Stylistic Use of Repetition in A Tale of Two Cities

Keisuke Koguchi

1. Introduction

As Brook (1970: 143) s ta tes , repet i t ion is one of the l inguis t ic

devices “of which Charles Dickens is very fond,” and the novel is t

“makes things easy for his readers by his constant repet i t ions, and his

habi tual phrases are remembered by readers who are not used to reading

with close at tent ion.” According to Monod (1968: 461) , Dickens’s

“s tyl is t ic use of repet i t ion reaches i ts cl imax in [A Tale of Two Cit ies

(1859)] .” Therefore, i t is f rui t ful to deal with the language of Dickens,

especial ly that of A Tale of Two Cit ies , f rom the point of view of

repet i t ion in order to explore his l inguist ic ar t is t ry with which the

novel is t , inheri t ing the language of the 18th century, improved upon the

s tyle of English prose.

Leech and Short (1981: 244) descr ibe formal repet i t ion as

“repeated use of an expression (morpheme, lexical i tem, proper name,

phrase, e tc . ) which has already occurred in the context .” In fact ,

Dickens exploi ts var ious types of repet i t ion, that is , repet i t ion of

sounds, morphemes, words, phrases , and sentences for var ious s tyl is t ic

purposes, such as associat ion, implicat ion, i rony, character izat ion, or

verbal iconici ty. However, fol lowing Leech and Short’s defini t ion, in

this paper I focus my at tent ion on the repet i t ive use of words or phrases .

My chief concern is devoted to three aspects of repet i t ion: f i rs t ,

repet i t ion for character izat ion; secondly, repeti t ion of words indicative

of symbolic meaning; and thirdly, dist inctive use of repeti t ion between

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the English and the French scenes. These kinds of repet i t ion work

together to convey the main themes of the novel to the minds of the

reader.

2. Key words in A Tale of Two Cit ies

Before I examine the relat ionship between repet i t ion and

funct ional re levance, I wil l ident i fy key words in A Tale of Two Cit ies ,

as compared to Dickens’s other novels . For the s tat is t ical analysis of

repet i t ion, I take advantage of a computer-assis ted approach to a

self-made Dickens Corpus of his 22 novels . 1 In order to make Table

1 below, I use Mike Scot t ’s “Key Words Tool” of “WordSmith Tools”

program. 2 The key words are calculated by comparing the frequency

of each word in A Tale of Two Cit ies wi th that of the same word in the

Dickens Corpus. Any word which is found to be unusual ly frequent in

A Tale of Two Cit ies i s considered a key word. For instance, the word

“madam” occurs 193 t imes at the f requency of 0 .14 % in A Tale of Two

Cit ies , whi le i t appears 263 t imes at a diminut ive frequency in the

Dickens Corpus. The word is not expected to occur a t such high

frequency on the basis of the Dickens Corpus, and therefore i t i s given

the highest numeric value of keyness , in other words, the highest log

l ikel ihood (743.8) . On the other hand, the conjunct ion “and” is not

regarded as one of key words, though i t occurs a t the second highest

f requency in A Tale of Two Cit ies (5 ,000 t imes; 3 .65 %), and in the

Dickens Corpus (156,900 t imes; 3 .56 %). The reason for this is

because the word is present with almost the same rate in A Tale of Two

Cit ies and the Dickens Corpus as expected. 3

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Table 1 Key words in A Tale of Two Cities as compared to Dickens Corpus

A Tale of Two Cities Dickens Corpus

Approx. 137,000 words Approx. 4,348,000 words

No. Key words Freq. % Freq. % K e y n e s s (Log likelihood)

1 madame 193 0 .14 263 0 .00 744 2 p r i soner 169 0 .12 306 0 .00 581 .8 3 doc to r 226 0 .16 1 ,199 0 .03 407 .3 4 spy 72 0 .05 66 0 .00 316 .3 5 mender 48 0 .03 4 0 .00 307 .5 6 c i t i zen 64 0 .05 65 0 .00 272 .5 7 kn i t 65 0 .05 98 0 .00 241 .1 8 the 8 ,024 5 .85 214 ,911 4 .91 239 .5 9 wine 120 0 .09 671 0 .02 206 .8

10 pa t r io t 33 0 .02 11 0 .00 181 .8 11 p r i son 91 0 .07 433 0 .00 178 .9 12 cha teau 27 0 .02 3 0 .00 169 .4 13 cour tyard 36 0 .03 27 0 .00 167 .2 14 gui l lo t ine 27 0 .02 6 0 .00 157 .8 15 foun ta in 42 0 .03 69 0 .00 150 .6 16 gao ler 23 0 .02 2 0 .00 146 .9 17 t r ibuna l 23 0 .02 7 0 .00 128 .6 18 tumbr i l 18 0 .01 1 0 .00 118 19 v i l lage 52 0 .04 220 0 .00 111 .6 20 bank 65 0 .05 387 0 .00 105 .9 21 husband 99 0 .07 874 0 .02 105 .8 22 jacka l 15 0 .01 0 0 .00 104 .8 23 road 106 0 .08 1 ,009 0 .02 102 .7 24 fa ther 197 0 .14 2 ,720 0 .06 102 .4 25 p lane- t ree 15 0 .01 1 0 .00 97 .4 26 shoemaker 18 0 .01 9 0 .00 92 27 f lop 15 0 .01 3 0 .00 88 .8 28 c i t i zeness 13 0 .00 1 0 .00 83 .7 29 passenger 45 0 .03 236 0 .00 81 .8 30 emigran t 23 0 .02 40 0 .00 80 .5 31 ju ry 32 0 .02 107 0 .00 80 .3 32 bus iness 134 0 .10 1 ,760 0 .04 77 33 s tone 74 0 .05 689 0 .02 73 .8 34 h i l l 42 0 .03 231 0 .00 73 .4 35 ladyb i rd 12 0 .00 2 0 .00 72 .5

In Table 1 , 35 key words are presented in order according to their

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log l ikel ihood values. Of course, the proper names of characters rank

among the top because most of them appear only in A Tale of Two Cit ies .

In the Table , character names such as “Carton” and “Lucie ,” the place

names such as “Soho” and “France,” and such French words as

“Monseigneur” and “Monsieur” are excluded.

Observat ion of Table 1 leads me to not ice that the words used to

refer to characters are a t the head of the l is t : for example, the word

“madame” for Madame Defarge; “doctor,” “father,” and “shoemaker”

for Doctor Manet te ; “pr isoner,” “emigrant ,” and “husband” for Darnay;

“ ladybird” for Lucie; “spy” for Barsad; “mender” for one of the French

patr iots ; and “jackal” for Carton. Moreover, the words re la ted to

France and the French Revolut ion also show keyness , for example,

“ci t izen,” “ci t izeness ,” “patr iot ,” “republic ,” “gui l lot ine,” “ tr ibunal ,”

“ tumbrel ,” and so on.

Among the remaining words in Table 1 , I focus my at tent ion on

the repeated use of the key words, “wine,” “fountain,” “plane-t ree ,” and

“business .” 4 The word “plane-t ree” occurs only f i f teen t imes, but i t

is f requent ly repeated in a part icular context , and fulf i l l s an important

role as an indicat ion of the subject mat ter of the novel . Stat is t ical ly,

the unusual ly frequent use of the four words may be said to be an

example of lexical propert ies which dis t inguish A Tale of Two Cit ies

f rom Dickens’s other novels .

3. Repetit ion for characterization

3.1 Repetit ion of “business”

One of the key words, “business ,” occurs 134 t imes throughout

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the novel . Eighty-nine of these instances are seen in the characters’

speeches, and 50 of 89 instances (56%) in Mr. Lorry’s speech.

Moreover, 15 of the remaining 45 instances (33%) in the descr ipt ive

and narrat ive par ts are found in such expressions related to him as “the

man of business” and “his business eye.” As a resul t , readers

natural ly draw a c lose associat ion between Mr. Lorry and “business ,” or

his businessl ike manner. In par t icular, the less famil iar col locat ion

“business eye” occurs twice in Chapter 6 of Book II , and recurs in

Chapter 8 of Book III again. Incidental ly, in Dickens’s novels , I f ind

no instance of “business eyes” except for the three examples given to

Mr. Lorry. I t cannot be said that the combinat ion is frequent ly used,

but i t i s closely related to the repet i t ive use of “business” in Mr.

Lorry’s speech and in the descript ions of Mr. Lorry. The employment

of “business eye” shows that Mr. Lorry has the abi l i ty to look at things

object ively as seen in the passage below:

(1) (Car ton informs Mr. Lorry that Darnay, who was once re leased

owing to Dr. Manet te’s tes t imony, has been arrested again.) Mr. Lorry’s business eye read in the speaker ’s [Carton’s] face that i t was loss of t ime to dwell upon the point . Confused, but sensible that something might depend on his presence of mind, he commanded himself , and was si lent ly a t tent ive. (Bk. I I I , Ch. 8)

The repet i t ive use of “business” l i teral ly shows his businessl ike manner,

but Mr. Lorry’s ways of deal ing with other characters is not a lways

businessl ike. He of ten displays great affect ion to Lucie and her fa ther

even though he repeatedly uses “a man of business” in his speech. The

humanist ic aspect of his character i s ref lected through words

co-occurr ing with “business” in the descr ipt ive par t , as seen in the

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passage below:

(2) (Mr. Lorry tact ful ly asks Doctor Manet te what caused the re lapse

and how i t can be prevented.) “Now, my dear Manet te ,” said Mr. Lorry, at length, in his most considerate and most affect ionate way , “I am a mere man of business , and unfi t to cope with such intr icate and diff icul t mat ters . I do not possess the kind of information necessary; I do not possess the kind of intel l igence; I want guiding….’

(Bk. I I , Ch. 19)

In the underl ined phrase of passage (2) , the adject ives “considerate”

and “affect ionate” present some semantic features which are

incompat ible with aspects of “a man of business ,” such as

thoughtfulness , gent leness , and tenderness . The repet i t ion of

“business” directs our a t tent ion to Mr. Lorry’s businessl ike manner,

while the use of these humanist ic adject ives , which are contextual ly

antonymous with “businessl ike,” offer a gl impse into his unobtrusive

but s ignif icant t ra i ts . We observe a confl ic t of meanings between the

two adject ives and his habi tual use of the phrase “a man of business .”

This is one of Dickens’s methods for character creat ion. 5 That is to

say, the author repeats a word pecul iar to characters in his novels ,

dramatizing a par t icular semant ic feature that const i tutes them, and

then gradual ly reveals new aspects of the characters’ personal i ty

through a semantic confl ic t between the repeated word and words

co-occurr ing with i t , as the novel progresses . In this way, Dickens

of ten bui lds up manifold aspects of his characters .

3.2 Repetition of “business” in the description of Sydney Carton

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The recurrent use of the key word “business” not only serves to

character ize Mr. Lorry as discussed above, but a lso denotes other

characters’ “business ,” or their work, concerns, and roles . For

instance, Carton’s “business” implies his heroic act of sel f-sacr i f ice ,

Cruncher ’s is indicat ive of his work of body-snatching, and Madame

Defarge’s is suggest ive of her cruel revenge on the ar is tocracy. As a

typical example, le t us examine Carton’s “business”:

(3) Carton’s negl igent recklessness of manner came powerful ly in

aid of his quickness and ski l l , in such a business as he had in his secret mind, and with such a man as he had to do with.

(Bk. I I I , Ch. 8)

In the context of the passage, Carton threatens Barsad and forces him to

co-operate in his plan to rescue Darnay from prison. The phrase “a

business” contextual ly al ludes to Carton’s future act ion. The

underl ined words, “recklessness ,” “quickness ,” and “ski l l” represent

the qual i t ies and abi l i t ies needed for Carton to perform his r isky and

self-sacr i f ic ing act in the near future. My interpretat ion of Carton’s

“business” is based on the repet i t ive use of “business” in his speech, as

seen in passage (4) below:

(4) “And indeed, s i r,” pursued Mr. Lorry, not minding him, “I

real ly don’t know what you have to do with the mat ter. I f you’l l excuse me, as very much your elder, for saying so, I real ly don’t know that i t i s your business .” “Business! Bless you, I 6 have no business ,” said Mr. Carton. “I t i s a pi ty you have not , s i r.” (Bk. I I , Ch. 4)

The word “business” occurs several t imes in Carton’s speech. When

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he refers to his own “business ,” Carton repeats the expression “I have

no business .” 7 One such instance is shown in the passage above.

Here, Carton makes fun of Mr. Lorry by point ing out his job

rest ra ints as a banker after Darnay’s t r ia l in the Old Bai ly. Mr. Lorry

refutes Carton’s argument and says, “I real ly don’t know that i t i s your

business .” In Mr. Lorry’s ut terance, “business” means “a mat ter with

which one has the r ight to meddle.” 8 On the other hand, in Carton’s

reply “I have no business ,” “business” is def ined as “work to be done or

mat ters to be a t tended to in his service or on his behalf” or “a par t icular

mat ter demanding at tent ion.” 9 The word “business” conveys two

different meanings in the two speeches in passage (4) . Carton s ta tes a

seemingly unrelated thing in spi te of the repet i t ion of the same word,

but his reply “I have no business” hints at an existence of his future

“business ,” that is to say, what is implied by “a business” in passage (3)

in terms of foreshadowing. Through the repet i t ive use of “business ,”

Dickens directs the reader ’s a t tent ion to the word, and suggests the

different or contrast ive roles between the characters . In other words,

Mr. Lorry and Carton independent ly carry on their own “business” to

rescue Darnay. The repeated use of “business” is not direct ly but

int imately related to the themes of fa te and resurrect ion.

In short , Dickens repeats a par t icular word instead of using

different words or phrases of s imilar meaning, exploi t ing polysemy of

the repeated word, and invi tes the reader ’s a t tent ion to the word and i ts

connotat ion. This technique shows one aspect of Dickens’s use of

repet i t ion.

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4. Repetit ion of words indicative of symbolic meaning

4.1 Repetit ive use of “wine,” “red,” and “blood”

As Monod (1968: 462) notes , “Dickens makes a broader use of the

symbols and al legories that had long been dear to him.” In real i ty, A

Tale of Two Ci t ies i s ful l of repeated imagery and symbolic pat terns.

We hear again and again the foots teps and the r is ing storm; we see the

dr inking of wine and the s ta ining blood. This novel achieves

l inguis t ic and s tyl is t ic cont igui ty through the repeated use of symbol ic

words l ike “foots tep,” “echo,” and “wine,” “blood,” which are c losely

related to the subject mat ter of the novel . 1 0 To put i t another way,

repet i t ion of symbolic words fulf i l ls an important funct ion of

promoting the thematic cohesion, by which the themes of this novel are

brought to l ight .

Here, I concentrate my at tent ion on the repet i t ion of the key word

“wine,” and i ts re lated words “red” and “blood.” These words of ten

co-occur with one another, and convey addi t ional and different

meanings as wel l as their own specif ic meanings, in accordance with

the scenes or contexts , especial ly between the English and the French

scenes .

Figure 1 below represents the dis t r ibut ion of these three words

throughout A Tale of Two Ci t ies . The word “wine” occurs 120 t imes,

“red” 56 t imes, and “blood” 35 t imes in total . 1 1 The chapters of the

novel are divided into three groups: Engl ish chapters , French chapters ,

and English-French chapters , depending on the locat ion of the incidents

in each chapter.

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Figure 1 Distr ibut ion of “wine,” “red,” and “blood”

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0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44

Bk. III, Ch. 15

Bk. III, Ch. 14

Bk. III, Ch. 13

Bk. III, Ch. 12

Bk. III, Ch. 11

Bk. III, Ch. 10

Bk. III, Ch. 9

Bk. III, Ch. 8

Bk. III, Ch. 7

Bk. III, Ch. 6

Bk. III, Ch. 5

Bk. III, Ch. 4

Bk. III, Ch. 3

Bk. III, Ch. 2

Bk. III, Ch. 1

Bk. II, Ch. 23

Bk. II, Ch. 22

Bk .II, Ch.16

Bk. II, Ch.15

Bk. II, Ch. 9

Bk. II, Ch. 8

Bk. II, Ch. 7

Bk. I, Ch. 6

Bk. I, Ch. 5

[French]

Bk.II, Ch. 21

Bk.I, Ch. 1

[E & F]

Bk. II, Ch. 24

Bk. II, Ch. 20

Bk. II, Ch. 19

Bk. II, Ch. 18

Bk. II, Ch. 17

Bk. II, Ch. 14

Bk. II, Ch. 13

Bk. II, Ch. 12

Bk. II, Ch. 11

Bk. II, Ch. 10

Bk. II, Ch. 6

Bk. II, Ch. 5

Bk. II, Ch. 4

Bk. II, Ch. 3

Bk. II, Ch. 2

Bk. II, Ch. 1

Bk. I, Ch. 4

Bk. I, Ch. 3

Bk. I, Ch. 2

[English]

wine (120)

red (56)

blood (35)

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Scrut iny of Figure 1 reveals , among other things, the fol lowing

two points:

( i ) Although the three words, “wine,” “red,” and “blood,” occur

throughout the novel , they occur more frequent ly in the French chapters ra ther than the Engl ish ones. Furthermore, these words of ten co-occur with one another in the French scenes. They also co-occur in the English scenes, but not as of ten.

( i i ) The word “wine” is remarkably obvious in the f i rs t French

chapter, in Chapter 5 of Book I [37 of 120 (30.8%)] . This emphasizes a s t rong connect ion between what may be meant by the word and France, and pref igures the coming bloody Revolut ion at the very beginning of the French scenes . In the Engl ish chapters , on the other hand, the word “wine” occurs only 14 t imes, and most instances [10 of 14, (71%)] occur in a l imited context : Chapters 4 , 5 , and 6 of Book II .

I t i s of ten pointed out that the word “wine” and i ts re lated words

“red” and “blood” frequent ly co-occur as an indicat ion of the French

Revolut ion’s s laughter and bloodshed. In fact , Figure 1 supports this

idea in quanti ta t ive terms, but does not reveal how the words create the

symbolical imagery of the bleeding Revolut ion. Needless to say, the

Revolut ion’s s laughter and bloodshed are not s imply hinted at and

represented through the repet i t ion and co-occurrence of these three

words, but the re la ted words co-occurr ing with them in the same

contexts contr ibute to creat ing the bloody imagery. Therefore, I wil l

now invest igate how the three words and their re la ted words work

together. What is more, as i t seems that Dickens a t taches different

meanings to the word “wine” and i ts related words in each context , I

wil l examine how the words carry var iegated meanings for the French

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and the Engl ish scenes.

4.2 Use of “wine” in French scenes

The fol lowing passage descr ibes the breaking of a wine cask in

the s t reet , inspir ing the people of the neighborhood to scoop and sop up

the wine to dr ink i t in the f i rs t French scene, Chapter 5 of Book I . The

passage, long as i t is , must be quoted nearly in full to preserve i ts

peculiar effect:

(5) ( i ) A large cask of wine had been dropped and broken, in the

s t reet . ( i i ) The accident had happened in get t ing i t out of a car t ; the cask had tumbled out with a run, the hoops had burst , and i t lay on the s tones just outside the door of the wine-shop , shat tered l ike a walnut-shell . ( i i i ) Al l the people within reach had suspended their business , or their idleness , to run to the spot and drink the wine . . . ( iv) Some men kneeled down, made scoops of their two hands joined, and s ipped, or t r ied to help women, who bent over their shoulders , to s ip , before the wine had al l run out between their f ingers . (v) Others , men and women, dipped in the puddles with l i t t le mugs of muti la ted ear thenware, or even with handkerchiefs f rom women’s heads, which were squeezed dry into infants’ mouths; others made small mud embankments , to s tem the wine as i t ran; others , directed by lookers-on up at high windows, dar ted here and there , to cut off l i t t le s treams of wine that s tar ted away in new direct ions; others devoted themselves to the sodden and lee-dyed pieces of the cask, l icking, and even champing the moister wine-rot ted fragments wi th eager re l ish. . . (vi ) The wine was red wine , and had stained the ground of the narrow st reet in the suburb of Saint Antoine, in Par is , where i t was spi l led . (vi i ) I t had stained many hands, too, and many faces , and many naked feet , and many wooden shoes. (vi i i ) The hands of the man who sawed the wood, lef t red marks on the bi l le ts ; and the forehead of the woman who nursed her baby, was s tained with the s tain of the old rag she wound about her head again. ( ix) Those who had been greedy with the s taves of the cask, had

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acquired a t iger ish smear about the mouth; and one ta l l joker so besmirched , his head more out of a long squal id bag of a night-cap than in i t , scrawled upon a wal l with his f inger dipped in muddy wine-lees — BL O O D . (x) The t ime was to come, when that wine too would be spi l led on the st reet-stones, and when the stain of i t would be red upon many there . (Bk. I , Ch. 5)

The repet i t ion of the word “wine” and words re lated to the spi l led wine

in each sentence of the passage above are shown as fol lows:

Table 2 Words including “wine” and words related to the spilled wine

Words indicating “wine” Words related to the spilled wine (i) A large cask of wine (ii) the wine-shop (iii) the wine (iv) the wine

(v) the wine little streams of wine the moister wine-rotted fragments

mutilated cut off

(vi) The wine red wine

stained spilled

(vii) stained

(viii) red marks

stained the stain

(ix) wine-lees a tigerish smear

besmirched BLOOD

(x) that wine spilled

the stain red

The words representat ive of “wine” and i ts sediment recurrent ly occur

in the passage ( in sentences (v) , (vi) , and (vi i ) the pronoun “i t” is used) ,

which bui lds up close connect ions among the sentences. Observing

the words related to the spi l led wine, I notice the novelist’s deliberate

order of them: in sentence (v), the words denoting the beheading on the

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guillotine, “mutilated” and “cut off,” first appear, and then in the

following sentences, such words as “stained” and “spil led” denotative of

the spil l ing of blood by the kil ler machine are repeatedly used, thereby

showing a cause-and-effect relationship. Moreover, in sentence (vi) ,

we are f i rs t told that the spi l led wine is “red,” and then the word “red”

is repeated in sentence (vi i i ) . In sentence ( ix) , the juxtaposi t ion of

“wine-lees” and “Blood,” which gains special emphasis by coming a t

the end of the sentence, shows a c lose rela t ion between “wine” and

“blood.” Final ly, in sentence (x) , the words “wine,” “spi l led,”

“s ta in ,” and “red” occur together, and the combinat ions “wine—red”

and “wine—blood” al lude to the s laughter and bloodshed of the

Revolut ion with the help of the c lause “The t ime was to come.”

Dickens not only repeats the same word, but a lso del iberately arranges

i ts re lated or associated words around i t , for emphasis of i ts symbolic

meaning.

The word “wine” and i ts re lated words “red” and “blood”

frequent ly occur in the var ious revolut ionary scenes that depict the

violence and horror of the Revolut ion, making new combinat ions with

the words indicat ive of the Revolut ion’s inhumanity. In parl icular, as

the novel progresses , the word “wine” f igurat ively comes to represent

the dehumanized condemned people executed on the gui l lot ine. 1 2

The foreshadowing in the “wine-cask breaking” scene is real ized and

embodied in var ious scenes through the word combinat ions, for

example, the “grindstone” scene in Bk. I II , Ch. 2 .

I t should also be added that the very high frequency of the word

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“wine-shop” (53 of 120 instances of “wine”, 44%) at t racts a t tent ion.

We usual ly buy wine at a wine-shop, where we sometimes also enjoy

dr inking i t . In the novel , however, Dickens conjures up a di fferent

associat ion with the word “wine-shop.” That is to say, the

“wine-shop” of Defarge and Madame Defarge is located in Saint

Antoine, where the revolut ionary agi tat ion ar ises and is carr ied into

act ion. The wine dr inking of the revolut ionists at the wine-shop

creates a sense of sol idar i ty among them. Dickens evokes a s t rong

associat ion of “wine” with the Revolut ion through the repet i t ive use of

“wine-shop.”

4.3 Use of “wine” in English scenes

Now my at tent ion turns to the use of the word “wine” in the

Engl ish scenes. In the revolut ionary scenes in France, the word

repeatedly co-occurs with words suggest ive of the bleeding Revolut ion,

while in the Engl ish scenes i t co-occurs with words of different

connotat ion. In fact , the word seems to be closely related to the

development of the plot and the character ’s fate . That is to say,

“wine” recurrent ly occurs in the scene where the characters of the novel

f i rs t meet each other, and they are dest ined to share their fa te . Let me

examine some typical instances .

As the f i rs t example, see the passage below, in which Mr. Lorry

meets Lucie for the f i rs t t ime at a hotel in Dover:

(6) ( i ) When i t was dark, and he sat before the coffee-room f i re ,

awai t ing his dinner as he had awaited his breakfast , his mind was busi ly digging, digging, digging , in the l ive red coals .

15

( i i ) A bot t le of good claret af ter dinner does a digger in the red coals no harm, otherwise than as i t has a tendency to throw him out of work. ( i i i ) Mr. Lorry had been idle a long t ime, and had just poured out his las t glassful of wine wi th as complete an appearance of sat isfact ion as is ever to be found in an elder ly gent leman of a f resh complexion who has got to the end of a bot t le , when a ra t t l ing of wheels came up the narrow street , and rumbled into the inn-yard. (Bk. I , Ch. 4)

The word “wine,” a long with i ts synonym “claret ,” f i rs t appears in the

passage above in this novel . I f ind no words s ignif icant of blood or

death l ike those we have seen in the revolut ionary scenes, even though

the word “red” in the phrase “ in the ( l ive) red coals” is found in

sentences ( i ) and ( i i ) . The “wine—red” combinat ion does not indicate

the outbreak of the Revolut ion here in this scene, but i t may be

exploi ted to suggest the fa teful encounter between Mr. Lorry and Lucie .

That is to say, the repet i t ive use of “digging” in sentence ( i ) , which is

repeated as many as e ight t imes in the previous chapter, a t t racts our

at tent ion, and becomes reminiscent of Mr. Lorry’s mission: “ to dig

someone out of a grave” (Bk. I , Ch. 3) , namely ‘ to br ing Dr. Manet te to

the safety of England.’ The second sentence, which descr ibes a good

effect of the dr inking of wine on “a digger in the red coals ( i .e . Mr.

Lorry) ,” reminds us of the proverbial s ta tement on wine: “some people

only speak the t ruth after having drunk wine.” 1 3 Thirdly, sentence

( i i i ) descr ibes Mr. Lorry’s dr inking “his las t glassful of wine.” This

process and the use of “wine” in this scene may indicate the disclosure

of the t ruth about Dr. Manet te . In real i ty, in his interview with Lucie ,

which fol lows the passage above, Mr. Lorry explains to her that they

are going to rescue her fa ther, Dr. Manet te , whom she bel ieves to be

16

dead, in Paris .

Fur thermore, let me observe the passage in which Sydney Carton

and Charles Darnay f i rs t meet and dine together in a tavern af ter the

t r ial in the Old Bai ly:

(7) Drawing his arm through his own, he took him down

Ludgate-hi l l to Fleet-s t reet , and so, up a covered way, into a tavern. Here, they were shown into a l i t t le room, where Charles Darnay was soon recrui t ing his s t rength with a good plain dinner and good wine : while Carton sat opposi te to him at the same table , with his separate bot t le of port before him, and his ful ly half- insolent manner upon him. (Bk. I I , Ch. 4)

Here, in the fateful encounter between Carton and Darnay, Dickens

properly exploi ts the “wine” and i ts synonym “port” to individual ize

the two characters . That is to say, the word “wine” is ass igned to

Darnay, “port” to Carton. The novel is t does not repeat the same word

“wine,” in spi te of the fact that Carton himself uses “wine” when he

orders another glass in the later scene: “bring me another pint of this

same wine .” Through the rei terated use of “wine” (4 t imes) in the

scene of the encounter between Carton and Darnay and the del iberate

use of “wine” and “port” between them, Dickens represents not only

their fateful meet ing but also their character is t ic differences despi te

their physical resemblance. I t might be said that Dickens creates a

kind of symbolic meaning of “wine” in addi t ion to i ts convent ional

symbolic meaning.

5. Distinctive use of repetition between the English and the French scenes

5.1 Repetition of “plane-tree” and “fountain”

17

A close examinat ion of the dist r ibut ion of the repeated words

reveals that some words only or most ly appear in ei ther the Engl ish or

the French scenes. Needless to say, such Angl ic ized French

expressions as “Good day,” “I salute you, c i t izenness ,” and “the sun

going to bed” (cf . Sanders 1988: 9-10, 45-47 & Monod 1968: 459-60)

occur only in the French scenes. In the same way, words specif ic to

the French Revolut ion l ike “Tribunal” and “gui l lot ine” are repeated

only in the French scenes. In par t icular, among others , I not ice the

frequent use of the key word, “plane- t ree ,” in the Engl ish scenes. The

word, which is symbolic of “fr iendl iness” or “chari ty,” 1 4 occurs 15

t imes in total in the novel , and 14 of them are found in the Engl ish

chapters . The only instance in the French chapter, Bk. I I I , Ch. 13, is

used in a re trospect ive descr ipt ion of the Engl ish scene. 1 5 Moreover,

the word repeatedly co-occurs with the adject ive “pleasant ,” which is

found 15 t imes only in the Engl ish chapters , notably 10 t imes in

Chapter 6 of Book II .

On the other hand, another key word “fountain” (a l l 42 t imes) and

i ts related word “fate” (10 of 12 t imes) occur mainly in the French

scenes. The word “fountain” frequent ly occurs in the ear l ier French

chapters , and is observed par t icular ly in the scenes depict ing the

characters’ death and the misery of the French commoners. The words

“fountain” and “fate” appear a t some intervals as a running lei tmotif .

Figure 2 on the next page shows the dis t r ibut ion of these four words. 1 6

18

Figure 2 Distribution of “plane-tree,” “pleasant,” “fate,” “fountain”

1

1

1

3

9

1

1

1

10

1

1

1

9

2

9

10

5

6

1

1

2

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Bk. III, Ch. 15

Bk. III, Ch. 14

Bk. III, Ch. 13

Bk. III, Ch. 12

Bk. III, Ch. 11

Bk. III, Ch. 10

Bk. III, Ch. 9

Bk. III, Ch. 8

Bk. III, Ch. 7

Bk. III, Ch. 6

Bk. III, Ch. 5

Bk. III, Ch. 4

Bk. III, Ch. 3

Bk. III, Ch. 2

Bk. III, Ch. 1

Bk. II, Ch. 23

Bk. II, Ch. 22

Bk .II, Ch.16

Bk. II, Ch.15

Bk. II, Ch. 9

Bk. II, Ch. 8

Bk. II, Ch. 7

Bk. I, Ch. 6

Bk. I, Ch. 5

[French]

Bk.II, Ch. 21

Bk.I, Ch. 1

[E & F]

Bk. II, Ch. 24

Bk. II, Ch. 20

Bk. II, Ch. 19

Bk. II, Ch. 18

Bk. II, Ch. 17

Bk. II, Ch. 14

Bk. II, Ch. 13

Bk. II, Ch. 12

Bk. II, Ch. 11

Bk. II, Ch. 10

Bk. II, Ch. 6

Bk. II, Ch. 5

Bk. II, Ch. 4

Bk. II, Ch. 3

Bk. II, Ch. 2

Bk. II, Ch. 1

Bk. I, Ch. 4

Bk. I, Ch. 3

Bk. I, Ch. 2

[English]

plane-tree (15)

pleasant (15)

fountain (42)

fate (12)

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The different or contrast ive use of repeated words in the Engl ish

and the French scenes in A Tale of Two Cit ies enables the reader to

real ize the author ’s del iberate exploi ta t ion of words in terms of the

subject mat ter, that is to say, contrast between the two ci t ies . The

repet i t ion of “plane-tree” together with that of “pleasant” serves to

create a favorable family atmosphere in the Engl ish scenes . In sharp

contrast to this , in the French scenes, the words “fountain” and “fate”

direct ly convey some of the dominant themes of the book: death, future

l i fe , fa te , and resurrect ion. 1 7 I t seems that Dickens suggests the

inevi table outbreak of the French Revolut ion and the characters’ sealed

dest inies through the verbal associat ions of such repet i t ive words

arranged mainly in the French scenes.

I t is worth examining the repet i t ive use of “plane-tree” and

“fountain” more closely and concretely. The words convey not only

their own meanings but addi t ional ones as wel l , for instance,

foreshadowing.

5 .2 Repetit ion of “plane-tree” in the English scenes

One example of the repeated use of “plane- t ree” and “pleasant” in

the English scenes can be observed in passage (8) :

(8) On this occasion, Miss Pross , responding to Ladybird 's

pleasant face and pleasant effor ts to please her, unbent exceedingly; so the dinner was very pleasant , too. I t was an oppressive day, and, af ter dinner, Lucie proposed that the wine should be carr ied out under the plane-tree , and they should s i t there in the air. As everything turned upon her, and revolved about her, they went out under the plane-tree , and she

20

carr ied the wine down for the special benefi t of Mr. Lorry. She had instal led herself , some t ime before, as Mr. Lorry’s cup-bearer ; and while they sat under the plane-tree , ta lking, she kept his glass replenished. Myster ious backs and ends of houses peeped at them as they talked, and the plane- tree whispered to them in i ts own way above their heads. (Bk. I I , Ch. 6)

In the context of the passage above, Dr. Manet te , Lucie , Mr. Lorry, and

Miss Pross are in the cour tyard af ter dinner. The repeated use of

“plane- t ree” and “pleasant” in c lose proximity serves to create a

comfortable and cozy atmosphere of domest ic peace. At the same t ime,

however, I f ind the repet i t ion of the word “wine.” As al ready

mentioned, “wine” in the Engl ish scenes is associated with a ser ious

development in the plot . Through the co-occurrence of “plane-tree”

with “wine” we can sense an impending misfor tune to threaten Lucie’s

happy family l i fe , even though the “plane- t ree” i tsel f carr ies a good

connotat ion. In fact , in the scene which fol lows the passage above, a l l

the characters who gather under the “plane- t ree” hear the foots teps of

the people in the s t reet caught in the sudden s torm, which seems to be

indicat ive of the outbreak of the French Revolut ion. Addit ional ly, the

personif icat ion of the “plane-tree” and “houses” in the las t sentence

also serves as an ominous harbinger.

As another example of the repeated use of the “plane- t ree ,” le t

me examine the fol lowing two passages . Passage (9) is observed at

the very beginning, and passage (10) a t the very end of Chapter 17 of

Book II :

(9) Never did the sun go down with a br ighter glory on the quiet

21

corner in Soho, than one memorable evening when the Doctor and his daughter sat under the plane-tree together. Never did the moon r ise with a milder radiance over great London, than on that night when i t found them st i l l seated under the t ree , and shone upon their faces through i ts leaves.

Lucie was to be marr ied to-morrow. She had reserved this las t evening for her fa ther, and they sat a lone under the plane-tree .

“You are happy, my dear fa ther?” “Quite , my chi ld.” (Bk. I I , Ch. 17)

(10) (Lucie s i ts by her fa ther ’s bedside for a while .) She[Lucie] t imidly la id her hand on his[Dr. Manet te’s] dear breast , and put up a prayer that she might ever be as t rue to him as her love aspired to be, and as his sorrows deserved. Then, she withdrew her hand, and kissed his l ips once more, and went away. So, the sunr ise came, and the shadows of the leaves of the plane-tree moved upon his face, as soft ly as her l ips had moved in praying for him. (Bk. I I , Ch. 17)

The f i rs t passage appears in the context where Lucie and her father s i t

outside under the “plane-tree” the night before her wedding, and she

reassures her fa ther that her love for Darnay wil l not al ter her love for

him. The repet i t ive use of the “plane- t ree” (and also the words “the

t ree” twice) a long with the words indicat ive of l ight , “sun,” “brighter,”

“moon,” “radiance,” or “shone” is c losely related with the domest ic

happiness and hope that Lucie and her fa ther feel .

Furthermore, in passage (10) , the word denot ing l ight , “sunrise ,”

is a lso used. At the same t ime, however, the “plane- t ree” co-occurs

with the word “shadow,” which seems to carry an ominous implicat ion

for Dr. Manette’s future. In real i ty, in the fol lowing chapter, Chapter

18 of Book II , Dr. Manet te has temporar i ly rever ted to shoemaking

because of the shock of Charles Darnay’s revelat ion, on the morning of

22

his wedding to Lucie , of his ident i ty as a member of the St Evrémonde

family.

I t can be said that the repeated use of the “plane-tree” i tse l f

symbolical ly suggests the Manet tes’ domest ic peace, co-occurr ing with

the words s ignif icant of l ight . Yet , the change of words co-occurr ing

with the “plane-t ree ,” that is to say, the new combinat ion of

“plane-tree” and “shadow,” implies the characters’ future fa te in terms

of foreshadowing.

5.3 Repetit ion of “fountain” in the French scenes

In the f inal par t of this paper, I now explore what addi t ional

meanings the repet i t ive use of the key word “fountain” carr ies . The

fol lowing passage appears in the scene where the Marquis St .

Evrémonde is ki l led:

(11) ( i ) He [St . Evrémonde] moved from end to end of his

voluptuous bedroom, looking again at the scraps of the day’s journey that came unbidden into hi s mind; the slow toi l up the hi l l a t sunset , the set t ing sun, the descent , the mil l , the pr ison on the crag, the l i t t le vi l lage in the hol low, the peasants at the fountain , and the mender of roads with his blue cap point ing out the chain under the carr iage. ( i i ) That fountain suggested the Paris fountain , the l i t t le bundle lying on the s tep, the women bending over i t , and the ta l l man with his arms up, crying, “Dead!”. . . ( i i i ) The fountain in the vi l lage f lowed unseen and unheard , and the fountain at the château dropped unseen and unheard -- both melt ing away, l ike the minutes that were fal l ing from the spring of Time ― through three dark hours . ( iv) Then, the grey water of both began to be ghost ly in the l ight , and the eyes of the stone faces of the château were opened. (v) Lighter and l ighter, unt i l a t las t the sun touched the tops of the s t i l l t rees , and poured i ts radiance over the hi l l . (vi ) In the

23

glow, the water of the château fountain seemed to turn to blood , and the stone faces cr imsoned. (Bk. I I , Ch. 9)

The word “fountain” appears in three places: on a Par is s t reet , in the

vi l lage, and at the country es ta te of the Marquis . At the “Paris

fountain,” an innocent chi ld is accidental ly run over by the Marquis’s

carr iage. At the “vi l lage fountain,” the poor peasants gather together

for a l iving; the chi ld’s father, Gaspard, is seen r iding under the

carr iage. The “château fountain” is a decorat ion at the Marquis’s

mansion. The three fountains refer to different things, but in the

passage above, the repet i t ive use of “fountain” denotes their c lose

associat ion. The associat ion is i l lustrated as fol lows:

Figure 3 Verbal chart of “fountain”

the Paris fountain the peasants at the fountain That fountain The fountain in the village

the fountain at the château the fountain at the château the château fountain

unseen and unheard

both melting away / the grey water of both

suggested

blood the little bundle

The l inkage between the fountain in the vi l lage and the Par is fountain is

c lear ly shown in the clause “That fountain suggested the Paris

fountain” in sentence ( i i ) . The vi l lage fountain is connected with the

château fountain through the repet i t ion of “unseen and unheard” in

24

sentence ( i i i ) and “both” with the el l ipsis of “fountain” in sentences

( i i i ) and ( iv) . Moreover, the château fountain is connected with the

Paris fountain through the assis tance of the vi l lage fountain and the

“blood” associat ion of the two fountains , that is to say, the associat ion

of “ the l i t t le bundle” in sentence ( i i ) , which refers to the chi ld ki l led by

the carr iage, with the word “blood” in sentence (vi) . Through their

associat ion, by the construct ion of a verbal c i rc le , we are made aware

of the murder of the Marquis .

Dickens of ten repeats a word with different referents and

meanings in di fferent scenes, and at tempts to es tabl ish a close l ink

between the scenes. This technique contr ibutes to indicat ing a cause

and effect re la t ion and foreshadowing.

6. Final Remarks

The foregoing arguments jus t i fy s ta t ing that Dickens

del iberately exploi ts the technique of repet i t ion with great ar t is t ry in

order to individual ize characters , to make creat ive use of convent ional

symbolic meanings, to prefigure future events , and to convey the main

themes of the novel , such as fa te , resurrect ion, and contrast , to the

minds of the reader. The novel is t ’s use of repet i t ion for the s tyl is t ic

effects of emphasis and i rony can also be found in his other novels .

However, in A Tale of Two Ci t ies , the repet i t ions of words and phrases

are wel l organized and s t ructural ly used, and thus have the obvious

funct ion of creat ing a s t rong sense of uni ty in the s t ructure of the novel .

In a metaphorical sense, as var ious kinds of threads are woven together

25

in to texture , var ious kinds of repet i t ion are ski l l ful ly interwoven into

the s tory, and provide a s t rong sense of cont inui ty and associat ion

within the novel . Such st ructural use of repet i t ion is one of the

l inguis t ic pecul iar i t ies of A Tale of Two Ci t ies .

kkoguchi@yasuda-u.ac. jp

References: Brook, G. L. (1970) The Language of Dickens , Andre Deutsch,

London. de Vries , Ad. (1976) Dict ionary of Symbols and Imagery ,

North-Holland Publishing Company, London. Fowler, H. W. (1965) A Dict ionary of Modern English Usage 2nd ed. ,

revised by Sir Ernest Gowers , Oxford Universi ty Press , Oxford. Fowler, R. (1977) Linguist ics and the Novel , Methuen, London. Glancy, R. (1991) A Tale of Two Cit ies: Dickens’s Revolut ionary

Novel , Twayne Publ ishers , Boston. Hal l iday, M. A. K. and Hasan, R. (1976) Cohesion in Engl ish ,

Longman, London. Hasan, R. (1989) Linguist ics , Language, and Verbal Art , Oxford

Universi ty Press , Oxford. Hori . M. (1993) “Some Collocat ions of the Word ‘Eye’ in Dickens: A

Prel iminary Sketch” in Aspects of Modern English , Eichosha, Tokyo, 509-27.

Hori . M. (2004) Invest igat ing Dickens’ Style: A Collocat ional Analysis , Palgrave Macmil lan, New York.

Imai , M. (2004) “Repet i t ion in Middle Engl ish Metr ical Romances,” in Risto Hil tunen and Shinichiro Watanabe (eds .) , Approaches to Style and Discourse in Engl ish , Osaka Universi ty Press , Osaka.

I to , H. (1980) The Language of The Spectator: A Lexical and Styl is t ic Approach , Shinozaki Shorin, Tokyo.

Koguchi , K. (2001) The Language of Charles Dickens’s A Tale of Two Cit ies: From a Cohesive Point of View , Research Inst i tute for Language and Culture , Yasuda Women’s Universi ty, Hiroshima.

Koguchi , K. (2003) “Repet i t ion and Contrast in A Tale of Two Ci t ies” in Studies in Modern English: The Twentieth Anniversary Publication of the Modern English Association, Eichosha, Tokyo.

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Leech, G. N. (1979) A Linguist ic Guide to Engl ish Poetry , Longman, London.

Leech, G. N. and Short , M. H. (1981) Style in Fict ion: A Linguis t ic Introduct ion to English Fict ional Prose , Longman, London.

Monod, S. (1968) Dickens the Novel is t , Universi ty of Oklahoma Press, Norman.

Quirk, R. (1974) The Linguis t and the Engl ish Language , Edward Arnold, London.

Sørensen, K. (1985) Charles Dickens: Linguis t ic Innovator , Arkona, Aarhus.

Stoehr, T. (1965) Dickens: The Dreamer ’s Stance , Cornel l Univers i ty Press , New York.

Wales , K. (1991) A Dict ionary of Styl is t ics , Longman, London. Yamamoto, T. (2003) Growth and System of the Language of Dickens:

An Introduct ion to A Dickens Lexicon 3rd edi t ion, Keisuisha, Hiroshima.

1 The se l f -made Dickens Corpus inc ludes 22 novel s : Ske tches by Boz

(1833-36) , The Pickwick Papers (1836-37) , Oliver Twis t (1837-39) , Nicho las Nick leby (1838-39) , The Old Cur ios i ty Shop (1840-41) , Barnaby Rudge (1841) , A Chri s tmas Carol (1843) , Mart in Chuzz lewi t (1843-44) , The Chimes (1844) , The Cricke t on the Hear th (1845) , Bat t le o f L i f e (1846) , Dombey and Son (1846-48) , The Haunted Man (1848) , David Copper f i e ld (1849-50) , Reprin ted Pieces (1850-56) , Bleak House (1852-53) , Hard Times (1854) , Li t t l e Dorr i t (1855-57) , The Uncommerc ia l Trave l ler (1860) , Great Expec ta t ions (1860-61) , Our Mutua l Fr iend (1864-65) , Edwin Drood (1869-1870) .

2 Mike Scot t ’s Webs i te : h t tp : / /www.lex ica l ly.ne t /wordsmi th / index .h tml 3 Al l quo ta t ions o f Dickens ’s novel s a re taken f rom The Ox ford I l lus t ra ted

Dickens (OUP, 1947-58 , 21 vo lumes) . I a l so re fe r to e lec t ron ic tex t s o f Dickens’s nove l s f rom Projec t Gutenberg . The Gutenberg Corpus can be found a t h t tp : / /p romo.ne t /pg / index .h tml . The i ta l i c s and the under l ines a re a l l mine un less o the rwise ind ica ted .

4 One o f the key words , “kn i t ,” f requen t ly happens in the descr ip t ions o f Madame Defa rge , and seems not on ly to r epresen t he r cha rac te r, bu t a l so t o c lose ly re la te he r to one o f the dominant themes o f the book — fa te . However, i t wi l l be dea l t wi th on another occas ion .

5 The combina t ion o f “eye” wi th “bus iness” in the desc r ip t ion o f Mr. Lorry i s one demons t ra t ive ins tance o f “a reg iona l , soc ia l , occupa t iona l , o r ph i losoph ica l typ i f ica t ion by l anguage .” c f . Qu i rk (1974: 8 )

6 Th i s i t a l ic i s in the o r ig ina l . 7 Another ins tance o f “ I have no bus iness” i s obse rved in the fo l lowing passage :

(Af te r t e l l ing Car ton tha t he has dec ided to marry Lucie , St ryve r c r i t i c i zes Car ton fo r making h imse l f so una t t rac t ive to women. )

27

‘You have no bus iness to be incor r ig ib le , ’ was h i s f r i end’s answer, de l ive red in no very soo th ing tone . ‘ I have no bus iness t o be , a t a l l , tha t I know of , ’ sa id Sydney Car ton .

(Bk . I I , Ch . 11) 8 OED2 s .v. Bus iness 16 .c . 9 OED2 s .v. Bus iness 13 .d and 1 .a . 1 0 Stoehr (1965 : 25) quotes J . H. Mi l l e r ’s words to expla in Dickens’s use o f images :

Images in a novel ge t the i r s ign i f icance no t s imply in the i r immedia te re la t ion to the na r ra t ive l ine , bu t in re la t ion to a l l the images in the i r con tex t s be fo re and a f te r. In Dickens th i s spa t ia l qua l i ty re su l t s in pa r t f rom the in t r i ca te p lo t s in which every th ing tha t happens and a l l the charac te r s tu rn ou t in the end to be somehow re la ted . The reve la t ions a t the end cause the whole pa t t e rn o f the novel to fa l l in to p lace a lmos t wi th an aud ib le c l i ck .

1 1 In A Tale o f Two Ci t i es , the word “wine” (120) inc ludes “wines” (2 ) , and “ red” (56) inc ludes “ redder” (16) and “ reddes t” (2 ) . 1 2 One ins tance o f the dehumaniza t ion can be observed in the fo l lowing passage :

Love ly g i r l s ; b r igh t women , b rown-hai red , b lack-ha i red , and g rey ; you ths ; s ta lwar t men and o ld ; gen t l e born and peasan t born ; al l red wine for La Gui l lo t ine , a l l da i ly b rought in to l igh t f rom the da rk ce l la r s o f the loa thsome pr i sons , and ca r r i ed to he r th rough the s t ree t s to s lake he r devour ing th i r s t . (Bk . I I I , Ch . 5 )

1 3 Vr ies (1976) , s .v. Wine 5 . 1 4 Vr ies (1976) , s .v. P lane ( t ree ) . 1 5 The “p lane- t ree” occurs p redominan t ly in A Tale o f Two Ci t ie s i n Dickens ’s noe l s ; on ly one ins tance i s found ex te rna l ly in The Uncommerc ia l Trave l ler . The ins tance i s found in the fo l lowing passage .

The i l l eg ib le tombs tones a re a l l lop-s ided , the g rave-mounds los t

the i r shape in the ra ins o f a hundred years ago , the Lombardy Poplar o r Plane-Tree tha t was once a d rysa l te r ’s daughte r and severa l common-counc i lmen , has wi the red l ike those wor th ies , and i t s depar ted leaves a re dus t benea th i t . (UT 23 )

1 6 In A Tale o f Two Ci t i e s , t he word “ founta in” (42) inc ludes “ foun ta ins” (2 ) . 1 7 c f . Vr ies (1976) , s .v. Founta in 1 .

28