study syba education notes of book

7/27/2019 Study SYBA Education Notes of Book

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S.Y.B.A.

EDUCATION

Paper II

Educational Psychology (Supplementary alongwith Psychology of Learning)

Revised Syllabus w.e.f. academic year 2004 2005

For IDE Students applicable from 2005 2006


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c : UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI

Dr. Vijay

Khole

Dr.

Dhaneswar

Harichandan

Vice Chancellor I/c Professor Cum Director

Dr. Arun Sawant Institute of Distance Education

Pro Vice Chancellor

Course Cordinator

Dr. Dhaneswar Harichandan

Reader in Education , IDE, University of Mumbai

Dr. Beena Khemnchandani, Principal

Seva Sadan's College of Education, Ulhasnagar 421003.

Dr. Savita Sable , Lecturer in Education

National College of Education, Ulhasnagar 421 004

Mrs. Sharmila Mitra , Lecturer in Education,

National College of Education, Ulhasnagar 421 004.

Dr. Swamalata Harichandan,

Lecturer in Education,

National College of Education, Ulhasnagar 421 004.


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February, 2006

DTP Composed by : Pace Computronics

"Samridhi" Paranjpe 'B' Scheme,

Vile Parle (E), Mumbai 400 057.

Printed at :

Published by : The Professor cum Director of

Institute of Distance Education

University of Mumbai,


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INDEX

No. Particulars No.

CONTENTS

Sr.No. Titl e Page No.

1. AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT 1 2. LEARNING 19

3 A. MENTAL PROCESSES RELATED TO LEARNING: MEMORY 31

3 B. FORGETTING 40

4. MOTIVATION 43

5. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE 53

6 A. MENTAL HYGIENE 63

6 B. SELF-CONCEPT AND SELF-ESTEEM 67

6 C. MALADJUSTMENTS 75

7. GROUP DYNAMICS 868. PRACTICALS (Experiments to be conducted) 97


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Preface

The syllabus of SYBA Education paper II has been revised with

effect from 2005 06. The revised syllabus is given in this study material.

This study material is supplementary to the earlier one named

Psychology of Learning . You are required to refer to the revised

syllabus and prepare for the examination accordingly. Some units in the

old study material is to be ignored as per the revised syllabus. Units 1, 2

and 4 may be read from old study material.

Students having any difficulty in understanding the subjectmay contact the Reader in Education in Room No. 210 of IDE.

(Dr. D. Harichandan)

Reader in Education and

Course Co-ordinator)


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UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI

Revised Syllabus of SYBA (Education)

PAPER II EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Objectives :

1. To develop an understanding of the meaning & scope of educationalpsychology.

2. To understand the dimensions of growth & the causes of individualdifference.

3. To understand the problem of adolescents & the role of education insloving them.

4. To understand the structure & functions of higher mental process.

5. To comprehend the process of learning & processes related tolearning.

6. To understand the various theories of learning.

7. To develop the ability to analyze classroom teaching learning & theability to observe classroom behavior & group dynamics.

8. To understand the different aspects of personality.


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Content:

1. Nature, meaning, scope & functions of Educational Psychology.

2. Methods of studying Educational Psychology (i) Introspection (ii)Observation (iii) Experimental method.

3. A. Growth & Development Meaning, Principles of growth &development.B. Stages of growth & development Infancy, childhood.

Adolescence.

Areas of development Physical, social, emotional, intellectual &moral.

4. Individual differences meaning, significance, causes of differences genetic & environmental.

5. Learning concept, nature & process of learning. Maturation.Learning Curve A. Theories of learning Trial & Error, Classical & Operant

Conditioning, Learning by Insight.

B. Transfer of learning concept & types.

6. Mental processes related to learning: A. Memory concept, type, factors affecting memory, artificial

intelligence, techniques to develop memory.B. Forgetting Nature, causes, educational implications.C. Thinking Perceptual, Conceptual, Convergent & Divergent

thinking, Inductive & Deductive reasoning.D. Problem solving.

7. Motivation Concept, principles, types, factors affecting motivation,Maslows theory, motivational techniques.

8. Intelligence A. Concept, nature & types of intellectual abilities.

B. Intelligence tests types & uses.C. Creativity nature & process of creative thinking, characteristics

of creative persons.

9. A. Personality Concept, assessment of personality B. Maladjustments causes & prevention of maladjustment.


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10. Group Dynamics Characteristics of a group, types of groups, role &qualities of a leader.

Experiments to be conducted & recorded in the journal (any six):

a) Memory rote & logical, preservation, recall & recognition b) Intelligencetests verbal & non-verbal c) Transfer of learning (Mirror drawing) d)Motivation


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EDUCATION PAPER VI ELEMENTS OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH(Optional Paper) 80 marks APPLIED COMPONENT 3Lectures/week

Objective

1. To understand the concept & principles of educational research.

2. To acquaint with different methods of educational research.

3. To understand the various stages of educational research.

4. To understand the various data collection tools for educationalresearch.

5. To understand the different aspects of writing a research report.

Content

1. Concept of educational research, significance, need & characteristicsof educational research.

2. Educational research in India different organizations which promoteeducational research. Major periodicals & journals of educationalresearch.

3. Methods of educational research

a) Historical Methodb) Experimental methodc) Descriptive method.

4. Stages in educational research

a) Selection, formulation & definition of the problem.

b) Background of the study review of related literature.c) Collection of data & tools of research questionnaire, ratingscale, interview, observation.

d) Quantitative Analysis & interpretation of data using measures of central tendency & variability.

5. The Research report


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a) Aspects of research the research question, the rationale, sitedescription (where & who sample), methods of data collection,analysis & interpretation of data, reflection on results.

b) List of references & bibliography.Practical Work

1. Review of any one educational research from 2001 onwards.

2. Identifying the research problem & reviewing its related literature.

Reference books

1. Aggarwal J. C. Educational Research, an introduction. (Arya BookDepot)

2. Lokesh Kaul Methodology of Educational Research (Vikas

publishing house)

3. Best J.W & Kahn J.V. Research in Education (Prentice Hall of India.)

4. Sharma R. A Fundamentals of Educational Research (Loyal BookDepot, Meerut)

5. Garrett H.E Statistics in Psychology & Education. (Vakils, Pepper &Simons Pvt Ltd.)

6. Sukhia S P & Mehrotra Elements of Educational research (AlliedPublishers Pvt Ltd)

7. Rao Usha Conducting Educational Research (DashthaneRamchandra & Co. Pune)

8. Khan Mohammed Sharif Educational Research


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EDUCATION PAPERS VII COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 100marks 4lectures/week

Objectives

1. To understand the meaning of Comparative Education.

2. To understand the scope of Comparative Education.

3. To understand the educational system of different countries.

4. To comprehend the different stages of education in differentcountries.

5. To gain an insight into the various aspects of higher education indifferent countries.

6. To compare the various aspects of education in the differentcountries studied with India.

Content

1. Meaning, definition, scope & purpose of comparative education.

2. Factors affecting educational system in different countries such ashistorical background, geography of the country, ideologicalframework & political system.

3. Aims/objectives, philosophy & constitutional provisions for educationin the U.K., U.S.A & Indonesia.

4. Pre-primary, primary, secondary, higher secondary & higher education in the U.K. U.S.A. & Indonesia.

5. Various aspects of higher education in the U.K., U.S.A & Indonesia

including admission, finance, campus life, facilities, part-timeemployment opportunities, examinations, placement services.


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Practical Work

To write a paper on any one of the following topics.

a) Student teacher relationship in the U. S. A & India.

b) The pattern of examinations in higher education in the U. S. A. &India

c) The medium of instruction at all levels in Indonesia & India.

d) Planning in education in Indonesia & India.

e) Unemployment of the educated in Indonesia & India.

f) Planning in education in the U. K. & India.

Reference Books

1. Chaube S. P. Feautres of Comparative Education.

2. Hans Nicholas Comparative Education A Study of educational factors & taditions.

3. Borrowman Meries L Teacher Education in America.

4. Khanna S D & others Comparative Education made easy.

5. Sodhi T S Comparative Education.

6. Ashby Evic Any person, any sky an essay onhigher education in USA.

7. Devance W C Higher Education in the 20 th century America


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EDUCATION PAPER VIII CHALLENGES IN INDIAN EDUCATION

100marks 4lectures/week

Objectives

1. To understand the problems at different levels of education in India.

2. To comprehend the difficulties faced by the weaker sections of Indiasociety.

3. To gain insight into the various measures to tackle the problems inIndian education.

4. To understand the need for value education in the 21 st century.

5. To understand the roles played by some agencies to wards valueeducation.

6. To understand the problems faced in inclusive education.

Content

A) The following topics should be viewed in the light of the Indian Constitution &role of the government wherever applicable:

1. Universalization of primary education.

2. Education of the marginalized population the backward class,scheduled cast/tribe, women.

3. Medium of instruction of primary, secondary & higher education levels.

B) 1. Student indiscipline & management of crises

2. Admissions to higher education.

3. Examinations need, defects, suggestions for improvement.

4. Value education need, role of family & school.


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5. Environmental education concept, need, type water, air, noise.

6. Unemployment causes & steps to tackle the problem.

7. Inclusive education.

Practical To present a paper on any one of the following

1. Medium of instruction & its impact.

2. The need for continuous evaluation.

3. The need for increasing awareness of the masses towards theenvironment.

4. Problems faced by students during admission to professional courses

5. The need for value education in the 21 st century.

Reference books 1. Balan K - Education & Employment.

2. Rao D B Education for all achieving the goal 3volume set.

3. Laxmi S Challenges in Indian Education.

4. Rao D B Current Trends in Indian Education

5. Veena D R Educational Systems problems &prospects


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6. Mehta P L & others Free & Compulsory Education (Gensis &Execution of the

constitutional philosophy)

7. Sarangi R Moral Education in schools Basis &Implications

8. Kirk S A & Gallaghen J J Education exceptional children.

9. Godbole R D Examination & Evaluation.

10. Khan Mohammad Sharif Education. Religion & Modern Age.

11. Gore M S Indian Education Structure & problems

12. Mohanty J Modern trends in Indian Education.


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EDUCATION PAPER IX EDUCATION FOR WOMEN

(Optional Paper) 80 marks APPLIED COMPONENT 3Lectures/week

Objectives

1. To develop awareness of the issues related to womens eduation.

2. To develop understanding of the cultural, social, economic, religious& political problems of womens education.

3. To highlight the efforts made by the government & social reformersto promote womens education.

4. To emphasis the role of the family, the school & the media in theempowerment of women.

5. To develop attitudes of gender equality.

Content

1) Development of Womens education in post-independent India

a) Constitution.b) University Education Commission, 1948-49

c) Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53d) Education Commission, 1964-66e) National Education Policy, 1986f) Womens Movement in India

2) Current status of Womens Education

a) Statistical profile with reference to 2001 census data

i) Literacy rateii) Enrolment ratios at different levels of education

iii) Dropout ratesiv) Distribution in various professions.

b) Factors affecting Womens Education.i) Socio culturalii) Rural / Urbaniii) Politicaliv) Economicv)


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c) Promoting Womens new image in democratic indiai) Essential qualities: Self esteem, Role in democracy, Leadership.ii) Role of school & family.

3) Efforts for Womens empowerment.

a) Central government policies N.C.W.E.

b) State government policies for Women, Government of Maharashtra 1994.c) Important legal measures.d) Social Reformers Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Mahatma Jyotiba

Phule, Pandita Ramabai.e) Womens entrepreneurship skilled based training & education.

4) Role of formal & non-formal agencies for gender equality

a) Formal agencies Schoolb) Non-formal agencies.

i) Open Universitiesii) Mass mediaiii) Voluntary agencies

Practical Work Profile of two renowned Women achievers in Independent India.

Reference Books 1. Sharma B M Women & Education2. Dutt Suresh Women in Education (2 Volumes)


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EDUCATION PAPER IX. COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION(Optional Paper) 80 marks APPLIED COMPONENT 3 Lect ures /week

Objectives

1. To understand the importance of computer in the modernchanging society.

2. To understand the role of computers in the field of education.3. To understand the various components of hardware & their

functions.4. To understand the skillful use of hardware through software.5. To understand need for an operating system software.6. To understand the use of word processing software using

MS word.7. To Develop logic & skill, to write & structure simple

programs, to manipulate data using basic programming

8. To understand & learn the use of data based management &spreadsheet through MS Office program Excel.9. To create awareness on multi-tasking & graphics using

Paintbrush of windows program & MS Office Power Point.10. To learn the use of Internet, its basics browser, search

engine & e-mail.11. To create use of computers in networking

Content 1) Introduction & fundamentals of computers i. Concept of computer & computer systems & its characteristics & capabilitiesii. Types of computers only knowledge of Main Frame, Mini Computer, Micro

computer, PC/XT- 286,386,486, Pentium, Desktop, Laptop.

iii. Computer peripherals Input devices keyboard, mouse, scanner Output devices monitor, printer.Storage devices hard disk, floppy disk &

drives, memory stick & CD ROMS which are multimedia

Memories RAM, ROM, knowledge of types

iv. System soft wares WINDOWS, application software MS OFFICE, MSWORLD, EXCEL & POWERPOINT.

2. WINDOWS

i) Introductionii) Windows concept & exploring windows features multitasking desktop

environment, task bar, menu bar, tool bar, use of file manager or windexplorer, use of print manager, program groups.

iii) Drawing through paint brush & use of calculator.


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3. APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION

Use of Computers in a) Teaching b) Learning c) Evalution & Testing.

4. MS-WORD, WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE.

i) Introduction menusii) Open & save a new or existing documentiii) Create a document, editing a document moving the text, using drag

& droptext, copying between documents, using autocorrect &thesaurus, margin setting, changing line setting, justifying commands,insert pictures or clipart print document & enhancements

iv) Mail merge document with examples

5. MS-EXCEL DATA BASE & SPREAD SHEET SOFTWARE -

i) Introduction exploring features of spreadsheets & workbook, worksheet fundamentals & basics-data, its types.

ii) Entering data, adjusting column width, loading & saving files or database.iii) Copying data using file handle & moving data in worksheet.iv) Windowing, titling, sorting & querying.v) Creating, saving & printing graphs with options.vi) Work sheet functions & formulae DATE, SUM, AVG, LEFT,

RIGHT,REAPEAT, STR, INT, VAL using IF THEN statements for preparing result sheets, LOOKUP REFERENCE to convert marksinto grades.

vii) Preparation of mark list using EXCEL.

6. MS PPOWERPOINT PRESENTATION SOFTWARE

i) Introduction to making presentations preparation of slides &creating & editing a presentation.ii) Exploring the power point menus & toolbars features, slide animation

& multimedia features slide transition during slide show.iii) Preparing slide presentation using features of multimedia (at least 10

slides on any one unit)

7. INTERNET & EMAIL

i) Basics of Internet, genesis browser, search engines, software &hardware (MODEM), surfing, search methods/algorithms

ii) Visiting educational websites, chat, bulletin boards & forums for exchange of ideas.

iii) Uses of internet, net working, LAN, e-mail creating & sending.Note: The present syllabus should be subject to revision as per the hardware &software changes, on the condition that the Board of Studies shouldcommunicate the same to the concerned colleges at the beginning of theacademic year.Practical Any one of the following to be done

1. Prepare a curriculum vitae with hyperlinks.2. Prepare a power point presentation presenting

MYSELF.


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Reference Books:

1. Dan Gooking : Windows Windows for Dummies

2. DSouza Eric S. : A textbook on Computer Literacy

Published by SKW Enterprises

3. Merill Paul F., Hammons, : Computers in Education

Tolman, Christensen, Vincient

4. Raman Raja : Fundamentals of Compuers

5. Stevens A. I. : Teach yourself Windows

6. Timothy, J. O. : Microsoft Office 2000 Published by C DAC Tata McGraw Hill series called The OLeary series.


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PAPER II EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY S.YB.A. 100 MARKS 3lecturesper week

Objectives:

1. To develop an understanding of the meaning & scope of educationalpsychology.2. To understand the dimensions of growth & the causes of individual

differences.3. To understand the problem of adolescents & the role of education in

solving them.4. To understand the structure & functions of higher mental process.5. To comprehend the process of learning & processes related to learning.6. To understand the various theories of learning.7. To develop the ability to analyze classroom teaching learning & the

ability to observe classroom behavior & group dynamics.8. To understand the different aspects of personality.

Content:

1. Nature, meaning, scope & functions of Educational Psychology.

2. Methods of studying Educational Psychology i) Introspection ii)Observation iii) Experimental method

3. A. Growth & Development Meaning, Principles of growth &development.

B. Stages of growth & development Infancy, childhood, adolescence. Areas of development Physical, social, emotional, intellectual &

moral.

4. Individual differences meaning, significance, causes of differences genetic & environmental

5. A. Learning concept, nature & process of learning, maturation, learningcurve.

B. Theories of learning Trial & Error, Classical & Operant Conditioning,Learning by insight,

C. Thinking Perceptual, conceptual, convergent & Divergent thinking,Inductive & Deductive reasoning.

D. Problem solving.

6. Mental processes related to learning: A. Memory concept, type: factors affecting memory,

artificial intelligence, and techniques to developmemory.B. Forgetting Nature, causes, educational implications.C. Thinking Perceptual, conceptual, convergent &

Divergent thinking, Inductive & Deductive reasoning,D. Problem solving.

7. Motivation Concept, principles, types, factors affecting motivation,Maslows theory, motivational techniques.


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8. Intelligence- A. Concept, nature & types of intellectual abilities.B. Intelligence tests types & uses.C. Creativity nature & process of creative thinking,

characteristics of creative persons.

9. A. Personality Concept, assessment of personality -

B. Maladjustments causes & prevention of maladjustment.10. Group Dynamics Characteristics of a group, types of groups, role &qualities of a leader.

Experiments to be conducted & recorded in the journal (any six):a) Memory rote & logical, perseveration, recall &

recognitionb) Intelligence tests verbal & non verbalc) Transfer of learning (Mirror drawing)d) Motivation

Note: First term Units 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5Second term Units 6, 7, 8, 9 & 10


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1 AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT

UNIT STRUCTURE

1.1 Objectives1.2 Introduction

Physical developmentsSocial developments

Emotional developments

Intellectual development

Moral development

1.3 Piagets Theory

1.4 Kohlbergs Theory.

1.1 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to.

Describe the different areas of development

Understand the stages of development given in Piagets theory.

Understand the theory of moral development given by Kohlberg.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, some of the changes that occur during the course of anindividuals life are examined. The importance of understanding development liesin the fact that an individuals performance on school tasks is a direct function of


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the level of development the individual has reached. Five major areas of development that are relevant to education are determined and examined:1) Cognitive or Intellectual 2) Physical 3) Moral 4) Social 5) Emotional.

The focus of interest is not merely age-related changes but the processesthat underline such changes.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Physical development means the progressive development of variousparts of the body and their capacity to function. Physical development implies anorderly series of changes in size, Proportion and functioning from cradle to thegrave. It includes, growth in height, body proportions (head, skeleton, nose,trunk, etc.) nervous system and changes in internal organs. These changes areconnected with respiration, circulation and digestion in glands and in reproductiveareas.

Some of the detailed characteristic features of stage-wise,physical development are-

INFANCY- At the time of birth, the child is physically immature,- By first month, eye fixation is possible,- By third month, audition and taste develop and rapid growth takes

place,- By sixth month, glandular system develops,- By first year, crawling, sitting, formation of teeth, standing with

support, walking with support takes place,

- By second year, play activities like kicking a ball develop,- By third year, motor-coordination begins,- By fourth year, neuro-muscular co-ordination develops to a

satisfactory extent.- By fifth & sixth years, continuation of growth and consolidation of

muscular abilities take place, and physical stability is ensured.

CHILDHOOD :- Late childhood

- Interest in varied physical and play activities increases,- Improvement in neuro-muscular co-ordination takes place,- Brain capacity also improves,

- Normal functioning of glandular systems and formation of new teeth,- Sex interest begins and considerable physical stability is attained.

ADOLESCENCE- It is the period of rapid growth and development,- Changes in face, head, body, limbs occurs,- Development of secondary sex characters begins,- Maturation of reproductive system also takes place,


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- Further physical maturity is induced by the gonads and pituitaryglands,

- Bones get stronger and voice becomes rough, and- Physical maturity is attained to the optimum level.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS I

Match the columns:-

A B

1. Infancy a. considerable stability isattained.

2. Childhood b. Physical maturityattainedat

optimum level.

3. Adolescence c. Motor & neuromuscular co-

ordination begins.

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________

____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________


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SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Parents, educators and psychologists watch the physical development of children and marvel at their development. It is amazing to watch a young childgrow, seeing changes from day to day. Parents know that they are acting asmodels for their children and as such their children reflect many of their behaviours, attitudes and ideas. Recognizing this,one type of developmentdetermines how well the child will interact with the world, and the nature of hisinteractions with the world determines how well he will get along with others.

In the same way that children grow in cognitive competence. Theyalso develop socially. They learn how to get along with their peers andtheir understandings of social relationships increases.

Social development involves development of social behaviour andsocial relationships. A child is neither social, unsocial nor anti-social bybirth. He comes into an environment that is highly social. All his basicneeds are satisfied by social interaction from the time of birth.

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

- At the time of b ir th , th e child is neither social, unsocial nor antisocial,- By third month, the first so cial response is seen as smile,- By the end of first month, recognition of family members take place,- By the end of first year, social responses are directed towards

members of th e family.- By the age of two, child comes in contact wit h world out side his home.- By the third year, there will be increased awareness of society in the

neighbourhood, egocentrism ensues.- By the age of four, egocentricism diminishes and the child becomes

sociocentric, and- During fifth and sixth years, their will be development of social and

moral self.- During this period social values, attitudes and interests are developed,- Social learning also takes place due to mimesis (sympathy, imitation

and suggestion)- Feeling of security and attention are regained due to increased

association with the associates and teachers,- Social experiences incr eases during the life in and outside the school .

3. ADOLESCENCE


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- During this period, the process of soci alization continues,- Interest in social activities, social gatherings and social services

increases,- Altruism will develop,- Interest in opposite sex ensues and sex imbalances also begins, and- Finally radical outlook and questioning the social norms is developed

during th e end of the period.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-2

Match t he columns

A B

1. Infancy a. Radical outlook and questioning of the

social norms.

2. Childhood b. Social response directed towardsfamily

members.

3. Adolescence c. Social values, attitudes and interestsare

developed.

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________


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__________________________________________________________ ____________

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Emotional development is closely related to physical development. Itmeans development of normal emotional behaviour. Emotional development isvery important for proper development of their treatment and methods of bringingup the children. The type of discipline imposed at home and in the school affectemotional growth, if parents and teachers are to help the child developemotionally so that his emotions will be beneficial, they must know the normalpattern of emotional development.

The relationship of the pupils to the teacher, other to them, and of them to each other are all of an emotional character. Since the

environment of the class and the amount that the children will learndepend in considerable measure upon these relation ships, it isnecessary for a teacher to understand them.

Some characteristics features of emotional development are given below: -

1. INFANCY

- At birth only undifferentiated excitement is noticed,- By third month distress and discontentment are discernible,- By fifth month, smile is noticed,- By sixth month, fear due to loss of support or sudden loud noise is

witnessed,- Before first year, angry reaction due to interference or restriction of

freedom of movement are observed.- By third year, the emotion of love takes its shape in the form of love

for mother, father and other relatives,- Third year is the age of ego. centralism and self love, temper,

tantrums also ensue,- By fourth year, extension of emotion of love from home to outside

world begins with the admission of the child into the nursery school,and

- The age of five and six may be called the period of psychosexualdevelopment and development of joy and jealousy etc. are noticeable.

2. LATE CHILDHOOD

- Love of classmates and other associates of the same age group takesplace,


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- It leads to formation of gangs and peer groups,- School life plays important role in forming the emotional behaviour of

the child,- Other patterns of love and sympathy develop,- Number of learned fears increase, school phobia may also develop,- Angry reactions also increases due to threat to ones own status of

prestige, and- Considerable emotional stability, takes place during this period.

3. ADOLESCENCE:

- Slight emotional imbalance develops due to sexual maturity,- Selfishness, greediness, peevishness and high sensitivity develop,- Frequent emotional outbursts of excitement and depression ensue,- Emotion of love dominates the thinking of adolescent,- Number of learned fears like fear of examinations, fear of inadequacy

of funds, etc. increase, and- Sublimation of emotional impulses into aesthetic and cultural pursuits

begin.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3

Match the columns.

A. B.

1. Infancy a. Formation of gangs and peer groups.2. Childhood b. Emotional outbursts of exitement and

depressionEnsues.

3. Adolescence c. Self-love, temper and tantrumsensue.

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________


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__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT:

The growth and development of mental abilities and capacities

which help an individual to adjust his behaviour to the ever-changingenvironmental conditions or to enable him to accomplish a task thatneeds complex cognitive abilities is referred to as

mental or intellectual development.

Actually, the process of mental growth and development is responsiblefor the development of an individuals all cognitive, mental or intellectual abilitieslike sensation, perception, imagination, memory, reasoning, understanding,intelligence, generalization, interpretation, language ability, conceptual ability,problem solving ability and decision making ability, etc.

These abilites are inter-related and never develop inisolation. Therefore mental development of an individual at any stage of

his development, includes the overall development of these abilities.

Here are some characteristic feature of intellectual development of children :

1. INFANCY

- At the time of birth, the child is mentally immature.- By the third month, bodily sensation forms a lot of mental experiences.- By the sixth month, vocationalisation by means of imitation and duplication of

sound begins.- By the first year, the child will be learning the first use of words by imitation.- By one and half years, the child will be learning more use of words,- By the second year, there will be increase in the word power and sensory

explorations.- The age of three is the period of beginning of daydreaming and make-believe

due to development of imagination.


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- During the fourth and sixth years learning of motor activates, increase of vocabulary, acquisition of tools of learning, development of span of memoryand attention take place, and this is also known as period of questioning asthe child develops inquisitiveness about the nature, and man due todevelopment of urge of curiosity.

2. LATE CHILDHOOD

- During this period, there will be considerable increase in the vocabulary andspan of attention and memory facilitating formal education.

- Interest in adventurous activities increases,- Sensori-perceptual learning begins,- Capacity for destructive reasoning develops,- Desire for specific learning increases,- Tools of thought are acquired, and- Finally considerable mental stability is attained by the end of the period.

3. ADOLESCENCE

- During this period, there will be development of critical, independent andabstract thinking,

- Ability for creativity and productivity develops,- Widening of interests and specific aptitudes take place- Due to development of high imagination, intellectual pursuits, romantic

themes and manoeuvres dominate the minds of adolescents.- Conceptual learning takes place,- Finally maximum mental maturity is attained by the age of 16.


Match the column :-

A. B.1. Infancy a. Conceptual learning takes place.2. Childhood b. Child develops inquisitiveness.3. Adolescence c. Sensori-perceptual learning begins.

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________


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__________________________________________________________ ____________

MORAL DEVELOPMENT

From childhood on, people develop new abilities to conceive of the worldin realistic ways. At the same time they develop a set of values. Children,adolescents and adults make decisions about morality-about what is right or wrong, good or bad.

Morality is a system of learned personal beliefs about right and wrongthat people use to evaluate situations or behaviour. Attitudes about moralitydevelop throughout life. From a very early age children learn from their parentsthe behaviours, attitudes and values that are considered appropriate and correct.

As children mature these attitudes change to accomodate an increasinglycomplex need of the world and what constitutes reality.

Moral development is one of the most important developmentaldimensions of the human beings. It is often referred to as the character development. Moral behaviour or character is to be considered as an essentialquality of the total personality of the individual.

Characteristic features of moral developments are enumerated below stage wise:-

INFANCY

- At the time of birth, the child is born neither moral or immoral,- He is born with the capacity for growth through maturation and experience.- Attainment of requisite maturity is essential before the child can display

certain types of conduct.- Patterns of conduct are learnt at home,- In the preschool stage, the teachers can help children develop desirable

conduct through approval and disapproval of the behaviour.

LATE CHILDHOOD

- At this stage, the peer group plays a prominent role in developing the moralbehaviour of children through disciplinary procedures,

- The rewards and punishments given by parents, teachers and other societalmembers help to strengthen the moral self further,

- They become aware of social & cultural norms,- Honesty, truthfulness, trustworthiness, etc. become meaningful in due

course.

ADOLESCENCE

- Due to development of critical attitude and independent thinking, theindividual begins to question all ethical principles, values and ideals, whichhe had accepted earlier.

- He develops power to deliberate, to evaluate alternatives, to choose wiselyand to reconstruct his behaviors accordingly and,

- Finally he becomes a person of good character, who is energetic in servingothers.


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Match the column :

A B1. Infancy a. Patterns of conduct learnt at

home2. Childhood b. Queries on all ethical

principlesaccepted earlier.

3. Adolescence c. Peer group develops moralbehaviour.

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

PIAGETS THEORY

Piagets theories are very elaborate and cover a wide range of humanactivities; for our purposes, however a brief outline must suffice.

Piaget divides the course of intellectual development into a series of stages, with each stage to be mastered before the next stage begins, asstanding precedes walking so certain stages of development must precedeothers if the fulfillment of human potential is to be achieved. Piaget stresses thatthe kind of intellectual achievement possible is dependent upon the stage of thechild.

According to Piaget when a person is confronted with a new concept or experience, previously developed cognitive structures and behaviour must bemodified in order for the person to adapt to the unfamiliar situation. Piaget callsthis process accommodation


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As the accommodation process is taking place the new concepts andexperiences are absorbed and incorporated into existing cognitive structures andbehavioures and can then be used in all similar situation. Piaget calls thisprocess assimilation.

Thus an individual accommodates to new information and assimilates it,only to be confronted with more new information requiring further accommodationand assimilation. The process of assimilation and accommodation are

complementary in that they interact, mutually supporting the never ending growthof intellectual and behavioural patterns.

CONSIDER THIS EXAMPLE

A Child has learned to grasp an object, say a spoon. The child alsograsped similar objects such as forks, crayons and sticks, demonstrating that hehas assimilated the responses necessary for grasping long slim objects. Whenthe child first tries to grasp a differently shaped object like a ball he must modifythe response by widening his grasp in order to pick it up. Here the child mustaccommodate in order to grasp the spherical object. So, the child has assimilatedthe behavioural pattern of grasping slim objects.

Keeping in mind the above principles let us examine each of the stages

that Piaget has suggested (these four stages are summarized in Table).STAGE APPROXIMATE

AGE DESCRIPTION

1.SENSORIMOTOR

Birth to 2 yrs . Behaviour suggests child lacks language anddoes not use symbols or mentalrepresentations of objects in environment..Simple responding to the environment(reflexes) ends, and intentional behaviour such as making interesting sights last-begins.Child learns to seek hidden objects andbegins to acquire basic language.

2.PRE-

OPERATIONAL

2 TO 7 yrs Child begins to represent world mentally, butthought in egocentric. Child does not focus

on two aspects of situations at once (lack of conservation). Child shows animism,artificialism, immanent justice.

3.CONCRETEOPERATIONAL

7 TO 12 yrs . Child shows conservation concepts, canadopt viewpoint of others, can classifyobjects in series (For example, from shortestto longest and shows comprehension of basicrelational concepts (such as one object beinglarger or heavier than other)

4.FORMALOPERATIONAL

12 Yrs. & above Mature, adult thought emerges, thinkingseems characterized by deductive logic,consideration of various possibilities beforeattempting to solve a problem (mental trialand error). Abstract thought (for instance,philosophical and consideration of moralprinciples), and forming and testing of hypothesis.

STAGE 1 : THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE.

The new born infant is only capable of assimilating stimulation toreflexes such as rooting and sucking. However by the time an infant has reachedone month, it is already capable of repeating behaviour patterns that arepleasurable, such as sucking its hand, and within first few month of the infantbegins to co-ordinate vision with grasping so that it looks at what it touches.


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Between four and eight months of age the infant explores cause andeffect relationships, such as, the way kicking the legs can cause a hanging toy tobounce around. Prior to eight months or so, out of sight is literally out of mindobjects are not yet mentally represented, and thus an infant will make no effort tosearch for an object that has been removed from sight or simply placed behind ascreen. But after nine months an infant will realize that objects removed fromsight still exist and will attempt to seek them, the infant thus demonstrates what is

known as OBJECT PERMANENCY By several months of age the infant isinterested in acting upon the environment to make interesting results (such asnoise of a rattle) last, Behavior becomes intentional, purposeful.

During the second year of life the child begins to show interest indetermining just how environmental objects are constructed. Towards the end of second year of life the child begins to engage in mental trial and error before itactually tries out behaviour, for example, when it looks for something you havetaken away it will no longer go the last place it was seen but may follow you,assuming you have the object even though it cannot be seen.

Since the first stage of cognitive development is determined bylearning to co-ordinate perception of the self and the environment with muscular activity, Piaget termed it the SENSORIMOTOR STAGE.

STAGE 2 : THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE

The PREOPERATIONAL STAGE is characterized by the childsearly usage of words and symbols to represent objects. For one thing a child inthis stage is decidedly egocentric It cannot understand that other people donot see things as it does and the child, it seems, often percieves the world as astage that has been erected for its own amusement. The preoprational child alsoshows animism that is it tends to attribute life, and intentions to inanimateobjects such as sun and the moon. And it shows artificialism the belief thatenvironmental objects such as rain and thunder have been designed andconstructed by human beings.

Example of EGOCENTRICISM, ANIMISM AND ARTIFICIALISM areshown in Table.

EXAMPLES OF PREOPERATIONAL THOUGHT

SAMPLE QUESTIONS TYPICAL ANSWERS

EGOCENTRICISM : Why does the sun shine? To keep me warm. Why is there snow? For me to play in. Why is grass green? Because thats my

favoritecolour

Why are T. V. sets for? To watch my favoriteshows &cartoons.

ANIMISM :- Why do trees have leaves? To keep them warm. Why do stars twinkle? Because they are happy

&cheerful.

Why does the sun move in the sky? To follow children &hear

What they say. Where do boats go at night? They sleep like we do.

ARTIFICIALISM :-


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What causes rain? Someone emptying thewatering can.

Why is sky blue? It has been painted. What is the wind? A man blowing. What causes thunder? A man grumbling.

The preoperational children are not yet fully logical; do not justify

their reasoning. Although the logical thought processes of the children aredeveloping and they have become more socialised. Social and intellectualchanges will not become apparent until next stage of development.

STAGE 3: THE STAGE OF CONCRETE OPERATIONS

By about the age of seven the typical child is entering the stage of concrete operations. At this stage the child shows the beginning of the capacityfor adult logical thinking that generally concerns tangible objects rather thanabstract ideas.

Children are involved in discovering constancy in the world-indiscovering rules and understanding the reasons for them. The hallmark of thisstage is CONSERVATION.

The ability to recognize that something that has been changed insome way (such as the shape of liquid in container) is still the same thing withthe same weight, substance or volume. Each of the conservation abilities seemsto occur independently. A child who has mastered one type of conservation oftencannot transfer that knowledge to other conservation tasks ( for example, of weight). The development of conservation is a necessity to final stage of intellectual development.

STAGE 4 : THE STAGE OF FORMAL OPERATIONS

The final stage of development starting at age twelve is the stage of FORMAL OPERATIONS. This stage is characterized by the ability to think in aformal, logical manner. They can concieve different ways to represent situations.They organize their world and try to deal it with in terms of the future. Formal

operational children are developing the ability to consider all possible relations.The style of their logic is no longer concrete but one in which they formhypothesis and deduce reality.

They not only design appropriate kinds of experiments, they are alsoaccurate in their observation of the results. Thus individuals in the formaloperations stage think much as adults do. The individual is now capable of thinking in the past, present and future and can deal with problems of ahypothetical nature.

In essence, Piglets theory suggests that the nature of childrensthinking changes in four distinct ways as the child matures. In each successivestage the childs understanding of the world becomes more complete andsophisticated.

IMPLICATIONS OF PIAGETS THEORY

Knowing how cognitive abilities develop helps educators andpsychologists suggest ways to facilitate childrens intellectual development.

Piaget recognized that parental love and interaction are essential infirst two years. He also stressed the importance of providing great amount of stimulation, both physical & intellectual. Piaget was concerned with how peoplethink, not what they think, knowing the way children think, psychologists canlearn how to facilitate thinking.


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Piagets powerful insights into childrens behaviour have profoundly

influenced developmental psychology.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 6I. Fill in the blanks :

1. Piaget divides the course of ________ development into series of stages.

2. To adapt to new concept, modified behaviour. This process is called _______

3. The new concepts and experiences incorporated into existingcognitive structures and behaviour is called ________.

II. State any two characterstics of each stage that Piaget has suggested.1. Sensor motor 1. __________________________

2. __________________________2. Preoperational 1. __________________________

2. __________________________3. Concrete operational 1. __________________________2. __________________________

4. Formal operational 1. __________________________2. ___________________________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

KOHLBERGS THEORY

Lawrence Kohlberg, a Howard psychologist, has extended andrefined Piagets analysis of moral development. He suggests that there are sixstages of development relating to moral development of a person. Although thereis no direct relationship between age and stage level, the stages are assumed to


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be in a fixed order. Many individuals do not reach the highest level of moraldevelopment according to kohl berg.

Kohlbergs research shows that young children make decision aboutright and wrong based upon avoiding punishments and obtaining rewards, so apreschool five year old argues that people dont steal because they will bepunished if they do so further he argues that good people are rewarded for good

behaviour.School children are at a second level of moral development, and they

adopt conventional ideas about morality. They conform to avoid disapproval byothers and censure by authorities. Level two morality is governed by a thoughtfulprocess which considers the implications of a persons behaviour and how it mightaffect others.

The third level of morality is composed of two major parts, the firstmost people eventually reach as adults; the second is often not reached. Levelthree is the morality of contracts and laws, In this stage people make judgmentsof good or bad based upon the needs of society and maintaining communitywelfare and order. The second part of the level three is the morality of consicience where people make judgments based on their own internal values,

rather than those of society.The six stages of development are divided into three levels of moral

orientation.

LEVEL 1 : PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY -- At this level, the concreteinterests of the individuals are considered.

STAGE 1 : Obedience and Punishment Orientation :-In this stage people stick to rules in order to avoid

punishment,and there is obedience for its sake.

STAGE 2 : Naive and instrumental orientation :-In this stage, the individual follows rules only for his or

her benefit, obedience occurs because of rewards that areanticipated.

LEVEL 2 : CONVENTIONAL MORALITY At this level, the individualapproaches moral problems as a member of society.

STAGE 3 : Good boy morality :-Individuals in this stage show an interest in maintaining

therespect of others and doing what is expected of them.

STAGE 4 : Authority and social order morality :-People at this stage conform to societys rules and

consider thatright is what the society defines as right.

LEVEL 3 : POST CONVENTIONAL MORALITY At this level, moral principlesare seen as broader than the percepts of any individual society.

SATGE 5 : Morality of contract, individual rights, and democraticallyaccepted law :-People in this stage do what is right because of a sense

of obligation to laws that are agreed upon within society.

Theyperceive that laws, as part of an implicit social contract,

can be


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modified or changed.STAGE 6: Morality of individual principles and conscience :-

In this final stage an individual follows laws that are seenas

they based on ethical principles. Laws that violate theprinciples

are disobeyed. Stage 6 individuals feel that equality of

human rights and respect for human beings as individuals arethe most

basic universal principles.

SUMMARY OF KOHLBERGS THEORY

LEVEL STAGES

1. PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY 1. Obedience andPunishment

Orientation.2. Nave and

Instrumental Orientation.2. CONVENTIONAL MORALITY 3. Good Boy Morality.

4. Authority and Socialorder

Morality.3. POST CONVENTIONAL MORALITY 5. Morality of Contract,

Rightsand Laws.

6. Morality of IndividualPrinciples andConscience

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - 7

1. __________Has suggested stages of development related to moraldevelopment.

2. The three levels of moral orientation according to the Kohlberg are.i) ______________________________________________ii) ______________________________________________iii) ______________________________________________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________


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__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________

____________

CONCLUSION

Thus in this unit, we have studied in detail about Areas of development,physical, intellectual, social, emotional and moral. The characteristic of each isstated according to different stages, i.e. infancy, childhood and adolescence.

Piagets theory suggests stages of development related to intellectualdevelopment.

Kolhbergs theory suggests stages of development related to moraldevelopment.

After you are thorough with the unit, solve the following exercise.

EXERCISE

1. State the characteristic of emotional development.

2. What do you mean by physical development? Discuss its charactersticfeatures, stage wise

3. Why is social development a matter of great concern to parents andteachers?

4. What is moral development ? Enumerate stage wise the characteristic

features of moral development5. Describe Piagets theory of Intellectual development.

6. Give the implications of Piagets theory.

7. Discuss levels & stages of Kohlbergs theory of moral development.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS KEY

1. 1-C, 2-A, 3-C2. 1-B, 2-C, 3-A

3. 1-C, 2-A, 3-B

4. 1-B, 2-C, 3-A

5. 1-A, 2-C, 3-B6. 1) Intellectual 2) Accomodation 3) Assimilation.

7. 1) Kohl berg

2) i) reconventional morality.

ii) Conventional morality.

iii) Post conventional morality.


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__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________

____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

SUGGESTED READINGS

Bhatia & Bhatia (1981), Textbook of Educational Psychology Doaba house,Delhi 1981.

Mangal, S. K., Educational Psychology, Tandon Publications, Ludhiana.

Agarwal J. C., Essentials of Educational Psychology Vikas Publishing House


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2LEARNING

UNIT STRUCTURE

2.A.1 Objectives

2.A 2 Introduction

3 Concept of learning

4 Nature of learning

5 Process of learning

6 Maturation

7 Learning curve

8 Cognitive learning

2.A.1 Objectives

After going through this unit you will be able to:Explain the concept & nature of learning.Explain the steps involved in the process of learning.Describe the importance of maturation in learningTell the meaning & importance of learning curve.Explain the different types of learning curve.Describe the different stages of learning curve.

2.A.2 INTRODUCTION

Dear students, what does the word learning bring to your mind?Learning to read, to ride a bicycle, to act, to use a computer, to playsynthesizer etc. Each one of us learns something or the other intentionally or accidentally. Learning situations are most natural and common in our life.Every moment you learn something or the other because of the varied


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experience you have in life. In the educational process the central idea islearning.

You are aware of a child learning right from his birth and goes on learningthroughout his lifetime. An infant is quite helpless at birth, but slowly he learnsto adopt himself to the environment around him.

e.g: A child approaches a burning matchstick; the child gets burnt andwithdraws. Another time when he comes to a burning matchstick, he takes notime to withdraw himself away. He learns to avoid not only the burningmatchstick but also all burning things.

When this happens we say that the child has learned that if you touch a flame,you get burnt up.

In this way the behavior of an individual is changed through direct or indirectexperiences. This change in behavior brought about by experience iscommonly known as learning.

This is a very simple explanation of the term learning.

Now let us see some of the well known definitions of learning.

Gates and others .

Learning is the modification of behavior through experience

Henry, P smith Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or strengthening or

weakening of old behavior as a result of experience.

Crow and Crow Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes. It

involves new ways of doing things, and it operates in an individuals attempt toovercome obstacles or to adjust to new situations.

4. Skinner

Learning is the process of progressive behavior adaptation.

5. Munn

To learn is to modify behavior and experience.

6. M. L. Bigge

Learning may be considered as change in insights, behavior,perception, motivation or a combination of these.

2.A.3 Types of Learning


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Learning has been classified in many ways.

I. Informal, formal and non-formal learningDepending on the way of acquiring it learning may be informal, formal

or non-formal.

Informal learning is incidental. It takes place throughout life. It is notplanned.

Formal learning is intentional and organized. It takes place in formaleducational institution.

Non-formal is also intentional & organized. It is flexible.

II. Individual or Group learningLearning is called either individual or group learning depending upon

the number of individuals involved in the learning process.

III. Another classification involves the types of activityinvolved

(a) Motor learning: - when learning involves primarily the use of muscles it is called as motor learning.

e.g.: learning to walk, to operate a typewriter

(b) Discrimination learning: - Learning which involves the act of discrimination is called discrimination learning.

e.g.: infant discriminates between mother and aunt, milk andwater.

(c) Verbal learning: - when learning involves the use of words it iscalled as verbal learning.

(d) Concept learning: - when learning involves the formation of concept it is called as concept learning.

(e) Sensory learning: - when learning is concerned with perceptionand sense it is sensory learning.

Check your progress I

Define learning

What do you mean my learning?

Write the different types of learning.


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2.A.4. NATURE OF LEARNING

a . Learning is adaptation or adjustment.

Friends, we all continuously interact with our environment. We often

make adjustment and adapt to our social environment. Through a process of

continuous learning the individual prepares himself for necessary adjustment

or adaptation. That is why learning is also described as a process of

progressive adjustment to ever changing conditions which one encounters.

b. Learning is improvement.

Learning is often considered as a process of improvement with practiceor training. We learn many things, which help us to improve our performance.

c. Learning is organizing experience.

Learning is not mere addition of knowledge. It is the reorganization of experience.

d. Learning brings behavioral changes.

Whatever the direction of the changes may be, learning bringsprogressive changes in the behavior of an individual. That is why he is able toadjust to changing situations.


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e. Learning is active.

Learning does not take place without a purpose and self-activity. In anyteaching learning process, the activity of the learner counts more than theactivity of a teacher.

f. Learning is goal directed.

When the aim and purpose of learning is clear an individual learns

immediately. It is the purpose or goal, which determines what, the learner

sees in the learning situations and how he acts.

If there is no purpose or goal learning can hardly be seen.

g. Learning is universal and continuous.

All living creatures learn. Every moment the individual engages himself to learn more and more. Right from the birth of a child till the death learningcontinues.

2.A.5 PROCESS OF LEARNING

Learning is a process. It is carried out through steps.

Learning process involves

(a) A motive or a drive.(b) An attractive goal.(c) A block to the attainment of the goal.

Let us see the steps one by one

(a) A motive or a drive

Motive is the dynamic force that energizes behavior and compels anindividual to act. We do any activity because of our motives or our needs.When our need is strong enough we are compelled to strive for its satisfaction.Learning takes place as a result of response to some stimulation. As long asour present behavior, knowledge, skill and performance are adequate to satisfy


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all our needs, use do not feel any necessity to change our behavior or acquirenew knowledge and skills. It is this requirement, which initiates a learner tolearn something.

(b) Goal.

Every individual has to set a definite goal for achievement. We shouldalways have a definite goal for achieving anything. If a definite goal is set thenlearning becomes purposeful and interesting.

(c) Obstacle or block or barrier.

The obstacle or block or the barrier is equally important in the processof learning. The obstacle or the barriers keep us away from attaining the goal.Now, you will think how the obstacle can be important in the process of learning. So let me tell you, if you face no difficulty of any kind in attaining thegoal you will not bring any change in your present behavior or stock of knowledge or skills. Thus the block or the barrier is an essential step in the

learning process.

Let us clear the above views by taking an example.

Suppose you wish to be included in your college hockey team. Youwant to have the esteem of your colleagues, your teachers. You are alsomotivated try the interesting experiences that you many enjoy. But you areblocked by your lack of skill in doging, tackling and handling the ball. Theobstacles in the path of goal achievement will set you make up your deficiencyand acquire essential skill through sufficient practice and coaching.

2.A.6 MATURATION .

Our development takes place because of two basic process.

Learning Maturation .

So students let us see about maturation. Maturation is an importantfactor that affects our learning is defined as growth that proceeds regularlywithin a wide range of environmental conditions. Maturation is growth thattakes place regularly in an individual without special condition of stimulationsuch as training and practice. Learning is possible only when a certain stage of maturation is also reached. Exercise and training becomes fruitful only when acertain stage of maturation is attained. Maturation determines the readiness of the child for learning. Learning will be ineffective if the child has not attained therequired level of maturity. There are individual differences in maturation. Thismeans the rate of maturation varies with individuals. There are individualdifferences in the capacity to learn at the same age level. This is because of the difference of maturation level. Specific skills are learnt by children easilywho mature earlier than others.

The 3Rs i e reading, writing and reckoning can be learnt only after thematuration of muscular and brain capacities.

Rate of learning ability is closely related to the maturation of thecerebral cortex. Deterioration of cortical tissues in old age brings aboutdeclination in the learning ability. So it can be said that learning is not


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independent of maturation, but must be based upon a sufficient stage of growth.

Learning is possible only when a certain stage of maturation isreached. However much we practice a six month old child with walkingexercises, the infant cannot walk. The muscles have not matured enough for the infant to learn to walk. This particular learning is possible only when the

nerves & the muscles have attained a particular stage of maturity &development.

Practice is most productive when properly articulated with maturationallevel. It is very essential for the teachers to know the maturational level of thepupils.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Define maturation.

Fill up the blanks.

(a) Learning is possible only when a certain stage of _________ isreached.

(b) Maturation determines the ________ of the child for learning.(c) Practice is most productive when properly articulated with

________.

2.A.7 LEARNING CURVE

Learning curve is a graphic representation of how learning take placein a particular situation. In all type of learning situations, the course of learningcan be depicted and described graphically by drawing learning curves against xand y axis.


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The above figure shows a typical learning curve of many types of learning. The curve consists of a number of irregularities, as the progress is notconstant.

For the convenience the curve is divided into 5 stages a, b, c, d ande.

(a) Period of sl ow progr ess:

Generally when a person has to start a learning of a given activity froma scratch, his early progress will be slow.

e.g. An infants progress in learning to walk is very negligible in the beginning.

(b) Period of rapid progress:

In this stage the learners output raises rapidly.

e.g. In typing once the learner has developed co ordination of the movement of fingers he shows rapid progress.

(c) Period of no apparent progress:

Learning curves frequently display a period of no apparent progress. Itis also known as plateau. A period of no visible learning progress, precededand followed by improvement is called as plateaus.

Eg: In typing, a person may after having made rather consistent progress for sometime, reach a point where perhaps for weeks no further progress is made.

20

d

c

b

6

4

5

3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

a

c

e

Hours of Learning

Speed

of


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Causes of plateau

(i) The learner may be reorganizing the previous learning into a new

pattern before further progress is possible.(ii) The learner may have hit upon bad habits(iii) Lack of progress may be due to decrease in motivation.(iv) The task may not be of uniform difficulty.(v) Loss of interest.(vi) The onset of fatigue is also one of the causes of a plateau.

(d) Period of sudden rise:

At the end of a plateau there is generally a spurt in achievement. Whileon the plateau the learner acquires better techniques, which help him later onto show rapid progress.

(e) Levelling:

All learning will finally slow down to such an extent that it will ultimatelyreach a period of no improvement. No one can continue to improve indefinitelyin any given situation. The learning curve will eventually reach a limit, where nofurther improvement is possible. This limit is known as physiological limit.

Important characteristics of learning curve.

(i) Slow initial progress.(ii) Spurt-like learning after some time.(iii) Declination in the rate of learning.(iv) Plateaus of learning.(v) Sudden increase in learning.(vi) Gradual leveling at the end.

2.A.7.2 Types of learning curve .

We get different types of learning curves depending upon

(a) The nature of the learner (b) The nature of the task/learning material(c) Time available.(d) Conditions under which the learning takes place.

It is difficult to classify these learning curves. However three common types of curves are there,

(i) Negatively accelerated or the convex curve.(ii) Positively accelerated learning curve or the concave curve.


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(iii) Combination of convex-concave curve.

Convex curveIt depicts rapid initial improvement in learning that slows down with time. Whenthe task is simple and the learner has previous practice on a similar task we getthis type of learning curve.

Concave curve

There is slow initial improvement and learning increases with time. When thetask is difficult we get such type of learning curve.

O

AmountLearned

A

PracticePeriod

Y

X

O

Amount

Learned

PracticePeriod

Y

X


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Combination of convex concave curve It looks like the capital letter S. the curve takes concave or convex shape inthe beginning depending upon the nature of the task.

In actual practical situations such smooth curves are rarely found.Usually there are ups and downs (fluctuation)

Educational importance of learning curve 1. In acquiring the basic skills in various subjects, the learner at

times appears to show no progress. At such moments theteacher can diagnose the reasons for the lack of progress.

2. A students progress may be arrested because the work is toocomplex for him. The teacher can observe the students workand detect the part that gives him trouble. The teacher shouldsee if the student has developed any faulty study habits, whichimpede his progress.

3. The plateau may be due to the lack of motivation. The teacher should provide encouragement in order to maintain motivationat a high level.

4. The learning curves give a graphic evidence of onesprogress, which is an effective motivational device for thelearner.

5. Occurrence of plateaus can be minimized by using superior teaching methods.

O

AmountLearned

Practice Period

Y

X


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1. What is a learning curve?2. Describe a typical learning curve.3. What are the different types of learning curve?4. State any two causes of plateau.5. What do you mean by physiological limit?6. Explain the educational importance of a learning curve.7. State the important characteristics of a learning curve.

2A. 8 COGNITIVE LEARNING

The process of obtaining knowledge through thought, experience andthe senses is known as cognitive learning.

It is acquisition by the learner of facts, concepts and principles throughintellectualization.

German Gestalt psychologist Kohler becomes convinced that somekinds of learning could not be explained by mechanical conditioning. But it isdue to intelligence and insight. That is where the term cognitive learning isused.

In Kohlers experiments, a chimpanzee Sultan had learned to use a

stick to rake in bananas that had been placed outside his cage. Then the

bananas were kept beyond the reach of single stick, and he gave Sultan 2

bamboo sticks that could be fitted together to make one long stick long

enough to receive the banana. Sultan first tried with one stick and when he

could not returned to fiddling around with two sticks. Sultan aligned the two

sticks as he was fiddling and then, in what appeared to be a sudden flash of

inspiration, he fitted them together and pulled the banana. Then the sticks fell

apart. Sultan then regathered the sticks pushed then firmly together and


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actually tested the fit before retreiving another banana. So it was Sultans

rapid perception of relationship. Kohler used the term insight to describe it.

Kohler noted that such insights were not learned gradually through reinforced

trails but seemed to occur all at once when the elements of a problem had

been arranged appropriately.

Modern cognitive theory suggests that meaningful learning and henceunderstanding is a constructive process. A teacher should begin the effort of achieving significant understanding by formulating objectives that focus on thetransfer of learned information to other situations.

In the solution of riddles, the play of insight would be noticed by one and all.Human learning certainly involves insightful learning, which should lead toproductive thinking to be applicable to new and novel situations.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:- 3 1. What do you mean by cognitive learning. ?

2. Give two examples where you can see cognitive learning.

BOOKS FOR FURTHER READING

Chauhan. S. S. Advanced Educational Psychology Vikas publicity House Pvt.Ltd.

Mangal S. K. Educational Psychology Tandon publication


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3 AMENTAL PROCESSES RELATED TO LEARNING:

MEMORY

Unit Structure

3A. 1. Objectives

3A 2. Introduction

3A. 3. Concept of memory

3A. 4. Types of memory

3A. 5. Factor affecting memory

3A. 6. Artificial intelligence

3A. 7. Techniques to develop memory

3A.1 Objectives

After going through this unit you will be able to :

Define memory List the factors involved in the process of memory. Describe the different types of memory Explain the factors affecting memory Describe the various techniques to develop memory Explain about artificial intelligence.

3A.2 Introduction

You must have heard people referring to a child or an adult that hepossess a good memory or he is bad at remembering whatever he learns. Whatactually we mean by this phrase is worth consideration. In practical affairs of life,as well as in leisure moments, memory has much to contribute. So muchdepends on good memory in all kinds of work that many people become worriedabout their poor memories and take up some form of memory training in hope of


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improvement. So students in this chapter we will see about the different aspectsof memory.

3.A.3 Concept of memory

The man in the street usually defines memory as the power of reproduction, but physiologically it is a much more complex process.

Memory involves four factors

(i) Learning or registration(ii) Retention(iii) Recall(iv) Recognition

All these four activities are so much interrelated that they form one single activity.So let us know about them one by one.

(i) learning or registrationBefore anything can be remembered it must he learnt or registered. Learningin this context means memorizing.

(ii) Retention.Retention is an inactive state of learned performance. Whatever is retainedduring the inactive state is something in the form of a structure. This modifiedstructure is often called the memory trace. The ability to retain rests on thetraces left in the cerebral cortex. The nature of these memory traces is notknown because no direct observation of them is possible. Till these tracesremain in the brain, we can recall the idea but as soon as they are lost, weforget. The evidence for retention is that when we are able to recall or recognize a previously learned list of words, it shows that the list learnt by ushas been retained.

(iii) Recall : The third aspect in the process of remembering is recall. Recall isthe mental revival of those experiences, which have been learned. It isdependent on retention. If a thing is learned well and retained properly, it willbe recalled easily.Recall is of two kinds.

(a) Spontaneous recall: the recall which is without any effort is called asspontaneous recall.

(b) Deliberate recall : The recall for which we have consciously to strive isknow as deliberate recall.

Recall is also dependent on association of ideas.


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Association is defined as connection between a percect and an idea or between one idea and another by virtue of which one being given inconsciousness tends to revive the other. There are various laws by which it canbe explained.

Primary Laws :

Law of contiguity Experience which occur together whether simultaneously or in close succession tend afterwords to revise one another.

e.g. Platform revives the picture of station.

Lighting is followed by thunder.

Shakuntala reminds the author Kalidas

Law of Similarity Similar experience tend to revive one another.

e.g. sound of word health may suggest the word wealth.

Law of contrast An idea tend to suggest its contrary e.g. peace-war, lightdark.

Law of systematic relations

Because of interest, associative bonds are established between thevarious constituent elements of the whole system.

e.g. triangle- geometrical figure.


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Secondary Laws of Association

Law of Primary : First impression and associations tend to persist longer andto be most easily revived.

e.g. Our likes & dislikes are many times determined by the firstimpressions.

Law of Regency: Recent impression and association recur most readily to mind.

e.g. book-will recall to my mind the one I have recently read.

Law of Frequency: The more frequency and impression is made or anassociation is formed the more easier the reproduction

e.g. green recalls the word grass

Law of vividness The more vivid an impression or an association, the moreeasily it is recalled.

Law of mood An idea revived by individual who is in a happy mood is likelyto differ from that revived by the same individual when he is in adistressed mood.

iv) Recognition :

Recognition is discrimination between seen or unseen. Recognition is theprocess of accepting or rejecting the material in mind. Recognition is morepassive behavior than an active process.

After getting some knowledge of the process of memorization it isworthwhile to be acquainted with the definition of the term memory. Some of thedefinitions are-

Woodworth and Marquis

Memory consists in remembering what has previously been learned.

Stout The ideal revival, so for as field revival is merely reproductive in whichthe objects of past experience are reinstated as far as possible in the order and

manner of their original occurence.

In this way memory is regarded as a special ability of our mind toconserve or store what has been previously learned or experienced to recollector reproduce it after sometime.


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3A.4 Types of m emory

Some of the important types of memory are as follows.

Immediate memoryImmediate memory is that which helps us to learn a thingimmediately with speed and accuracy, remembering it for a shorttime and forgetting rapidly after use. e.g. seat number. of cinemahall.

Permanent memoryPermanent memory helps us to remember a thing permanently.

e.g. remembering our name.

Rote memoryUnder rote memory the things are learnt without understanding their meaning.

Logical memoryLogical memory is based on logical thinking. It takes intoconsideration purposeful and insightful learning.

Associated memoryThe memory which helps to associate the previously learned thingswith so many related things and then establish multiple connectionsis known as associated memory.

Active memoryIn active memory one has to remain active and make deliberateattempts for recollecting the past experience.

Passive memoryHere the past experiences are recalled spontaneously without anyserious attempt.

Check your progress 1

Define memory

State the factors involved in the process of memory.


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Write two differences between recall and recognition.

Explain the different types of memory.

3.5. Factors affecting memory.

Kind of materialOne can learn or memories meaningful material more easily than nonsense material. e.g. poetry is generally easy to learn than prose. Prose iseasier than a list of disconnected words. Meaningful words are easier tolearn than nonsense syllables. Students require less time to learn if thematerial is meaningful.

Age of the learner You cant teach old dog new tricks Generally it is presumed thatchildren can memories more easily than adult. A child can be easilymotivated to learn while an adult may not. Interest in children are notspecific while those of adult become more specific. Adults will thereforerequire more time to learn if they are not interested in a certain area.

Since learning and memorization also depends upon maturation, an adultis likely to get an advantage over the child.


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Sex:

Girls show superiority over boys of the same age. But here toothe factor like desire to learn, interest, environment of family,motivation has its influence.

Learners attitude :

One who sees that learning of certain material is related to theattainment of his goals, has a more favorable attitude towardsstudying the material and memorizing it.

Knowledge of result.

If the learner has immediate feedback he learns the materialmore rapidly and accurately which helps in better memorization.

Interest of the learner.

Because of interest the learner learns with a proper attitude andremember the learnt matter.

Length of t he series.

Longer matter is difficult to learn & memories. If the length of the material to be learnt is shorter, it is easier to memories.

3.6 Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the ability of an artificial mechanism to exhibitintelligent behavior. Artificial intelligence is also the name of the field in whichartificial mechanism that exhibit intelligence are developed and studied .

The term artificial intelligence was coined in 1956 when a group of interested scientists met for an initial summer workshop. Those attendingincluded Allen Newell, Herbert Simon, Oliver Selfridgs and John Mccathy.

AI has shown great promise in the area of EXPERT SYSTEMS, or knowledge based expert programs.

Example of artificially intelligence system include computer programs thatperform medical diagnoses, mineral prospecting, legal reasoning, speechunderstanding, vision interpretation, natural language processing, problemsolving and learning.


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A large number of problems in AI field have been associated withrobotics. In addition to the mechanical problems of getting a machine to makevery precise or delicate movements there is the problem of determining thesequence of mom

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