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SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

Sustainable Energy Technologies

Options and Prospects

Edited by

K. HANJALIC

Delft University of Technology andMarie Curie Chair, Department of Mechanics and Aeronautics,University of Rome “La Sapienza”, Rome, Italy

R. VAN DE KROL

Department DelftChemTech / Energy,Delft University of Technology,Delft, The Netherlands

and

A. LEKIC

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,University of Sarajevo,Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN 978-1-4020-6723-5 (HB)ISBN 978-1-4020-6724-2 (e-book)

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Library of Congress Control Number: 2007941159

Table of Contents

Preface vii

List of Contributors ix

Abbreviations and Acronyms xiii

Introduction xvii

Part INew and Sustainable Energy Conversion and Storage Technologies

1. World Thirst for Energy: How to Face the Challenge 3M. Combarnous and J.-F. Bonnet

2. Sustainability Concept For Energy, Water and Environmental Systems 25N.H. Afgan

3. Efficient Production and Use of Energy: Novel Energy RationingTechnologies in Russia 51S.V. Alekseenko

4. Perspectives on Wind Energy 75G. van Kuik, B. Ummels and R. Hendriks

5. Photovoltaic Cells for Sustainable Energy 99A.J. McEvoy and M. Gratzel

6. Photo-Electrochemical Production of Hydrogen 121R. van de Krol and J. Schoonman

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vi Table of Contents

7. Distributed Energy Generation, The Fuel Cell and Its Hybrid Systems 143K. Suzuki†, H. Yoshida and H. Iwai

8. Current International Initiatives for Sustainable Nuclear Energy 159D.G. Cacuci

9. Safety in Nuclear Power: A Proposal 177M. Cumo

10. CO2 Emissions Mitigation from Power Generation Using CaptureTechnologies 195P. Mathieu

11. Clean and Efficient Coal Technology Integrated with CO2Sequestration and Hydrogen Energy System 207K. Okazaki

12. Advanced Steam Generator Concepts for Oxy-Fuel Processes 227H. Spliethoff

Part IIInitiatives in South-East Europe

13. CO2 Mitigation Options for Retrofitting Greek Low-Quality Coal-FiredPower Plants 239E. Kakaras, A. Doukelis, D. Giannakopoulos and A. Koumanakos

14. Renewable Energy Sources in Slovenia: Facts and Plans 251U. Lavrencic Stangar and E. Kranjcevic

15. Energy Wood Chains in Bulgaria 261P. Stankov, D. Mladenov and K. Stanchev

16. Energy Efficiency in Serbia: Research and Development Activities 281S.N. Oka

17. Energy Sector in Macedonia: Current Status and Plans 303B. Donevski

18. Energy Sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Current Status and Plans 321A. Lekic

Index 331

Preface

In pursuit of feasible near-future sustainable and environmentally acceptable en-ergy solutions to specific needs and based on the available – often specific and lim-ited – resources as pertinent to many smaller transitional countries, the Academyof Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina in cooperation with DubrovnikInter-University Centre invited a panel of experts to present and discuss the state-of-the-art in the development of new energy technologies at a conference held inDubrovnik, Croatia, on 23–25 September 2006. Up-to-date reviews of the status andprospects of different options in energy conversion and storage technologies werepresented by some of the world leading authorities – members of the national andinternational academies of sciences, directors of institutes, directors of national andinternational (EU) energy programmes and academics from Belgium, France, Ger-many, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Portugal and Switzerland. The articles coverednew clean and zero-emission coal technologies, solar, wind, nuclear, fuel cells, hy-drogen and hybrid technologies, accompanied by treatises on the challenge of in-creasing global energy needs and consumption, issues of sustainability, and on ef-ficient production and use of energy based on modern rationing technologies. Thisoverview was complemented by several regional surveys of needs, resources andpriorities, as well as specific initiatives towards meeting future energy objectives,pursued in several countries in South-Eastern Europe.

This volume has grown out of (but is not confined to) extended and revisedinvited articles presented at the Dubrovnik conference under the auspices of theAcademy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The book aims at provid-ing information and guidance to engineers and planners in energy sector, employ-ees in energy utility companies, various levels of governmental organizations andoffices. It is also intended to serve as a graduate-level textbook to meet growing de-mand for new courses in alternative, renewable and sustainable energy technologiesat technical and general universities.

The Editors would like to thank the contributors for their effort to provideup-to-date revised and extended manuscripts for this volume. Thanks are also dueto the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, for initiating,

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sponsoring and organizing the conference in Dubrovnik in September 2006, andto the Inter-University Centre in Dubrovnik for its support. We thank ProfessorJoop Schoonman from the Delft University of Technology for providing invaluableadvice in selecting and inviting experts in renewable energy technologies. Ourappreciations go also to Amra Avdagic and Danica Radic for the skilful organisationof the Conference, and to Gina Landor for her assistance in the editing of thisvolume.

June 2007The Editors

List of Contributors

NAIM HAMDIA AFGAN

Member of the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina,UNESCO Chair Holder, Technical University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal,[email protected]

SERGEY V. ALEKSEENKO

Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Director of the In-stitute of Thermophysics, Siberian Branch of RAS, 1 Lavrentyev Av., Novosibirsk630090, [email protected]

JEAN-FRANCOIS BONNET

Laboratoire TREFLE, ENSAM, University of Bordeaux 1, Bordeaux, [email protected]

MICHEL COMBARNOUS

Corresponding Member of the French Academy of Sciences, Laboratoire TREFLE,ENSAM, University of Bordeaux 1, Bordeaux, France/University of Gabes, [email protected]

DAN GABRIEL CACUCI

Honorary Member of the European Academy of Arts and Sciences and of theRomanian Academy, University of Karlsruhe, Germany/Commissariat a l’EnergieAtomique (CEA), Direction de l’Energie Nucleaire (DEN) CEA Saclay, Bat. 121,91191 Gif sur Yvette Cedex, [email protected]

MAURIZIO CUMO

Member of the National Italian Academy of Sciences (“the Forty”), Department ofNuclear Engineering and Energy Conversions, University of Rome “La Sapienza”,Corso Vittorio Emanuele II 244, 00186 Rome, [email protected]

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x List of Contributors

BOZIN DONEVSKI

Faculty of Technical Sciences, University St. Kliment Ohridski, P.O. Box 99, 7000Bitola, [email protected]

AGGELOS DOUKELIS

Laboratory of Steam Boilers and Thermal Plants, National Technical University ofAthens, Heroon Polytechniou 9, 15780 Athens, [email protected]

DIONYSIOS GIANNAKOPOULOS


MICHAEL GRATZEL

Honorary Member of the Societe Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles, Laboratory forPhotonics & Interfaces, Faculty of Basic Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Federalede Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, [email protected]

KEMAL HANJALIC

Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering (UK), Member of the Academyof Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Emeritus Professor of DelftUniversity of Technology, The Netherlands, and Marie Curie Chair, Department ofMechanics and Aeronautics, University of Rome “La Sapienza”, Via Eudossiana18, 00161 Rome, [email protected]

RALPH HENDRIKS

Delft University Wind Energy Research Institute DUWIND, Kluyverweg 1,2629 HS Delft, The [email protected]

HIROSHI IWAI

Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501,[email protected]

EMMANOUIL KAKARAS


List of Contributors xi

ANTONIOS KOUMANAKOS


EVALD KRANJCEVIC

Energy Efficiency Centre, Jozef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana,[email protected]

URSKA LAVRENCIC STANGAR

Laboratory for Environmental Research, University of Nova Gorica, Vipavska 13,5000 Nova Gorica, [email protected]

ALIJA LEKIC

Member of the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Facultyof Mechanical Engineering, University of Sarajevo, Vilsonovo 9, 71000 Sarajevo,Bosnia and [email protected]; [email protected]

PHILIPPE MATHIEU

Department of Aeronautics and Mechanical Engineering, Power Generation,University of Liege, Chemin des Chevreuils, 1, B52/3, 4000 Liege, [email protected]

AUGUSTIN J. MCEVOY

Laboratory for Photonics & Interfaces, Faculty of Basic Sciences, Ecole Polytech-nique Federale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, [email protected]

DIMITAR MLADENOV

President, Energy Utilisation Association, 33 Bakston Blv., Sofia, Bulgariad [email protected]

SIMEON N. OKA

Director of the National Energy Efficiency Program of the Ministry of Science ofRepublic of Serbia, Former Scientific Advisor of the Institute for Nuclear SciencesVinca, Belgrade, Serbia, Gandijeva 49b/11, 11070 Novi Beograd, [email protected]

KEN OKAZAKI

Department of Mechanical and Control Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology(Tokyo Tech) O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8552, [email protected]

xii List of Contributors

JOOP SCHOONMAN

Department DelftChemTech / Energy, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box5045, 2600 GA Delft, The [email protected]

HARTMUT SPLIETHOFF

Chair for Energy Systems, Technische Universitat Munchen, [email protected]

KRASIMIR STANCHEV

Executive Manager, ERATO Holding PLC, 10 Poruchik Nedelcho Bonchev Blv.,Sofia, Bulgariak [email protected]

PETER STANKOV

Center for Research and Design in Human Comfort, Energy and Environment,CERDECEN, Technical University of Sofia, 8 Kliment Ohridski Blv., 1000 Sofia,[email protected]

KENJIRO SUZUKI1

Department of Machinery and Control Systems, Shibaura Institute of Technology,307 Fukasaku, Saitama 337-8570, Japan

BART UMMELS


ROEL VAN DE KROL

Department DelftChemTech / Energy, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box5045, 2600 GA Delft, The [email protected]

GIJS VAN KUIK


HIDEO YOSHIDA

Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501,[email protected]

1 Deceased 25 April 2007.

Abbreviations and Acronyms

Common Abbreviations and Acronyms

ASU Air Separation UnitAZEP Advanced Zero Emissions Power PlantBWR Boiling Water (nuclear) ReactorBRICs Large populous countries: Brazil, Russia, India and ChinaCCP Combined Cycle PlantCCS (CO2) Capture and Storage TechnologiesCCT Clean Coal TechnologyCFB Circulating Fluidised BedCOE Cost of Electricity ProductionCPP Condensation Power PlantCCUJ Center for Coal Utilisation, JapanDOE Department of Energy (USA)EAA European Atomic AgencyENBIPRO Energie-Billanz-ProgrammeEOR Enhanced Oil RecoveryEPR European Pressurised (nuclear) ReactorESBWR European/Economic Simplified Boiling Water ReactorESOA “Earth Surface, Oceans and Atmosphere” systemEUR European Utility RequirementsFBC Fluidised Bed CombustionFBR Fast Breeder (nuclear) ReactorFC Fuel CellFGD Flue Gas DesulphurisationFLOX FLameless OXidationGCV Gross Calorific ValueGDP Gross Domestic ProductGeoPP Geothermal Power PlantGTU Gas-Turbine Unit

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xiv Abbreviations and Acronyms

GHG Green House GasesHPP Heat Power PlantIEA International Energy AgencyIGCC Integrated Gasification Combined CycleIGFC Integrated Coal Gasification Fuel Cell Combined Power CycleIPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeLHV (fuel) Low Heat ValueLWR Light Water (nuclear) ReactorMCFC Molten Carbonate Fuel CellMEA MonoethanolamineMGT Micro Gas TurbineNCV Net Caloric Value (idem LHV, low heat value)NEDO New Energy and Industrial Technology Development OrganisationNEEP National Energy Efficiency Programme (Serbia)NGCC Natural Gas Combined CycleNPP Nuclear Power PlantOECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentOPEC Organisation of Oil Exporting CountriesO&M Operation and MaintenancePC Pulverised CoalPEFC Polymer Electrolite Fuel CellPR Progress RatioPV-TRAC Photovoltaic Technology Advisory Council (EU)PWR Pressurised Water (nuclear) ReactorRAO UES Russian Power Grid Joint Stock CompanyRAS Russian Academy of SciencesR&D Research and DevelopmentR&D&D Research, Development and DemonstrationReNEP Resolution on the National Energy Programme (Slovenia)RES Renewable Energy SourcesRTD Research and Technological DevelopmentSMW Solid Municipal WastesSOFC Solid Oxide Fuel CellSTU Steam-Turbine UnitTIT Turbine Inlet TemperatureTSO Transmission System OperatorUNFCCC UN Framework Convention on Climate ChangeUSAID US Agency for International DevelopmentWEC World Energy CouncilZEP Zero Emission Power Plant

Abbreviations and Acronyms xv

Abbreviations for Measures

G prefix for “giga”, 109

goe (g.e.f) gramme of oil equivalent (gramme of equivalent fuel)kWh kilowatt-hourM prefix for “mega”, 106

MW megawattMWe power unit: megawatt in the form of electricityMWth power unit: megawatt in the form of heatppm parts per million (mass)ppmv parts per million volumeT prefix for “tera”, 1012

t tonnetoe (t.e.f.) tonne of oil equivalent (tonne of equivalent fuel)

Introduction

Kemal Hanjalic

Recent record increases in crude oil prices have once again brought the energy issueinto the prime focus of world politics and public awareness. Developing sustainableand renewable energy sources is again seen as the top priority in many countries,especially those that are highly developed. Thus, it is not the alarming observationof melting polar ice caps or other incontestable evidences of climate change, norKyoto, post-Kyoto or similar protocols and declarations that compel us to searchfor new energy alternatives. It is rather the issues of national security, independencefrom imports, the immediate and near-future prospects for our economies and pos-sible undesired social and societal implications, that provide the prime motivationfor extensive research on new renewable as well as conventional energy sources,conversion and storage technologies. It should be no surprise that the issue of secur-ity of energy supplies and “absolute necessity” for new energy efficient technologiesappeared as primary items on the agenda of the recent Annual Meeting of the WorldEconomic Forum in Davos, Switzerland.

However, the problems and challenges in different parts of the globe are very dif-ferent. And so are the motivations, public attitudes, priorities and official policies.The highly developed countries, the USA, EU, Japan, see the issues from a differentperspective than the highly populated countries such as Brazil, China, India, Indone-sia, and very different still from smaller developing “transitional” countries, such asthose in South Eastern Europe. “Hydrogen has the future”, “Hydrogen is the an-swer to energy question”, claims the European Commissioner for Research. Wind,solar, tidal, etc., have the potential to satisfy all our needs, claim others. Yet, accord-ing to some (unconfirmed) evidence, there are currently over 850 large fossil-fuelplants under construction or in the design stage worldwide, most in China, India,Indonesia, Russia, South America, and also in the USA.

While every tonne of fossil fuel replaced by a renewable source should be wel-come, and the research into and development of novel renewable and sustainabletechnologies should be stimulated even at a larger scale than hitherto (see e.g. therecent EU Energy Technology Plan), we should ask ourselves:

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xviii Kemal Hanjalic

• Which of the proposed options in alternative and renewable energy technologiesprovides the fastest route towards meeting the challenges and fulfilling promisesby providing efficient, safe, environmentally acceptable and reliable solutions?

• What are the feasible near-future options, in particular for specific countries andregions?

• The total installed capacity of renewable energy sources, apart from hydro-electric power and biomass, is small, despite extensive research and large in-vestments. Will it remain small, and will these sources need to be subsidised fora long time to come?

• Is the role of renewable energy overestimated, especially in the increased liber-alisation of the energy market? For example, which (combination of) renewablesources can currently replace the above mentioned 850 fossil-fuel plants? To putthis into perspective, consider that a single plant with an average capacity of500 MW is equivalent to 200–500 giant wind mills, or 1/10th of the worldwidetotal installed PV capacity.

• How real are the perspectives for the revival of nuclear energy? Is it time to recon-sider existing bans and previously made decisions in many countries to phase outnuclear plants? How can we assure ourselves and the public that nuclear powercan be safe?

• Or, is the solution for many countries to be found in so-called “clean fossil fuel”technology, which combines efficiency improvements with CO2 sequestration?

The widespread consensus among experts is that the solution is not in one singleenergy source or technology, but that all options need to be pursued and explored.The 2007 Report on Energy and Climate Change by the World Energy Council(WEC) emphasizes that no single energy source can meet the energy needs of theworld and its emission goals at the same time, nor can any single policy or measureprovide the full solution. This statement can be projected to a single country oreven a region: each country should develop its own strategy to climate change andto energy needs. The three “A” criteria of the WEC (Accessibility to affordableenergy, environmental Acceptability of the energy sources, and reliable and secureAvailability) can serve as guidance for assessing possible technological options andpolicy decision.

This volume presents an overview of recent developments in sustainable energytechnologies (excluding vehicle propulsion) and provides a platform for answeringsome of the above-posed and other questions when projected to specific situations.It also aims at stimulating activities in selecting, researching and pursuing specifictechnologies that are feasible, economical and realisable with special emphasis onthe needs and potential of countries in South Eastern Europe and their counterpartsin other regions of the world. A panel of internationally renowned experts presentrecent research advances and prospects for different options. These are complemen-ted with a series of short “regional” overviews of initiatives, trends and activities insome of the countries of South Eastern Europe.

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Introduction xix

The material is organised in two parts. Part I begins with discourses of some globalenergy issues, such as the challenge of increasing global energy needs and con-sumption, the concept of sustainability, and potential improvement of efficiency inproduction and use of energy. Different novel conversion and storage technologies,their development status and perspectives of implementation are then presented.Part II contains overviews of current activities in some of the countries in SouthEastern Europe. In addition to giving an insight into current initiatives, policies andactions, these chapters provide examples of possible measures towards short- andmid-term mitigation of energy shortage in small and medium-sized countries as aprecursor for major undertakings.

The first three chapters deal with different topics, but their common denominatoris in their global concern and significance. In Chapter 1, M. Combarnous and J.-F.Bonnet review the world energy situation, current status and future trends. A dis-tinction is made between “explicit” energy sources and main energy “vectors”, andtheir correlation with world population evolution, emission of green-house gasesand climate change. Using the average individual energy consumption as a keyparameter, different future energy scenarios are considered and possible solutionsare discussed. Recognising the enormous complexity of the energy systems, theirsize and inertia to implementing technological novelties, and rigorous safety issues,the authors conclude that all feasible measures should be pursued. They especiallyemphasize energy saving, the development of all forms of energy production, devel-oping technologies for carbon capture, and the need for a more balanced geograph-ical distribution of resources.

Overall sustainable growth cannot be ensured if sustainability is not accountedfor in all major planning exercises and undertakings that involve future use of en-ergy, water and other natural resources. N.H. Afgan introduces in Chapter 2 thesustainability concept and measures of sustainability, defined in terms of a sustain-ability index. Examples of multi-criteria assessment of an energy system for severaldifferent scenarios illustrate the feasibility of the approach.

In Chapter 3, S.V. Alekseenko gives a Russian perspective on efficiency of pro-duction and use of energy, based on modern rationing technologies. Presented arenovel developments in both conventional and renewable conversion and storagetechnologies, new types of energy sources, as well as some interesting innovativemethods for efficient use of energy, such as powerful light sources based on a plas-matron. Modernisation of existing and introduction of new environmentally accept-able technologies based primarily on gas, coal and nuclear fuel, together with energyrationing, are seen as priorities, though admittedly all require immense investments.Some of the technologies discussed are specifically targeted towards the Russian“landscape”, which is characterised by a harsh climate, huge space and distances,and widely dispersed consumers. Nevertheless, many of the issues, solutions andnovelties discussed are ubiquitous and relevant to broader communities worldwide.

The next nine chapters deal with specific prospective technologies of energy con-version and storage, some already matured and ready for large-scale implementa-tion, and some foreseen as feasible solutions in the mid-term period of the next twoor three decades. Considered are wind, solar, nuclear and hydrogen energy, fuel cells

xx Kemal Hanjalic

and their hybrid systems, clean and zero-emission coal conversion and combustiontechnologies. In Chapter 4, G. van Kuik, B. Ummels and R. Hendriks present thestate-of-the-art and perspectives of wind energy, emphasising its successful devel-opment and spreading over the last three decades. Issues considered include marketand costs perspectives, technological development of wind turbines and wind powerplants with a specific account of offshore applications, grid integration, local andglobal impacts and research agenda. The chapter closes with optimistic forecaston wind energy as a soon-to-become mainstream electricity source in a number ofcountries.

Chapter 5 presents a review of the development, technology and applications ofphotovoltaic cells and their role in a renewable energy scenario. Reiterating thatsolar radiation is the most abundant and the most fundamental sustainable energysource, and its direct conversion into electricity the most attractive and cleanest wayof electricity production, A.J. McEvoy and M. Gratzel discuss various options ofphotovoltaic semiconductor materials, cell designs and their performances. Projec-ted decreases in the production costs and current market trends (>30% growth peryear) are expected to work in favour of PV. It is estimated that in 2030, PV couldgenerate 4% of electricity worldwide.

R. van de Krol and J. Schoonman go a step further in Chapter 6 and considerthe direct conversion of solar energy into hydrogen. The potential of using metaloxide semiconductors that can split water into oxygen and hydrogen is consideredas a challenging alternative to photovoltaic cells, since hydrogen can be stored andused as a clean fuel for a variety of purposes, including vehicle propulsion. Inter-ested readers can learn about the principles of operation, design concepts and theirefficiencies, material requirements, main impediments and research challenges, aswell as recent innovations based on nanotechnology that offer new promises in thedevelopment of this exciting new technology.

Another new concept, researched in Japan, is presented by K. Suzuki, H. Yoshidaand H. Iwai in Chapter 7. Anticipating that massive production of hydrogen fromrenewable energy sources will not reach a wide commercial appeal anytime soon,distributed energy generation is considered using the solid-oxide fuel cell, whichcan be combined with a micro gas turbine. This hybrid concept, based on maturemodern technologies, is claimed to match the efficiency of most advanced oil-firedlarge-scale combined-cycle electricity generation plants. Distributed energy systemsof this kind are seen as very promising, providing a low-emission, interim solutionespecially in areas with high concentration of population, business and industry,although, admittedly, high cost and durability of fuel cells still pose a serious chal-lenge.

The next two chapters deal with nuclear energy, the revival of which is viewed bymany as the most effective interim solution for stopping the ominous climate changebefore it is too late. In Chapter 8, D.G. Cacuci reviews the evolution of “generations”I to IV of nuclear fission reactor designs. Based on thousands of years of cumulatedoperation, convincing arguments are provided that matured industrial technologiesare available today for all stages of fuel cycles, including spent-fuel treatment andthe conditioning and storage of waste. Yet, in order to receive a wider public ac-

Introduction xxi

ceptance and to establish itself as a viable long-term energy option, a number oftechnological and societal prerequisites are still to be fulfilled. Current internationalinitiatives and activities towards meeting the acceptance criteria are reviewed, lead-ing to the conclusion that novel generation IV nuclear fission reactors will fulfilthe criteria for sustainable nuclear energy. In Chapter 9, M. Cumo provides fur-ther support to optimistic prospects of nuclear energy by presenting a new fissionreactor concept called MARS (Multi-purpose Advanced Reactor, inherently Safe),developed at the University of Rome “La Sapienza”. Based on a “passive” safetyconcept, the MARS reactor meets very high safety standards and thus should besuitable for electricity production, district heating, water desalination and other ap-plications even in highly populated areas.

The last three chapters in Part I consider technologies for clean conversion offossil fuels and related CO2 mitigation and carbon-capturing methods. Recognisingthat fossil fuels will for long remain the dominant primary energy source in manycountries, P. Mathieu discusses in Chapter 10 three possible options for capturingCO2 during power generation: post-combustion removal of CO2 from flue gases,pre-combustion carbon removal from fuel and oxy-fuel combustion systems. Theimpact of each technology on plant performances, costs and pollutant emissions isconsidered. It is argued that all three technologies are proven and mature thoughassociated with high costs. Each has its own pros and cons, but their scale up tolarge power systems and market penetration depends on political will and substantialfinancial incentives.

In Chapter 11, K. Okazaki presents a new CO2 coal utilisation technology re-searched in Japan, which is based on system integration of clean coal combustion,CO2 recovery and sequestration, and hydrogen production from coal and its util-isation. It is argued that such combined systems could play an important role insuppressing CO2 emissions in the interim period up to 2030–2050 when fossil fuelscould be to a large degree eliminated by widespread use of renewable energy.

Part I closes with Chapter 12 in which H. Spliethoff also gives a brief over-view of possible CO2 separation methods, but focusing on coal-fired power plants.Oxy-fuel processes are then considered in more detail, followed by a feasibilityanalysis of steam generator designs suited for coal combustion with pure oxygen.Different methods for limiting the maximum temperature are discussed. Among sev-eral schemes, an innovative controlled fuel/oxygen staged combustion with rich/leanburners, researched at the Technical University of Munich, is seen as a promisingtechnology for coal utilisation in power production.

Part II, entitled “Initiatives in South-East Europe”, begins with Chapter 13 inwhich E. Kakaras, A. Doukelis, D. Giannakopoulos and A. Koumanakos present ananalysis of possible retrofitting of domestic low-quality coal-fired power plants byoxy-fuel combustion and flue gas decarbonisation by amine scrubbing. The study,based on thermodynamic simulations, indicates the potential to reduce CO2 emis-sion by 70–85%, though at considerable energy penalties and associated reductionin plant efficiency. Nevertheless, the study shows that retrofitting could provide elec-tricity at costs comparable to natural gas units.

xxii Kemal Hanjalic

Chapter 14 by U. Lavrencic-Stangar and E. Kranjcevic gives a survey of renew-able energy in Slovenia. Despite a relatively significant share of 11% in the coun-try’s total energy budget, it is recognised that the major contribution comes from theconventional hydro-plants and that major efforts are needed to utilise the relativelylarge potential of other renewable sources. This exemplary analysis of the currentand potential participation of renewable energy closes with a short description ofseveral new initiatives for promoting the exploitation of renewable energy sources.

The contribution from Bulgaria, presented by P. Stankov, D. Mladenov and K.Stanchev in Chapter 15, deals with energy wood production and use in the frame-work of the country’s existing laws and regulations, the energy market and entre-preneurship. Considered is the present status of the wood processing industry, thestructure of wood biomass and its potential for energy production This is followedby an outlook of the perspectives for further development of wood biomass industryand its increased role in providing a portion of Bulgaria’s energy needs. Most coun-tries in the area have a similar climate and orography with large percentages of theland covered by forest and agriculture. Thus, sufficient bio-resources for sustainabledevelopment of biomass energy should be available.

The last three chapters in Part II present overviews of the current status and plansfor future developments in the energy sectors in Serbia, Macedonia and Bosniaand Herzegovina. Comprehensive information on the energy status and prospects insmaller and transitional countries is scarce in the open literature, in contrast to thedetailed surveys available for the large, developed and populous states. Althoughthe reviews presented here may not be exemplary, some features are common toa number of countries of a similar size, level of development and structure of theenergy sector.

In Chapter 16, S. Oka gives a review of the available energy resources, presentand projected future consumption, and the state of the current energy industry inSerbia, and identifies energy efficiency as the most critical issue. The problems arerooted in outdated technology, energy-intensive industry, inadequate management,inappropriate energy strategy and pricing policy, and the lack or neglect of stand-ards and regulations. It is argued that apart from technology modernisation, whichrequires large investments, most other causes of inefficiency could be removed ordiminished in a relatively short time. The National Energy Efficiency Programmeoffers plausible solutions that could significantly improve the country’s energy situ-ation, but is still awaiting political decision and, admittedly, a more favourable eco-nomic environment.

Because of modest primary energy resources in Macedonia, B. Donevski inChapter 17 advocates the country’s future economic developments to be based onlow-energy-consuming industries that should bring significant reduction in energyconsumption and demand. Another prospect is seen in expanding the grid connec-tions with neighbouring countries and taking the advantage of the favourable geo-strategic location of Macedonia to become a major energy hub in the region.

In contrast, A. Lekic in Chapter 18 considers that substantial primary energyresources in Bosnia and Herzegovina offer prospects for a profitable energy industry.Subject to political consolidation of the country, substantial foreign investments are

Introduction xxiii

expected both for modernisation of the existing and erection of new coal-fired andhydropower plants, which could make Bosnia and Herzegovina a significant energyexporter in the region.

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