a-d; Yagi, 1961; Muraoka, 1961; Kuwabara, 1961; Sakamoto et al., 1963; Mochi- zuki and Ochiai, 1965; Iwahori, 1977; Sawa, 1978) and longitudinal (Mitani, 1972, 1974, 1977; Asai, 1973; Wada, 1977; Nagasaka et al., 1979; Nagasaka, 1980) anal- yses. For example, using 51 Japanese and 48 American children 7-15 years of age with normal occlusion, Masaki (1980) suggested that retrusive occlusion based on maxillary growth retardation tends to have a higher frequency in Japanese, while maxillary protrusion tends to appear more frequently in Americans. Miyake and Komiya (1976) presented norms of the crania1 index (Cronqvist, 1963), summation index (Austin and Gooding, 1971) and posterior fossa index (Schey, 1973) in Japanese children from birth to 15 years of age, and noted that these indices have distinctly different meanings in clinical diagnosis.
Tanaka (1940) and Ishizuka (1959) studied the development of the paranasal sinuses radiologically. The maxillary and ethmoid sinuses are rapidly formed in size and fundamental shape between 1 and 6 years; subsequent changes are gradual. However, these developmental changes in the frontal sinus proceed almost simulta- neously after 8 years of age. Formation of the maxillary and ethmoid sinuses occurs slightly earlier in Japanese than in Europeans. The frontal sinus appears almost at the same time in Japanese and Europeans, but it occurs considerably less frequently in Japanese than in Europeans.
According to Osugi (1922), Arima (1928), Kubota (1932), Yamaguchi and Yamada (19381, Kakusaka et al. (1954), Masukawa (1957), Tsuyuki (1961), and Shimizu and Akiyoshi (1970b), the external nose almost completes its growth in adolescence, but growth continues slowly into old age. According to Miyajima (19351, Kaneko et al. (1954), Yoda (19561, Shimizu and Akiyoshi (1970a), and Konishi (1977), auricular length reaches a plateau by 16 or 17 years, while auricular breadth reaches a plateau by about 10 years, although both dimensions continue to increase slightly into old age. The auricle is more round in children and more slender in adults, and is generally more round in females than in males.
Age changes in head hair Based on a small number of specimens, Koyama (1928) noted that the cross-
sectional dimensions of hair increase gradually from infancy to adolescence, are generally unchanged between 18 and about 40 years, and then decrease gradually with age to reach almost the same values as in childhood. Ikoma et al. (1967) studied parietal hair in 3,970 males and females between birth and old age (80+ years). Growth in hair diameter is similar in both sexes, except for minor differences in females 13-48 years. Furthermore, in females there appears to be two critical points at about 17 and 48 years of age, which correspond to menarche and menopause. In both sexes, the hair index in cross section at the shaft is almost constant with age after infancy.
Growth of the body surface area, volume and specific gravity On the basis of data in 20 males and ten females at the ages of 5, 10, 15, 20, and
25 years, Koike (1943a-c) noted that the growth rate of body surface of the lower limb was greatest, followed by the upper limb, the trunk, and then the head and face. In data for 193 males and 158 females from 3 to 21 years of age, Nakao (1965) reported that the body surface area is about 2,000 cm2 a t 3 years of age, increases gradually with age reaching a peak velocity between 16 and 17 years, and then reaches a plateau of about 1,960 cm2 a t 19 years of age. Growth of body volume and specific gravity was studied by Numata (19471, Hara (1947,1951), Numata and Hara (1953), Mizuno and Takahashi (1960), and Nakao (1965). The volume of each part of the body (head and neck, thorax, abdomen and lower limb) shows significant corre- lations with body weight (r = .45 to 59, n = 154) (Nakao, 1965). The volume of the body increases in parallel manner to body weight (Mizuno and Takahashi, (1960). In general, the specific gravity of the body (gm/cc) is 0.96 to 0.97 until about 12 years
TAB
LE 1
. Phy
sica
l m
easu
rem
ents
of J
apan
ese
mal
es a
nd f
emal
es in
198
1 (M
inis
try
of H
ealt
h an
d W
elfa
re, 1
983)
Age
S
tatu
re (c
m)
in y
ears
-
" M
ales
1
12
3 2
137
3 13
9 4
128
5 14
8 6
155
7 17
1
8 16
6 9
174
10
142
11
153
12
150
13
128
14
137
15
89
16
96
17
87
18
79
19
70
20
49
21
47
22
47
23
62
24
44
25
52
26-2
9 26
7 30
-39
894
40-4
9 85
0 50
-59
8 12
60-6
9 48
7 70
- 36
6
X
80.8
9 88
.94
96.7
4 10
3.35
10
9.00
11
5.47
12
0.45
12
5.43
13
1.69
13
6.34
14
2.83
14
9.06
15
6.76
16
3.11
16
6.92
16
7.70
17
0.13
16
9.69
16
9.97
16
9.67
16
9.19
16
9.81
16
8.38
16
9.55
16
8.63
16
8.65
16
6.07
16
3.27
16
1.47
15
9.44
15
6.42
Bod
y w
eigh
t (kg
) S
itti
ng h
eigh
t (cm
) C
hest
gir
th (c
m)
-
SD
n
3.86
12
3 4.
05
139
4.23
13
9 4.
22
128
5.37
14
8 5.
00
155
4.28
17
1 6.
04
166
5.18
17
4 6.
18
142
7.28
15
3 7.
33
151
7.54
12
8 6.
57
137
6.10
89
5.
03
96
5.88
87
5.
82
79
5.80
70
6.
02
49
6.74
47
5.
67
47
5.17
62
4.
33
44
~ ~~
~~
6.00
52
6.
01
267
5.62
89
4 5.
77
850
5.76
81
2 6.
15
487
6.47
36
7
X ~
11.0
8 12
.91
14.7
7 16
.74
18.5
8 21
.01
22.6
0 26
.08
29.2
1 31
.98
36.2
8 40
.63
47.2
8 52
.76
56.4
6 58
.31
61.7
3 60
.70
61.2
1 64
.01
60.6
6 62
.46
59.2
9 62
.20
63.0
8 63
.41
62.3
4 61
.78
59.2
8 57
.51
52.6
0
-
SD
n X
SD
n
~ X SD
1.29
1.
60
1.64
1.
87
2.53
3.
25
2.63
5.
32
4.72
5.
99
6.95
7.
87
8.90
10
.25
9.08
8.
25
9.41
8.
15
7.70
9.
24
8.51
6.
92
7.12
7.
38
7.89
8.
97
8.47
8.
57
8.69
8.
41
8.44
123
139
139
128
148
155
171
166
174
142
153
151
128
137 89
96
87
79
70
49
47
47
62
44
52
26
7 89
4 85
0 81
2 48
7 36
8
46.1
8 51
.38
55.7
5 59
.09
61.3
8 64
.44
66.6
7 68
.85
71.8
1 73
.90
76.0
5 78
.95
82.5
5 86
.65
88.7
2 89
.87
90.9
2 90
.71
91.0
4 91
.90
91.4
2 92
.00
91.1
3 91
.32
91.6
2 91
.24
90.7
7 89
.03
87.7
2 86
.96
84.0
5
12.4
3 8.
05
2.48
2.
79
2.93
3.
31
2.78
3.
59
2.67
3.
56
7.24
7.
55
8.61
4.
27
3.26
2.
76
3.08
3.
51
3.60
3.
53
3.96
2.
66
3.00
2.
47
3.11
6.
48
3.11
6.
24
6.23
3.
65
7.38
123
139
139
128
148
155
17 1
16
6 17
4 14
2 15
3 15
1 12
8 13
7 89
96
87
79
70
49
47
47
62
44
52
267
894
850
812
487
368
47.6
7 51
.10
52.5
4 53
.91
55.9
7 58
.12
59.1
7 62
.14
64.3
7 65
.95
69.3
0 71
.56
75.8
6 79
.27
82.3
5 83
.92
86.1
6 88
.06
86.9
4 89
.15
86.4
8 88
.75
86.9
8 88
.61
88.6
6 89
.18
89.6
7 89
.87
88.5
9 88
.09
85.5
6
6.49
2.
96
2.40
5.
53
2.84
3.
39
5.77
4.
83
4.84
7.
52
5.70
5.
68
9.66
7.
54
6.55
6.
04
6.15
5.
22
4.96
6.
11
5.42
5.
11
4.89
5.
38
4.76
8.
00
5.55
7.
23
8.54
5.
41
7.29
Fem
ales
1
115
2 12
3 3
112
4 15
0 5
145
6 13
3 7
164
8 17
3 9
177
10
184
11
153
12
135
13
113
14
150
15
80
16
96
17
91
18
94
19
70
20
61
21
85
22
62
23
75
24
85
25
95
26-2
9 41
8 30
-39
1,45
7 40
-49
1,31
2 50
-59
1,11
7 60
-69
706
70-
508
78.9
6 87
.91
95.6
1 10
2.12
10
8.57
11
4.20
12
0.46
12
5.40
13
2.17
13
7.60
14
3.60
14
9.60
15
2.98
15
5.20
15
6.62
15
6.23
15
6.59
15
6.52
15
6.98
15
7.34
15
6.04
15
6.49
15
5.62
15
6.24
15
5.36
15
5.18
15
3.34
15
2.01
14
9.65
14
7.01
14
2.28
4.40
4.
31
4.43
3.
66
4.73
4.
76
5.10
6.
24
6.06
6.
39
6.70
6.
42
5.31
5.
07
5.19
5.
49
4.53
4.
66
4.78
4.
70
5.64
4.
87
5.02
5.
04
4.63
5.
41
4.97
4.
91
5.12
5.
39
6.27
115
124
112
150
145
133
164
173
177
184
153
135
113
150 80
96
91
94
70
60
81
54
72
75
84
368
1,43
3 1,
312
1,11
7 70
6 51
1
10.4
6 12
.27
14.3
9 16
.18
18.2
6 19
.72
23.0
5 25
.06
29.0
4 32
.56
36.8
0 41
.92
45.2
2 48
.04
50.3
4 51
.32
52.0
3 51
.33
51.5
0 51
.78
50.1
2 50
.49
50.2
9 50
.72
51.5
0 50
.91
52.3
4 53
.69
52.3
8 49
.98
46.0
2
1.45
1.
55
1.64
1.
69
2.32
2.
47
3.80
4.
38
5.47
5.
96
6.73
7.
14
7.26
7.
10
6.37
5.
82
7.51
6.
32
8.44
6.
42
7.22
6.
71
7.49
6.
94
7.56
7.
23
7.75
7.
94
8.30
8.
60
8.33
115
124
112
150
145
133
164
173
177
184
153
135
113
150 80
96
91
94
71
61
85
62
75
85
95
418
1.45
7 1,
312
1,11
8 70
6 51
2
45.4
3 49
.52
55.0
2 58
.18
61.0
5 63
.92
66.9
9 68
.63
72.0
6 74
.54
77.5
5 80
.66
82.7
6 82
.22
84.5
1 84
.82
84.9
3 84
.79
82.5
7 84
.48
84.0
3 84
.83
85.0
2 85
.37
85.6
9 85
.45
84.5
9 83
.95
82.5
5 80
.64
76.4
2
10.9
2 11
5 11
.40
124
2.39
11
2 2.
45
150
6.01
14
5 2.
64
133
2.87
16
4 6.
20
173
3.19
17
7 3.
43
184
3.89
15
3 3.
80
135
3.39
11
3 12
.14
150
2.64
80
3.
19
96
2.79
91
2.
18
94
14.3
7 71
11
.23
60
9.66
81
3.
31
54
~ ~~
~~
2.75
72
2.
83
75
2.77
84
3.
00
368
6.07
1.
433
4.40
1;
312
5.68
70
6 5.
28
1,11
8
8.80
51
2
46.6
6 49
.32
50.7
1 52
.62
54.9
1 55
.55
58.3
8 59
.05
63.2
9 65
.97
69.6
0 73
.56
75.3
0 77
.65
79.4
1 80
.46
80.8
2 80
.34
78.6
6 81
.30
79.4
5 81
.28
80.7
6 81
.00
81.1
3 81
.64
83.0
8 85
.11
85.4
3 84
.31
82.4
9
6.66
2.
64
5.36
5.
02
2.93
2.
54
6.28
7.
86
5.44
5.
67
6.47
6.
37
9.68
8.
28
5.14
5.
01
6.26
5.
15
14.7
5 4.
35
10.5
7 4.
42
5.69
5.
60
10.9
1 5.
82
6.91
7.
53
7.95
7.
50
8.69
184 YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY rvoi. 27,1984
of age, and then increases rapidly to reach a plateau of 1.02 to 1.03 at and after 16 years in females and 17 years in males (Mizuno and Takahashi, 1960; Nakao, 1965).
Growth of the trunk Transverse and sagittal diameters of the thorax during childhood were measured
by Shima (1931), Yoshino (19421, Atsumi (1952-19541, Nakagawa (19541, Sat0 (19541, Shiroyama (1956), Yano (1957), and Kimura and Tsai (1968). On the basis of 9,806 males and females between birth and 85 years of age, Atsumi (1952-1954) considered age changes in thoracic form based on an index of transverse and sagittal diameters. On the average, the thoracic index is 97.9 at birth (Kojima, 1965) and 84.0 during infancy (Atsumi, 1954a-d). The index changes during childhood and indicates a flatter thorax in males than in females after about 15 years of age. The index increases after 40 years of age, which may be related to age-associated changes in the curvature of the vertebral column. In another study of age changes in the shape of the thorax based on observation and measurement of 3,200 children from birth to 15 years of age, Yano (1957) reported that the thorax is trapezoidal in newborns and especially broader a t the lower level; bell-shaped and broader at the middle level in infants; and barrel- or basin-shaped in children, being broader a t the middle and upper levels.
The ratio of bicristal to biacromial breadths has been used as an index of andro- gyny. Tanner (1951) proposed an androgyny scale based on a discriminant function: 3 x biacromial breadth - bicristal diameter. Kimura (1969a) obtained a function of 7 x biacromial breadth - bicristal diameter from Japanese students. Kimura and Tsai (1968) compared the time a t which sex differences in the androgyny scale occur among Japanese, Taiwanese, and Poles. A critical point in the ratio of two measure- ments appears at about 11 years in boys and 10 years in girls among Japanese and Taiwanese, but a t 14 and 12 or 13 years in Polish boys and girls, respectively. Sex differences in the androgyny scale appear a t 13 years in the Japanese, 14 years in the Taiwanese, and 15 years in the Poles.
Growth of the hand and foot There are many studies of growth of the hand (Kakimoto, 1953a; Haramoto, 1961;
Kimura and Noriyasu, 1966) and foot (Tokuda, 1951; Kondo, 1953; Kakimoto, 1953a; Tamura, 1953; Toki, 1953; Kawamura, 1956; Kondo and Shimamura, 1958; Hashi- moto, 1959; Tomita, 1961; Shimizu and Akoyoshi, 1970~). In a sample of 1,556 males and 1,626 females from birth to 91 years of age, Kakimoto (1953a) reported that the length and breadth of the hand and foot reach a plateau at about 17 years in males and 16 years in females. In both sexes, the foot completes growth in length somewhat earlier than the hand. There is a variation in growth of the components of hand length. The palm reaches adult values earlier than the fingers (Kimura and Nori- yasu, 1966). Significant differences between the left and right hands occur only in hand breadth, and this laterality appears before 6 years of age and remains almost constant from 6 to 12 years.
Growth of the foot ceases first in height, then in breadth, and finally in length. The last-mentioned occurs at about 16 years in males and 15 years in females. The longitudinal arch of the foot becomes higher rapidly until 7 years of age, and reaches adult values at about 13 years of age (Kondo and Shimamura, 1958). Growth of the foot is more conspicuous in the tarsometatarsal area than in the toes, and more in the anterior than in the posterior part of the tarsometatarsal area. The relative breadths of the foot and of heel to foot length do not show any age changes (Koyama et al., 1982).
Among specific segment lengths of the upper and lower extremities, Kimura (1979) noted that the foot and forearm grow most rapidly, followed by the lower legs, then the upper arm and thigh, and finally, the hand which is slower in growth than the other segments. Kondo (1953) noted that growth of the foot stops earlier than that of stature, and also that development of the arch is much faster than growth of other
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 185 Kimura]
parts of the body. He suggested that the relative rapidity of foot growth may be associated with erect posture in man.
Age changes in posture Using a conformateur modified after Nedrigailowa (1929) and Cureton (19311,
Kawakami (19561, Shigeta et al. (1960), Kimura and Omori (1974), and Yamaguchi et al. (1976) described age changes in posture. On the basis of the external curvature of the vertebral column of 152 boys and 140 girls 7-15 years, Kimura and Omori (1974) estimated three developmental periods in posture: childhood before 7 years, preadolescence between 7 and 13 years, and adolescence after 13 years. Adolescent development of posture seems to begin about 1 year earlier in Japanese than in Poles, as reported by Wolanski (1964). Yamaguchi et al. (1976) classified posture into 27 types according to the external curvature of the vertebral column in 1,082 males and females 17-28 years of age. The standard type, which occurs in 35.6% of the young adult sample, decreases in frequency with age, especially in females. For example, it occurs in 30.6 and 19.8% of males and females respectively, in their 40s, and 13.6 and 5.5% of males and females respectively, in their 70s. A kyphosis of the thoracic part is more conspicuous in females than in males, and this senile change appears earlier in females than in males (Otsuki, 1953; Takahashi, 1956; Yamaguchi et al., 1976).
Using a sample of 1,186 males and 1,974 females from 1 to 20 years of age, Ishiko et al. (1960) noted that the height of the center of gravity shows a growth curve similar to that of stature and leg length, while the height of the center of gravity relative to stature shows an opposite age trend to that of relative leg length to stature, i.e., the former decreases while the later increases with age.
Toyoda (1922) devised a method of selecting chairs and desks for schoolchildren based on the sitting height, while Kimura (1969~) discussed the design of school chairs and desks from the perspective of age changes in sitting posture. Kimura concluded that the height of the eyes and knees in the sitting posture, based on allometric equations with stature, would be more useful in choosing the Japanese Industrial Standard to fit each individual.
Age changes in skin color Age changes in skin color were first studied by Takemura (1930) in schoolgirls
using the von Luschan color table. Studies of age changes in the skin color of Japanese from birth to 88 years of age were directed by many researchers from 1950 to 1970 using the Mori-Kaneko color fan (K. Suzuki, 1951, 1952; Tamura, 1955; Matsuyoshi, 1958; Asami, 1961), the standard color plate of the Munsell system (Hirowatari, 1955; Mori et al., 1956; Amari and Takamizu, 1956; Tokuhashi, 1956a; Takamizu, 1956; Nishiura, 1965; Kisoyama, 1972), and the Toshiba photoelectric color-and-gloss-meter (Mori et al., 1954; Amari, 1955; Furusawa, 1955b, Takamizu, 1956; Tokuhashi, 195613; Mori and Tokuhashi, 1956). The first optical study of skin color was done by Matsumoto in 1943. With the photoelectric color-and-gloss-meter, reflection of light on the skin is analyzed into three primary colors using filters and then expressed quantitatively as three elements of color, luminance, and hue. Gloss is measured from the volume of diffused reflection of light on the skin. Data from studies of eight body parts in 234 males and 241 females ranging over the entire life indicate most redness in newborns, which decreases considerably during infancy. Redness then increases again to a maximum in adolescence, only to decrease during adulthood and old age, Blueness shows a pattern of age change opposite to that for redness in most parts of the body, except the dorsum of the hand and the outer surface of the upper arm. Luminosity is relatively low in newborns, but increases considerably to a maximum value toward the end of the suckling period. It then decreases to a minimum value in adolescence, but increases again in adulthood and old age. Individual differences in gloss are generally marked, showing minimum values in newborns and increasing toward elementary school age. Examining the skin color in twins and in Japanese-American hybrids with the photovolt photoelec-
186 YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [Vol. 27, 1984
tric reflection meter, Omoto (1965, 1968) observed a strong genetic component of variability in skin lightness.
PHYSICAL FITNESS
The physical fitness of the Japanese was studied as early as 1930. Grip and back muscle strength were measured in children by Ishikawa (1930), and Shikuma (1933), vital capacity by Shima (1929) and Yoshida (1937), and motor performance by Shima (1929), Mikuni (1932), and Noguchi (1936a). The Report ofInvestigation of the Physi- cal Fitness and Motor Performance, which has been presented by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture every 5 years since 1949, includes the following items: dynamometric grip and back muscular strength, 50-m dash, vertical jump, distance throw, endurance runs of 1,500 or 2,000 m, chinning, side step, chest and leg raising, toe touching, and step test. Table 2 presents descriptive statistics for several measurements of physical fitness in Japanese children and youth from 4 to 20 years of age.
Several researchers have tried to more precisely examine age changes in muscular strength with more refined equipment; for example; Ishiko (1953) on grip strength, Yasunaga (1961) on finger strength, Niwa (1969) and Mizutani et al. (1973) on elbow flexion strength, and Tsushima (1961a-c, 1962) on back muscular strength. Exam- ining the fitness of about 3,000 males and females from 4 to 20 years, Fujimoto (1955) noted that growth curves of grip and back muscle strength, vital capacity and basal metabolic rate per day are similar to the general curve of Scammon. Emmert’s test and hand tapping show a growth pattern of the neural type, while reaction time and approximate time of rotation of the eyeball show a curve which is the reverse of the neural type. The standing broad jump shows a pattern similar to the neural type in females, while it shows a linear growth curve in males. Age changes in blood pressure also show a linear curve in both sexes. Developmental characteristics of each physical fitness test may be defined by specific growth patterns (Kimura, 1966). Grip and back muscle strength show maximum values in the 20s and 30s for males and in the early 20s for females. According to Kawahatsu (19741, the maximum value for maximum force of the leg muscle in males is observed between 20 and 24 years, while the maximum value for velocity and power of the leg muscles appears a t 15 years of age, and the values subsequently decrease with age.
Maximum aerobic capacity was measured by Takebayashi (19501, Yoshizawa (1971, 19721, and Asahina et al. (1972) in both sexes from 9 to 20 years of age. According to the last indicated report, maximum oxygen intake increases from 12 to 16 years in males and from 9 to 13 years in females, and reaches a plateau at 20 and 15 years of age in males and females, respectively.
Developmental studies of physical fitness have been done in preschool children. For example, Yamakawa (1957) studied the effect of learning on a tapping test, while Nakao (19611, Hotta et al. (19611, and Watanabe et al. (1961) studied the influence of growth in physique and the hip joint upon the development of the motor functions. Munetake et al. (19771, Matsuura and Nakamura (19771, and Nakamura and Mat- suura (1979) examined fundamental motor abilities, while Matsuura (1978) studied ball-handling skills in children under 6 years of age. Sashida (1952a,b), Shirai and Sashida (1952a,b), Ikeda (19541, and Yoshizawa et al. (1975, 1979, 1980, 1981) also investigated the aerobic work capacity in preschool children.
Physical fitness and physique were also compared in children at different socioeco- nomic levels and in various local districts (Kimura, 1951, 1952, 1954, 1955, 1956a,b; Ono et al., 1962, 1963, 1965a,b; Tamura et al., 1968; Tamura et al., 1968; Hayashi, 1970a,b, 1971). From these studies, it was noted that conditions of daily life are very important in growth and development of both physical fitness and physique. Grip strength and vital capacity are generally less in Japanese than in Americans, especially after 15 years in grip strength and 13 years in vital capacity (Ikai, 1967). Physical fitness standards for the Japanese were edited by the Physical Fitness Laboratory, Tokyo Metropolitan University, in 1970, and a third edition (1980) is currently available.
Kimura] GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 187
LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
The first longitudinal study of growth in Japanese was done by Seki (1915), who followed the stature, body weight, and chest girth of 196 girls for 6 years from 7 to 13 years of age. After World War 11, Masutani (1948) studied body weight in a longitudinal series of 217 boys from 6 to 19 years of age. Subsequently, Takeda (1953) reported a longitudinal study of growth in stature, body weight, and chest girth in 53 boys and 56 girls from 6 to 11 years, and 150 girls from 12 to 15 years of age. A comprehensive longitudinal study of Japanese-American hybrid children was conducted by Suda and colleagues from 1951 to 1965. Takaishi (1957a,b, 1958) followed the growth of stature and body weight longitudinally in about 9,000 infants during the first year of life and in 1,005 children from 6 to 12 years. Sawada (1960) compared the growth of physique in schoolchildren followed longitudinally from 6 to 14 years of age in three districts: large and small cities and a rural town. In 1961, there was a small discussion concerning a longitudinal study of growth between Imamura and Fujita. Imamura (1961) expressed doubts about secular environmental changes in each longitudinal series and about the application of usual methods of analysis for study in a longitudinal series as in a cross-sectional one. Fujita (1961) and Shimizu (1961a) replied independently, emphasizing the need for longitudinal studies to ascertain the true nature of physical growth and development.
Significant correlations over 10 years between 7 and 17 years were noted for stature and body weight (0.61 and 0.461, but not for chest girth (0.22) in 370 girls (Chiba, 19591, and for stature measured in 126 boys (0.75) and 105 girls (0.79) (Aoyama, 1977). However, few significant correlations were obtained for stature (0.26 for both sexes) and body weight (0.22 for boys and 0.11 for girls) in 167 boys and 162 girls measured at birth and at 14 years of age (Tanaka, 1977). Studying 11 measurements in 76 infants during the first year of life, Sat0 (1957) noted that cranial measurements generally show higher individuality, followed by sitting height, stature, and limb lengths, and then head and chest girths. In a longitudinal series of 587 girls, 5-20 years of age (Chiba, 1959), only a few girls followed the standard growth curve in either stature or body weight, while Terada and Hoshi (1965c, 1966) tried to classify individual growth patterns into several types according to the standard-channel method. Kida et al. (1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1969) reported longitudinal studies of physical measurements and strength in 252 schoolchildren, 6-14 years of age, and suggested that the age at commencement of the adolescent spurt depends upon physical growth in the preceding period.
Adolescent spurt From longitudinal studies of physical measurements and/or fitness in males and
females a t various ages including adolescence, the following results are suggested in Japanese studies. Peak velocity of stature appears between 11 and 12 years in boys and 9 and 10 years in girls (Ando et al., 1978). In 40 girls, the peak velocities were 8.7 cm in stature a t 11.3 years, 5.4 cm in lower limb length a t 11.3 years, and 4.1 cm in upper limb length at 11.45 years of age, while menarche occurred at 12.64 years, which is 1.38 years later than the age of peak height velocity (Yanagisawa and Furumatsu, 1977). At menarche (mean age, 12.7 years), mean values were 148 cm for stature, 41.1 kg for body weight, 74 cm for chest girth, and 81 cm for sitting height (Kato, 1965). The adolescent peak appeared earlier in physical growth, fol- lowed by jumping power and muscular strength, and then flexibility (Mizuno et al., 1973). Stature and sitting height did not show a tendency to increase after 18 years of age in both sexes, while mean values of chest girth and body weight continued to increase at least until 20 or 21 years in males and 19 years in females (Hattori, 1975a).
Obesity and other studies In longitudinal data for 395 boys and 420 girls measured at birth, and at 1, 3, and
6 years of age, obese children at 1 year of age were not always fat at 3 years, while almost all obese children at 3 years were still fat at 6 years (Sawaki, 1975). In a
TAB
LE 2
. Sta
tist
ical
ual
ues f
or m
easu
rem
ents
of
phys
ical
fitn
ess
in J
apan
ese
Gri
p B
ack
50-m
das
h V
ertic
al
Vit
al
stre
ngth
(kg)’
stre
ngth
(kg?
(s
ec13
ju
mp
(~rn
)~
capa
city
(cc1
5 ~
~ -
-
-
Age
inye
ars
n X
SD
n
X
SD
n X
SD
n
X
X
SD
SD
n
Mal
es
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Fem
ales
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
IS
20
25
59
101
109
119
128
952
961
960
988
990
957
967
938
1,63
1 1,
562
99 1
27
53
104
104
109
111
939
956
973
955
969
964
966
938
1,79
5 1,
740
88 1
7.3
9.4
10.5
12
.5
13.9
15
.9
18.7
21
.3
26.4
32
.3
37.4
42
.1
44.4
46
.7
46.7
48
.0
47.6
6.6
8.6
9.7
10.6
12
.3
13.4
17
.1
19.9
23
.3
25.7
27
.4
29.1
29
.9
30.7
29
.8
30.2
30
.1
1.33
2.
01
1.70
1.
97
2.41
2.
84
4.67
4.
94
6.72
6.
98
7.14
6.
03
5.85
6.
58
6.58
6.
62
6.74
1.62
1.
91
1.50
1.
76
2.08
2.
23
4.15
4.
63
4.85
4.
66
4.85
4.
66
4.61
4.
54
4.64
4.
17
4.68
25
26
26
24
945
952
943
964
989
943
981
938
1,45
1
1,34
9 79
2 34
47
35
50
930
945
929
957
959
928
953
940
1,48
7 1,
326
773
21.4
27
.0
37.6
41
.7
60.7
70
.6
82.8
95
.0
112.
7 12
3.1
132.
9 13
9.4
132.
5 13
3.4
137.
4
20.4
21
.0
26.5
32
.3
46.8
57
.0
63.7
69
.2
76.2
76
.3
81.7
83
.3
81.9
84
.4
5.2
6.7
7.1
7.0
17.2
1 17
.69
22.9
1 24
.19
24.6
2 23
.01
24.6
0 24
.66
23.2
9 14
.68
24.5
0
5.4
6.4
7.6
8.4
13.7
4 15
.63
16.5
4 16
.93
18.8
9 16
.43
16.7
0 16
.44
17.2
6 18
.69
88
186
134
152
942
952
942
949
985
943
982
858
1,35
8 1,
261
714 85
13
8 12
6 13
6 92
7 94
7 92
8 95
6 95
9 92
7 95
3 94
1 1,
368
1.19
8
11.2
10
.5
9.9
9.4
9.0
8.7
8.4
8.0
7.6
7.4
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.3
7.2
11.7
10
.8
10.4
9.
8 9.
3 8.
9 8.
8 8.
6 8.
6 8.
7 8.
7 8.
7 8.
8 8.
8
1.1
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.58
0.
68
0.57
0.
62
0.46
0.
40
0.45
0.
31
0.42
0.
34
0.41
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.54
0.
55
0.65
0.
52
0.65
0.
55
0.62
0.
51
0.58
0.
58
121
260 90
13
0 13
5 15
3 97
6 97
6 97
6 99
3 99
4 97
2 97
1
946
1,64
7 1,
575
1,01
3
85
139
128
136
968
97 1
98
1
982
984
978
980
957
1,85
4 1.
767
15.3
4.
26
15.4
4.
34
18.5
4.
6 23
21
.3
5.1
50
25.0
5.
4 44
2f
i.5
5.3
68
-. .
33.9
6.
0 76
37
.6
6.0
76
42.9
7.
3 48
48
.8
8.3
52
54.6
8.
1 96
58
.7
7.5
107
61.0
7.
2 82
63
.1
7.4
36
61.1
7.
8 61
.4
7.3
59.6
7.
5
906
1,04
2 1,
264
1,53
1 1,
734
1,80
2 1,
850
2,14
3 2,
380
2,74
6 2,
842
3,04
2
18.4
4.
6 24
90
1 76
95
0 19
.8
4.7
23.2
4.
9 44
1,
182
67
1,31
5 24
.7
4.9
32.6
5.
4 52
1,
480
35.8
5.
8 51
1,
554
38.4
5.
9 69
1,
660
40.8
6.
6 43
2,
079
60
2,22
0 42
.2
6.9
43.2
6.
3 11
0 2,
220
43.4
6.
1 11
0 2,
120
46
2,15
0 44
.7
6.4
38
2,30
0 42
.2
5.9
42.0
5.
8 45
2,
420
226
231
262
278
342
338
338
412
445
602
582
495
220
213
242
256
262
287
324
338
392
368
354
434
30 1
48
2 82
.6
19.3
7 68
6 8.
8 0.
65
892
41.1
6.
3 68
2,
430
436
’Tok
yo M
et. U
niv.
(196
81, M
inis
t. E
duc.
Sci
. Cul
t. (1
9791
. ‘N
akam
ura
et a
l. (1
9791
, Min
ist.
Edu
c. S
ci. (
1979
).
RN
ishi
oka e
t al.
(197
1), M
inis
t. E
duc.
Sci
. Cul
t. (1
979)
. “N
ishi
oka
et a
l. (1
971)
, Min
ist.
Edu
c. S
ci. C
ult.
(197
91.
‘Fuj
imot
o (1
955)
.
Kimura] GROWTHAND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 189
sample of 25 boys and 26 girls who were judged as obese among 268 boys and 264 girls investigated longitudinally from 6 to 11 years, obesity was more frequently observed in the first half of this range (6-9 years) than in the later half (10 and 11 years) in both sexes, and skinfold thicknesses increased sharply at 8-9 years of age (Kurihara, 1967).
Following the stature and body weight of 174 low-birth-weights infants until 5 years of age, Karasawa (1974) found that their mean body weight was lower than that of a control group during the first year after birth, but that they were already approaching the control group in stature and body weight by 5 years of age. In general, low-birth-weight infants showed large individual differences in the growth of physique and body proportions. In a 3-year study of junior high schoolchildren classified as having a “weakly” physique, Takaishi et al. (1971) estimated that the diagnosis was due only to retardation of growth, especially of the adolescent spurt.
ALLOMETRIC STUDIES
A relation of E = Ksr between the brain weight (E) and body weight (s) was first observed by Snell(l892). The concept and mode of allometry was noted in the 1930s by Huxley, Tessier, and Normura independently. Following Thompson (19381, Shim- izu (1942) first applied allometry to the study of human growth in Japanese, and then published monographs on allometric growth in fetuses, newborns, and infants, and on allometry of bones (Shimizu, 1946, 1947). According to allometric relation- ships of stature and body weight in schoolchildren 6-18 years of age, critical points appear at about 11 years for boys (Sato, 19471, and 8 and 14 years for boys and 11 years for girls (Shimizu and Inoue, 1956). Relative growth coefficients were 2.45 and 3.73 for boys (Sato, 19471, and 1.90, 2.81, and 2.05 for boys, and 2.29 and 3.20 for girls (Shimizu and Inoue, 1956). Allometric relationships were also studied among physique and physical fitness (Shimizu and Maezawa, 1963; Morishita, 1966). Using the data of the Japanese Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture, Hattori (1975b) analyzed age changes in the allometric coefficient of body weight, chest girth, and sitting height relative to stature in children 6-14 years and noted that allometric coefficients varied in each age group and within the same stature class, and also showed directional changes with age. Hence, age definition should be required, especially between 11 and 14 years, due to marked variation in the coefficients.
Allometric growth patterns Using longitudinal data, allometric relationships between stature and body weight
were discussed by Morishita (1965, 1966) for infants and young children from 1 to 6 years, and by Shimizu (1957, 1961b), Imoto et al. (1963), Inoue and Shimizu (19641, Kimura (1970), and Komiya (1974, 1977) for schoolchildren 6-17 years of age. Inoue and Shimizu (1964) divided relative growth into mono- and diphasic allometric types. Examining longitudinal data for 155 girls, three patterns of allometric growth were identified by Kimura (1970). The first pattern was characterized by two allometric phases and one critical point, and girls (47.6%) showing this pattern were compara- tively premature and fat at maturity. The third pattern had three allometric phases, one critical point and one discontinous point, and girls (25.9%) showing the third pattern were retarded in sexual development and had a slender body build at maturity. The second pattern was intermediate in characteristic between the first and third patterns and was evident by 20.3% of the girls. According to Komiya (1974), allometric growth of stature and body weight was classified into three pat- terns: mono-, di-, and triphasic. The diphasic pattern was further divided into two patterns based on the period of occurrence of a critical point. In the monophasic pattern and the diphasic pattern with an earlier critical point, there were no significant sexual differences in the relative growth coefficients, though the critical point occurred at lower values of stature and body weight in females than in males. The diphasic pattern with a later critical point in females showed a larger relative growth coefficient than that in the other diphasic pattern in males and females.
190 YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [Vol. 27, 1984
Other applications of allometry in growth studies Allometric equations were also utilized to analyze the growth of children under
various conditions, i.e. local or regional variation (Imoto et al., 1963; Kimura, 1975b), secular trends (Kimura, 1967; Miyajima, 1972) and genetic (Kimura and Tsai, 1967, 1968; Kimura, 1969b; Hoshi, 1978). For example, using stature and the logarithm of body weight to compare the growth of Taiwanese, Japanese, Polish, and southern and central Chinese children, Kimura (1969b) concluded that the difference between the Taiwanese and the southern Chinese was due to environmental factors, while that between the central Chinese and the former two groups was due to both hereditary and environmental factors. The allometric technique was also applied to comparisons of growth in each long bone of the hand (Kimura and Takeuchi, 19761, and in garment design (Amano et al., 1976; Yanagisawa et al., 1979).
In the allometric studies, an inspective approach was first used to decide a type of polyphasic allometry. Subsequently, the “reduced major axis” method on double logarithmic diagrams was used (Komiya and Osaka, 1975; Hoshi, 1978; Yanagisawa et al., 1979), while Takai (1976) and Takai and Akiyoski (1981) used a new method of fitting polyphasic allometric lines with Hudson’s segmented regression method and Akaike’s MAICE method, and also used a multivariate allometric method according to a principal-component analysis of the covariance of natural logarithms.
Factor Analysis Recently, attempts have been made to analyze growth of physique and physical
fitness and sexual maturation with factor analysis techniques (Kitamura and Mat- suura, 1971; Tamura et al., 1972, 1973; Inoue and Matsuura, 1972, 1976; Ohyama, 1974). Kawabe et al. (1980, 1982) considered the characteristics of various indices of body build in children using principal-components analysis. Sex differences were negligible, and three components accounted for over 90% of total variance: body size, body build, and skinfold thicknesses. Of these the first component was highly correlated with age, while the other two were age independent. Accordingly, the second and third components should be evaluated for assessment of individuals within a population of a wide age range.
DENTAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Tooth eruption
The first observations on dental eruption were made by Kitamura (1917) and Hamano (1930a,b) on deciduous teeth and by Okamoto (1934), Nagamine (19341, and Kitamura (1935) on permanent teeth. Table 3 shows the mean and maximum and minimum ages in days for the eruption times of deciduous teeth, and in months for the eruption times of permanent teeth (Fujita, 1965). Subsequently, dental eruption was studied longitudinally from plaster casts or x-rays by many researchers (Okuya, 1950; Kamijo et al., 1952; Tsutsumi et al., 1953, 1954; Nomi, 1956; Okada, 1958a-c; Sakamoto, 1959; Mochizuki, 1965; Oshima, 1972). On the basis of 6,936 casts for 389 infants followed longitudinally from 3 months to 4.5 years of age, Suzuki (19601, Kashiwai (19601, and Mori (1960) noted the following trends: two-thirds of complete crown length was evident by 4-5 (upper) and 5-6 (lower) months in the medial incisors, by 4-6 months in the upper and lower canines, and by 6-8 (upper) and 4-7 (lower) months in the first molar. Comparing the figures in Table 3 with those of American Whites and Blacks (Garn et al., 1973) for the permanent teeth of the upper and lower jaws, the medial and lateral incisors and the first molar, which appear before 8 years of age, appear earlier in Blacks, followed by Whites, then the Japanese, while the canine, the first and second premolars, and the second molar, which appear after 10 years, erupt earlier in the Japanese, followed by the Blacks, then the Whites. It thus appears that dental development is delayed in early childhood, and more advanced in later childhood and adolescence in the Japanese compared to American Whites and Blacks.
Many papers were published on the eruption of the third molar in Japanese following Yano and Kajizuka (1919). According to Kasai (1959), on the basis of 6,002
Kimura] GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN
TABLE 3. Ages at the eruption of teeth in Japanese (Fujitq 1965)
Males Females X Max-min. X Max.-min. - -
Deciduous teeth (in days) Upper jaw
Medial incisor 298 523-125 3 10 436-209 Lateral incisor 366 677-171 371 546-247 Canine 537 812-294 533 707-348 1st molar 530 873-227 497 677-370 2nd molar 808 1,088-365 840 1,023-329
Lower jaw Medial incisor 248 497-111 241 364-176 Lateral incisor 392 734-151 401 598-223 Canine 563 846-273 559 851-363 1st molar 531 895-204 521 812-363 2nd molar 766 1,007-335 670 1,069-505
Permanent teeth (in months) Upper jaw
Medial incisor 89 117-63 86 110-65 Lateral incisor 103 138-82 97 128-74 Canine 131 138-106 122 160-85 1st. premolar 113 143-78 112 151-75 2nd. premolar 120 150-84 125 194-82 1st. molar 80 112-61 76 150-57 2nd. molar 143 161-119 144 200-112 3rd. molar 239 264-204 252 276-180
Lower jaw Medial incisor Lateral incisor Canine 1st. premolar 2nd. premolar 1st. molar 2nd. molar 3rd. molar
78 95-58 87 110-66
118 140-92 118 150-81 124 152-93 76 107-56
135 152-108 236 264-192
74 96-58 84 131-66
109 141-64 113 173-64 122 167-68 72 136-54
133 194-110 252 288-180
191
males and females from 6 to 35 years of age, the dental germ of the third molar began to appear at about 7 years of age and increased gradually until 14 or 15 years. Its rate of occurrence then slowed down to reach an almost constant value at about 20 years, being 79% for the upper and 85% for the lower jaw in males, and 74% and 82% for the upper and lower jaws in females, respectively. Eruption of the third molar began at 15 years and ceased at 23-25 years. It appeared earlier in females by about 1 year, but complete eruption was somewhat later in females than in males. Asymmetrical occurrence of the third molar occurred in about 19% of this series. According to Fanning (1962), the median age of emergence of the upper third molar was 20.5 years in the nonmutilated dentitions of Boston males and females, while the lower third molar emerged at 19.8 years in the nonmutilated dentitions of Boston males and females, while the lower third molar emerged at 19.8 years in males and 20.4 years in females. The Japanese data (19.8 years in males and 21.0 years in females, Table 3) agree closely with these values.
The eruption of permanent teeth proceeds very rapidly initially and then more slowly (Kurita, 1958a-d; Amano, 1959). Kurita stated that eruption is due to the development of the enamel substance and dentin, while Amano agreed with the opinion of Orban (1944), that tooth eruption is due to the development of the dental root. Formation of the dental roots of the permanent dentition was radiographically observed by Aoki (1930a-c), Wada (1936a-d, 1937), Kaneda (19561, Sakuma (1957) and Y. Nakamura (1974). According to Kaneda (1956), considerable differences in root formation were apparent between the upper and lower teeth within a pair, and between males and females, but few differences were noted in root formation be-
192 YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [Vol. 27, 1984
tween the left and right sides. In root formation, the lower teeth generally preceded the upper, and females preceded males. Further, the apical part of the root required more time for formation than the middle and cervical parts of each tooth. Comparing the results of studies by Fujita (1965) and Kaneda (1956), it appreared that dental root formation is completed about 3-4 months after the eruption of teeth.
Age changes of the dental arch Growth of the dental arch was first studied by Iwagaki (1926) in the longitudinal
records of four boys and one girl for 5 years, from 6 to 10 years of age. Subsequently, Wada (1938) made cross-sectional observations on plaster casts of 292 males and females from 6 years to adulthood. Recently arch changes were studied by Ono et al. (1960), Kanematsu (1973), and Kitajima (1974) in infants, and by Yamamoto (1956) in 924 males and females from 2 to 91 years of age. These studies noted the following trends. Almost all measurements of the dental arch increased gradually with age after 2 years and reached a plateau by 16-17 years in males and 15-16 years in females. Length of dental arch showed a maximum value at about 10 years in both sexes, and then gradually decreased until about 20 years. In general, increments with age were somewhat greater in length than in width of the palate. Accordingly, the dental arch changed gradually from a round shape to an elongated horseshoe shape by 9-10 years of age, and then to a somewhat round shape in adults. Growth of the dental arch was also studied in longitudinal series by Hirayama (19591, Mochizuki (1965), Kumazawa (1968a-d), and Yoshida (1976). According to these studies, arch width developed anteroposteriorly. The maximum value for length of the arch was obtained at 12 years (upper) and 11 years (lower) in boys, and at 10 years (upper and lower) in girls (Kumazawa, 1968a-d). The most frequent shape of the dental arch was parabolic by 13 years in males, and round to square after 8 years of age in females (Sato et al., 1969). In general, the dental arch showed few sex differences in size, though it was slightly larger in males than in females (Ninomiya and Kameda, 1969; Kitajima, 1974).
Relationship between tooth eruption and physical growth The correlation between the eruption of deciduous and permanent teeth and
physical growth was examined by many researchers, including Nagamine (19341, Saito and Ozaki (1937), Ninomiya and Yamato (1951), It0 (1956), Ariga (19581, Sato (1959a,b), Okamoto (1960), Hayashi (1960), Matsui (1961), and Inoue (1961). Results of these studies indicated that stature, body weight, sitting height, and chest and upper arm girths showed a peak in growth 2-3 years later than the eruption of the second lower molar and about 1 year after the completion of its root. Shinomiya (1959) observed that the second molar appeared in two-thirds of girls at the age of menarche, when mean stature was 149.5 cm. Wada (1971) also noted a close relation- ship between completion of the premolar root and menarche, while Koishi et al. (1952) observed a correlation between eruption of the second molar and development of the mammary areola as well as physical growth. Finally, observing the frequen- cies of erupted permanent teeth in each age group of children from 6 to 15 years for 10 years from 1948 to 1958, Osanai (1959) noted a secular trend in earlier eruption of the teeth.
SKELETAL MATURATION
The assessment of skeletal maturation by radiographs was initiated in Japan between 1910 and 1930 with studies of the carpus by Fujinami (1912), of the carpus and tarsus by Ukita (1923), of long bones of the extremities by Suzuki (1924-1925), of the bones of the hand and wrist by Oda (1926), and of the bones of the elbow by Minami (1929). At first, maturity was generally assessed by the number of ossifica- tion centers in each body region. In the newborns, the capitate and hamate (Fuji- nami, 1912; Fukabori, 1924) and the distal epiphysis of the femur (Saito, 1952) were noted as valuable for assessing maturity. The time of appearance and order of
Kimura] GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 193
ossification of centers, and the number at each age were observed in detail by Ishikawa (1953), Sakai (1954) and Yamamoto et al. (1962a-c) on males and females from birth to 14 and 18 years of age. In addition, Suzuki (1924-1925) measured the length of the epiphysis of each long bone, and Oda (1926) measured the diameter and area of ossification of each carpus. Similar studies were subsequently under- taken by Koyanagi (19301, Ichikawa (1941), Ohira (1952a,b, 19561, Ueyama and Shima (19581, Kawada et al. (1959), and Shinada (1960). Using 1,022 children from birth to 15 years of age, Ohira (195213) developed a standard for skeletal maturity based on the area of carpal ossification centers, which was better correlated with stature than with chronological age. Consequently, Ohira found that there were significant correlations between a maturation quotient, calculated from the ratio of bone agelchronological age, and the eruption of permanent teeth, age a t menarche, stature, and body weight.
In the tradition of Todd (1937) and Greulich and Pyle (1950), Ohwada and Sutow (1953) used the 50th percentile method to devise an atlas of the skeletal development of the hand and wrist based on 2,412 children from 6 to 19 years of age. Sat0 (19601, Inoue and Shimizu (1965), and Suzuki (1968 a,b) also developed similar atlases of skeletal maturity. Following the Oxford method (Acheson, 1954), Nakazawa (1959) devised a new method of assessing skeletal maturation based on the indicators of Ohwada and Sutow (1953). After the studies by Sugiura et al. (1961, 19631, Sugiura and Nakazawa (1968) published a method for assessing the skeletal maturation of Japanese children in the Chubu district. Using this method, skeletal age was assessed for children in Tokyo (Eto, 19711, Shizuoka (Kawashima et al., 19721, and Kagoshima (Ueno, 1977a,b). Using the maturity indicators of Greulich and Pyle (1959), Kimura (1972b) devised a new analytical (K score) method for assessing skeletal maturation. In this method, three bone areas, the phalanges and metacar- pals, the carpals, and the radius and ulna, are designed to contribute equally to the total maturity score (K), which ranges from 0 to 100. Furuya (1950) followed the maturation of bones of the foot for 6 years in 70 schoolchildren from 6 to 12 years of age. Following the study by Sugiura and Nakazawa on the hand and wrist, Tajima (1964, 1966) prepared an atlas of skeletal maturation of the bones of the knee and of the ilium and ischium, while Muramoto (1965) developed an atlas of the bones of the elbow.
The Tanner-Whitehouse (TW1) method (Tanner et al., 1959) was first applied by Ashizawa (1970), while the revised (TW2) method (Tanner et al., 1962) was used by Kawashima et al. (1972) in the assessment of skeletal maturation in Japanese children. Comparing the skeletal ages assessed by the method of Sugiura and Nakazawa and by the TW1 method in 652 children from 4 to 12 years of age in Tokyo, Eto (1971) suggested that the former was more applicable to boys 4-8 years and to girls 8-12 years than the latter. However, Kawashima et al. (1972) pointed out that, although the TW2 skeletal age was more compatible with chronological age than bone ages after the Sugiura and Nakazawa method before 8 years of age, the situation was reversed after 12 years. Comparing maturity scores by the Oxford and TW1 methods, Kimura (1972a) suggested that the TW1 method was superior in simplicity and understanding, while the Oxford method was excellent in giving essentially a linear maturity graph. The TW1 method tended to underestimate maturity of Japanese children in infancy compared to the Oxford Method.
Suzuki (1968a,b) observed a linear relationship between skeletal and chronological ages, with an increasing variance as chronological age advanced. Kimura (1972b) also obtained a significant linear regression between chronological ages and the K scores in cross-sectional samples of 274 boys and 222 girls, 7-12 years of age in Tokyo. Ishii et al. (1953) and Monden (1955) considered the relationship between skeletal age and age at menarche, Appearance of the sesamoid of the first metacar- pophalangeal joint could be used to estimate the occurrence of menarche (Monden, 1955). Appearance of secondary sex characters is also more highly correlated with skeletal than chronological age (Sato, 1960; Inoue, 1969). Kawada et al. (1959) observed a significant correlation between the area of carpal bones and the number
194 YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [Vol. 27, 1984
of erupted permanent teeth, but the studies by Takahashi (1960), K. Kato (1960), and Inoue (1969) gave only low correlations (about 0.2) between skeletal and dental ages. Significant correlations between skeletal maturation and physical growth have been reported by many authors (Hayami, 1930; Inoue, 1948; Ohira, 1952a,b; Ishikawa, 1953; Yamamoto et al. 1962a-c; Suzuki, 1968a,b; Ohara a-e; Yosioka et al., 1981). According to Suzuki (1968a,b), bone age shows high correlation with stature of 0.93 in boys and 0.95 in girls, and with body weight 0.96 and 0.90 in boys and girls, respectively. Ohara (1971a-e) developed equations to predict skeletal maturation (maturity score, MS) from chronological age (CAI and stature (s) as follows, MS = 4.6CA + 0.8s - 29 for boys and MS = 5CA + 1.6 -115 for girls. Konishi and Ohyama (1982) reported significant correlations between skeletal ma- turity and nutritional indices; i.e., 0.46 for the Rohrer and 0.54 for the Kaup indices. On the basis of longitudinal data for 87 children from 6 to 17 years, Kuroda et al. (1969) suggested that the period of peak velocity for stature could be predicted from the appearance of the ulnar sesamoid.
Comparing the appearance of ossification centers of the hand and wrist in Japa- nese and American children from birth to 5 years, Kokubo (1960) noted only few differences for the metacarpals and phalanges, while the carpal centers and the distal epiphysis of the ulna appeared somewhat later in the Japanese. Using the Greulich-Pyle method, Inoue and Shimizu (1965) observed that skeletal maturation was more delayed in Japanese than in American children at an early age, but was more advanced in the former after 11 years in boys and 7 years in girls. On the basis of 963 children from 6 to 18 years of age, Ashizawa (1970) also observed that TW1 skeletal ages were advanced compared to chronological age after 8.5 years in boys and until 13.5 years in girls. Table 4 shows means and variances for skeletal age (TW2) within specific chronological age groups of Japanese children in Tokyo and Sapporo (Kimura, 1977a,b). From studies of children in Tokyo, Okinawa, and Sap- poro, Kimura (1972a,b, 1976a,c 1977a,b) concluded that the TW1 and TW2 skeletal ages were almost the same as or less than chronological ages until 10 years of age. Thereafter, skeletal ages were in advance of chronological ages. However, bones of the hand and wrist reached maturity at almost the same time in both Japanese and British children, i.e., 18 years in boys and 16 years in girls.
Cortical thickness and bone density Nagamine et al. (1976) and Yamakawa et al. (1976) measured the bone density of
1,185 children from 3 to 15 years using a photodensitometer. As an indirect indicator of mineral content of the bone, Kimura (1976d, 1978) measured the cortical thickness of the second metacarpal a t midshaft, in addition to breadth and length. Cortical thickness was absolutely and relatively less in Japanese than in Americans and Guatemalans (Garn, 19761, especially after adolescence. This trend may be charac- teristic of Mongoloids (Kimura, 1976d). Discussing growth of the second metacarpal in relation to chronological and skeletal ages, Kimura (1976b, 1978) noted that the growth curve of bone length was almost parallel in both sexes until adolescence, followed by a more rapid increase in males than in females. Cortical thickness increased in proportion to growth of the bone in length and breadth (more so relative to length) in a similar manner for both sexes. On the basis of skeletal maturity, mean values of length, breadth, and cortical thickness of the second metacarpal were almost always significantly greater in males than in females, increasing steadily from infancy to 13 years in boys and 11 years in girls. Subsequently, the sex difference was considerably greater for metacarpal breadth and cortical thickness.
Studies of Twins The incidence of twins in Japan is low (0.6-0.7%) due to a low frequency of
dizygotic twins (Komai and Fukuoka, 1936). In general, monozygotic twins showed similar results for morphological measurements and psychological tests, but for motor performances and mental abilities heritability was less clear (Araki, 1934; Fukuoka, 19371.A cooperative investigation of twins from 6 to 15 years of age was
Kimura] GROWTHAND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 195
TABLE 4. Sample sizes (n), mean chronological ages (CA) per age group, and means (3) and variances (u) for the skeletal age (TW2) (SA) in Japanese children in Tokyo and Sapporo (Kimura, 19774 b)
Males Females SA SA
Ape n CA x V n CA x V
Tokyo 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Sapporo 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 0.4 - - 9 1.0 14 2.2 - - 14 3.1 3.4 1.28 13 4.1 4.2 1.13 13 4.9 4.9 1.55 17 5.9 5.7 0.94 56 7.1 6.9 1.11 34 8.1 8.0 1.49 36 9.0 9.8 1.94 53 10.1 10.5 1.58 39 11.0 11.4 1.41 58 12.0 13.0 1.63 21 12.3 13.2 1.32 14 13.2 14.2 1.34 28 14.0 15.4 0.84
- -
28 15.0 16.5 1.01 29 16.0 17.2 0.73 22 16.9 17.7 0.35 8 17.7 18.0 0.00
3 6.4 5.8 0.16 8 7.1 6.3 2.24 13 8.0 7.5 1.98 10 9.1 8.5 1.54 12 10.0 9.3 0.49 11 11.1 10.8 0.87 11 12.0 12.9 1.41 12 13.0 13.7 3.59 11 14.0 15.1 0.43 12 15.0 15.5 0.43 13 16.0 16.9 1.26 12 17.1 17.4 0.71 7 18.0 18.0 0.00
1 0.3 - - 9 1.0 - - 13 2.0 16 3.0 3.5 0.38 9 4.0 4.1 0.44 17 5.2 5.5 1.03 10 6.0 6.4 2.24 42 7.1 7.0 1.24 46 8.0 8.0 0.86 33 9.0 9.7 1.54 35 10.0 10.9 1.74 41 11.1 12.3 1.55 27 12.0 13.4 0.56 13 12.2 13.8 0.90 - 15 13.1 14.6 0.99 24 14.0 15.2 0.86 24 15.0 15.7 0.37 24 16.0 16.0 0.02 20 17.0 16.0 0.00 10 17.8 16.0 0.00 -
- -
5 6.4 6.5 0.51 4 7 .O 6.0 0.61 15 8.0 7.7 1.02 10 9.1 8.7 1.18 15 10.0 10.1 0.63 10 11.1 11.4 1.74 12 12.2 12.9 0.34 9 13.1 13.4 0.51 10 14.0 14.5 0.94 16 15.0 15.3 0.69 8 16.0 15.8 0.17 11 17.1 16.0 0.01 8 18.0 16.0 0.00
Numbers within brackets show the semilongitudinal data from the twin study
undertaken by several researchers, while a comprehensive investigation has been conducted since 1951 on twins from 12 to 18 years of age at the junior and senior high school attached to the Faculty of Education, University of Tokyo. Some of the results have been published as monographs, Studies of Twins, Z-ZZZ, in 1954, 1956, and 1962. On the basis of this series of 75 monozygotic (MZ) and 17 dizygotic (DZ) twin pairs, Suzuki and Kondo (1966) noted that intrapair differences for several measurements were consistently small in about 30% of M Z twins, and always larger in about 45% of DZ twins. In a survey of stature, body weight, chest girth, and sitting height in 185 M Z and 31 DZ twin pairs from 7 to 17 years of age, Hoshi et al. (1982a,b) obtained six types of age change of intrapair differences. Features of the adolescent spurt were seemingly more sensitive to minute differences in environ- mental conditions than final absolute body size.
Analyzing intrapair differences of somatic traits in 59 male and 69 female M Z twins between 12.25 and 13.25 years of age, intraclass correlations and coefficients of similarity for 28 anthropometric dimensions were highest for stature, body weight, and iliospinal height, and lowest for skinfold thickness, radiographic thickness of calf fat, and several cephalic measurements. Among 26 indices, relative body weight, the Kaup and Rohrer indices, and cephalic modullus were high in similarity, while abdominal and acromiocristal indices were low. Absolute and relative circumfer- ences were noticeably more similar in male than in female twins. Physiological
196 YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [Vol. 27, 1984
ages, including skeletal maturity, menarche, and peak height velocity, showed high similarity. In calf tissue composition, bone was higher in similarity in twins, fol- lowed by muscle and then fat.
Discussing heritability of skeletal maturity and bone growth based on 1,072 radiographs of the hand and wrist in 63 male and 70 female M Z twin pairs, and 25 male and 21 female DZ twin pairs 12 to 18 years of age, Kimura (1981, 1983) found that skeletal maturity (TW2, K) had higher heritability than growth of second metacarpal dimensions. In the latter, length had higher heritability than width and cortical thickness. A dosage effect seemed to be evident in width and several indices of the second metacarpal, but was not confirmed in skeletal maturation.
Kamata (1958) found that the profile of head and face showed high heritability, especially around the lip. Analyzing genetic and environmental components affect- ing the mesiodistal crown diameters of deciduous teeth, Asano (1965) suggested that this trait may be applicable to zygosity diagnosis. According to Ochiai et al. (19661, the difference in intrapair variances for deciduous teeth between MZ and DZ twins was larger in the posterior than in the anterior teeth, in the lower than in the upper teeth of the posterior group except for the upper second molar, and in the second molar than in the first molar.
According to Kimura (195613) and Mizuno (1956), heritability of physical fitness showed the following trends. It appeared highest for motor power (50-m dash, standing long and vertical jump, ball throw for distance, burpee, and chinning), then motor skill (key tapping, match board, and picking up balls), and finally physical strength (grip and back muscle strength). Further, with few exceptions, there were few correlations between heritabilities of these traits.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VARIOUS GROUPS OF JAPANESE Ainu children
Comparatively few studies have been done on the growth and development of Ainu children. According to investigations between 1934 and 1937 (Inoue et al., 1937- 1938, 1941a,b, 1942a-d), the Mongolian spot appeared less frequently in pure Ainu infants in Hokkaido (46.3% of 186 infants) and Sakhalin (85.7% of 36 infants) than in Japanese infants (95.0%). Ainu-Japanese hybrid infants showed an intermediate value between those of the parental groups, i.e., 74.6% of 71 Hokkaido mixed Ainu and 87.1% of 31 Sakhalin mixed Ainu (Inoue et al., 1941a). In a study of 50 Hokkaido and 53 Sakhalin Ainu infants from 0.5 to 6 years of age (Inoue et al., 1941b), these infants had, on the average, greater dimensions than Japanese infants for length, chest girth, head circumference, and subcutaneous fat thickness of the abdomen. The bregmatic fontanelle also closed markedly later and the eruption of deciduous teeth occurred slightly later in Sakhalin Ainu infants than in Hokkaido Ainu and Japanese infants. On the basis of 441 Ainu, 291 Ainu-Japanese hybrids, and 1,574 Japanese schoolchildren 6-15 years of age (Inoue et al., 1942a-d), Ainu children showed, on the average, larger dimensions than the Japanese for absolute and relative chest girth, shoulder breadth, cephalic length, relative sitting height, rela- tive arm span, and the Rohrer index. Japanese were, on the average, larger in stature, body weight, arm span, sitting height, pelvic breadth, and cephalic breadth.
After World War 11, a comprehensive investigation of mainly Hokkaido Ainu was conducted by Ueda, Suda, Kohama, Shima, and colleagues between 1951 and 1958. According to Kohama (1957, 1968, 19691, Ainu adults were as tall as Japanese, the mean statures being 160.1 cm in males and 147.7 cm in females. The Ainu had relatively long arms and legs, a short trunk, and broader shoulders and pelvis compared to Japanese. The most distinctive trait of the Ainu was a large cephalic length. However, cephalic breadth was slightly less than that of Japanese. From the data on 410 boys and 366 girls from 6 to 14 years of age, Tanaka (1959) concluded that the metric traits of Ainu children generally showed a trend similar to that for adults, and noted that the cephalic characteristics of the Ainu were already obvious during childhood. Comparing the reports of Inoue et al. (1942a-d) and Tanaka (1959),
Kimura] GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 197
a slight secular trend in height was evident. In 1934-1937, the mean statures for boys and girls, respectively, were 107.8 cm and 106.7 cm at 6 years, and 133.3 and 131.0 cm at 12 years. In 1951-1958, corresponding values were 108.1 and 107.3 cm at 6 years, and 135.1 and 134.8 cm at 12 years for each sex, respectively.
Children of Okinawa Nansei (Southwest) Islands form a slightly curved row from Kyushu, the southern
end of Honshu (main) Islands of Japan, to Taiwan between the Pacific Ocean and the East China Sea. Initially Nishiyama (1931a-c, 1932) suggested that the inhab- itants of Okinawa belonged to a population found in other districts of Japan and that their comparatively inferior physique could be due to their postnatal environ- ments, especially protein malnutrition. Suda (1950) concluded that the inhabitants of the Nansei Islands could be somatologically divided into five groups, correspond- ing to geographical areas: Tokara, Amami, Okinawa, Miyako, and Yaeyama. He also indicated that these islanders were generally shorter than the Japanese in other districts, especially during and after adolescence. The onset of adolescence was earlier in the island residents by about 2 years and lasted longer than in the Japanese, and the sex differences during this period were greater in the islanders than in the Japanese. Subsequently, growth and development of children on Nansei Islands were primarily studied by Omori and his colleagues between 1957 and 1975 (Sako, 1957; Izumi, 1958; Iwai, 1959; Toyojima, 1959a,b; Kinjo, 1960; Matsumoto, 1960; Sunakawa, 1960; Hirata, 1961a,b; Yasudome, 1973a,b; Hamada et al., 1975). According to Sunakawa (1960) and Hamada et al. (19751, for example, pubic hair appeared in boys on Okinawa at 13.5 years, on Miyako at 13.3 years, and on Ishigaki a t 13.0 years, while menarche occurred at 13.2, 13.5, and 12.9 years on each island, respectively. The appearance of secondary sex characteristics was earlier in the island children than in the inhabitants of the southern districts of Kyushu or in the Japanese in general.
In 1971 and 1972, the Union of Nine Scientific Societies and Associations began a comprehensive investigation of the population of Okinawa. Based on three studies, Kimura (1973, 197510, 1976a) concluded that children of Okinawa were the shortest among those in all districts of Japan, the difference already evident in infancy. A unique characteristic of children of Okinawa was their adolescent growth spurt, which occurred earlier and lasted longer than that of children from other districts in Japan. Children of Okinawa were somewhat delayed skeletally in early childhood compared to those of Tokyo. However, they matured more rapidly during childhood and adolescence than children in other districts. On the basis of growth of the lower extremities relative to stature, the natives of Okinawa seemed to show a trend similar to that in the Ainu, while the Amami islanders had a closer relationship to the inhabitants of Kagoshima than to the natives of Okinawa. Using the Denver developmental screening test on 615 children, 16 days-5.0 years of age, on Miyako and Yaeyama Islands, Ueda and Furuya (1978) reported earlier development in Okinawa than in Tokyo in the first year of life, although the children in Tokyo were generally more advanced than those in Okinawa after 1 year of age. Children of Okinawa were initially delayed in gross motor development compared to Denver children.
Japanese American (Nisei) The first investigation on Japanese-Americans was done by Yoshida (1925) on
2,321 children, from 7 to 16 years of age, in Hawaii and Seattle. Ishihara (1931) compared the physiques of 253 Japanese-Americans 19-26 years of age in Los Angeles with those of native Japanese. Under the supervision of Ishihara, Susuki (1932, 1933, 1949) studied the growth of Japanese-Americans from 6 to 20 years of age, while It0 (1936, 1942, 1954) reported on the physique of newborns and adult female Japanese-Americans, and Iidaka (1953) discussed the physique of 258 soldiers and civilians employees 20-30 years of age in the occupation forces in Tokyo. Ishihara (1956) concluded that adult Japanese-Americans were 5.0-9.3 cm taller and
YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [Vol. 27, 1984 198
9-12 kg heavier than native Japanese.The mean growth curve of the Japanese- Americans was similar to that of American Whites from 6 to 15 years, but thereafter, the Japanese-Americans increased only 5.5 cm compared to 12.8 cm in American Whites. Leg length was 2.8-8.3 cm greater, and sitting height was about 1.2 cm less in the Japanese-Americans than in native Japanese. Accordingly, leg length relative to stature was somewhat greater in the Japanese Americans than in native Japa- nese. However, second-generation Japanese in other countries, such as the Philip- ines, Sumatra, Korea, and Manchuria, did not show the same growth trends evident in Japanese-Americans.
Recently, Kondo and Eto (1975) compared the physical growth and maturation of 483 Japanese-American boys and 473 girls, 4-18 years of age, living in Los Angeles with those of children in Nagoya and Tokyo. There were few differences between the samples, in both physical growth and skeletal maturation, except for some physical measurements during the prepubertal period. Accordingly, the authors concluded that the differences would be due to nutrition and other favorable environmental conditions existing in Los Angeles, and that, in the final stage of growth, the physical characteristics in these two populations seem to be determined more by common genetic background than by the environment. Comparing growth curves of stature in Japanese-Americans of Los Angeles and San Francisco in the 1930s, 1950s, and 1970s, as well as those in native Japanese in about the same years, Kimura (1977~) observed that the grade of secular changes was considerably larger from the 1930s to the 1950s than from the 1950s to the 1970s. The Japanese- Americans were taller than the native Japanese in the 1930s and 1950s, but there were small differences between the two groups in the 1970s. Greulich (1976) sug- gested that the California Japanese had attained what seems to be their growth potential.
Japanese-American hybrids Studies on the growth and development of hybrids between Japanese and other
populations have been conducted by many researchers. After World War 11, a rela- tively large number of children were born of American servicemen and Japanese women. Since 1949, several researchers have been engaged in longitudinal and cross-sectional surveys of these children (see Suda, 1968). Kubota (19531, Furusawa (1955a1, and Kaneko (1961) reported on the Mongolian spot, and Ishihara (1955) and Kaneko (1961) studied skin, hair, and iris colors in hybrid infants. The Mongolian spot was present in 44.7% of 47 Japanese-American White (JW) and 47.8% of 23 Japanese-American Black (JB) hybrid infants from birth to 1 year of age, and in 26.5% and 16.5% of 151 JW, and in 61.0% of 59 and 76.1% of 67 JB hybrid childrens from between birth and 4 or 16 years of age. In contrast, it was present in 95.0% of Japanese children from birth to 5 years (Kubota, 1953; Furusawa, 1955a,b). In general, the skin color of JW and JB hybrids resembled that of Whites and Blacks, respectively, more than that of the Japanese (Ishihara, 1955; Kaneko, 1961). With age, hair color changed from light to dark in 85% of the JW and 60% of the JB hybrid children, while color of the iris changed from dark to light in 65% of the JW and 30% of the JB hybrid children (Kaneko, 1961).
Studies of the physical growth of Japanese-American hybrid children from birth to 6 years (Kubota, 1953; Ishihara, 1955) and from 6 to 15 years (Suda et al., 1956, 1968, 1973, 1975, 1976; Hoshi, 1969) produced a number of interesting results. For example, the growth curves of stature for JW and JB hybrids and their parental populations are compared in Figure 1. The hybrids present a higher rate of growth in cephalometric measurements than the Japanese. The hybrids are absolutely larger for most measurements except head breadth than the Japanese until 11 years of age. Some measurements show differences between the JW and JB hybrids in infancy, especially those of the nose and mouth regions. Whether the father is White or Black does not a e c t the growth of stature, body weight, chest girth, and sitting height of the hybrids. For example, the hybrids are as tall as the Japanese until 6 years of age, but they are in an intermediate position between both parental popu-
Kimura] GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 199
lations at 15 years of age. With respect to the anterior trunk height and iliospinal height and their proportions, the hybrids tend to approach the Japanese in both sexes. On the other hand, the hybrids tend to approach the Americans of both sexes in biacromial breadth. With respect to the ratio of biacromial breadth to the bicristal breadth the JW hybrids tend to approach the Japanese, while the JB hybrids resemble American blacks. These findings suggest that growth in the prepubertal period depends upon environmental conditions, while hereditary influences appear at adolescence. The peak velocity in adolescent growth is reached almost at an identical age in the hybrids, Whites, and Japanese, but the annual increments at peak growth in stature, body weight, and chest girth are considerably greater in the hybrids than in the others. Further, from Figure 1 it could be suggested that growth in infancy of the hybrids resembles American infants more than Japanese.
Notable differences between the JW and JB hybrids are evident in subcutaneous fat thickness of the calf and thigh from 6 to 18 years of age (Kohara, 1968). Fat thickness on the face and lower limbs is greater in JW hybrids than in JB hybrids, while there are few differences in fat thickness on the trunk and upper limbs.
In a mixed-longitudinal series of 57 male and 33 female JW hybrids from 3 to 18 years of age, Kimura (1971, 1976e) noted that the skeletal maturity (TW2 and K methods) tended toward greater advancement in childhood for the Whites than €or the hybrids and Japanese. However, the preadolescent spurt in skeletal maturity occurred earlier in the Japanese and the hybrids than in the Whites, and the hybrids showed intermediate skeletal maturity between those of the Japanese and the Whites at adolescence. This observation agrees well with results of the physical measurements.
SECULAR TRENDS IN GROWTH Shima (1929) first suggested a change in the physique of school children in Kana-
zawa between 1910 and 1929. Similar observations were made by Nose and Naka-
1 8 0 , . I I . . . I I , . I * . I . 1 1
160
140
120
1 0 0
80
60
I # H J W hybrids .- c. Am.Wtes H JW hybrids .-.-a Am.Blacks -4 JB hybrids .- . Japanese
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 l o 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 y ~ s
I .
:m
160
140
120
100
80
60
Fig. 1. Growth curves of stature in Japanese-American White and Black hybrids (Suda et al., 1956), Japanese (Japanese Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture, 1947-1962), and American White and Black (Garn, 1976) children.
200 YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [Vol. 27, 1984
mura (1932), Murakami (1936), and Takaishi (1936) on schoolchildren or infants in several cities. On the basis of the records of the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture since 1900, Iwahara (1932) and Shioya (1934) considered the secular changes in physique of schoolchildren from 1900 to 1930. Agreeing with Yagi (19361, S. Suzuki (1937) suggested that the secular change could not be solely responsible for the acceleration of growth, as presented by Koch (19351, but that it was attributable to changes in the environment which remove inhibitory growth factors. He also noticed that secular changes were not always identical for each physical trait.
Influence of the war on growth After World War 11, many researchers considered the influence of the poor wartime
conditions on the growth and development of children (Abe, 1950; Hashiguchi et al., 1952; Saito and Funakawa, 1954 Tokuyama et al., 1955; Kato, 1955, 1957; Kimura and Kitano 1959). Results of all studies indicated a decrease in size during and following the war. For example, mean stature began to decrease about 1939 and showed a minimum value in 1949. Birth weight also decreased during and following the war. However, by 1953, the average birth weight had returned to its maximum prewar value (Takno, 1950; Iijma et al., 1954; Nagahashi, 1955). Analyzing the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture data by the population follow-up method, Kimura and Kitano (1959) indicated a decrease in mean stature during the war which was most marked at 14 years of age in boys and 13 years in girls, and that mean stature returned to prewar levels by 1956 in boys and 1953 in girls. More time was required to recover the prewar level in those children who were between birth and 12 years of age during the war. The poor living conditions during the war had a harmful effect on the growth of younger children, but girls had greater resistance to these conditions than boys. Recovery of stature, body weight, and chest girth in schoolchildren occurred most rapidly in large cities, followed by small cities, and then rural and mountain villages (Kato, 1955).
Secular trends in growth More than 100 papers have been published on secular trends in physique and
physical fitness of Japanese since the 1950s. Utilizing the graphic method of relative growth of stature and body weight based on the population follow-up data of the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture since 1900, Kimura (1961, 1967) found that the secular trend in the Japanese physique during the preceding five decades was divided into two phenomena: an acceleration of growth until adolescence and a secular change in the physical form in adults. The rate of acceleration of growth was estimated at about 12 months in males at 14 years of age and about 18 months in females a t 12 years of age during these five decades, i.e., about 2.2 and 3.6 months per decade in each sex, respectively.The secular increase in stature and body weight in adults results from secular changes in growth at and after peak velocity. The estimated increase per decade in the two dimensions was 6 cm (1.2 cm) and 4 kg (0.8 kg) among males, and 5 cm (1 cm) and 1 kg (0.2 kg) among females, respectively, during these five decades. Thus, the size of Japanese has increased progressively from decade to decade since 1900. Analyzing the trend of menarcheal age in Japan from the late 19th century to the present, Moriyama et al. (1980) found that it was divided into two periods. The age a t menarche decreased slowly in women born between 1900 and 1923, and more rapidly in women born between 1930 and the present. However, the age at menarche became slightly older in women born be- tween 1924 and 1930, i.e., those who were attaining menarche prior to and during the war years.
Following Fischer (1930) and Weidenreich (19451, a secular trend in the Japanese skull was also noticed by several authors since 1950. H. Suzuki (1953, 1954, 1956) discussed brachycephalization and secular changes in the nasal region of the Japa- nese skull from the Jomon age to the present, while Morita (1963) and Kimura and Iwamoto (1969) reported on more recent secular changes in the Japanese skull. Dolicocephalization from the Middle to the Early Modern (Edo) ages have been
Kimura] GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 201
reported (H. Suzuki, 1953, 1956). In lateral views of Japanese skulls, the changes towards greater head length and higher total auricular height during the present ages were due to the neural cranium moving upwardly and ventrally in a circular direction with porion as a center (Kimura and Iwamoto, 1969). According to Hira- mot0 (19721, who investigated secular changes in estimated stature predicted from femoral length, the stature of Japanese populations increased gradually from the Jomon to the Kofun age and then decreased gradually to the Early Modern age. Since Jomon times, the Japanese were shortest in stature at the end of the Edo age. These results may suggest that body size shows cyclic rather than cumulative changes in certain centuries.
The trend of acceleration is more obvious for physique than for motor performance in schoolchildren (Kato and Abe, 1957; Matsuura, 1964). Results of motor perform- ance of Japanese children in 1954, 1966, and 1976, are progressively improved in each motor test except back muscle strength. Relative to stature, performance was advanced in the 50-m dash and vertical jump, almost the same in grip strength, and poorer in back muscle strength during these 22 years (Kimura, 1979).
Katsuki (1965) believed that the rapid improvement in nutrition played an impor- tant role in the postwar trend of rapid increase in stature and body weight. Nishi- kawa (1958) suggested that the increase in the size of schoolchildren was not necessarily the result of an improvement in all children, but of an increase in the number of children with better physiques. According to Ikuyama and Arao (19801, an increased lower limb length was the primary factor in the stature increase. In an analysis of the statures of parents and brothers of 12,903 boys at 17 years of age, Furusho (1973) assumed that the increase in average stature of the Japanese after the war had nothing to do with the genotype responsible for stature; rather it was due to increasing the minimum value of the stature distribution by nearly the same amount for all members of the group as a result of an improved environment after the war.
Has the secular trend stopped? Most students suggest that the tendency toward larger growth is still going on
(Fujimoto et al., 1963). Taking the age at maximum growth as an indicator of growth acceleration, Kudo et al. (1976) are of the opinion that the growth acceleration is likely to proceed for some time along the regression line based on the prewar acceleration rate. On the othe hand, following Bakwin and McLaughlin (19641, Takaishi (1975) noted a slowing of acceleration in growth of the Japanese in recent years. Kahyo et al. (1977) indicated that the slope of birth weight was gradually decreasing as the level of birth weight increased, thus suggesting that birth weight in Japanese is reaching its ultimate level. Investigating the secular trend in Japa- nese stature and sitting height, and sex differences in the stature between 1900 and 1982, Kimura (1977, 1984) noted the following: The secular acceleration of growth has slowed in the generations born after approximately 1950. The secular trend towards greater stature in adults also stopped after about 1970 in students and 1980 in the Japanese population in general, although there were some local differences in the trend. Sitting height already had reached a final stage of the trend by 1963. Therefore, the trend in recent samples was towards slightly longer legs, relative to the trunk. Females had possibly greater resistance to the poor living conditions during the war than males. The recovery of growth in females also occurred more rapidly than in males. The postwar acceleration of growth in females surpassed the prewar trend, although the secular trend in size after the war generally followed the prewar trend. After a brief period of the postwar growth retardation, males returned to the course of the original secular trend, and soon surpassed it. Sex differences in stature decreased from 1900 to 1950 in students and to 1970 in the general Japanese population. It may thus be concluded that the Japanese have attained something close to their full growth potential, and that the secular trend toward an increase in stature has reached its final stage.
202 YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY [Vol. 27, 1984
EPILOGUE
Recent studies of growth and development in Japan, especially after World War II, were introduced in several topical areas. The general features of growth and devel- opment of Japanese were also described. These scientific studies commenced at about 1900, and then developed rapidly, covering almost all the aspects in various fields until the beginning of the war. After a temporary suspension of study during the war, studies on growth and development started again with supplementary reex- amination of the prewar studies. Therefore, a short history of research was added in each topical area.
Many researchers have tried to develop the norm of Japanese growth and devel- opment in physique and physical fitness, and to assess the growth and development in individuals and populations for education and clinical aims. On the average, present-day adult Japanese belong to the upper class of Asians and the lower class of Europeans in physique. For example adult heights of Japanese are about 170 cm in males and 157 cm in females. Physical measurements generally show a peak velocity at approximately 12 years in males and 11 years in females, and reach a plateau of adult size at about 17 and 16 years in each sex, respectively. The maximal annual increment of stature in females is, on the average 8.7 cm. Peak velocity of the stature occurs 1.38 years earlier than menarche, which occurs at 12.6 years of age. Peak velocity occurs 2 or 3 years and about 1 year later than the eruption of the second lower molar and the completion of its root, respectively, and almost at the same time as the appearance of the ulnar sesamoid in females. Sex differences appear at about 13 years. According to skeletal maturation, dimensions of the second metacarpal are always larger in males than in females after birth, and sex differ- ences become rapidly greater in size and form after 13 years. According to physical growth, dental development, skeletal maturation, and appearance of sex differences, Japanese are somewhat more delayed until childhood and then develop more rapidly in preadolescence and adolescence than Americans and Europeans. However, they reach maturity at almost the same time. Thus, growth and development are in general more advanced in Japanese than in Americans and Europeans around adolescence, except in secondary sex characters.
Growth and development of various groups of Japanese, i.e., Ainu children, chil- dren of Okinawa, Japanese-Americans, and Japanese-American hybrids, were also described. The adolescent spurt occurs earlier and lasts longer in children of Oki- nawa than in children of other districts of Japan. Hybrid studies suggest that growth in the prepubertal period depends upon environmental conditions, while hereditary influences appear at adolescence. Finally, the secular trends for acceleration in growth increase in stature in Japanese are considered, and it appears that the secular trends have arrived at a final stage in the Japanese.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my sincere thanks to Professor Ronald Singer, Department of Anatomy, University of Chicago, and Professor Robert Malina, Department of An- thropology, University of Texas at Austin, for their helpful advice in the preparation of the manuscript.
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