study of design criteria of story books for visually impaired children

I

STUDY OF DESIGN CRITERIA OF STORY BOOKS FOR VISUALLY IMPAIRED CHILDREN

by

MEGHA GUPTA

Submitted to NIFT in partial fulfilment

of the requirements for the degree of

Masters of Design

Faculty Guide: DR. NILANJANA BAIRAGI

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF FASHION TECHNOLOGY

NEW DELHI

2013

© 2013 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF FASHION TECHNOLOGY (NIFT)

II

STUDY OF DESIGN CRITERIA OF STORY BOOKS FOR VISUALLY IMPAIRED CHILDREN

by

MEGHA GUPTA

M.DESIGN

BATCH: 2011-13

Submitted by Ms Megha Gupta to NIFT in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

degree of Masters of Design of the National Institute of Fashion Technology at New

Delhi and hereby certify that in the judgment of the following members of jury it is worth

of acceptance:

NAME INSTITUTE/ORGANISATION SIGNATURE

_________________ _______________________ ________________

_________________ _______________________ ________________

_________________ _______________________ ________________

_________________ _______________________ ________________

Remarks regarding fulfilling further requirements:

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Signature of Head PG- DESIGN Date :

III

DECLARATION

The work presented in this dissertation is authentic and original and is the outcome of

the author’s own ideas and labour. No portion of this work has been submitted in support

of an application for another degree pr qualification to this institution or any other

university or any other institute of learning.

Date : (Dr. Nilanjana Bairagi) Place : New Delhi National Institute of Fashion Technology

IV

ACKNOWLEGEMENT

Although I am the sole author of this thesis, I am by no means the sole contributor. Many

people have contributed to my thesis, to my education, and to my life, and it is now my

great pleasure to take this opportunity to thank them. First and foremost, I would like to

thank my academic mentor, Dr. Nilanjana Bairagi who guided me throughout the project

and showed confidence in my project. She had been a pillar of constant support and

always willing to lend a ear to guide and advise and offer suggestions. I am also thankful

to Ms. Shanta, Director of National Association of Blind (NAB) for allowing me to

undertake this project at NAB. I extend my gratitude to Mr Sumit and Ms Shivangi –

teachers at NAB for their consistent cooperation and valuable suggestions. The project

would not have been successful without their support. I am also grateful to all the

children who showed great enthusiasm during the workshops which motivated me to

work hard for them. I would also like to thank Master Roshan- a computer training

student, for volunteering to write Braille by hand. The story books could not have

developed without his help. I thank Ms Ranjana Rana- computer operator at NAB, for

taking out time for me and arranging volunteer for me. My thanks extends to all other

staff members of NAB as well who directly or indirectly assisted in my project. Last but

not the least, I would like to thank my mother Mrs Sunita Gupta, my father Mr.

N.K.Gupta, and other family members who endured this long process with me, always

offering support and love.

May, 2013 (MEGHA GUPTA)

V

ABSTRACT

The study focused on proposing design criteria of story books for visually impaired

children of age group of 6-10 years. Following a pilot study, an ethnographic approach

was adopted at National Association of Blind (NAB), Delhi. It comprised of interactive

workshops and children were observed in their classroom settings for a period of 6 days

to obtain insights on exploration styles, learning styles, knowledge set, tactile perception

and comprehension level of visually impaired children. This study made use of purposive

sampling. Participants were selected because of some defining characteristic that made

them the holders of the data needed for the study. As the pilot study indicated that

stories are read till KG classes having children of age group of 6-10 years, the sample

consisted on 10-15 visually impaired children of the same age group and their teachers.

The collected data was then analyzed and grouped under suitable categories to propose

design criteria for story books. Prior to ideation and conceptualization, a short market

survey and a parallel literature search on various types of picture books and illustration

styles were carried out. Concepts were then brainstormed and prototypes were

developed and tested with the children. Feedback from teachers and children was

recorded and incorporated in the final design.

Some of the major findings of the study revealed that skills and abilities of visually

impaired children differ from that of normal sighted children. While picture books help

normal sighted children to link pictures with words and assist them in reading and

writing, visually impaired children rely on tactile and auditory means and use Braille as

their primary learning medium. It was observed in NAB that apart from Braille books and

audio books, no special printed story books were being used for visually impaired

children. The Braille books too were found to be devoid of any tactile graphics. The

workshops conducted with visually impaired children for 6 days revealed that these

children are more comfortable with the graphics they have been already oriented

towards earlier. They get confused when a set of visuals are represented in different

perspectives. It becomes more convenient for them when the tactile graphics are simple,

big and spacious and not more than two in number per page. They are able to

distinguish between two areas as long as they have different textures. The children with

VI

low vision could use their residual vision to read text in large print and identify colors,

provided the colors are in high contrast to each other.

VII

CONTENTS

Page no.

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1. Introduction 1

1.2. Research Question 2

1.3. Aim of the study 2

1.4. Objectives of the study 2

2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 4

2.1. Introduction 4

2.2. Visual Impairment 4

2.2.1. What is visual impairment? 4

2.2.2. Statistics of visually impaired population 5

2.2.3. Visual impairment in children 6

2.3. Teaching visually impaired children 8

2.3.1. Teaching approaches 8

2.3.2. Teaching pedagogical tools 9

2.4. Tactile illustrations 10

2.4.1 Types of tactile illustrations 10

2.4.2. Challenges to tactile illustrations 11

2.5. Exploration skills of Visually impaired children 13

2.5.1. Theories on tactile perception 13

2.5.2. Work done on tactile skills of visually impaired 13

2.6. Existing books for blind 14

2.6.1. Braille books 14

2.6.2. Story Box Objects 15

2.6.3. Large print books 15

2.6.4. Talking books 16

2.6.5. E-books 17

2.7. Summary 17

3 RESEARCH DESIGN 19

VIII

3.1. Introduction 19

3.2. Methodology 19

3.3. Sample selection 20

3.4. Data collection and analysis 21

3.4.1 Pilot study 21

3.4.2 Ethnographic study 21

3.4.3 Development of story books for visually impaired

children 22

3.4.4 Design and prototype evaluation 22

3.5. Challenges in data collection 22

3.6. Summary 23

4 PILOT STUDY 24


4.2. National Association of Blind 24

4.3. Observations 25

4.3.1. Learning equipments 25

4.3.2. Teaching strategies 25

4.3.3. Toys 27

4.3.4. Books 28

4.3.5. Skills 28

4.3.6. Other observations 28

4.4. Summary 29

5 ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY OF VISUALLY IMPAIRED CHILDREN 30


5.2. Observations and inferences 30

5.2.1. Day 1- Random tactile graphics 30

5.2.2. Day 2- Tactile graphics of animal faces 32

5.2.3. Day 3- Clay workshop 33

5.2.4. Day 4 – small tactile flash cards made from single

material 34

5.2.5. Day 5 - Big tactile flashcards 35

IX

5.2.6. Day 5- Story narration 36

5.3. Categorising data under suitable design categories 37

5.3.1. Illustrations 38

5.3.2. Content 39

5.3.3. Layout 40

5.3.4. Typography 40

5.3.5. Color 40

5.3.6 Page size 40

5.3.7. Material 41

5.4. Market study and literature research on Picture books of children

41

5.4.1. Types of children’s books 41

5.4.2. Basic concepts taught in children’s books 42

5.4.3. Illustration styles 42

5.4.4. General preferences of children in picture books 44

5.5. Summary 44

6 DEVELOPMENT OF STORY BOOKS FOR VISUALLY IMPAIRED CHILDREN

45


6.2. Key words/phrases from design criteria 45

6.3. Development of prototype 1 46

6.3.1. The concept 46

6.3.2. Layout 46

6.3.3. Explorations 47

6.3.4. Feedback and evaluation of prototype 50

6.4. Challenges in developing prototype 51

6.5. Summary 51

7 CONCLUSION 52

REFERENCES 54

APPENDIX 58

X

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE

NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

2.1 (a)- A tube of toothpaste provided as an

illustration in a book about bath time

11

2.1 (b)- A thermoformed image of a shell in clear

plastic, beneath the thermoform is a print drawing

of the shell provided for visual learners

11

2.1 (c )- Fake fur fabric, cut in the shape of a child’s

teddy bear, glued to a paper page

11

2.2 (a)- A raised outline of a hand, filled with a dotted

areal pattern, embossed in paper

11

2.2 (b)- Raised outlines created by felt tip pen on

sponge paper

11

2.3 Braille book 14

2.4 A pig toy, a camera, pretend food pancakes,

shampoo, an envelope, a shoe, some tools and a

glue stick provided along with the story book If

you Give a Pig a Pancake.

15

2.5 A large print book 16

2.6 A DAISY audio book reader with the same book

in printed version

16

2.7 A kid reading an E- book in a magnified mode 17

3.1 Overall research design adopted in the study 20

4.1 Ways of teaching different textures to children 26

4.2 Ways of teaching different objects of same shape 26

4.3 Tactile pictures with embossed outlines 26

4.4 Pictures with similar tactile feel cannot be

differentiated

27

4.5 Toys at NAB 27

5.1 Random tactile graphics 30-31

XI

5.2 Tactile graphics of animal faces 32

5.3 Clay models prepared by totally blind children 33

5.4 Clay models by children with low vision 34

5.5 Small tactile flash cards with increasing

complexity level (left to right)

35

5.6 Big tactile flash cards with increasing complexity

level (left to right)

36

5.7 Tactile graphics of 4 legged animal 38

5.8 (a)- Different parts of lion’s face are represented

through different textures

39

5.8 (b)- Different patterns made from a single material

provide distinct feel

39

5.9 Line drawing 42

5.10 Black and white illustration 43

5.11 Colored illustrations 43

5.12 Wash drawing 43

6.1 Layout of the story book pages 47

6.2 Visuals against a white background offering a

high contrast

47

6.3 Visuals against a blue background offering a

relatively lower contrast

48

6.4 Visuals with some highlights added 48

6.5 Different placements of Braille text. 48-49

6.6 Body of honey bee made from foam sheet 50

6.7 Embossed mango fruit and leaves 50

XII

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO. 5.1 Observations of day 1 workshop 31

5.2 Observations of day 2 workshop 32





CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Children’s literature has an important role to play in children’s learning and lives.

Engagement with picture books at a young age forms the basis of a literate adult and

develops children at a social, personal, intellectual and personal level. Picture books

represent a unique literary form that blends stories with art. Pictures enable children to

explore the world within their own imagination and make connections with characters

and events they see depicted in books. Long before they can read, children respond to

images in an effort to place themselves and the others in their lives into the world around

them. They are constantly exposed to images and texts in their environment; see texts

and symbols on information boards, cereal boxes, shop-windows, road signs, advertising

signs etc. These children therefore quickly learn to recognize different letters and picture

symbols and what they stand for. This recognition of letters and symbols is the first stage

in the development of reading. However, visually impaired children are at risk of missing

out on the special relationship between words and pictures. They are often less familiar

with letters and words when they start school than their sighted peers.

Although it is a proven fact that tactile and auditory cues are most suitable for

training visually impaired kids and many tactile and auditory means have been explored

in other countries, documentation on designing criteria of story books for visually

impaired children is virtually non- existent, especially in India.

Since the reading abilities and mannerisms of visually impaired children differ from

that of normal sighted children, the same picture story books available for normal sighted

children need to be designed differently for visually impaired children suiting to their

needs and requirements.

This project is an initiative to propose design criteria for developing picture story

books for visually impaired children. The study provides information on their skills,

1

environment, knowledge and interests gathered through both secondary and primary

research. The insights obtained have been incorporated in the final prototype.

1.2 RESEARCH QUESTION

The fact that picture story books play an important role in children’s lives and visually

impaired children can not enjoy the relationship between picture and words contributed

to the formulation of the research question of this study – how should the picture story

books be designed for visually impaired children?

The following sub-questions arose from it-

• What kinds of stories are read to visually impaired children and how are they

read?

• At what age are these stories read to them?

• How are visually impaired children different from normal sighted children?

• How are their exploration and cognitive skills? How are they different in

completely blind and low vision children?

• How do they recognize a particular thing?

• How does a visually impaired child perceive things around?

1.3 AIM OF THE STUDY

To study the designing criteria of story books for visually impaired children and

incorporate them into a prototype.

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To study the interaction system of visually impaired children with the current training

aids and their surroundings

2. To study the design factors which facilitate and hinders reading visually impaired

children.

2

3

3. To develop concepts for interactive and informative story books for visually impaired

children.

4

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Children acquire skills that assist them in the task of learning to read and write long before

they enter school. They listen to stories and become aware that print has meaning and learn

to link pictures with the words that are being read to them. According to Pinnell, Lyons,

DeFord, Bryk, and Seltzer (1994) these concepts seem to “emerge” from experience.

“Literacy begins at birth. It does not wait until a child reads his first work or even until he

opens his first book. Literacy is a basic process, set in motion long before actual reading

and writing take place, and it involves all of the child’s development.” (Stratton & Wright,

1991)

A book’s pictures play an important role for a child with typical vision. Pictures add

meaning and interest to the storybooks, enable in stretching the short attention spans of

many children and model coping strategies for children who are just learning to deal with

powerful emotions. However, visually impaired children do not learn to read print in the

traditional way. They rely on tactile and auditory means and use Braille as their primary

learning medium and have very different needs and requirements for teaching approaches.

The following review of the literature focuses on various factors and mediums that hinders

and facilitates the interaction of visually impaired children with books.

2.2 VISUAL IMPAIRMENT

2.2.1 What is visual impairment?

"Visually impaired" means a medically verified visual impairment accompanied by limitations

in sight that interfere with acquiring information or interaction with the environment to the

extent that special education instruction and related services may be needed. 40 The term

5

includes both partial sight and blindness. This impairment refers to abnormality of the eyes,

the optic nerve or the visual center for the brain resulting in decreased visual acuity.

In India, the broad definition of visual impairment as adopted in the Persons with

Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and full Participation) Act, 1995 as

well as under the National Programme for Control of Blindness (NPCB) is:-

“Blindness refers to a condition where a person suffers from total absence of sight or

visual acuity not exceeding 6/60 or 20/200 in the better eye even with correction lenses or

limitation of the field of vision subtending an angle of 20 degree or worse”.41 The WHO

working definition of Low Vision (WHO, 1992) is as follows:

“A person with low vision is one who has impairment of visual functioning even after

treatment, and/ or standard refractive correction, and has a visual acuity of less than 6/18 to

light perception or a visual field of less than 10 degrees from the point of fixation, but who

uses, or is potentially able to use, vision for the planning and/or execution of a task”.41

Visual impairment in a person is decided on the basis of visual acuity scores. These

scores are based on the sight perception of people with ‘perfect vision’, and are expressed

as fractions. So a person with a score of 6/18 can see at six metres from an object whereas

a person with perfect sight would see at 18 metres.

People with visual acuity scores ranging from:

" 6/6 to 6/18 are described as having ‘normal vision’

" less than 6/18 to greater than 3/60 are described as having ‘low vision’, and

“less than 3/60 are described as blind.

Although visual acuity is the most common measure, other factors such as field of view

can also be important in determining where an individual sits on the spectrum of sight loss

2.2.2 Statistics of visually impaired population

According to World Health Organization fact sheet 2012, 285 million people are visually

impaired worldwide: 39 million are blind and 246 have low vision. Approximately 90% of

6

visually impaired people live in developing countries. About 65 % of all people who are

visually impaired are aged 50 and older, while this age group comprises about 20 % of the

world's population. With an increasing elderly population in many countries, more people are

at risk of age-related visual impairment. An estimated 19 million children are visually

impaired. Of these, 12 million children are visually impaired due to refractive errors, a

condition that could be easily diagnosed and corrected. 1.4 million are irreversibly blind for

the rest of their lives. 43

About 90% of the world's visually impaired live in developing countries. With 7.8 million

blind people in India, the country accounts for 20 per cent of the 39 million blind populations

across the globe. 16

According to a study conducted by National Sample Survey organization in 2009, among

the major states of India, the prevalence of blindness is found to be highest in Orissa (226

per lakh population) followed by Uttar Pradesh (204 per lakh population) and Andhra

Pradesh (190 per lakh population) where as it is least in Assam (88 per lakh population)

followed by Jharkhand and Gujarat (98 and 99 per lakh population respectively). 43

The prevalence of visual disability found to be higher among female population (0.12

percent) compared to male population (0.10 percent). The prevalence of both blindness and

low vision is highest in rural areas compared to urban areas. It is almost twice in illiterate

persons compared to those who are literate. As the age of person increases, the prevalence

of blindness and low vision increases very sharply. 43

2.2.3 Visual impairment in children

Visual impairment in children means an impairment in vision which may range from having

limited vision (e.g., some light perception only) to having some functional vision under

certain conditions or within a very circumscribed visual field.44 Being able to see gives us

tremendous access to learning about the world around us—people’s faces and the

subtleties of expression, what different things look like and how big they are, and the

physical environments where we live and move, including approaching hazards.

Visually impaired children are delayed in developing a wide range of skills. While they can

do virtually all the activities and tasks that sighted children take for granted, children who are

7

visually impaired often need to learn to do them in a different way or using different tools or

materials.3 Central to their learning is touching, listening, smelling, tasting, moving, and

using whatever vision they have.4

The concepts of reading and writing are known long before in young sighted children

before they learn to read (Wormsley, 1997b). They have exposure to incidental learning in

their preschool years (Koenig, 1996b). As their parents read to them, the children become

aware of the print in books. Their vision of objects around them unifies and structures the

information received via their senses and gives it meaning. Vision helps them in

understanding the relationship of size and shape, details of the form, color and spatial

relationship of objects (Lowenfeld, 1973). Thus, when they start going to school, teachers

use children’s early experiences as a basis for formal literacy instruction (Koenig &

Farrenkopf, 1997).

Visual impairment at an early age affects the incidental learning through casual

observation (Koenig & Farrenkopf, 1997). A blind child receives information in fragments

through touch and hearing and must form a concept of wholeness from information of parts.

This is particularly true of large objects where higher, symbolic thinking skills are needed to

relate a model of an object to the real thing (e.g., model of a car/real car). Extracting the

essential factors of objects which are necessary for recognition, discrimination, classification

and abstraction (e.g., size, shape, texture and function) will create difficulties for a blind

child. Absence of vision in child interferes with the observation of environment and child is

unable to reach out to people or objects that initiates interaction with the environment

(Lowenfeld, 1973).

Corn and Koenig (1996) specifically define low vision. They propose that a person with

low vision has difficulty accomplishing visual tasks even with prescribed corrective lenses.

Pagliano (1994) defines three important aspects of vision. These are “visual perception”,

“visual functioning” and “visual efficiency”. “Visual perception”, he states is “the ability to

understand and interpret all visually received information”. Because “visual perception” is

related to learning capabilities rather than the eye condition, Pagliano argues that children

can still learn with low vision. “Visual functioning” or how children use their residual vision is

related to a child’s experiences, motivation, needs and expectations. “Visual efficiency”

refers to the degree to which a child is able to perform visual tasks easily and comfortably.

8

Pagliano (1998) suggests that the child’s learning environment is a critical factor in his/her

development of effective, efficient visual functioning. The term vision impairment, therefore,

indicates a significant loss of vision that may be the result of one, or a combination of eye

conditions and the resulting vision problems cannot be corrected by glasses.

When visual impairment is caused by a disease or brain hemorrhage, other factors may

also cause difficulties in learning (e.g., brain damage which affects cognitive ability,

orthopedic defects which affect mobility). When visual impairment is one of the several

disabilities, the problems become more severe and complex.

According to the National Federation of the Blind, there are a few learning problems that

visually impaired children may experience in any learning setting, and particularly in a

traditional classroom. If educators use a board to draw out graphs, charts, or other

examples, visually impaired children can't always see it or benefit from it. The same concept

applies to physical exercises and group activities, which are very visual. Educators can help

teach visually impaired children by including specific verbal explanations and tangible

objects that children can touch and feel.

2.3 TEACHING VISUALLY IMPAIRED CHILDREN

2.3.1 Teaching approaches

Since absence of vision obstructs incidental learning in children through casual observation,

visually impaired children need deliberate exposure to concepts. Lowenfeld (1973) identified

3 basic principles necessary for teaching visually impaired children. Those are providing

opportunities by learning, providing concrete experiences and providing unifying

experiences. He emphasized that by participating in hands on activities and completing it

from beginning to end would help such children to integrate information from all of his/her

senses and make meaning from the experience.

Koeing (1992) outlined 3 types of literacy which are essential for students and teachers

play a critical role in developing them- emergent, academic, functional literacy. Emergent

literacy refers to a young child’s developing ability to bring meaning to reading and writing,

academic literacy refers to the type of reading and writing mastery skills that children learn

9

during their school years and functional literacy refers to literacy activities that relate to the

day-to-day completion of practical tasks.

2.3.2 Teaching pedagogical tools

Various Specialized Materials, Equipment and Technology have been used for visually

impaired children ( Carney, Engbretson, Scammell, Sheppard, 2003). They include Braille

(an arrangement of 6 embossed dots read tactually), large print, low vision aids such as

magnifying glasses, telescopic lenses on glasses, monoculars and audio cassettes. For

children with low vision , extra illumination can be provided through various desk lamps

preferably with rheostat control.

Screen readers/speech synthesizers provide auditory feedback when using the keyboard

as well as auditory access to information displayed on the monitor. Students with limited or

no reading vision find these devices useful, especially when connected to Braille and regular

printers for output (JAWS, Intellitalk, IBM Screen Reader/DOS). Similarly, Voice access

systems which allow the user to interact with the computer screen by using voice commands

instead of the keyboard can be connected to Braille and regular printers for output

(DragonDictate, Naturally Speaking).

Optical Character Recognition Software recognizes scanned text and when used in

conjunction with a computer system equipped with a speech synthesizer and Braille printer,

can convert standard print materials to speech or Braille (Arkenstone, OpenBook Ruby

Edition, Kurzweil).

Electronic Braille writers having six standard six-key Braille keyboards and facility to

connect to personal computers and Braille printers allow the user to write, read, edit and sort

approximately 200 pages of Braille.

There are many other facilitators available commercially such as Print-to-Braille software,

Braille printer, calculators with voice output, cassette recorders, Description Video Service

(DVS) describing the visual elements of a movie, Language Master or the speaking

reference guide containing dictionary ,definitions and words and low tech adaptations

maximizing keyboard access through the use of tactile indicators.

10

Some equipments can specifically help children with low vision. These include screen

enlarger software and close circuit TV. - Screen enlarger software programs display

information on a computer screen in a variety of magnification levels. The entire screen, a

portion of the screen or just one line may be enlarged. Students with low vision may benefit

from these programs (ZoomText, MAGic, VisAbility).Closed circuit television systems

electronically enlarge printed, handwritten and graphic materials onto a monitor screen. The

student can control the size, focus, brightness and contrast and polarity of the display (black

on white to white on black).

2.4 TACTILE ILLUSTRATIONS

Many children with visual impairments demonstrate interest and enthusiasm for tactile

illustrations (Miller, 1985; Stratton & Wright, 1991; Wright, 1991; Swenson, 1999; Norman,

2003).Tactile illustrations giving tactile information about story’s book or topic have the

potential to add meaning and interest to books in a child who cannot view the book’s

pictures (Wright, 2008). These tactile illustrations can vary in use. Some books designed for

visual learners contain a few tactile features. However, such tactile features may be of

limited use for a visually impaired child. Braille labels to tactile books produced for visual

learners prove to be more useful for a visually impaired child as it gives the advantage of

offering important Braille exposure and something to touch, even if the tactile illustration falls

short of having true meaning for a young child with significant vision loss. Books with both

print and Braille are appropriate for a range of audiences: children with significant visual

impairments, typically sighted children, children with low vision, and adult readers who are

Braille or print readers.

2.4.1 Types of tactile illustrations

Tactile illustrations may be composed of objects or parts of objects glued, tied, velcroed or

otherwise attached to the page or enclosed in a bag, envelope, or pouch fixed to the page (

figure 2.1a), or forms of objects molded in a thin plastic sheet (clear or opaque) by heating

the plastic in a special machine by a process, called thermoforming (figure 2.1 b), or flat

shapes cut from textured fabric, paper, foam paper usually depicting the outer shape of an

object, and the texture resembling the texture of the real object (figure 2.1 c) or raised lines

and shapes embossed on a paper page providing only an outline of the object where the

outline is often “filled” with a pattern (called an areal pattern) (figure 2.2 a).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.1 (a) A tube of toothpaste provided as an illustration in a book about bath time;

(b) A thermoformed image of a shell in clear plastic

(c) Fake fur fabric, cut in the shape of a child’s teddy bear, glued to a paper page.

Source: American Foundation of Blind

(a) (b)

Figure 2.2 (a) A raised outline of a hand, filled with a dotted areal pattern, embossed in paper ;

(b) Raised outlines created by felt tip pen on sponge paper

Source: American Foundation of Blind

2.4.2 Challenges to tactile illustration

Although tactile illustrations have its own advantages, a tactile illustration cannot replace a

visual picture. A tactile illustration can never be understood as instantly and completely as a

11

12

visual picture. They cannot be seen at a glance and the “viewing area” is limited to what is

beneath a fingertip (Loomis, Klatzky, & Lederman, 1991). Larger areas can be felt with the

whole hand, but detail will be missed. To understand the tactile illustration in wholesome,

the child must scan each part of it and then associate them together logically to make

meaning out of it.

The real experience of an object can never be duplicated in a flat representation, making

it difficult for the child to make a connection between the tactile illustration and the object it is

intended to show. Further, while representing an object through tactile, context becomes

critical because the same shape can be interpreted in many different ways. For example, a

raised outline of a circle can be interpreted as a ball, cookie, saucer, orange, a wheel, moon

etc. Tactile illustrations must be given a context—either provided in the book’s written text,

through verbal explanations, or both. Like shape, texture of a tactile illustration can also be

confused with many other things that have a similar texture (Wright, 2008).

For people who are blind, one of the most difficult problems is to solve its proportion.

Differences in size between an object and its tactile illustration can be especially confusing.

(Jhulka, 2010; Wright, 2008).Spatial relationships are difficult to show and to interpret in a

tactile illustration. The relative arrangement of objects on an illustrated page is quite

different from the child’s everyday experienced positions like above, under, behind in his

tactile explorations of objects.

There are certain conventions used in both visual and tactile displays; being familiar with

these is critical to interpreting tactile illustrations. For example the use of different

perspectives (side view, overhead, cross-section), use of arrows to indicate movement,

hiding a part of object to indicate that it’s behind an another object. A young tactual learner

will not be acquainted with these. In addition, there are many underlying concepts a child

with a visual impairment may be lacking (Aldrich & Sheppard, 2000).

Tactile illustrations of imaginary and non- existent things like castles and dragons prove to

be a significant challenge for visually impaired children to make out a meaning from them.

In tactile books, the meaning of a tactile illustration depends upon the words of the story

(Stratton & Wright, 1991).

13

Tactile illustrations have to be as minimalistic as possible. Blind people get lost and

confused when presented with too much information and are unable to determine just

exactly what it is you want them to “see”. An order or a sequence is always required while

making such illustrations so that the visually impaired child progresses in one particular

direction to get a complete picture of what the book is intended to deliver

2.5 EXPLORATION SKILLS OF VISUALLY IMPAIRED CHILDREN

Unlike normal sighted children who can use vision to solve a task, visually impaired children

have to use touch to obtain information. Moreover, ordinary tasks that are easily performed

by using vision may be complex when they are performed by using touch (Jansson, 2008).

2.5.1 Theories on tactile exploration

The perception of an object is determined by the exploratory actions. An example is the

distinction between active and passive touch. According to Heller and Meyers (1983), active

touch is essential for performing tasks where the perception of forms is involved or during

manipulation of objects in order to obtain information about them. Passive touch can be

important for the perception of known forms of limited size.

Haptic exploration was studied in depth by Jones and Lederman (2006), Klatzky,

Lederman, and Metzger (1985), and Lederman and Klatzky (1987, 1996). Two phases in

exploratory strategies were observed by them: non specific exploratory procedures and

specific exploratory procedures. The non specific exploratory procedures (like enclosure),

give global information about objects, whereas the specific procedures (such as following

contours) give more or less exact information about objects.

2.5.2 Work done on tactile skills of visually impaired

Millar (1997, 2006) studied Braille reading and analyzed the tactile skills necessary for fluent

Braille reading. She concluded that familiarity, practice, and experience are important and

evident in tactile discrimination.

The perception of pictures by people who are blind was studied by Heller (2006) and

Kennedy (2000). The blind people when presented with raised-line pictures were often able

to recognize sketches and outline drawings, even those that were drawn in perspective.

Thereafter, these researchers studied different modes and aspects of picture

representations: tactile space, outline drawings, perspective, and metaphors. It was showed

by Kennedy (2006) that touch allows people to understand outline drawings and in visually

impaired people, the development of drawing is similar as that of normal sighted people.

Kennedy also showed that the geometry of perspective used for making outline pictures is

largely the same for both touch and vision. However the concept of perspective is more well

defined in vision than in touch.

2.6 EXISTING BOOKS FOR BLIND

2.6.1 Braille books

Braille or a reading system using series of raised dots that can be read with the fingers are

the most common and traditional books used for visually impaired people. However,

exploring Braille may not hold the attention of a young child for long periods, and lengthy

descriptions of pictures can take away from rather than add to a child’s interest (Wright,

2008).

Figure 2.3 Braille book

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braille

14

2.6.2 Story Box Objects

Story box objects are real objects, related to the book, given to the child for handling and

exploration as the story is read to them. They serve as a good first step for sharing books

with young children who cannot view pictures. However, as story box objects are not part of

the book, they may not engage the child in exploring the book to the same extent as visual

pictures and may divert the child’s attention away from the content of the book (Lewis &

Tolla, 2003).

Figure 2.4 A pig toy, a camera, pretend food pancakes, shampoo, an envelope, a shoe, some tools

and a glue stick provided along with the story book If you Give a Pig a Pancake.

Source: http://www.pathstoliteracy.org

2.6.3 Large print books

Standard print is usually in a 10-12 point size. While large print was often thought of as 18-

24 point, today computers and printers can produce text in any size the user desires and in

a variety of fonts. Most users of large print prefer a sans serif font such as Arial or Verdana

which do not have embellishments on letters that can cause visual clutter and confusion like

those found on Times New Roman and other serif fonts (American Foundation for Blind).

15

Figure 2.5 A large print book

Source: www.nationalbookstore.com

2.6.4 Talking books

Talking Books are recorded materials—most often books or magazines—in audio formats.

Talking Book cassettes have to be played on special playback equipment. These books are

easily available worldwide and cover a wide range of subjects (American Foundation for

Blind)

Figure 2.6 A DAISY audio book reader with the same book in printed version

Source: http://www.who.int

16

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2.7 SUMMARYY

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17

18

part while designing books for such children as these children have shown enthusiasm and

interest for tactile illustrations in the past. However, tactile illustrations have their own

disadvantages due to which they can never be understood as instantly and completely as a

visual picture. The understanding of these illustrations is always subjected to the child’s prior

experiences, skills and description either through Braille or through an external reader. Just

the relevant features, a particular order, context and suitable description are some of the

important considerations highlighted by researchers for designing a book for visually

impaired children.

19

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses research design chosen for the study after a background

research and literature review. Following an initial pilot study, an ethnographic research

approach was adopted. An ethnographic approach relies on observations of interactions

and interviews with participants in naturally occurring situation. Interactive workshops

were conducted with visually impaired children (age group 6-10 years) of National

Association of Blind (NAB), Delhi over a period of 6 days. While the researcher broadly

knew the issues to be answered, it was only as the conversations and interviews

progressed that the next question emerged. In this way, the collection of data

progressed through observations and chains of conversations with students and

teachers. Feedback for the research output, the story book prototype in this case, was

finally taken from the participants of the study (students and teachers of NAB) and

incorporated in the final product.

3.2 METHODOLOGY

The methodology started with a pilot study on a group of visually impaired children in

National Association of Blind, Delhi to study the existing system and prevailing problems.

After a preliminary analysis of the system, an ethnographic approach was adopted to

have an in-depth understanding of the exploration styles, learning styles, knowledge set,

tactile perception and comprehension level in visually impaired children of age group 6-

10 years. This study extended over a period of 6 days and included interactive

workshops and non-participant observations. The collected data was then analyzed and

grouped under suitable categories to propose design criteria for story books. Prior to

incorporation of the proposed design criteria into prototypes, a market survey on

existing interactive and story books was carried out to have a general idea about the

communication techniques in these books. A parallel literature search was done on

illustration types and styles in children’s books and general preferences of children in

those books. Concepts were then brainstormed on different subjects taught to visually

impaired children within age group of 6-10 years. An initial prototype on one of the

concept was developed and tested with the children. Feedback from teachers and

children was recorded and incorporated in the final product.

Figure 3.1 Overall research design adopted in the study

3.3 SAMPLE SELECTION

This study made use of purposive sampling. Participants were selected because of

some defining characteristic that made them the holders of the data needed for the

study. For the purpose of this study, the sample was chosen on the basis of pilot study

conducted at NAB. It was observed that stories are read to children of up to KG classes

only and the focus of upper classes is mainly on academics as the students are being

prepared for regular schools. Further, the age group of children found up to lower KG

class varied from 6- 10 years. Thus, 10-15 visually impaired children within the age

20

21

group of 6-10 years and their teachers have been used as sample for this study. Data

was validated through interviews with teachers, Braille typists and librarians

3.4 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

3.4.1 Pilot study

The pilot study was done at NAB over a period of 3 days. The objective of the study was

to understand how the education system of visually impaired children is different from

that of normal sighted children. After obtaining permission from school authorities,

informal interactions were made with teachers, students and other staff members of

auditory and Braille printing room. The children and teachers of both junior and senior

classes were interacted with to draw out a comparison in skills and teaching strategies of

both the classes. The observations were focused on areas such as types of learning

equipments, the kind of subjects taught and ways of teaching in different classes, types

of books being used, cognitive and exploratory skills of students and other activities

being done at the school.

3.4.2 Ethnographic study

The data of ethnographic study was collected through interactive workshops. The

workshops were conducted in classroom setting during school timings of junior classes,

from 10.30 am to 1.30 pm. The tasks of each day workshop were decided on the basis

of results obtained from the previous workshop. The children were first given orientation

by the researcher, either through hands-on-experience or through oral instructions

depending upon the objective of workshop. The children were then asked to perform the

task and the observations were made in the areas of tactile perception, exploration and

learning style, comprehension level and knowledge set. The researcher also participated

in their routine conversations and classroom activities to maintain the naturalness of

ongoing interactions. Informal interviews in which questions were tailored to the unique

concerns of data analysis were conducted with teachers at regular intervals. The

discussions provided insights on general skills, habits, behavior of visually impaired

children and dos and don’ts that need to be considered while designing a story book for

22

them. The collected data was finally segregated under suitable design categories of

story book.

3.4.3 Development of story books for visually impaired children

(a) Market survey

Prior to ideation and conceptualization, a short market survey and a parallel literature

search on various types of picture books for different age groups, content, illustration

styles and general preferences of children in picture books was done. The objective was

to design a story book which could be read and liked by normal sighted children too. The

market survey was done through visits to the children’s sections of Delhi bookstores and

online book retailers (amazon.com).

(b) Development of prototype

The market survey revealed that 5 types of concepts are usually taught to children

through picture story books- spatial, temporal, quantity, quality and socio-emotional.

These concepts were taken as central themes and stories were built around them for

visually impaired children considering the design criteria obtained from previous studies.

Reference pictures were collected; sketches were made and were digitalized for the final

development of prototype. The designs were explored in terms of color scheme,

placement of Braille text and materials. Tactile elements were added by hand to areas

easy to read by visually impaired children

3.4.4 Design and prototype evaluation

The developed prototypes were tried out with children at NAB to check the preferences

of children. Feedback was also taken from teachers and the suggestions were

incorporated in the final design.

3.5 CHALLENGES IN DATA COLLECTION

To observe the exploration style of each student of the group, the flash cards were given

to them one by one. However, other students kept interfering and touching the cards out

23

of curiosity. This disturbed the process of data collection. Further, as children with low

vision could use their residual vision to identify the tactile graphics, the actual data on

tactile perception in absence of vision could not be obtained.

3.6 SUMMARY

In this chapter the research design and methodology of the study were discussed in

detail followed by an explanation of data collection methods, analysis and challenges.

24

CHAPTER 4 PILOT STUDY

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses the pilot study conducted at National Association of Blind, New

Delhi to have a general idea about the existing system there and prevailing problems.

The children were observed for a period of 3 days and informal interactions were made

with the teachers. The observations focused on learning equipments, teaching

strategies, types of books and toys and exploratory and cognitive skills of children within

different age groups.

4.2 NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF BLIND

National Association of Blind (NAB), established in 1979, is a non- government

organization working for the cause of blind. It is about 50% funded by the Central and

the Delhi Governments and rest it generates from donations.

NAB, Delhi runs a preparatory school for blind children in the age group of 5-9 years.

The students are trained in languages (oral, reading and writing), daily living skills,

environmental information and object perception, orientation and mobility, physical

fitness and recreation. Around 270 blind students of NAB study along with sighted

students in about 35 regular schools such as DPS, St. Mary’s, Sarvodaya Vidyalaya and

Navyug schools. NAB also runs a Centre that caters to the special needs of 66 Blind

children with additional disabilities. It focuses on the developmental, social education

and rehabilitation needs of such children.NAB also runs a hostel for blind students both

boys and girls within the campus. Currently around 200 students are residing there.

NAB Computer Centre has Speech Synthesizers attached with computers through

which students undergo training in Windows, Word Processing, Internet, Spread Sheets

etc. It also has a Talking Book Library, where printed textbooks are recorded in audio-

CD and cassettes.

25

4.3 OBSERVATIONS

4.3.1 Learning equipments

The teachers at NAB mainly made use of 3 equipments while teaching students – Braille

slate and stylus, Taylor’s mathematical frame and audio books.

Braille slate and stylus – A Braille slate and stylus is a writing device through which

children are taught to write Braille. It consists of two pieces of plastic fastened together

with a hinge on one side. The front portion contains rows of rectangular openings which

guide the stylus. The back portion has rows of indentations arranged in cells allowing the

stylus to emboss dots on paper. Stylus consists of a small handle made of wood or

plastic with a sharp metal point.

Taylor’s mathematical frame – It is an instrument used for learning mathematics. It

consists of an aluminium frame and a set of metal pegs or type with patterns. The frame

has rows of opening each set out as an eight pointed star. The pegs could therefore be

placed in the frame in one of eight orientations which could be used to represent

numbers, letters or signs.

Audio books – Printed textbooks are often recorded in audio cassettes or CDs to

facilitate students in their learning.

4.3.2 Teaching strategies

Teaching different textures – difference in textures is taught in nursery class by

introducing things from daily life such as different kind of fabrics or different food items.

Through the items of daily use, the children get hands on knowledge about rough,

smooth, soft and hard textures.

Figure 4.1 Ways of teaching different textures to children

Teaching different objects of same shape – objects of same shape are taught by

either introducing the actual object, if smaller in size, or through cutouts of different

materials. Some objects are even hand drawn and colored on white paper to facilitate

learning of children with low vision.

Figure 4.2 Ways of teaching different objects of same shape

Embossed outlines for identification through touch – The shapes of some things are

introduced to them through embossed representations where only the outlines are

embossed. Visually impaired children scan the outlines of these representations through

their finger tips to form an image in their minds. Such representations are also used as a

classroom activity for children for filling colors within the borders.

Figure 4.3 Tactile pictures with embossed outlines 26

The Stories are narrated orally by relating to their personal experiences. Scale and

size problems are solved by comparing them with things children have experienced. For

example, elephant can be described as big as a door.

Confusing shapes such as banana and moon (crescent shape) can be avoided by

describing them in different contexts and not using in the same book or story.

Figure 4.4 Pictures with similar tactile feel cannot be differentiated

4.3.3 Toys

There were no special toys being used for visually impaired children. The common toys

that are made for normal sighted children were being used for visually impaired children.

However, sound toys are specially used for teaching animal sounds to children.

Figure 4.5 Toys at NAB

27

28

4.3.4 Books

There were no special story books visually impaired children. The same story books

available for sighted children were used for visually impaired children too. The tactile

graphics remain absent from the Braille books as the organization doesn’t have special

embossing machines and thus it becomes difficult to produce tactile graphics for a mass

population. Apart from Braille books, e-books (stored on computer) and daisy books

(stored in CD or pen drives) are provided to students. Large print books are also

available for children with low vision. The stories were narrated to children of primary

classes only and senior students were only taught academic subjects.

4.3.5 Skills

Cognitive skills - Children with low vision can identify colors with high contrast. For

example they can differentiate between green, yellow and black but blue is taken as

black, orange is perceived as red. The children were aware of different sounds

associated with animals.

Exploratory skills – Visually impaired children usually use left hand while reading

Braille and right hand for writing it.

4.3.6 Other observations

In the playground, a child could not identify which side to climb on a ladder swing until he

reached the top and realized he had climbed the wrong side. This shows the

requirement of some differentiating element which can help visually impaired children

distinguish between 2 different sides of a particular object.

Each teacher at NAB handles a group of 10-12 students, thus giving individual attention

to each student. There is no difference in teaching methods for low vision and

completely blind as the chances of losing sight on growing up is high for children with

low vision.

29

4.4 SUMMARY

The key findings of the pilot study conducted at NAB suggest that apart from Braille

books and audio books there are no special printed story books being used for visually

impaired children. Teachers read stories to children from regular books available in

market. Story narration is restricted up to upper KG standard. The focus of higher

classes is academics as the students are being prepared for regular schools.

In the light of above findings and importance of picture books for children, an

ethnographic study was conducted with visually impaired children of NAB within 6-10

years of age to encompass some practical insights in the further design development of

books for them.

CHAPTER 5 ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY OF VISUALLY IMPAIRED

CHILDREN

5.1. INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses the ethnographic study conducted with visually impaired children

of age group 6- 10 years at NAB, Delhi. The study was done over a period of 6 days and

comprised of interactive workshops and non- participant observations. The interactive

workshops were conducted in classroom settings between 10.30 am to 1.30 pm. The

study was done to know how is the tactile perception in such children, what are their

learning and exploration styles and their knowledge set.

5.2. OBSERVATIONS AND INFERENCES OF INTERACTIVE WORKSHOPS

5.2.1 Day 1- Random tactile graphics

On the first day, the children were shown embossed outline representations of random

things. The objective of the workshop was to see if they could identify things by just their

embossed outer shapes.

30

Figure 5.1 Random tactile graphics

Observations Inferences

1. The children could identify the shape of cloud

through touch as they have been oriented towards it in

nursery class

Unless children in nursery are

oriented with a particular

representation, they are not able

to identify the tactual graphics

2. The trunk in the representation of elephant’s face

was mistaken to be a leg as the representations of

elephant and turtle’s body had a similar shape of leg.

When a set of visuals of a

particular category is to be

shown, for example wild animals,

there should be uniformity in the

number and type of parts being

shown.

3. While exploring the graphics, children got confused

on where to start from and what route to follow.

An order should be evident in the

representations to aid their

exploration by children

4. Bubbles formed while making the representation of

elephant body were perceived as eyes by some

children. The same elephant was perceived to have 3

eyes by one child.

The touch of these kids is very

sensitive and thus the tactile

graphics need to be neat and

accurate to avoid wrong

perception

31

Table 5.1 Observations of day 1 workshop

5.2.2 Day 2- Tactile graphics of animal faces

On day 2, the children were shown tactile representations of animal faces. . The parts of

faces were made from different materials. A tactile graphic of human face was shown as

a reference in the beginning. A unique feature of each animal face was described to

them in the orientation round to help them identify the animals on their own.

The objective was to evaluate if they could identify the parts of a face through different

textures of different material.

Figure 5.2 Tactile graphics of animal faces


1. The children started exploring the graphic from

the middle of the page and then went randomly.

They scanned the empty space on side, rotated the

page due to which the concepts such as ‘nose

below the eyes’, ‘mouth below the nose’ etc

became confusing for them.

There should be an order or a

direction to guide them during

touching and to make a sense out of

the picture.

32

2. Most of the children could identify just the parts

(whether it’s a nose or ear etc) due to the difference

in texture of the materials.

Different textures can be used to

differentiate between two areas.

3. The children could not identify the animal until

they were reminded of its unique feature.

Description, either verbal or textual,

is important for effective

comprehension of a concept.

4. Some children asked questions about the

animals’ legs and hands as they have been

introduced with the toy models of the same animals

in nursery class. They were also aware of the

sounds made by these animals.

The prior experience of the children

is an important consideration while

deciding the content of the book.

Table 5.2 Observations of Day 2 workshop

5.2.3 Day 3- Clay workshop

On day 3 children were asked to play with clay and make whatever they like. The

objective was to see what their interest levels are and how they perceive things around

them.

Figure 5.3 Clay models prepared by totally blind children

33

Figure 5.4 Clay models by children with low vision


1. The items made were models of local and

everyday things experienced by children. They

represented the culture of the place they are living

in. For example- laddu, sevaiyan, dhoop batti,

diya, chapati, local taps.

The representations and content of a

book should represent the culture of

the target audience and not include

foreign names or visuals which

children can’t relate to.

2. Children with low vision could make relatively

more complex and detailed objects in comparison

to completely blind children.

The representations could be more

detailed when made only for children

with low vision.


5.2.4 Day 4 – small tactile flash cards made from single material

In the previous workshop, children could distinguish between different materials. The

objective of the 4th day workshop was to see if they could distinguish between different

patterns prepared by using same material. Small sized flashcards with patterns of

different complexity level were prepared to see the extent of their fine exploration skills.

The material used for making these patterns was a mixture of plaster of paris and fevicol

which was then filled in a cone and used for making patterns

34

Figure 5.5 Small tactile flash cards with increasing complexity level (left to right)


1. Flashcards with pointed and sharp textures were

rejected by the teacher as they could harm the

sensitive finger tips of children

No tactile representations with sharp

or pointed textures capable of

harming children’s finger tips should

be included in the book

2. Flash cards of small surface area were deemed

unsuitable by the teacher for use by children. It was

stated that with small cards children will end up

playing with edges only. Half A4 sheet was

suggested to be the minimum size for any tactile

representation.

The pages of the book should not be

smaller than half A4 sheet.

3. Any shape/ pattern drawn should be accurate as

it becomes difficult for children to change a concept

once it is formed in their minds.

There should be a consistency in the

shapes/patterns of all the visuals of a

particular thing in a book


5.2.5 Day 5 - Big tactile flashcards

Based upon the feedback received from teacher on Day 4, big tactile flashcards were

prepared using the same material and patterns. All the flashcards were prepared in

pairs. These flashcards with patterns of different complexity level were then introduced

to children one by one and the children were asked to identify the matching counterpart

of each card.

35

Figure 5.6 Big tactile flash cards with increasing complexity level (left to right)


1.The cards of level 1 consisting of simple

geometrical shape such as square, triangle and

circle were readily matched by all the children. They

could even tell what shape it is and its

characteristics.

Simple shapes, preferably

geometrical should be used for

representations for easy and quick

recognition by children

2.The cards of level 2 with distinct patterns were

also readily matched by children.

Different textures (either made from

different material or from same

material) should be used to

distinguish between 2 different

areas.

3.The 3rd level of cards which had all the patterns

involving lines was confusing with children and

relatively more time was taken to match them> One

student even stated all the cards to be similar.

2 different areas should not have a

similar tactile feel to avoid confusion.


5.2.6 Day 6- Story narration

Stories from 2 different genres were narrated to children. The genres chosen were

fables and fairy tales. From fairy tales, the stories of Cinderella and sleeping beauty and

from fables, animal stories of the thirsty crow and the tortoise and hare were chosen for

narration. While narration, children were asked questions at intervals to record their

responses.

36

37


1.The children did not know what a hare or a

tortoise looks like when asked about it during hare

and tortoise story.

Prior experience or knowledge can

affect the comprehension of a story

or a concept. For example in this

case the children might not be able

to create any pictures in their mind

until described about tortoise and

hare to them.

2.The children were aware of the hungry crow story.

One child was permitted to narrate the story to the

group. Throughout the story, other children kept

correcting him and adding their inputs.

The interest level increases when

children encounter a familiar

concept.

3.The children were unable to describe a palace or

a princess when asked about them during

Cinderella story.

A suitable description of things not

experienced by children should be

provided in book for children to

understand a concept.

4.The children kept silent during narration of fairy

tales until they were asked some question. They

were not as enthusiastic as in the case of animal

stories.

The children could not relate to the

characters and things described in

the story as they had not

experienced them or had been

taught about them.


5.3. CATEGORISING DATA UNDER SUITABLE DESIGN CATEGORIES OF BOOK

The observations obtained through the study have been organized under suitable design

categories required for developing a book for these children.

5.3.1 Illustrations

(a) Planning considerations

As visually impaired children identify graphics through touch, it is essential not to use

two different categories of visuals with similar feel in the same book. Further, when a set

of visuals of a particular category such as wild animals is shown, there should be a

consistency in the perspective being shown. For example, if one visual represents the

side view of the body of a four legged animal, the subsequent animals of the same

category should also represent the side view (Figure 5.7).

Correct Wrong

(a) 1st tactile graphic (b) 2nd tactile graphic

Figure 5.7 Tactile graphics of 4 legged animal

The previous encounters of a particular tactile graphic by children facilitate its

interpretation in the book. They are more comfortable with the graphics they have been

already oriented to and associate with them faster. Thus it is advisable to have a prior

knowledge of such tactile graphics and try to incorporate them in the book. For any new

tactile graphic, an initial hands-on-experience needs to be given to the children.

38

(b) Technical considerations

The touch of these kids is very sensitive and thus the tactile graphics need to be neat

and accurate in terms of overall feel to avoid wrong perception. Two different areas

should be represented through different textures, shapes or lines having a distinct feel

(Figure 5.8).

(a) (b)

Figure 5.8 (a) Different parts of lion’s face are represented through different textures

(b) Different patterns made from a single material provide distinct feel

Any texture or a pattern having a sharp or a pointed feel capable of damaging their

sensitive finger tips is prohibited for use. The illustration should be sufficiently spacious

and the two lines should be at least 1/4 inch apart to be considered as separate.

5.3.2 Content

Without providing a context to the illustration, the children are unable to make sense out

of the graphic. Description, either verbal or textual, is important for effective

comprehension of a concept. A suitable textual description for a simple tactile illustration

can convey an idea to the child’s mind. However, the narrating skills of the external

reader still play an important role and support the understanding of a concept. 39

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The content of the book should be based on the interest levels and background

knowledge of the children to hold their attention. It should represent the culture of the

place they are living in and not include any foreign names or visuals they can’t relate to.

5.3.3 Layout

Visually impaired children scan tactile graphics haphazardly and may overlap their

starting and ending points which leads to confusion. An order should be evident in the

representations to aid exploration process by children.

There should be sufficient empty space around illustration for their fingers to scan. In

absence of sufficient empty space the children would not know what they are being

made to focus on. There should be not more than two illustrations on one page.

5.3.4 Typography

As there is a standard size of Braille, there is no option of choosing another font or size.

However, in addition to Braille, large print with at least 18 font size can be used for

children with low vision. The type should be simple. Arial, Times New Roman, Verdana,

Calibri are some of the examples. The font should be bold and clear. Text should be

positioned in the same place on each page would provide a direction to children and

help them in reading.

5.3.5 Color

Use of color in books is only useful for children with low vision. These children can

identify high contrast and bright colors.

5.3.6 Page size

The page size should not be smaller than their palm size, approx half A4 sheet. A small

page will only misguide them in their interpretation of what is supposed to be explored

and they might end up with just playing with the edges of the paper.

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5.3.7 Material

Paper needs to be of good quality to hold the tactile elements. As children explore the

whole page haphazardly, the chances of it getting torn are high if the paper is not of

good quality. The tactile elements can be added using different types of materials or

making different patterns with the same material.

5.4. MARKET STUDY AND LITERATURE RESEARCH ON PICTURE BOOKS OF CHILDREN

Prior to ideation and development of prototypes of story books, a survey on various

types of picture books available in market for small children was done to know about the

concepts and communication techniques in them. The objective was to design a story

book that could be liked and read by normal sighted children too. Thus, a parallel

literature search was also done to learn about the general preferences of children of in

picture books. The market survey was done through visits to the children’s sections of

Delhi bookstores and online book retailers (amazon.com). The books were observed for

their illustration styles, color scheme and subject matter.

5.4.1 Types of Children’s books

Baby books - For infants, these books are generally lullabies, nursery rhymes, finger

plays, or wordless books. The length and format varies with the content.

Toddler books - Very simple stories for ages 1-3 (fewer than 300 words) familiar to a

child's everyday life, or concept books (teaching colors, numbers, shapes, etc.) Books

are short (12 pages is average) and the format can be board books (sturdy paper-over

board construction), pop-ups, lift-the flaps or novelty books (books that make sounds,

have different textures, etc.)

Early picture books - Picture books for children up to 8 years of age. The stories are

simple and contain fewer than 1000 words. Some of them are easy-to-read books for

children who have just started to read on their own. The stories are told mainly through

action and dialogue, in grammatically simple sentences

5.4.2 Basic concepts taught in children’s books

Spatial (location) – right/left, up/down, top/bottom, front/back, forward/backward, above/below etc

Temporal (time) – 7 days of a week, 12 months, always/never, yesterday/today/tomorrow etc

Quantity (number)- counting , addition, subtraction etc

Quality (description) – describing a particular thing, full/empty, tall/short, thick/thin, hard/soft, smooth/rough etc

Socio- emotional (feelings) – Moral stories, manners, expressions (happy, sad etc)

5.4.3 Illustrations styles

The various illustration styles in children’s books include line drawings, wash drawings

(where washes of colors are used), black and white illustrations, full color reproductions

in 3 primary colors and illustrations with a predominant color.

Figure 5.9 Line drawing

Source: http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2009/jun/20/bruce-ingham

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Figure 5.10 Black and white illustration

Source: http://nancycote.blogspot.in/

Figure 5.11 Colored illustrations

Source: http://www.penguin.co.nz/products/9781409305156/baby-touch-flip-flap-book

Figure 5.12 Wash drawing

Source: http://illustrationforkids.blogspot.in/2007/06/childhood-books-and-favorite-childrens.html

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http://nancycote.blogspot.in/

http://www.penguin.co.nz/products/9781409305156/baby-touch-flip-flap-book

http://illustrationforkids.blogspot.in/2007/06/childhood-books-and-favorite-childrens.html

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5.4.4 General preferences of children in picture books

Children prefer books with more than 25% of the space occupied by pictures. Large and

colorful pictures are most popular among them. Young children prefer crude or primary

colors. Soft tints, fine shading and details make pictures confusing for them and are

generally not favored by them. As children grow, their preferences for detailed and softer

tones increase. Children select pictures on the basis of color, prettiness, scenery and

interests in the subject portrayed. Photographs in books are not liked much by small

children.

5.5. SUMMARY

The observations of interactive workshop visually impaired children were segregated

under suitable design criteria of the story book such as illustrations, content, page

layout, color, typography and material. The knowledge set of target audience, big and

spacious tactile displays, distinct tactile feel for distinct areas, colors of high contrast,

definite order in tactile displays and text, consistency in the perspective large font and

plain type, good quality paper are some of the important considerations while designing

a story book for visually impaired children. A short market study on picture books and a

parallel literature on children’s preferences in these books were done to know about the

various illustration styles and visual communication techniques in them.

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CHAPTER 6 DEVELOPMENT OF STORY BOOKS FOR VISUALLY

IMPAIRED CHILDREN

6.1 INTRODUCTION

After obtaining design criteria and a market study of types of story books and illustration

styles, few concepts were analyzed, designed and developed as prototypes. The

different types of subjects taught to children up to upper KG class were taken as

themes and from each of them concepts were brainstormed and developed as

prototypes. A short study on illustration styles and types of books helped in the

realization of concepts. The prototypes were tried with the visually impaired children to

test their feasibility. The results and feedback from teachers was then incorporated in

the final product.

6.2 KEY WORDS/PHRASES FROM DESIGN CRITERIA

• Content to be planned in accordance to background knowledge

• Page size not smaller than their palm size

• Not more than 2 tactile graphics per page

• No sharp or pointed textures capable of harming their fingertips

• Uniformity and consistency in the shapes of tactile graphics being shown

• Sufficient space (not less than 1/4 inch) between 2 distinct lines

• Enough empty space around a tactile graphic

• Typography- Arial/Times New Roman

• Large print- not smaller than 18 point

• Use of local terminology in content

• Different textures for different areas

• A definite order in placement of visuals and text to guide its reading in a specific

direction

• High contrast colors

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• Simplest illustrations

• Only 2-3 lines per page

6.3 DEVELOPMENT OF PROTOTYPE 1

6.3.1 The concept

The visually impaired children in nursery class are taught about different fruits as part of

their syllabus. They are given hands on experience through real fruits and through

class activities involving embossed drawings of fruits. Similar embossed drawings have

been incorporated in the first concept. Knowledge about mango has been conveyed in

the form of a story.

In this story, a honey bee and mangoes have been represented as characters. One

day the honey bee encounters two mangoes, one green and one yellow and asks them

certain questions. The answers given by the mangoes form the knowledge part of the

story that is conveyed to the reader. As it is represented through a story, it would have

a stronger impact on children’s minds and would improve their retention power.

Simple illustrations, contrasting colors, 1 line per page, just 1-2 tactile graphics per

page are the other considerations taken in account. For the tactility part, different

materials can be explored and tested with the children to find out the best option. Braille

overlays could be stuck over printed text enabling both normal sighted and visually

impaired to read book.

6.3.2 Layout

The following layout was used for making the pages of the book:

Figure 6.1 Layout of the story book pages

6.3.3 Explorations

Illustrations

The illustrations were prepared in 3 sets with each subsequent set having decreased

contrast and increased use of colors. The objective was to evaluate the degree to

which number of colors can be used and which set was the most liked and felt

comfortable with by the children with low vision.

Figure 6.2 Visuals against a white background offering a high contrast 47

Figure 6.3 Visuals against a blue background offering a relatively lower contrast

Figure 6.4 Visuals with some highlights added

Placement of Braille text

Braille can either be printed directly on sheets of book or transparent Braille overlays

can be stuck on the sheets

(a) (b) 48

(c ) (d)

Figure 6.5 Different placements of Braille text.

Material explorations

Paper – Printouts were taken on paper of 100 gsm, 175 gsm and 300 gsm to evaluate

which would be the most suitable for making pages of story books.

Tactile elements - Different areas need to have different textures for children to

distinguish between them. In this story, 4 different areas needed to be embossed-

mango fruit, its leaves, seed and honey bee. As the visually impaired children are not

aware of the different perspectives, oval body of the honey bee as a whole has been

textured using a foam sheet so that the children encounter same shape on every page

and do not get confused. No tactility has been added to other parts such as wings,

antennae, eyes and mouth. In mango, just the contours of the fruit have been

embossed and for leaves, the complete shape has been embossed. This would enable

children to differentiate between the mango fruit and its leaf. For the purpose of the

prototype, embossing has been done manually.

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Figure 6.6 Body of honey bee made from foam sheet

Figure 6.7 Embossed mango fruit and leaves

6.3.4 Feedback and evaluation of prototype

The 3 sets of illustrations were introduced to children with low vision. They were asked

to state the most liked one and the one which they feel most comfortable with. The

tactile pages were then tried with a group of 5 children, 3 totally blind and 2 with low

vision, to check the responses of the children towards the book. Feedback was also

taken from 2 teachers. The following were the results obtained:

• The children with low vision preferred the 3rd set of illustrations as it was more

colorful.

• The wings of the honey bee need to be of darker shade as the backdrop and the

current color of wings tend to be similar which may not be distinguished by visually

impaired children 50

51

• Braille text was suggested to be placed below the English text because when the

Braille is place at top, children tend to tear the page in the process of sliding their

hand up against the page

• The book was suggested to be printed in Hindi language also as many parents of

children do not understand English.

• The children could identify different tactile parts on each page due to the difference

in textures.

• The children tend to scratch the foam sheet to feel it’s both sides. Thus, use of a

strong glue or direct embossing of the page is advisable.

6.4 CHALLENGES IN DEVELOPING THE PROTOTYPE

• Braille had to be hand written as the required Braille printing machine was not

available anywhere in Delhi. This was time and labor consuming.

• As the Braille slate is of A4 size, the Braille text could not be written beyond the

width of the slate. As the pages of the book were in landscape mode, a lot of

horizontal space assigned for Braille text got wasted.

• The pages of the book need to be thick as children handle them in a rough

manner. But as writing Braille is difficult on a thick sheet and requires more

pressure, it needs to be written on a separate material (plastic sticker sheet in this

case). This adds to the cost of the book

6.5 SUMMARY

The design criteria obtained from workshops and market study was incorporated into a

story book on mango. Various explorations were done in terms of illustrations,

placement of Braille, page thickness and material. The developed prototypes were then

tested with visually impaired children and evaluation and feedback of prototypes from

children and teachers at NAB was sincerely recorded. The challenges while developing

the prototype has also been discussed in this chapter.

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CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

The aim of the study was to study the design criteria of story books for visually impaired children

and incorporate it into a prototype. A pilot study was conducted at National association of Blind,

Delhi, to understand the existing system and prevailing problems there. The results showed that

are no special printed story books being used for visually impaired children and teachers read

stories to children from regular books available in market. In the light of above findings and

importance of picture books for children, an ethnographic study was conducted with visually

impaired children of NAB within 6-10 years of age to encompass some practical insights in the

further design development of books for them. The study was done over a period of 6 days and

comprised of interactive workshops conducted in classroom settings between 10.30 am to 1.30

pm. The study was done to know how is the tactile perception in such children, what are their

learning and exploration styles and their knowledge set. The observations were segregated

under suitable design criteria of the story book along with a parallel market study and literature

research on picture books of children. The prototypes were developed and tried out with

children to analyze the preferences of children and assess the effectiveness of the prototypes.

They were also evaluated by teachers and the feedback was duly recorded to be incorporated

in the final product.

From the study, it has been observed that,

• The needs and requirements of reading and writing differ greatly from normal sighted

children to completely blind to those having low vision. While children with low vision can

make use of their residual vision to understand a particular concept, totally blind children

have to completely rely on auditory and tactile means.

• The teaching strategies remain same for both totally blind and low vision children as the

chances of losing the vision are high among the low vision children.

• Visually impaired children need to be given a prior orientation and hands on experience

towards various tactile graphics for effective comprehension of the story in the book.

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• The tactile visuals in the book should be big and spacious and not more than two in

number per page

• The graphics should be simple and any different tactile areas should have distinct textures

to enable visually impaired children to distinguish between them.

• The tactile graphics should be consistent in shape and perspective if the same visual is

being repeated. They should be placed in a definite order

• The text should be plain and simple, bold and large and placed in a definite order.

• Visually impaired children prefer colourful illustrations like normal sighted children.

However, the colours need to be in high contrast to each other.

• Visually impaired children take more interest in subjects in story books which they have

been taught about or introduced earlier. Thus the knowledge set of a visually impaired child

plays an important role in deciding the content of the book

• Visually impaired children tend to take off and scratch any tactile element in the book that

has been stuck to it. Thus a strong glue or direct embossing of the page is advisable.

SCOPE OF FURTHER RESEARCH

There is no specific organisation researching and developing story books for visually impaired

children in India. Further research needs to be conducted in this area with children of different

age groups.

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APPENDIX

STORY BOOK PAGES- HONEY BEE MEETS MANGOES

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study of design criteria of story books for visually impaired children

Documents