summarize intelligence math achievement self gender and gender boundaries peer relationships...
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Summarize Intelligence Math Achievement Self Gender and Gender boundaries Peer Relationships Friendships Developing group Norms Sherif & Sherif Robber’s Cave Experiment Moral Development Family Parenting Styles Violence, Conflict, Divorce Sibling Relationships Schools Achievement and Adjustment
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What IQ Scores Can Predict In general, IQ tests are fairly good
predictors of success in school. Childhood IQ may predict long-term
success in occupations that require abstract thought.
Adult IQ scores are good predictors of success in job-training programs but not of actual job performance.
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In most parts of the world, children start formal education between ages 5-7.
The transition to formal education is not always easy.
Many have difficulty applying their informal knowledge to more formal classroom tasks.
Decontextualized thought:A cognitive skill needed to solve problems that are abstract, self-contained, and removed from any immediate context.
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Cultural MismatchThe format of social interaction expected at school
may be unfamiliar to children from different backgrounds.
White middle-class preschoolers are accustomed to being asked questions at home, test questions to which the adult knows the answers (“What color is that?” “What do cows say?”).
A study found that black lower-class preschoolers heard more functional questions at home:
analogy questions (“What’s that like?”) story-starter questions (“What happened to him
yesterday?”) accusation questions (“What’s that all over your face?)
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Cultural Differences in Math Achievement
United States children do worse than children in many other countries on math & science measures.
No one suggests American children have learning deficiencies compared to children in other countries.
Researchers and teachers assume cultural differences in values & classroom practices must be the cause.
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Latency period:Freud’s term for
middle childhood, the period in which sexual urges lie relatively dormant.
Industry vs. inferiority:
Erikson’s term for the crisis of middle childhood, when the major challenge is to start mastering adult skills & feelings fostered by success & failure.
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Sense of industry:In Erikson’s theory, the basic belief in one’s
own competence, coupled with a tendency to initiate activities, seek out learning experiences, and work hard to accomplish goals.
Middle childhood is marked by: forming a coherent self-concept major developments in peer
relations growing understanding of emotions
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The Emergence of the Psychological Self
Psychological self:A concept of the self that is made up of
psychological characteristics, such as mental abilities and customary ways of feeling.
Psychological self:A concept of the self that is made up of
psychological characteristics, such as mental abilities and customary ways of feeling.
Metatheory of the self:Children understanding of the nature of
selves in general.
Metatheory of the self:Children understanding of the nature of
selves in general.
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The Development of the Social Self
Social self:An awareness that the self is
intimately tied to other people.
Social self:An awareness that the self is
intimately tied to other people.
Social comparison:The tendency to use others as a source
of information in evaluating the self.
Social comparison:The tendency to use others as a source
of information in evaluating the self.
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The Development of the Social Self
Use of social comparison in evaluating the self depends on several things: decline in centration normative understanding of ability cultural context
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9-year-old: My name is Bruce. I have brown eyes. I have brown hair. I love sports. I have seven people in my family. I have great eye sight. I have lots of friends. I have an uncle who is almost 7 feet tall. My teacher is Mrs. V. I play hockey. I’m almost the smartest boy in the class. I love food. I love school.
11½-year-old: My name is Anne. I’m a human being…a girl… a truthful person. I’m not pretty. I do so-so in my studies. I’m a very good cellist. I’m a little tall for my age. I like several boys. I am a good swimmer. I try to be helpful. Mostly I’m good, but I lose my temper. I’m not well liked by some girls and boys. I don’t know if boys like me.
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Piaget’s Theory ofMoral Development
Young children judge on consequence
Older children judge on intent In middle childhood standards can
be very rigid
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The Developing Sense of Gender Knowledge of gender stereotypes
influences perceptions & memories. Elementary school children apply
gender stereotypes to themselves more than preschoolers do.
In general, boys are more strongly sex-typed than girls.
Socialization factors (mother’s SES, etc.) influence the flexibility of gender-related thinking.
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Personal Effectiveness andSelf-Management
Also developing in middle childhood is children’s belief that:
they can master and prevail in challenging circumstances, and
their successes come from resources within.
As children develop a sense of personal effectiveness, they also develop capacities to cope with stress and emotional challenges.
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Peer groups are important for several reasons:
sheer amount of time spent with peers
unique learning experiences challenging youngsters to develop
interaction skills
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Advances That Enable More Complex Peer Relations:
greater ability to understanding others’ perspectives, needs, & feelings
ability to grasp more complex rules regarding interpersonal behavior
growing ability to communicate feelings & wishes
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Elementary school children can now communicate displeasure verbally.
They (especially girls) are more likely to hurl verbal insults.
Girls display less physical aggression than boys, but more relational aggression.Relational aggression:Aggression that includes attempts to
exclude peers from activities damage their reputations gossip about their negative
characteristics or behavior
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5 Major Developments in Peer Relations
1. Children start to expect more from friends, including loyalty & understanding.
2. They start forming networks of friends.3. They learn to coordinate allegiance to
individual friends with their functioning in a group.
4. Adhering to peer group norms becomes increasingly important.
5. Clear boundaries for interaction with opposite sex develop.
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Forming Loyal Friendships
In middle childhood: relationships involve more reciprocal
support & loyalty deepening of peer relations relates to
advances in children’s thinking they come to understand conflict is part
of friendship and may even strengthen it they behave differently with friends than
with mere acquaintances
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Forming Peer Groups Friendship networks are the hallmark
of middle childhood. They tend to play with relatively
stable clusters of friends. Boys often engage in joint building
activities & competitions. Boys vie to be the leader or winner. Girls’ groups are more cohesive. Girls orient more toward accord &
intimacy.
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Coordinating Friendship andGroup Interaction
Typically, friendship and group interaction supplement each other:
Friendships promote integration into a group.
Functioning in the group is a rich context for sharing between friends.
Some pairs of friends steer away from groups.
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Adhering to Peer Group Norms
Peer group norms:Informal rules governing the conduct
of children within a peer group.
Peer group norms:Informal rules governing the conduct
of children within a peer group.
Strict adherence to peer group norms is common at this age.
Peer group norms help maintain group harmony & cohesiveness.
They are important for promoting moral development.
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Maintaining Gender Boundaries Elementary school children are diligent in their
efforts to ensure children do not stray too far across gender lines.
Some cultures impose gender boundaries, like having the boys live in a separate village.
A great deal of contact occurs, but within the limits of peer group rules.
Children who routinely fail to maintain gender boundaries are less popular and are rated as less socially competent.Border work:Rituals of teasing & ostracism with which
elementary school children maintain the boundary between gender-segregated peer groups.
Border work:Rituals of teasing & ostracism with which
elementary school children maintain the boundary between gender-segregated peer groups.
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Status & Acceptance in the Peer Group
Sociometric techniques involve asking children to name others they especially like or don’t like to play with.
Accepted children are frequently named as liked.
Those consistently named as disliked are characterized by researchers as rejected.
Others who are rarely named as either liked or disliked are characterized as neglected.
Sociometrics:A research technique used to measure peer status.Sociometrics:A research technique used to measure peer status.
Sociogram
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Unpopular children’s feelings about their low peer status depend on multiple factors.
Intense loneliness depends on a combination of:
isolation from the group
friendlessness low peer acceptance not any one of these
factors aloneClip art copyright © 2003 www.arttoday.com. Used with permission.
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Aggressive children are more likely to be rejected.
Combined aggression and rejection is strongly associated with maladjustment.
Aggressive children who are not rejected are better adjusted.
Rejected children spent the most time isolated from others or engage in negative behavior like aggression.
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During elementary school, a child’s popularity with peers becomes quite stable.
It has implications for current and future mental health.
Researchers have explored ways to improve a child’s status, but how long the effects of such interventions last is not yet known.
What was the purpose?
Muzafer and his wife, Carolyn, conducted a study on the origin of prejudice.
The experiment focused heavily on the concept of a ‘group’ and what a perception of belonging to a group can actually do to the relationships of members within it and their relationships with people outside their group.
Who was involved? Muzafer Sherif and Carolyn Sherif-
psychologists that came up with the experiment.
22 boys between the ages of 11 and 12. Researchers were disguised as camp
leaders.
What happened in this experiment?
There were 3 phases of this experiment.
1. In-Group Formation 2. Friction Phase 3. Integration Phase.
Phase 1. (In-group Formation)
Twenty-two eleven year-old boys of middle-class socioeconomic standing, and who are not school or social failures and who have similar educational level.
These boys were taken into a summer camp in Robbers Cave State Park in Oklahoma where they were divided into two groups of eleven.
The two groups created national flags creating a sense of belonging. They also bonded with each other and created group names.
The groups must not be aware of the existence of the other group If the groups had met before, it would alter the results because they would likely be less hostile towards the other group later on in the experiment.
Phase 2. Friction Phase During this phase, the two groups were allowed to find out about the
existence of the other group. Teams were forced to compete against each other in a number of
camp activities. Such as, canoeing, camp fire building, and wood chopping, etc.
The winning team, scoring the highest overall number of points, won a trophy.
Greatly increased the antagonism between the two groups. Later on, name calling and fighting started and the singing of
offending songs were also observed. After refusal of being in the same room, the researchers decided to
end the second phase before further outbursts occurred.
Raided one another’s cabins Stole and burned one another’s flags Came to view one another as “stinkers” “smart-
alecks” and “sneaks” Verbal prejudice became apparent, spiraling
downward towards aggressive territorial violence
The groups eventually had to be separated
How to create prosocial attitudes Propaganda: No
Positive propaganda about one group directed to the other by the experimenters did not help
Contact: No Doing non-competitive activities together (e.g., watching
movies) did not help Cooperative action: Yes
Experimenters arranged for camp truck to break down Both groups needed to pull it uphill Intergroup friendships began to
Phase 3- Integration Phase. This stage constitutes the most crucial and significant aspect
of the study. The researchers forced groups together to cooperate and
achieve a common goal. Both groups were taken to a new location and were told to fix
their drinking water supply which had been damaged by “vandals”.
The two teams worked together because a water supply shortage affected both groups immensely.
The second activity the boys were told to watch a movie together. They successfully agreed upon one, and later ate dinner together without dispute.
What was discovered? During the first phase, the researchers discovered that when you
place a group of strangers together, they take on specific roles within the group. Such as leaders, followers, etc. They bond together and become close friends (like a family).
Second Phase- because of the bonding in group one, they had a sense of pride towards that team. When forced to fight against each other they found themselves in a battle. Each group believed their group was superior in all aspects.
Third Phase- When two conflicting groups are brought together to achieve a goal that can only be accomplished by both groups working together. They work together flawlessly.
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The Changing Understanding of Emotion
During middle childhood, children: become increasingly able to understand
the complexity of emotion-arousing situations
take particular situations into account when determining an appropriate emotional response
know a great deal about display rules for emotions
These changes seem related to increases in true empathy for others.
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Emotional, Social, & CognitiveBases of Moral Development
Advances in children’s thinking support deepening of moral concerns and greater understanding of moral issues.
Consideration for other people’s feelings is a major factor in moral growth.
The particular moral principles children adopt are largely a product of their culture.
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The Family
Parent-child relationships change markedly during this time.
Parents give children more responsibilities.
Parents no longer explicitly, continuously direct children.
The hallmark of effective parenting is keeping track of children’s whereabouts and providing supervision & direction when needed.
Parents influence by how they supervise.
Parenting Styles
Baumrind Authoritative Authoritarian Permissive
Maccoby and Martin Frequency of conflict over goals Balance of resolution
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Parenting Styles & Child Development
Authoritative parents rely on discipline techniques based on reasoning.
Their children score higher on agency.
Girls high on agency tend to have argumentative interactions with parents, especially fathers.
Argumentative interactions are not associated with increased agency for boys.
Authoritative parents rely on discipline techniques based on reasoning.
Their children score higher on agency.
Girls high on agency tend to have argumentative interactions with parents, especially fathers.
Argumentative interactions are not associated with increased agency for boys.
Agency:The tendency to take initiative, rise to challenges, and try to influence events.
Agency:The tendency to take initiative, rise to challenges, and try to influence events.
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Several factors encourage harmonious parent-child relationships:
understanding legitimacy of parents’ authority
grasping that parents have more experience grasping parents’ decisions are usually
intended for children’s own good empathy shown by caring, responsive
parents
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Family Violence, Conflict, & Divorce
Harsh physical abuse relates to later negative behavior in children.
Other violence in the family is associated with child problems including aggression and withdrawal.
Ending parental conflict moderates negative consequences of divorce.
Negative impact of divorce on girls may be more delayed.
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Family Violence, Conflict, & Divorce
Factors that promote good outcomes for children after divorce:
ongoing contact with both parents an end to parental conflict cooperation between parents
regarding child care custodial parent’s emotional well-
being good relationships in any
stepfamilies
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Sibling Relationships
Sibling and peer relationships differ in important ways: There is usually a greater age
disparity between friends. One of the siblings tends to get
more power and privileges. In middle childhood, friendships
rarely cross gender boundaries.
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Sibling Relationships
Emotional Qualities of Sibling Relationships
Competition for parents’ attention and approval is common.
Sibling strife based on social comparison intensifies after about age 8.
Rate of conflict is higher with siblings than with peers.
Younger siblings see older ones as controllers and facilitators.
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Sibling Relationships
Factors influencing quality of sibling relationships: closeness in age gender composition stress personalities preferential treatment by parents
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Sibling Relationships
Emotional ambivalence common among siblings offers important learning: When siblings fight, they cannot
simply end their relationship. They can provide mutual support. Older siblings may be assigned the
role of caring for younger siblings. Adopting role of boss may help older
siblings practice leadership skills.
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The School
School provides important context for socialization in cultural values.
Family & school factors affect school achievement & adjustment.
School achievement & adjustment predict later mental health.
After-care arrangements are important, with impact depending to some extent on socioeconomic status.
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The Coherence of Developmentin Middle School
Development in middle childhood is coherent for three reasons:
1. coherent sets of influences2. coherence of individual
adaptations3. coherence of development over
time