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Sustainable Practices for BC Vineyards

Condensed GuidebookFebruary 2016

Copyright

Copyright 2016, BC Wine Grape Council. All rights reserved. No part of the technical portion ofthis publication may be added to, deleted, reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, inany form or by any means whatsoever, without prior permission from the BC Wine Grape Council.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSResearch, Writing and Editing

Kellie Garcia, Insight Environmental Consulting Ltd.José Garcia, Insight Environmental Consulting Ltd.

Contributors and Reviewers

Members of the BCWGC Sustainable Practices Committee:

CHAIR: Gary Strachan, Strachan ConsultingPat Bowen, Pacific Agricultural Research CentreHans Buchler, Park Hill VineyardCynthia Enns, Laughing Stock VineyardsTilman Hainle, Working Horse WineryMargaret Holm, Okanagan SimilkameenConservation AllianceGary Kennedy, Granite Creek Estate WinesJoe Lariviere, Environmental Farm Plan

George Lerchs, Garnett Valley VineyardsTom Lowery, Pacific Agricultural ResearchCentreSara Norman, Working Horse WineryGraham O’Rourke, Mission Hill Family EstateScott Smith, Pacific Agricultural ResearchCentreElaine Triggs, Arise Ventures Ltd.Tim Watts, Kettle Valley Winery

Pilot Project Participants:

Sydney Folk, Mission Hill Estate WineryRon Fournier, Lavendar Ridge VineyardManfred Freese, Sun Ridge VineyardMaya Gauthier, Cottonwood EstatesLeo Gebert, St. Hubertus Estate WineryRegan Kapach, Tinhorn Creek VineyardsEllen Koehler Mauz, Mauz VineyardSage Larivee, Three Sisters VineyardPierre Levesque, Strutt Creek Vineyard

Andrew Moon, Tinhorn Creek VineyardsSandra Oldfield, Tinhorn Creek VineyardsGraham O’Rourke, Mission Hill EstateWineryKarnail Sidhu, Kalala EstatesBob Tennant, Tennant VineyardLisa Wambold, Mission Hill Estate WineryJim Wright, Ashby Point Vineyard

External Reviewers:

Ian Cameron, University of VictoriaPat George, Wine Island Growers AssociationRoy Hyndman, Natural Resources CanadaJan Kirkby, Environment CanadaMarcel Mercier, Garry Oaks WineryGerry Neilsen, Pacific Agricultural ResearchCentre

Emma Point, Dalhousie UniversityPaula Rodriguez de la Vega, The LandConservancyMike Sarell, Ophiuchus ConsultingAlyson Skinner, The Land ConservancyTed van der Gulik, BC Ministry of Agricultureand Lands

Funding

Orchards and Vineyards Transition Program of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada

TABLE OF CONTENTS | Page T-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 SETTING YOUR SUSTAINABILITY FOUNDATIONINTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1-1

DEFINING YOUR RESOURCE BASE ................................................................................. 1-1

1.1. Land Base – Mapping and Description ................................................................................ 1-2

1.2. Human Resources ................................................................................................................... 1-4

1.3. Operational Resources ........................................................................................................... 1-4

CREATING A SUSTAINABILITY MISSION STATEMENT ................................................. 1-4

1.4. Mission Statement .................................................................................................................. 1-4

CHAPTER 2 ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENTINTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 2-1

ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES ......................................................................................... 2-2

2.1. Identifying the Biogeoclimatic Zone ................................................................................... 2-2

2.2. Identifying Habitat Features ................................................................................................ 2-4

2.3. Identifying Wildlife (including Species at Risk) .................................................................. 2-7

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES .......................................................... 2-8

2.4. Choosing Your Site ................................................................................................................ 2-8

2.5. Minimizing Land Clearing...................................................................................................... 2-8

2.6. Encouraging Diversity ........................................................................................................... 2-8

2.7. Retaining and Restoring Habitat ......................................................................................... 2-9

2.8. Protecting Wetlands and Aquatic Habitat ....................................................................... 2-10

2.9. Connecting Your Land with Neighbouring Landscapes .................................................... 2-11

2.10. Controlling Invasive Species ................................................................................................. 2-11

2.11. Managing Crop Damage Caused By Wildlife .................................................................... 2-11

2.12. Preventing Pollution ............................................................................................................. 2-12

Page T-2 | SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES FOR BC VINEYARDS | FEBRUARY 2016

2.13. Communicating Practices to Employees & Contractors ................................................ 2-12

2.14. Working with Environmental Organizations ..................................................................... 2-12

CHAPTER 3 VITICULTURAL MANAGEMENTINTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 3-1

PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................. 3-1

3.1. Business Planning and Market Research ............................................................................. 3-1

3.2 Site Selection .......................................................................................................................... 3-2

3.3. Site Preparation ...................................................................................................................... 3-5

3.4. Soil Management.....................................................................................................................3-7

3.5. Water Quality and Irrigation ................................................................................................ 3-9

VINEYARD ESTABLISHMENT ............................................................................................3-9

3.6. Variety, Rootstock, Scion, and Clone Selection ............................................................. 3-10

3.7. Plant Certification.................................................................................................................. 3-11

3.8. Vineyard Layout .................................................................................................................... 3-12

3.9. Trellis and Vigour ................................................................................................................... 3-13

3.10. Planting ................................................................................................................................... 3-13

VINEYARD MAINTENANCE ............................................................................................ 3-14

3.11. Maintaining Young Vines .....................................................................................................3-14

3.12. Crop Estimation ....................................................................................................................3-14

3.13. Canopy Assessment and Management ..............................................................................3-14

3.14. Fruit Exposure .......................................................................................................................3-14

3.15. Frost Protection ....................................................................................................................3-14

VINEYARD REMOVAL ...................................................................................................... 3-15

3.16. Decommissioning a Vineyard .............................................................................................. 3-15


CHAPTER 4 SOIL AND NUTRITION MANAGEMENTINTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 4-1

SOIL AND NUTRIENT CHARACTERISTICS ..................................................................... 4-1

4.1. Important Properties of Vineyard Soils ............................................................................... 4-1

4.2. Nutrients Necessary for Grapevine Growth ...................................................................... 4-4

NUTRITION MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................ 4-6

4.3. Nutrient Management Plan.................................................................................................. 4-6

4.4. Field Parameters .................................................................................................................... 4-8

4.5. Identifying Areas of Concern ............................................................................................... 4-9

4.6. Petiole Sampling and Analysis ............................................................................................ 4-10

4.7. Soil Sampling and Analysis .................................................................................................. 4-10

4.8. Water Sampling and Analysis .............................................................................................. 4-12

4.9. Cover Crops ........................................................................................................................... 4-12

4.10. Fertilizers ................................................................................................................................4-13

4.11. Rates and Timing of Nutrient Application ......................................................................... 4-17

4.12. Methods of Nutrient Application ....................................................................................... 4-17

4.13. Review and Update of Nutrient Management Plan .........................................................4-19

SOIL MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................................ 4-19

4.14. Soil Erosion Due to Water, Wind, or Equipment .............................................................4-19

4.15. Soil Erosion from Roads, Ditches, and Culverts ............................................................. 4-20

4.16. Tillage of the Vineyard Floor ............................................................................................... 4-21

4.17. Soil Compaction .................................................................................................................... 4-21

4.18. Soil Water Storage and Movement ................................................................................... 4-22


CHAPTER 5 WATER MANAGEMENTINTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 5-1

IDENTIFYING LOCAL CONDITIONS ............................................................................... 5-1

5.1. The Water Cycle .................................................................................................................... 5-2

5.2. Your Watershed ...................................................................................................................... 5-2

WATER QUALITY ................................................................................................................. 5-2

5.3. Water Quality Testing and Analysis .................................................................................... 5-2

5.4. Backflow Prevention .............................................................................................................. 5-4

WATER USE EFFICIENCY ................................................................................................. 5-4

5.5. Types of Irrigation Systems ................................................................................................... 5-4

5.6. Irrigation System Design and Operation ............................................................................ 5-5

5.7. Flow Meters ............................................................................................................................ 5-5

5.8. Delineating Irrigation Management Zones ......................................................................... 5-5

5.9. Distribution Uniformity and Application Efficiency ......................................................... 5-6

5.10. Pump Efficiency ......................................................................................................................5-7

5.11. Routine System Maintenance ...............................................................................................5-7

IRRIGATION SCHEDULING ............................................................................................. 5-8

5.12. Soil Moisture-Based Approaches ........................................................................................ 5-9

5.13. Plant-Based Approaches ..................................................................................................... 5-10

5.14. Deficit Irrigation and Dry Farming Methods .................................................................... 5-12

SURFACE WATER MOVEMENT ...................................................................................... 5-13

5.15 Stormwater Runoff ............................................................................................................... 5-13

5.16 Drainage ................................................................................................................................. 5-13


CHAPTER 6 PEST MANAGEMENTINTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 6-1

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT ................................................................................. 6-1

6.1. Avoid Pest Problems .............................................................................................................. 6-2

6.2. Identify and Understand the Pest ........................................................................................ 6-2

6.3. Monitor Populations and Damage ....................................................................................... 6-3

6.4. Establish Action Thresholds .................................................................................................. 6-4

6.5. Choose Appropriate Control Methods ............................................................................... 6-4

6.6. Review and Assess Effectiveness ......................................................................................... 6-6

WEED MANAGEMENT ....................................................................................................... 6-7

6.7. Integrated Weed Management .............................................................................................6-7

WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................ 6-8

6.8. Birds ......................................................................................................................................... 6-9

6.9. Rodents .................................................................................................................................. 6-10

6.10. Snakes .................................................................................................................................... 6-10

6.11. Deer and Elk ........................................................................................................................... 6-11

6.12. Bears......................................................................................................................................... 6-11

PESTICIDE MANAGEMENT .............................................................................................. 6-11

6.13. Reducing Environmental and Health Risks ........................................................................ 6-11

6.14. Pesticide Transport ............................................................................................................... 6-12

6.15. Pesticide Storage ................................................................................................................... 6-12

6.16. Mixing and Loading Pesticides............................................................................................. 6-12

6.17. Pesticide Application ............................................................................................................ 6-12

6.18. Pesticide and Pesticide Container Disposal ..................................................................... 6-12


CHAPTER 7 SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITYINTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................7-1

HUMAN RESOURCES .........................................................................................................7-1

7.1. Staffing and Recruiting .......................................................................................................... 7-1

7.2. Employee Orientation ............................................................................................................7-3

7.3. Employee Handbook ..............................................................................................................7-5

7.4. Internal Communications.......................................................................................................7-6

7.5. Employee Relations ................................................................................................................7-6

7.6. Education and Training .......................................................................................................... 7-8

7.7. Health and Safety ...................................................................................................................7-9

7.8. Succession Planning ................................................................................................................7-9

7.9. Documentation and Record Keeping ................................................................................. 7-13

NEIGHBOUR AND COMMUNITY RELATIONS ............................................................ 7-13

7.10. Identifying Potential Concerns ........................................................................................... 7-14

7.11. Outreach and Communication ........................................................................................... 7-14

7.12. Responding to Complaints ................................................................................................... 7-15

REFERENCES

GLOSSARY


LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4-1: Well-developed soil, showing the typical sequence of horizons. ....................................... 4-2Figure 4-2: Soil textural classes (outlined in bold lines) are defined by percentage of sand, silt, and

clay (fine lines parallel to arrows). .................................................................................... 4-4Figure 5-5: Steps in delineating irrigation management zones. (FAO, 2005) ................................... 5-6

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3-1: Techniques that can be used to improve compacted soil layers. ...........................................3-7Table 4-1: Important physical properties of vineyard soils. ..................................................................... 4-3Table 4-2: Nutrients essential to grapevine growth and common effects of imbalances. ................. 4-5Table 4-3: A description of important soil parameters and guidelines for interpreting lab results .. 4-11Table 4-4: Factors to consider when choosing a cover crop. ................................................................ 4-12Table 4-5: Nutrient content of several animal manures, in pounds of nutrients per ton. ................ 4-14Table 4-6: Compost and manure pros and cons (characteristics may vary per product, especially

from mixed sources). ........................................................................................................4-16Table 5.1: Test parameters for irrigation water for wine grapes. ............................................................. 5-4Table 5-2: Impacts of irrigation extremes ..................................................................................................5-7Table 6-1: Pesticides (listed by chemical group and active ingredient) whose use is discouraged under

the BC Sustainable Winegrowing Program. ................................................................... 6-5

LIST OF TEMPLATES AND FACT BOXES

VINEYARD Site plan EXAMPLE............................................................................................................... 1-3Fact Box: Garry Oaks and Associated Ecosystems ................................................................................. 2-6Fact Box: Antelope-Brush Grasslands........................................................................................................ 2-7Fact Box: Tinhorn Creek Vineyards Snake Habitat ................................................................................. 2-9Fact Box: Ecosystem Initiatives at Summerhill Pyramid Winery, Kelowna ......................................... 2-9Fact Box: Maintaining Wildlife Travel Corridors at God’s Mountain Estates, Penticton .................. 2-11Elements of a Successful Business Plan .................................................................................................... 3-3Vineyard Site Suitability Checklist ............................................................................................................. 3-4Nutrient Management Plan Template ....................................................................................................... 4-7


Fact Box: Irrigation Scheduling Calculator ............................................................................................... 5-9IPM Records Checklist ................................................................................................................................ 6-6Fact Box: Audible Bird Scare Devices – Interior and South Coast BC................................................ 6-9Employee Orientation Checklist ................................................................................................................ 7-4Steps in the Succession Planning Process ................................................................................................ 7-10Components of a Written Succession Plan .............................................................................................. 7-11

CHAPTER 1SETTING YOUR SUSTAINABILITY FOUNDATION

Table of Contents

page

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1-1

DEFINING YOUR RESOURCE BASE ................................................................................. 1-1

1.1. Land Base – Mapping and Description ................................................................................ 1-2

1.2. Human Resources ................................................................................................................... 1-4

1.3. Operational Resources ........................................................................................................... 1-4

CREATING A SUSTAINABILITY MISSION STATEMENT ................................................. 1-4

1.4. Mission Statement .................................................................................................................. 1-4

CHAPTER 1 SETTING YOUR SUSTAINABILITY FOUNDATION | Page 1-1

1.0 SETTING YOUR SUSTAINABILITY FOUNDATION

INTRODUCTION

Before starting this program you must firstunderstand what sustainability means and howit relates to wine production. You also need tocollect together information about youroperation that will provide the foundation forcreating a sustainability mission statement andcompleting the other chapters of this program.

Sustainability is a broad topic that meansdifferent things to different people. A commondefinition of sustainability is “meeting theneeds of the present generation withoutcompromising the ability of future generationsto meet their needs" (The BrundtlandCommission, 1987). Sustainability is more thanjust environmentally-friendly; it integratesprotection of the environment, profitability,and social values. Sustainable winegrowingreaches from soil to shelf.

Implementing sustainable winemaking practicesand measuring results is an ongoing processthat does not happen overnight. Sustainabilityis a journey of continual improvementrather than an end point. The SustainablePractices for BC Vineyards self-assessmentand guidebook will help you to choose practicesto implement over time and teach you how tomonitor and measure the results of thesepractices.

The Sustainable Agriculture Research andEducation Program at University of California,Davis, points out that a systems perspective is

essential to understanding sustainableagriculture. A systems perspective involvesviewing multiple factors when making decisionson the farm and realizing that each farm is partof a complex community ecosystem, which inturn can impact or be impacted by globaleconomics and global ecological processes (e.g.El Nino).

Timelines for sustainable viticulture practicesare not measured in a few years, but in decadesand even hundreds of years. The impacts ofunsustainable viticulture practices may only befelt by future generations. On the flip side,implementing sustainable viticulture practicesand measuring results is also an ongoingprocess that does not happen overnight. TheSustainable Practices for BC Vineyardsassessment and guidebook will help you tochoose practices to implement over time andteach you how to monitor and measure theresults of these practices.

DEFINING YOUR RESOURCE BASE

You cannot manage what you don’t measure.Defining your resource base will help youdescribe where you are now so you can judgewhether you are making progress as youimplement sustainable practices. The resourcebase of your vineyard is all of the resources youhave available to you to operate and manageyour property and business. The intention is toput on paper what you already know about yourvineyard so you can effectively communicate

2 | SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES FOR BC VINEYARDS | FEBRUARY 2016

that information to others involved in yourvineyard operations (e.g. auditors, consultants,contractors, employees, emergency firstresponders). Identifying your resource base canalso give you new ideas on how to manage yourbusiness.

1.1. Land Base – Mapping andDescription

A site plan of your vineyard and thesurrounding land is a necessary and invaluablecomponent of sustainable viticulture. You canuse a topographical, PARC Summerland GISmap, survey, or hand drawn map, or acombination of these. Air photos ororthophotos are also handy.

The site plan will provide the foundation forcreating the following specific maps:

· Ecosystem management map, whichwill include environmentally sensitiveecosystems and features (Chapter 2)

· Soil management map (Chapter 4)· Irrigation management map (Chapter 5)· Pest management map (Chapter 6)

Your site plan should be accompanied by awritten description. Be as detailed as possibleand include the following components:

· Property boundaries· Total hectares of your property· Total hectares of vineyards· Degree of slope· Physical features: roadways, driveways,

buildings, equipment storage areas,fences

· Vineyards

· Other crops, including fruit trees andvegetable gardens

· Landscaping (e.g. flower gardens, lawns)· Contours· Seasonal and permanent water features:

streams, drainages, pools

Your mapping information will need to bereviewed regularly to ensure that theinformation is current. An example site plan ofa vineyard is included below.

CHAPTER 1 SETTING YOUR SUSTAINABILITY FOUNDATION | Page 1-3

VINEYARD SITE PLAN EXAMPLE


1.2. Human Resources

List all people who have anything to do with themanagement or operations of your vineyard.You can list the types of activities thesepeople do rather than listing their names(e.g. fencing contractor, seasonal worker).

This list will help you communicate with thosewho will be implementing the sustainablepractices or whose activities could affect thesustainable operation of your vineyard. Forexample, say you made a significant effort torestore native vegetation along a propertyboundary only to have the fencing contractorbulldoze it because he or she did not recognizeit as valuable habitat. Having the contractorlisted as someone to whom you need tocommunicate your sustainable practices mayhave avoided the situation.

The list may include any or all of the followinggroups of people: family, friends, employees,contractors, stakeholders, neighbours,community members, bankers, agriculturaladvisory committees, agricultural regulators(governmental and private organizations), andenvironmental and conservation groups.Family members and friends should be listed soyou can ensure they know how to react in caseof an emergency or accident, for example.

1.3. Operational Resources

You may choose to develop two separate listsof operational resources – one that focuses onmechanical resources, equipment and buildingsand one that focuses on financial resources andreference materials (e.g. manuals, guides). You

may already have a list of equipment andmachinery for insurance purposes. There will besome cross-over with your operationalresources lists and your lists for land base andpeople.

CREATING A SUSTAINABILITY

MISSION STATEMENT

A sustainability mission statement considersthe fundamental ideas of how you wish toachieve sustainability of your vineyard. Themission statement will provide the frameworkfor your viticulture management decisions.

1.4. Mission Statement

A mission statement is a formal, short, writtenstatement of the purpose of a company ororganization. You may already have a missionstatement for your vineyard. If so, you do notneed to write a new one, just incorporatesustainability into your existing missionstatement.

A mission statement typically contains:

1. the purpose of the business or organization(e.g. to grow high quality grapes),

2. how this purpose is being filled (e.g. usingsustainable techniques that protect theenvironment and provide social benefits),and

3. the principles and ideals that guide yourwork.

CHAPTER 2ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT

Table of Contents

page

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 2-1

ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES ......................................................................................... 2-2

2.1. Identifying the Biogeoclimatic Zone ................................................................................... 2-2

2.2. Identifying Habitat Features ................................................................................................ 2-4

2.3. Identifying Wildlife (including Species at Risk) .................................................................. 2-7

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES .......................................................... 2-8

2.4. Choosing Your Site ................................................................................................................ 2-8

2.5. Minimizing Land Clearing...................................................................................................... 2-8

2.6. Encouraging Diversity ........................................................................................................... 2-8

2.7. Retaining and Restoring Habitat ......................................................................................... 2-9

2.8. Protecting Wetlands and Aquatic Habitat ....................................................................... 2-10

2.9. Connecting Your Land with Neighbouring Landscapes .................................................... 2-11

2.10. Controlling Invasive Species ................................................................................................. 2-11

2.11. Managing Crop Damage Caused By Wildlife .................................................................... 2-11

2.12. Preventing Pollution ............................................................................................................. 2-12

2.13. Communicating Practices to Employees & Contractors ................................................ 2-12

2.14. Working with Environmental Organizations ..................................................................... 2-12

CHAPTER 2 ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT | Page 2-1

2.0 ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

Chapter objective: To encourage a balancedand holistic management approach thatrecognizes the vineyard as part of aninterconnected system and adopts practicesthat reduce environmental impacts andcontribute to biodiversity.

British Columbia is blessed with a rich varietyof habitats and wildlife and distinct winegrowing regions surrounded by stunningnatural scenery. Some of the same factors ofclimate, soils, and geography that contributeto our healthy growing industry also support adiversity of unique ecosystems and plant andanimal populations.

Although large areas of connected nativevegetation support the highest levels of nativebiodiversity, smaller patches of native andsemi-natural vegetation can also supportmany species. As the human population anddevelopment expands, many wildlife speciesincreasingly depend on private land andworking landscapes such as vineyards for all orpart of their life cycle.

Ecosystem management is a balanced andholistic approach to managing naturalresources that acknowledges all parts of thesystem as interconnected. Healthy andbiologically diverse ecosystems provide manyimportant goods and services to viticulturiststhat can reduce the need for inputs such as

pesticides and fertilizers, increase theproductive capacity of the land, and reduceproduction risks.Viticultural activities can impact ecosystemsand be detrimental to biodiversity. Impactsmay include:

· Loss of habitat to land development;· Altering the size and shape of habitats

and the distances between them;· Changes in surface and ground water

levels from over-irrigation, which maynegatively impact habitat and waterquality, or dewatering of wetlands andriparian areas from water extraction;

· Reduction in nutrient uptake, coolingof soils, increase in erosion, andnutrient and chemical runoff intowatercourses through over-irrigation;

· Soil, air and water pollution fromimproper use of production inputs; and

· Harming of pollinators such as nativebees and natural predators such ashawks and snakes through the use ofpesticides and rodenticides.

As a viticulturist, you have the uniqueopportunity to help support biodiversity onyour vineyard and thus contribute to theresilience of ecosystems on your property andbeyond. Vineyards provide habitat, foodsources and breeding grounds for a variety ofbirds, amphibians and reptiles and can serve ascorridors for wildlife as they move betweenhabitats.


It is equally important to consider how anindividual vineyard can contribute tobiodiversity on a regional scale. Many animalsand plant seeds and pollen move over largeareas that extend well beyond the vineyardboundary. Meeting the needs of wide-rangingspecies requires management strategies thatoperate on a larger scale.

For more information on ecosystemmanagement, see Chapter 7 and Chapter 11of the EFP Reference Guide(https://www.bcac.bc.ca/ardcorp/program/environmental-farm-plan-program) and theEFP Planning for Biodiversity: A Guide forBC Farmers and Ranchers publication(https://www.bcac.bc.ca/ardcorp/program/biodiversity).

ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES

This section will guide you through theidentification of environmental features ofyour property; provide an overview of some ofthe ecosystem types you may encounter on ornear your property; and outline best practicesfor protecting, restoring, and enhancing thoseecosystems and the species that depend onthem.

2.1. Identifying the BiogeoclimaticZone

The Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification(BEC) system divides British Columbia intofourteen biogeoclimatic or ecological zones.These zones are large geographic areas thatshare a similar climate within the province.You can use this classification system to learn

more about the characteristics of theecosystem your vineyard is part of. Seewww.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/treebook/biogeo/biogeo.htm for a map of thebiogeoclimatic zones.

BEC zones where winegrapes are growninclude:

Interior:· Ponderosa Pine· Bunchgrass· Interior Douglas Fir· Interior Cedar Hemlock (low

elevations in Shuswap region)Coast:

· Coastal Douglas Fir· Coastal Western-Hemlock

You can download a brochure that describesthe ecosystems, climate, wildlife, endangeredspecies and special features of the BEC zoneyou are located in (links to and informationfrom the brochures are provided below). Hardcopies of the brochures can be ordered bycalling Crown Publications at 1-800-663-6105.

Ponderosa Pine· ponderosa pine forests typify the area· hot, dry zone (although not as hot and dry

as the Bunchgrass Zone)· consists of a mosaic of forests, grasslands,

and wetlands· home to a wide variety of birds, mammals,

reptiles, and amphibians, some of whichare relatively rare or threatened

· occupies a narrow band along the bottomsand lower side walls of a number of majorriver valleys, including the Fraser (in the

https://www.bcac.bc.ca/ardcorp/program/environmental-farm-plan-program

https://www.bcac.bc.ca/ardcorp/program/environmental-farm-plan-program

http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/treebook/biogeo/biogeo.htm

http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/treebook/biogeo/biogeo.htm


Lytton-Lillooet area), lower Thompson,Nicola, Similkameen, and lower Kettle

· also occurs in areas adjacent to OkanaganLake and in southeastern BC nearCranbrook and Lake Kookanusa

· Brochure URL:www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Bro/Bro60.htm

Bunchgrass· covers less than one percent of the total

area of BC· supports a rich diversity of ecosystems and

a wide variety of plants and wildlife,including many rare and endangeredspecies

· dry and relatively mild low-elevationclimate, together with an abundance ofproductive agricultural land

· one of the most populated and mostdeveloped areas in the BC interior

· consists mostly of narrow fingers of landcentred on the major river valleys of theOkanagan, Thompson, and Fraser riverbasins

· these include the Okanagan Valley fromSummerland south to the United Statesborder, the Thompson River Valley fromKamloops to Spences Bridge, the NicolaRiver Valley, and the Fraser and Chilcotinriver valleys south of Riske Creek to northof Lillooet

· zone occurs from the valley bottom up toelevations of approximately 900 m on thevalley slopes


Interior Douglas Fir· lies in the heart of BC’s southern interior· often described as “cattle country”· land of rolling hills and valleys covered by

dry grasslands and open forests· also supports a rich diversity of natural

communities and wildlife species· spreads across low- to mid-elevations in

the east Kootenays, the Okanagan-Similkameen and Thompson region, theShuswap region and southern parts of theChilcotin and Cariboo

· Cranbrook, Vernon, Chase, Princeton,Boston Bar, Clinton, and Williams Lake alllie within this zone


Interior Cedar Hemlock· found at elevations of 660-1400 metres

in the Shuswap region· experiences cool, wet winters and warm,

moderately dry summers· productive coniferous forests that include

Western red cedar or western hemlockcharacterize these forests

· A wide variety of birds find food andhabitat in this zone’s productiveecosystems.

· Brochure URL:www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/Bro/bro48.pdf

Coastal Douglas Fir· home to some of the province's most

interesting and diverse ecosystems· mild climate

http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Bro/Bro60.htm






http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/Bro/bro48.pdf

http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/Bro/bro48.pdf


· contains some of the province's rarestvegetation, which is seriously threatenedby growing human settlement

· covers a small area of BC's south coast,including a band of lower elevation alongsoutheastern Vancouver Island, the GulfIslands, and a fringe of mainland alongGeorgia Strait

· Victoria, Nanaimo, and Powell River aremajor urban centres in the area


Coastal Western Hemlock· characterized by a towering forest canopy

and thick underbrush· one of Canada's wettest climates and most

productive forest areas· stretches in a broad swath along the

province's entire coast· covers most lower elevations west of the

Coast Mountains, from the very wet andexposed outer coast to drier and moresheltered areas of the inner coast

· also extends east of the Coast Mountainsalong major river valleys


2.2. Identifying Habitat Features

This section guides you through theidentification and mapping of the habitatfeatures of your property and its surroundingenvironment.

If you are considering establishing a newvineyard on a site, or are re-establishing areasof your current property, it is stronglyrecommended that you obtain aknowledgeable professional to conduct anenvironmental survey. The survey will identifypotential environmental risks and the presenceof sensitive areas in the property.

PreparationThe following materials will help you completeyour assessment:

· The site plan of your property that youcreated in Chapter 1

· Coloured pencils for marking map· A transparent grid overlay (optional)

Other resources you can use include:

· Your local Environmental Farm PlanAdvisor

· Local government websites or hard copymapping services (phone your municipalityor regional district to request)

· GoogleEarthhttp://earth.google.com/download-earth.html

· Appendix D of Develop With Care:Environmental Guidelines for Urban andRural Land Development in BritishColumbiawww.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/bmp/devwithcare/DWC-Appendices-A-F.pdf

· Overview of ecosystem types andinformation on wildlife (including speciesat risk) included in this section.





http://earth.google.com/download-earth.html

http://earth.google.com/download-earth.html

http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/bmp/devwithcare/DWC-Appendices-A-F.pdf

http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/bmp/devwithcare/DWC-Appendices-A-F.pdf


MappingTo create your ecosystem management map,you will be adding habitat features to your siteplan. Using your map and coloured pencils,divide your property into the eight categorieslisted below:

1. roads, driveways, buildings, equipmentstorage areas, lawns, greenhouses, andgardens,

2. cultivated areas (including vineyards),3. treed or wooded areas,4. native grasslands,5. rock bluffs, cliffs, mountainous areas

(rugged terrain),6. wetlands and other water features,

permanent and seasonal (streams,rivers, lakes, floodplains, seasonal pools,ditches, swales),

7. riparian areas, and8. linear habitats (windbreaks, hedgerows,

buffers, uncultivated fence lines,ravines, gullies, and other corridors ofnative vegetation).

Note: Fallow land should be mapped in thecategory which reflects its anticipated futureuse. Also indicate on your map any areas ofweed infestation.

An overview of ecosystem types you mayneed to identify and include on your map isprovided below.

Riparian Areas

Riparian areas are typically linear ecosystemsalongside lakes, rivers, streams and ponds thatare characterized by lush vegetation includingtrees, shrubs, cattails, sedges and grasses.

Riparian areas are highly valuable ecosystemsthat:

· provide habitat for important birds,animals, and insects,

· serve as a filter, preventing sedimentsand nutrients in surface runoff fromentering waterways,

· buffer against flooding and erosion,and

· support shrubs and trees that shadewatercourses.

Riparian areas play an important role in pestmanagement in your vineyard. Areas of nativevegetation provide refuge for beneficialinsects that prey on agricultural pest species.Insect species that thrive in riparian areas are,in turn, food for birds such as owls that preyon vineyard rodents. Other birds, such asswallows, bluebirds and wrens, will also makeriparian areas their home and will help toreduce insect pests.

Wetlands and Other Aquatic Habitats

An aquatic ecosystem is a group of interactingorganisms dependent on one another andtheir water environment for nutrients (e.g.nitrogen and phosphorus) and shelter. Familiarexamples are ponds, lakes and rivers, butaquatic ecosystems also include areas such asfloodplains, wetlands, and vernal (seasonal)pools which are flooded with water for all oronly parts of the year. Man-made ditches andswales may also be considered aquatic habitat.

Aquatic ecosystems support a wide variety oflife forms including bacteria, fungi, andprotozoans (single-celled organisms); bottom-


dwelling organisms such as insect larvae, snails,and worms; free-floating microscopic plantsand animals known as plankton; large plantssuch as cattails, bulrushes, grasses, and reeds;and fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds.

Wetlands are a particularly important aquaticecosystem. They act like giant sponges;holding back water during floods and releasingit during dry periods. They play a veryimportant role in minimising soil erosion andattenuating floods. They are also natural filtersthat purify water by trapping pollutants suchas sediment, heavy metals and disease-carrying organisms. Wetlands also providespecial habitat for many plant and animalspecies that depend on them for all or part oftheir lifecycles.

Trees and Woodlands

Trees provide a number of habitat functionsfor birds including areas for nesting, roosting,foraging, and refuge. They also providehabitats for other animals, reptiles, insects,bats and amphibians. Dead and dying trees,referred to as “habitat trees” or “wildlife trees”,provide nutrients for the soil and importanthabitat and food for some insects and animals.By providing a healthy tree habitat, you willincrease the biodiversity on your property andimprove the area’s overall health.

Trees will provide other benefits to yourvineyard. Planting trees on bare hillsides willreduce erosion by increasing waterpenetration and infiltration rates and byhelping to increase the nutrient cycle in thesoil. Trees planted alongside a vineyard canalso act as a windshield to reduce any impact

to the vines by high winds. Healthy strongtrees also add aesthetic value to any property.Trees also act as perches for hawks and owlsthat are important predators of rodents.

FACT BOX: GARRY OAKS ANDASSOCIATED ECOSYSTEMSGarry oaks are gnarly shaped trees that, inCanada, are found almost exclusively within anarrow coastal strip of southeast VancouverIsland, in the nearby Gulf Islands, and in twoareas of the Fraser River Valley. Garry oakecosystems include woodlands with Garry oak,arbutus, and Douglas-fir trees, oftencombined with rock outcrops, wildflowers,grassy meadows, coastal bluffs, or seasonalpools.

Garry oak areas provide habitat for more than100 species of birds, 7 amphibian species, 7reptile species, 33 mammal species, more than800 insect and mite species and about 700plant species (GOERT, 2010). Many of thesespecies occur nowhere else in Canada.

Land conversion for development has vastlyreduced the extent of Garry oak ecosystems.Less than 5% remains in a near-naturalcondition.

Grasslands (Shrub-steppes)

Grasslands are open areas where grasses orgrass-like plants are the dominant vegetationand where there are few trees. Grasslands areone of Canada’s most endangered ecosystems.In BC, grasslands cover less than 1% of theland base. Grasslands are the main naturalhabitat of the Okanagan and Similkameen


valleys; and are home to many unique plantand animal species.

Grasslands also contain flowering plants, calledforbs, and shrubs. Big sagebrush, antelope-brush, bluebunch wheatgrass, needle-and-thread grass, and rabbit brush are common inlower elevation grasslands in British Columbia.

FACT BOX: ANTELOPE-BRUSHGRASSLANDS

Antelope-brush needle-and-thread shrubsteppe grasslands extend mainly fromOsoyoos to Skaha Lake. They arecharacterized by the large, often gnarledlooking Antelope-brush. In the spring, eachshrub is covered with thousands of fragrantyellow flowers.

These grasslands are one of the most criticallyimperiled plant communities in Canada. Manyendangered and threatened mammals, plants,birds, reptiles and amphibians are found in theAntelope-brush ecosystems.

The greatest loss has been due to intensiveagricultural expansion and urban development.Identifying whether this type of grasslandoccurs on your property or in the surroundingarea and implementing appropriate protectionand/or restoration measures is extremelyimportant to ensure the future health of thisunique ecosystems and the species that relyon them.

For more information:www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/antelope.pdf.

Rugged Terrain

Cliffs and mountainous areas that are thebackdrop to many grape growing areas in BCprovide valuable habitat for wildlife. Thisrugged terrain is an important movementcorridor for large mammals and ungulates. Thecliffs provide a nesting area for eagles andfalcons and the talus slopes are winterhibernation habitats for snakes and lizards.This terrain is often a natural refuge forwildlife surrounded by urban development andcultivated land.

2.3. Identifying Wildlife (includingSpecies at Risk)

Vineyards provide habitat for a variety ofspecies. Some birds, rodents and mammalsthat eat vines and grape crops are consideredpests (see Chapter 5 Pest Management) butmany species have a positive or neutral effecton vineyards. Raptors and snakes keep rodentpopulations under control and most birdspecies eat insects in the summer while theyare raising their young. Bats flying overhead inthe evening eat thousands of flying insects andthe rare Pallid bat eats insects on the ground.

Due to concern over low numbers of certainplant and wildlife species, provincial andfederal environment ministries have developeda ranking system for the degree to whichspecies are at risk of becoming endangered.The ranking goes from vulnerable, tothreatened, endangered, and finally extirpated(no longer occurring in the wild in BritishColumbia). Each of these designations has ascientific and legal definition but for simplicity,


the term “species at risk” is used for any plantor animal that is of conservation concern.

There are many agency resources and websitesthat provide information about naturalhabitats and species at risk on your vineyardand the surrounding region (see section 2.14).Many of these websites also have informationand suggestions on land management andstewardship practices that can benefit localhabitats and species.

Identify wildlife (including sensitive species)that you have observed on your property.Mark a dot on the location where they wereobserved. If you have not observed the speciesbut know that there is potential the speciesmay use your property, list the species on theback of the map.

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

PRACTICES

2.4. Choosing Your Site

The key to an environmentally viable vineyarddepends largely on good site selection. Carefulsite selection can help you retain or restoreimportant habitat features and ecologicallysensitive areas and functions and will enableyou to minimize soil, drainage, and pestproblems.

Choosing previously developed agriculturalland for a vineyard rather than convertingnatural habitat is the best option available toviticulturists.

Section 3.2 contains more information aboutdetermining site suitability.

2.5. Minimizing Land Clearing

Grape growers are often faced with thechallenge of determining how much of theirland to put into production and how much toleave as native land.

Land preparation activities, such as clearingand grubbing, have a severe impact on birds,small mammals and snakes. In general, theleast altered areas of your vineyard propertyhave the highest potential for conservingbiodiversity. Once native areas are convertedto production it can be very difficult, timeconsuming, and costly to restore them back totheir native state.

Timing your land preparation activities to avoidparticularly sensitive times life stages (i.e.nesting, breeding, rearing young) will minimizeimpacts to wildlife. Land clearing andpreparation should be done between Octoberand March, where possible. Consult your localconservation organization (see section 2.14) tolearn more about what you can do at yourparticular site.

2.6. Encouraging Diversity

Structure diversity, the variation in physicalstructure of both native vegetation and crops,on your land provides an importantcontribution to biodiversity. Maintaining a mixof vegetation layers, such as forbs, grasses,shrubs, and trees provides a diversity ofhabitats for birds, animals, and insects.


FACT BOX: TINHORN CREEKVINEYARDS SNAKE HABITAT

With the help of the South OkanaganSimilkameen Stewardship Program run by TheLand Conservancy, Tinhorn Creek Vineyardserected a snake fence along a snake travelcorridor to prevent snakes from entering thevineyard. Artificial cover was also providedoutside the fence. This increased workersafety and significantly decreased snakemortality.

In agricultural landscapes a majority of thebiodiversity occurs in the soil – in the form ofmicro-organisms, bacteria, fungi, ants,earthworms and many other species. Abiologically diverse soil is more likely to showbetter structure, aeration, water infiltration,nutrient cycling and accessibility than abiologically-deficient soil.

2.7. Retaining and RestoringHabitat

Native areas (e.g. wetlands, aquatic areas,riparian areas, forest/woodlands, grasslands,and rugged terrain) provide the mostimportant contribution to biodiversity. Nativeplants are uniquely adapted to local conditionsand are home to many unique plant andanimal species.

Semi-natural areas (e.g. shelterbelts,hedgerows, fencerows, buffers, and roadmargins) also contribute to the conservationof biodiversity.

Maintaining or establishing areas of nativevegetation in the vineyard has manyadvantages, including:

· shade and shelter from winds· soil protection· reduced salinity problem· provide habitat for native plants and

animals,· improve property values,· encourage beneficial insects and birds,

and· improve water quality.

Native vegetation can also shade vines, butthis issue can be overcome by good planningof planting sites and the types of trees andshrubs that are planted. Advice on thepotential for retention or restoration of nativevegetation around your property is availablefrom your local conservation organizations(see Section 2.14).

FACT BOX: ECOSYSTEM INITIATIVESAT SUMMERHILL PYRAMID WINERY,KELOWNA

Summerhill Pyramid Winery protectsapproximately 20 acres of streamside forest, apond, a wide dry gully of pines and healthybunchgrass, and a pocket of antelope brush.

Conservation CovenantsConservation covenants, easements oragreements work to preserve an area of landfor the purpose of conservation. This is avoluntary legal agreement between thecurrent land owner and a land trust companyaimed at conserving the land for naturalhabitats. Covenants may restrict future use,


development, or practices that could damagethe natural or cultural features of the agreedupon land (Land Trust Alliance of BritishColumbia, 2002). This is an alternative way toensure that habitats, ecological communitiesand species on your land are maintained,monitored and preserved. When you enterinto a conservation covenant, you can workwith the land trust company or group tocustom design a conservation agreement forall or part of your land.

2.8. Protecting Wetlands andAquatic Habitat

Three major objectives for the protection andmanagement of wetlands and other aquatichabitats are: 1) protect and maintain waterquantities, 2) protect and maintain waterqualities, and 3) protect and maintain habitatsand species (Wetland Stewardship Council,2009). These objectives can be achieved byknowing what you have on your property (seeSection 2.2), protecting with buffer zones, andminimizing impacts from viticultural activities.

Aquatic buffer zones are upland areas adjacentto the aquatic habitat. These areas maycontain undisturbed natural habitat or havesome level of disturbance caused by existing orpast land uses. Well designed and maintainedbuffers can provide a wide range of benefitssuch as (Wetland Stewardship Council,2009):· Maintaining water quality by filtering out

sediment, fertilizers and other toxicmaterials before they enter the aquaticarea;

· Mitigating flood impacts and protectingdownstream property by reducing theimpacts from storm events;

· Improving human health by removingbacteria and other disease causingorganisms;

· Preventing soil erosion by stabilizingbanks;

· Providing habitat including wildlifecorridors, shade, food and protection forfish and wildlife, including endangeredspecies;

· Enhancing recreational opportunities; and· Enhancing viewscapes and aesthetics.

Required buffer widths and composition are afunction of (Wetland Stewardship Council,2009):· the pollution or nuisance potential of a

given farm activity;· the effectiveness of the vegetation to

reduce pollution or nuisance;· the time of year an activity is occurring;· the sensitivity of an area to be protected;

and· the soil, topographic and climatic

conditions associated with a site.

It is recommended that viticulturists work withan appropriately qualified professional toensure decisions for wetland buffer distancesare based on a review of the current scientificliterature.


2.9. Connecting Your Land withNeighbouring Landscapes

When large, continuous areas of habitat arefragmented, many ecological processes thatkeep these systems functioning are disruptedand species become threatened or extinct.Connecting native and semi-natural areas onyour land and between your land andneighbouring landscapes helps maintaincontinuous areas of habitat.

These connections may be used as travelcorridors for animals during migration, whensearching for food and mates, and when youngare dispersing. Uncultivated corridors alsoprovide routes for pollen and seeds to disperse.

There is no single figure available for suggestedcorridor widths or lengths because thisdepends on which animal or plant is inquestions. However, generally wider corridorsare better.

You are not expected to provide corridors thatgive problem wildlife (e.g. deer) easy access toyour vineyard. Work with local conservationorganizations and your neighbours todetermine the best location, width and lengthof corridors to encourage wildlife movementbut also protect your vineyard.

FACT BOX: MAINTAINING WILDLIFETRAVEL CORRIDORS AT GOD’SMOUNTAIN ESTATES, PENTICTON

God’s Mountain Estates placed their vineyarddeer fence well inside their propertyboundaries, leaving natural habitat outside thefence but within their acreage. This allowswildlife to travel along all four sides of thevineyard to get to their water sources and upto the cliffs and forest for shelter.

2.10. Controlling Invasive Species

Invasive species include plants, animals, insect,and micro-organisms that are not native tothe region but were introduced eitheraccidentally or intentionally. Invasive speciesare generally detrimental to the conservationof biodiversity. Next to habitat loss, invasivespecies pose one of the greatest threats tobiodiversity in BC.

Examples of invasive species in BC includeCanada thistle, puncturevine, quackgrass,sulphur cinquefoil, knapweed, most of ouragricultural insect pests, the EuropeanStarling, and the American bullfrog.

2.11. Managing Crop DamageCaused By Wildlife

Wildlife such as deer, bear, rodents and birdscan develop a liking for grapes or the vine itselfand cause significant crop losses. See theWildlife Management section of Chapter 6Pest Management for methods of controllingproblem wildlife.


2.12. Preventing Pollution

Good chemical and waste managementpractices can make a profound contribution toretaining biodiversity. Pollution prevention,also known as P2, is about avoiding thecreation of pollution and waste, rather thantrying to clean it up or manage it after the fact.

Pollution prevention techniques and practicesgenerally focus on the following areas(Environment Canada, 2010):· substances of concern;· efficient use and conservation of natural

resources;· material substitution;· product design/product reformulation;· process changes;· reuse and recycling on-site;· training;· purchasing techniques;· equipment modifications; and· operating efficiencies/clean production.

Potentially polluting materials that cannot beprevented should be recycled. Recyclingtechniques often allow hazardous materials tobe put to a beneficial use. Those that cannotbe prevented or recycled should be treated.Disposal or other release into the environmentshould be employed only as a last resort.Whether you are recycling, treating ordisposing, you should do it in anenvironmentally safe manner.

2.13. Communicating Practices toEmployees & Contractors

Communicating your environmental practicesto employees and contractors, includingseasonal workers, is a key component ofsuccessful ecosystem management. Thesepeople conduct activities that can either harmor benefit ecosystems and the species theysupport.

2.14. Working with EnvironmentalOrganizations

There are three main types of environmentalorganizations that provide assistance andresources for an ecosystem approach tomanaging your vineyard.

Land trust organizations help private landowners with stewardship, purchase privateland for conservation and manageconservation covenants on private land.They work with land owners under a strictcode of privacy information. They oftenhelp find funds for landowners to assistwith costs of fencing and restoration.

Stewardship groups encourage privateland owners to restore and retain healthyhabitat. They usually offer free advice forland owners, but a detailed biologicalassessment would likely have a feeattached.

Conservation organizations haveeducation and outreach as their goals.


North Okanagan-Shuswap Region

The North Okanagan Resource/HabitatAtlas is a web-based mapping tool that bringstogether a variety of information aboutnatural and cultural attributes and resourcesof the North Okanagan region. The contentsof the atlas can assist people in creating aprofile of the myriad of ecosystems with whichthey interact in the North Okanagan. It isavailable atwww.shim.bc.ca/atlases/nord/index.cfm.

The North Okanagan Parks and NaturalAreas Trust is registered to hold andadminister covenants on lands. Thesecovenants can control access to the lands andpreserve them in their natural state inperpetuity. See www.nopnat.com/ for moreinformation.

The mission of the Shuswap EnvironmentalAction Society is to study environmentalissues, inform the public about environmentalproblems and solutions, coordinate activitiesand share information with other local,provincial, and national environmentalorganizations, and take actions to improve ourlocal environment. See http://www.seas.ca/ formore information.

Central and South Okanagan-SimilkameenRegion

The Habitat Atlas for Wildlife at Risk:South Okanagan-Similkameen focuses on32 species considered "at risk" in the South

Okanagan and Lower Similkameen. It isavailable atwww.env.gov.bc.ca/okanagan/esd/atlas/index.html.

The South Okanagan SimilkameenConservation Program was created toprotect the biodiversity of the Okanagan-Similkameen area, to maintain a viableecological corridor between the deserts to thesouth and the grasslands to the north, and toeffect recovery of endangered species to theextent possible. The program website iswww.soscp.org.

The Okanagan Similkameen ConservationAlliance www.osca.org provides brochures onspecies at risk and guidelines designed foragriculture. They are available for free aslaminated posters and cards designed to beposted in work yards and sheds.

The Okanagan Similkameen StewardshipSociety has published many excellent factsheets for land owners over the past 15 years.Many of these are available in print form fromtheir office and all are on their website atwww.okanagansimilkameenstewardship.ca/p/caring-for-your-space.html.

South Coast Region

The South Coast Conservation Programcoordinates and facilitates the implementationof conservation actions to maintain andrestore species and ecosystems at risk on theSouth Coast of BC. The program website iswww.sccp.ca.

http://www.shim.bc.ca/atlases/nord/index.cfm

http://www.nopnat.com/

http://www.seas.ca/

http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/okanagan/esd/atlas/index.html

http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/okanagan/esd/atlas/index.html

http://www.soscp.org/

http://www.osca.org/

http://www.okanagansimilkameenstewardship.ca/p/caring-for-your-space.html

http://www.okanagansimilkameenstewardship.ca/p/caring-for-your-space.html

http://www.sccp.ca/


Vancouver Island and Gulf Islands

The Garry Oak Ecosystem Recovery Team(GOERT) coordinates efforts to protect andrestore endangered Garry oak and associatedecosystems and the species at risk that inhabitthem. Their website, www.goert.ca, containsextensive information about Garry oakecosystems and how to protect them.

The Islands Trust is a federation ofindependent local governments which plansland use and regulates development in thetrust area. The trust area covers the islandsand waters between the British Columbiamainland and southern Vancouver Island,including Howe Sound and as far north asComox. The Island Trust website,www.islandstrust.bc.ca/, provides detailedinformation on coastal ecosystems and wildlife.

The Central Saanich Agricultural ResourceAtlas provides a comprehensive overview ofthe land base of the municipality, with aparticular focus on the soils, groundwaterresources and climate factors that influenceagricultural production. Available at:www.centralsaanich.ca/hall/Departments/planning/planning/Agricultural_Resource_Atlas.htm

This CRD Natural Areas Atlas is a web-based mapping tool that facilitates well-informed and responsible land-use decisions.In the Atlas, you will find importantinformation such as the locations of salmonbearing streams, spawning zones, old growthforests, endangered ecosystems, record-sizedtrees and shoreline habitats

It is available at: https://www.crd.bc.ca/.

All of BC

The Stewardship Centre for British Columbiahas done a great job at pulling togetherprovincial species at risk information on theSpecies at Risk & Local Government: APrimer for British Columbia website locatedat http://www.speciesatrisk.bc.ca/. The websitewill help you to learn about species at risk andthe threats they face, learn which species atrisk are in your area, and search for species atrisk by name or ecosystem type.

Other excellent sources of species and habitatinformation include:

· Grasslands Conservation Council ofBritish Columbia www.bcgrasslands.org/

· Delta Farmland and Wildlife Trustwww.deltafarmland.ca

· Ducks Unlimitedwww.ducks.ca/province/bc/index.html

· Wildlife tree stewardshipwww.wildlifetree.org

· Living By Water www.livingbywater.ca/

http://www.goert.ca/

http://www.islandstrust.bc.ca/

http://www.centralsaanich.ca/hall/Departments/planning/planning/Agricultural_Resource_Atlas.htm



http://www.speciesatrisk.bc.ca/

http://www.bcgrasslands.org/

http://www.deltafarmland.ca/

http://www.ducks.ca/province/bc/index.html

http://www.wildlifetree.org/

http://www.livingbywater.ca/

CHAPTER 3VITICULTURAL MANAGEMENT

Table of Contents

page

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 3-1

PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................. 3-1

3.1. Business Planning and Market Research ............................................................................. 3-1

3.2 Site Selection .......................................................................................................................... 3-2

3.3. Site Preparation ...................................................................................................................... 3-5

3.4. Soil Management.....................................................................................................................3-7

3.5. Water Quality and Irrigation ................................................................................................ 3-9

VINEYARD ESTABLISHMENT ............................................................................................3-9

3.6. Variety, Rootstock, Scion, and Clone Selection ............................................................. 3-10

3.7. Plant Certification.................................................................................................................. 3-11

3.8. Vineyard Layout .................................................................................................................... 3-12

3.9. Trellis and Vigour ................................................................................................................... 3-13

3.10. Planting ................................................................................................................................... 3-13

VINEYARD MAINTENANCE ............................................................................................ 3-14

3.11. Maintaining Young Vines .....................................................................................................3-14

3.12. Crop Estimation ....................................................................................................................3-14

3.13. Canopy Assessment and Management ..............................................................................3-14

3.14. Fruit Exposure .......................................................................................................................3-14

3.15. Frost Protection ....................................................................................................................3-14

VINEYARD REMOVAL ...................................................................................................... 3-15

3.16. Decommissioning a Vineyard .............................................................................................. 3-15

CHAPTER 3 VITICULTURAL MANAGEMENT | Page 3-1

3.0 VITICULTURAL MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

Chapter objective: To provide practices thatsupport due diligence and help the viticulturistmake informed planning decisions whenacquiring, establishing and managing avineyard.

A viticulturist makes many decisions each dayto produce grapes. In a sustainable vineyard,each decision considers the interactionsbetween the various components of thevineyard system (e.g. soil, water, beneficialinsects and wildlife) and focuses on producinghigh quality grapes with minimum inputs andadverse impacts on the environment andhuman health.

Careful planning before establishing or re-planting a vineyard will minimize soil, drainageand pest problems and help to retain orrestore important habitat features andecologically sensitive sites and functions.

Before selecting a site, a grower should studythe economic realities of growing grapes in BC.Things to consider include:· cost of production,· cost of land or leasing,· current market,· market trends,· government support programs, and· overall management approach and

corresponding costs.

Strategic selection of the grape variety thatmatches the conditions of the site, producesan economic yield, has a fair market value, is indemand, and meets the quality expectationsof the client winery is key to economicsustainability of the vineyard.

Review chapters 2, 3 and 4 of the BestPractices Guide for more information onviticultural management.

PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS

3.1. Business Planning and MarketResearch

Any business is highly competitive, and thegrape growing industry is no exception. Athorough, accurate and well-researchedbusiness plan is essential to the success ofyour vineyard.

A business plan will provide you with a roadmap to setting up and managing your vineyard.It will help you to:

· organize your thoughts, clarify your goals,and measure progress;

· acquire knowledge and collect informationabout your industry, customers, and themarketplace;

· anticipate and avoid obstacles yourbusiness is likely to encounter;

· communicate your vision, goals, andstrategies to management, staff, and


customers and be more persuasive tofunding sources; and

· understand the financial aspects of yourbusiness, including cash-flow and break-even requirements.

Both internal users (e.g. management and keyemployees) and external users (e.g. lenders,investors, venture capitalists, attorney,accountant, and insurance agent) will bereading and using your business plan.

Elements of a successful business plan arelisted below. Your plan will not necessarilyinclude all of the components listed, and itslength may range from a few pages to manypages depending on the size of your operation.

3.2 Site Selection

Whether or not a vineyard is environmentallyand economically viable vineyard dependslargely on good site selection. Majorconsiderations should be climate, soil,topography, and water. You should alsoconsider the current state of the property;whether it is undeveloped natural habitat orpreviously developed agricultural land and howclose it is to existing amenities and to thewinery you will be selling your grapes to. Youwill most likely need the help of industryprofessionals and government agencies andaccess to available resources (i.e. weatherdata).

You should answer the questions on theVineyard Site Suitability Checklist belowwhen considering a property for vineyarddevelopment.

Environmental Due DiligenceAll forms of land development, includingagricultural, involve changes to the landscapethat may damage or put natural resources atrisk and impact sensitive natural habitat.Development of land for a vineyard caninclude tree removal (including the possibleclearing of orchards), land clearing andlevelling, herbicide application, riparianvegetation removal, brush burning, grading,re-contouring, altering water sources andwater drainage, putting in irrigation systems,excavating, installing erosion control measures,and construction of roads, wells, dams, fences,and buildings.

It is preferable to develop existing agriculturalland instead of clearing unmodified sensitiveecosystems. Reusing agricultural land may alsobe more cost-effective than establishing a newsite with the required infrastructure.

An environmental survey should be conductedby a knowledgeable person (e.g.Environmental Farm Plan advisor,environmental consultant or local conservancygroup representative). This person shouldinspect the property and help owners identifypotential environmental risks that may besubject to local, provincial or federal legislation.These environmental characteristics mayinclude proximity to water, endangeredspecies, and sensitive habitats. Localconservancy groups may be able to provideinformation on local environmental issues.

VITICULTURAL MANAGEMENT | Page 3-3

ELEMENTS OF A SUCCESSFULBUSINESS PLAN

(Washington Association of Wine Grape Growers,2006)Title Page· Contact information including name of vineyard

and name, address, and phone number of owner(s)

Executive Summary· Purpose of the plan· Description of overall business concept including

mission statement and company history· Product(s) and/or service(s)· Marketing and sales strategies· Market analysis and description· Organization and personnel· Financial data

Table of Contents· List of main sections, tables, figures, and

appendices and corresponding page numbersPurpose of Business· What you want to accomplish (i.e. the ultimate

purpose for starting the business )· Mission statement· Goals and objectives· Description of business, including type of legal

entityDescription of Product(s) and/or Services(s)· Definition and benefits of product(s) and/or

service(s)· Ability to meet demands· Competitive advantages· Description of current position in life cycle· Copyrights, patents and trade secrets· Existing legal agreements· Research and development activitiesMarket Analysis and Strategy· Market research – industry description and

outlook· Distinguishing characteristics and key attributes

of primary and secondary target markets· Barriers to entry into the market· Identification of key competitors and their

strengths and weaknesses· Regulatory environment

· Financial standards· Marketing objectives and strategies· Sales and distributionOrganization, Management and Staffing· Organizational structure including management

personnel, key employees, board, advisorycommittee, professional services, consultants

· Background and experience level of those who willrun the business

· Management skills and professional services thatare available in-house and that need to be hired orcontracted

· Management compensation and incentivesavailable

Milestones and Timelines· Critical dates in the development and operation

of the business· Short-term and long-term plans to reach goals

(e.g. planting schedules, openings, release dates)· Barriers or risks and potential solutionsFinancial Information· Start-up and operating expenses· Generated and required cash flow· Funds required and their uses· Financial statements· Methods of financial reportingOperations and Implementation· Description of facilities, production, inventory

control, quality control, capacity, productivity,labour, processes, equipment, supply anddistribution, order fulfillment and customerservice, research and development, financialcontrol, and contingency planning

· Technology plan – software, hardware,telecommunications, personnel

· Operational issues essential to nature and successof your company, provide a distinct competitiveedge and/or overcome frequent problems in abusiness such as yours

Appendices or Exhibits· Resumes of key managers· Pictures of products· Professional references· Market studies· Significant contracts


VINEYARD SITE SUITABILITYCHECKLISTWhat is the zoning of the site?� Do local zoning bylaws limit farming?� Do zoning bylaws prevent urban encroachment?� What are the environmental regulations relating to

site development?What are the environmental values of the site?� Is the site natural unmodified habitat?� Does the site have species at risk associated with the

habitat?� How would the site biodiversity be affected by

vineyard development?� Has an environmental survey of the site been

conducted by a knowledgeable person? (e.g.environmental consultant, knowledgeable localconservancy group representative) to:� Document potential environmental risks and the

presence of sensitive areas in the property.� Ensure that during development of the site,

damage to existing habitat is minimized byfollowing the practices outlined in the guidebookunder Habitat for Wildlife and BeneficialOrganisms sub-section.

What are the water rights and water quality for theproperty?� Are there available water and/or water rights? What

is the water quality?� For information on water quality testing see the

Water Management chapter.What is the site history?� Was it used for agricultural purposes?� Is the site compatible with grape production?� List past irrigation history and systems used.� List past crop and or animal use and management

practices.� List past insecticide, fungicide, herbicide use and

residual carryover potential for each material.� Have any fumigants been used at the site?� Was past land use uniform or variable across the site?� Has the site been levelled, eroded or altered in any

significant way?What is the neighbourhood like?� Identify the land uses adjacent to the main property.

� Describe the general geography.� What other crops are grown in the area? Is there

potential for incompatibility issues from herbicidesused in other crops, e.g. 2,4-D drift?

� Is there a winery nearby?� Is the area susceptible to deer and elk predation? Will

fences need to be erected to protect the vineyard?What is the proximity to roads, suppliers and wineries?� Distance to urban centres, residential properties,

schools� Is there a local market for grapes?What utilities and infrastructure are already available?� Roads� Hydro, water, sewerWhat are the local and micro climates of the site?� Have I collected historical weather and temperature

data for the site?� Have I installed a weather station and monitored it

for at least a year prior to planting?� What is the average length of the growing season?� What is the average precipitation?� What is the accumulation of heat throughout the

growing season (degree days)?� What were the temperatures for my site from

previous cold winter events?� Is there enough slope to provide good cold air

drainage? Slope greater than five percent is preferred.� What is the elevation of the site?� Is the site in a windy location? Windy areas tend to

have less frost but wind can reduce vine vigour andgrowth.

� Is the site near a large body of water or large rockformation to help temper climate in the immediatevicinity?

What are the soil conditions like?� Soil physical, chemical, and biological properties.� See the Soil Management chapter for more

information on identifying soil conditions.What varieties are suitable for my site and are theythe varieties desired by wineries?� See Chapter 3 of the Best Practices Guide for a list

of varieties.� Obtain the services of an industry consultant.


Habitat for Wildlife and BeneficialOrganismsDuring vineyard establishment anddevelopment it is important to ensure damageto existing habitat (i.e. seasonal bodies ofwater (vernal pools), drainages, floodplains) isminimized.

This can be achieved by:

· Setting aside land and leaving orestablishing these areas with native plantspecies. This land should be in addition tohard-to-farm areas (such as vernal pools,riparian areas, fence lines, rocky areas, andditch banks).

· Maintaining a buffer with nativevegetation between the habitat and thevineyard where possible.

· Integrated weed management for thecontrol of invasive weed species in andaround the vineyard is also recommended.

3.3. Site Preparation

Levelling the Vineyard FloorIn uneven (hummocky) terrain with notabledepressions and gullies it is oftenadvantageous to level the vineyard to create amore uniform working surface. Levelling canreduce or eliminate frost pockets, modifyslopes to make machinery operation safer, orimprove overall aspect and air drainage on avineyard site. As a result, land levelling hasbecome a common practice in many regions.

There are many risks involved in land levelling.Great care needs to be taken to preserve thetopsoil (A horizons) layers of the natural soil

profile (see discussion of the soil profile inSection 4.1). The A and B horizons are mostfavourable for plant growth because theycontain the nutrient supplying organic matterand are generally leached of salts or excesslime that characterise the underlyingunweathered parent materials of the Chorizon.

In the silty soils found along the benchlandsadjacent to Okanagan Lake, the chemistry ofthe soil profile changes rapidly with depth.Exposing C horizon material to the surface willresult in long-term soil quality degradationand reduced productivity where this occurs.Coarser textured soils like those in the Oliverand Osoyoos areas do not have the sameconditions in the C horizon. In the case ofthese sandy and gravely soils exposure of theC horizon to the surface is less critical than onthe silty soils.

The ideal situation when land levelling from asoil perspective is to collect and stockpile theA and B horizon soil from the profile. Theparent materials (C horizon) may then belevelled as needed. The final step is to replacethe A and B horizon materials over the levelledsurface to ensure none of the C horizon isexposed. While the thickness of the A and Bhorizons will vary over the landscape, a goodrule of thumb would be to collect andstockpile the surface 20 to 40 cm of soil forre-distribution after levelling.

While the careful collection, stockpiling andre-distribution will minimize the impact ofland levelling on the resultant soil quality, the


mechanical treatment of the soil material willinvariably destroy soil structure, which in turncan reduce porosity and the soil’s ability tosupply air and water to plant roots. There willbe disturbance to the topsoil biologicalcommunity as well.

Fortunately, good soil management practicescan, over time, see the re-establishment ofsoil structure and functioning biologicalcommunities in the soil if care has been takenin the levelling process. It may take decades toovercome the loss in surface soil quality if Chorizon materials are left at the surface and inthese cases, the land levelling activity wouldhave to be considered an unsustainablepractice.

Improving Compacted LayersIt is important to identify compacted soillayers within the potential rooting zone thatcould negatively impact vine growth. Where acompacted layer is identified, a number oftechniques can be employed to break up thesoil profile (see Table 3-1). The technique youchoose will depend upon your soil type andlevel of compaction and safe machineryoperation at your site (e.g. rollover risks).

Deep ripping should be carried out only whenthere is a hardpan soil that restricts roots andwater to a shallow soil depth. Beforeundertaking any deep ripping it is important todetermine the extent of the hard pans and/orcompaction problem and decide whether deepripping is necessary. If soil is deep anduniform, only surface tillage or disc plowingmay be necessary.

Vineyards established on Vancouver Islandand the Lower Mainland will often requiredeep ripping due to cemented subsurfacelayers. A recommended practice is to rip toapproximately 1.1 metres at 3 metres intervalsand lay drain tiles at that depth at some angle(e.g. perpendicular) to the ripping. Contactthe Ministry of Agriculture and Lands formore information.

If surface tillage, disc plowing or deep rippingis required at your site, follow these practices:

· Do it during late summer or early fallwhen soil moisture is at its lowest;

· Ensure it does not introduce toxicfactors to the roots (e.g. salt boron) bymixing subsoil layer up to the surface;

· Drop organic matter into the trenchcreated so that organic matter and anysoil amendments are placed deep intothe soil profile


Table 3-1: Techniques that can be used to improvecompacted soil layers.

Technique Description

Spading · Turns hard, compacted soils intodeeply fractured structures whileavoiding mixing sub-soils withsurface soils

· Leaves the bottom of the workedarea rough and unglazed,ultimately promoting waterpercolation and root growth

· Maintains the basic organicstructure of the soil

· Requires one pass only· Can effectively incorporate green

manures and crop residues into thesoil profile

Ripping · Cracks or shatters hard layers at2-7 feet, but does not mix the soil

· Permanently improves soils withcemented hardpans

· Temporarily improves tight orcompacted soil, but

· Does not improve claypan layersfor long because they usuallyreseal

· Minor effect on sand or gravellayers

Slip-plowing · Rips, but also lifts and mixes thesoil at 3-6 feet

· Effective on claypans and sand orgravel layers

· Makes a wide channel, createssome mixing of surface and subsoillayers

· Causes more shattering thanripping

Chisel · Relieves compaction and mixes thesoil in the surface 2 feet

· Best for loosening soil andbreaking up surface compactionsuch as plowpans and wheel ruts

Adapted, in part from Dlott, et. al, 2006, p 3-15

3.4. Soil Management

Soil SurveyThorough soil analysis is one of the bestinvestments a grower can make because soilproperties play a major role in vine health,vineyard growth and production.

A soil survey should be completed by aqualified professional the year before planting,prior to ordering vines.

Soil Physical and Chemical PropertiesThe soil’s physical and chemical properties willgreatly affect its ability to hold and transfernutrients to the vines. Because of this, it isimportant to determine the following items tomake the necessary amendments before tilling:

· Chemical properties,· Soil composition (i.e. percent sand, silt

and clay),· pH,· Organic matter content,· Cation exchange capacity,· Sodium Adsorption Ratio,· Base saturation,· Water-holding capacity, and· Deficiencies or toxicities (i.e. boron,

sodium, chlorides, zinc andphosphorus).

Many of these physical and chemicalproperties will also indicate site drainage anderosion potential.

The Soil and Nutrition Management chaptercontains more information on the physical andchemical properties of soil.


Soils that do not possess all of the idealcomponents for establishing a vineyard can beamended somewhat. Examples of soilamendment methods include amending soilwith lime if acidic, sulphur (or acids in drip) ifalkaline, and compost/manure or cover crop iflow in organic matter.

Section 4.10 of the Soil and NutritionManagement chapter contains moreinformation on soil amendments.

In addition to soil amendments, cover cropsmay be used to address certain issues such as:

· reducing soil erosion due to wind andwater,

· protecting soil surface during high trafficevents during the growing season,

· increasing water infiltration,· reducing insect populations (pests) or

increase beneficial insect populations(predators),

· reducing chemical use,· reducing weeds,· reducing vine vigour,· recycling nutrients within the soil

ecosystem,· preventing nutrient leaching,· increasing organic matter, and· altering microclimate.The Soil and Nutrition Management chaptercontains more information on cover crops.

Any soil amendments and modifications madeon the site should be recorded for futurereference.

Addressing Soil Biological Problems Pre-plantingAssessing the soil for biological problems isanother crucial part of setting up a prosperousand sustainable vineyard operation.Nematodes can present a problem as they areubiquitous organisms (present in all places).Some species of these organisms feed on theroots of plants and generally thrive on theroots of woody crops (especially grapes ortrees). This is why it is important to sample thesoil for nematodes prior to planting and it isespecially important for the samples to includethe roots of the previous crop or covervegetation. When deciding on samplinglocations, growers must consider the previousland use and soil variation.

Knowing the species type and populationlevels of nematodes on the site will be crucialin choosing a rootstock that is resistant tothese pests. Alternately, lab results may showthat no biological problems exist and warrantno further actions.

When biological problems are identified in avineyard, they should be addressed by:

· Removing as many roots as possible fromthe previous perennial crop as some pestscan survive on these (for up to 8-10 yearsin the case of grape roots);

· Using an appropriate resistant rootstock;and

· Carefully selecting and using a cover cropto deal with a specific issue (i.e. mustardfor nematodes).


For more information on nematodes andphylloxera refer to Section 6.2 of the PestManagement chapter.

3.5. Water Quality and Irrigation

Water quality can impact the soil, vine yieldsand fruit quality and food safety. Knowingwhat is in the water is the first step inmitigating any detrimental effects. For thisreason, it is recommended that water to beused for vineyard irrigation be assessed forsuitability and nutrient values, especially waterobtained from groundwater wells or surfacewater bodies. Even if your water is supplied bya municipality or irrigation district, it is stillimportant for you to know about your waterquality.

For information on water quality testingplease refer to section 5.3 of the WaterManagement chapter.

Some examples of water quality issues andhow they may affect the vineyard include:· pH affects acidity and alkalinity for grape

growth;· Sodium Absorption Ratio can affect water

penetration;· a range of parameters from pH,

Suspended Solids, Calcium bicarbonate,and other minerals can affect clogging ofdrip emitters;

· spray tank water pH can either negativelyor positively affect the efficacy ofpesticides;

· total dissolved solids can affect watersalinity; and

· sodium, chloride and boron can be toxic tovines.

Because of their toxicity to grapevines, it isimportant to know sodium, chloride and boronconcentrations prior to planting. In caseswhere water quality is an issue, the relativesensitivity to toxic elements should be animportant factor in selecting scion androotstocks. You may need to install a properfiltration system to deal with water qualityissues.

Your soil survey and water quality testing willalso play a role in determining the appropriateirrigation system design (e.g. high levels ofcalcium bicarbonate or manganese may leadto clogging of drip irrigation emitters), anddetermining fertilization requirements (takinginto account nitrogen levels in the water). Formore information, refer to the WaterManagement chapter and the Soil andNutrition Management chapter.

The irrigation system should be installed andbe fully functional prior to planting. This is sothe vineyard site can be irrigated before theplanting begins and immediately after planting.

VINEYARD ESTABLISHMENT

Vine balance refers to the process of givingthe vine the right inputs and conditions togrow, while at the same time preventingexcessive growth. Excessive growth leads to adecrease in fruit yields. Some forms of stresstrigger the plant’s survival and reproductive


mechanisms, which lead to more fruitproduction.

Achieving a balanced vine is one of the mostimportant factors in viticulture as it affectsmany other factors such as susceptibility topests, air ventilation, sun exposure, and fruityields. A balanced vine can minimize oreliminate the need for remedial measures suchas hedging, leaf removal, shoot positioning orshoot removal.

Vine balance can be achieved through proper:

· vineyard design (spacing, trellising andtraining),

· pruning,· crop load adjustments,· irrigation,· cover crop,· fertilization, and· distribution of shoots and fruit along the

fruiting zone.

The following sections of this chapter, as wellas subsequent chapters, will help you toachieve vine balance in your vineyard.

3.6. Variety, Rootstock, Scion, andClone Selection

VarietyThe variety you choose to grow will depend onyour site characteristics, market demand, andother factors. Grape variety descriptions areincluded in the Best Practices Guide. Alwaysconsult a number of sources before selectingvarieties to grow.

RootstockSelecting a rootstock that matches your siteconditions is essential to vine balance,improved water and disease management, andoptimal wine quality and will reduce the needfor chemical or cultural intervention. It isessential that rootstocks are certified disease-free.

Growers are encouraged to seek the advice ofan experienced consultant when selectingrootstock.

ScionWhen selecting a scion to go with therootstock, the grower should look for a plantthat is visibly healthy and that has been testedand certified to be virus free and free fromother known pathogens. Growers should askfor certificates from the nursery or source ofscion material. The scion must also beappropriate for the rootstock, local climateand soil properties. Growers are encouraged toseek the advice of an experienced consultantwhen selecting scion.

CloneClone selection should be based oninformation from local trials where the soil,rootstock, trellis, irrigation were as close aspossible to the grower’s vineyard, or on broad-based province-wide experience andmarketability. Clones of some varieties varygreatly in their bunch tightness and bunch rotsusceptibility. Consulting with the wine maker,nursery and/or private consultant isencouraged when selecting a clone.


3.7. Plant Certification

The following information was provided by RayJohnson, Section Head, Grapevine DiagnosticProgram at the Centre for Plant Health,Sidney Laboratory, Canadian Food InspectionAgency (CFIA).

Prevention is the only practical cure forviruses, virus-like diseases, phytoplasmas andother diseases such as Crown gall. Startingwith healthy plant material is essential for asustainable vineyard.

The benefits of using healthy plant materialinclude:

· easier and more successfulpropagation;

· reduced production costs andchemical inputs required to offset theharmful effects of these diseases;

· higher crop yields, better plant growthand crop quality, reduced disease andmortality; and

· increased internationalcompetitiveness and economicviability.

There are many benefits to buying certifiedgrape plants for your vineyard. The advantagesof certification programs include:· Most effective approach for the

production of healthy vegetativelypropagated planting stock. Many virusesspread naturally via insect and nematodevectors. There is no cure once a plant hasbecome infected;

· Increased assurance to growers that theyare buying healthy plants derived fromplants originally tested for specified virusesand other diseases, and that have beenpropagated under conditions that mitigatethe likelihood of subsequently becominginfected during propagation;

· Certification is usually provided andmonitored by a neutral party; and

· Reduced spread of damaging domesticpests and prevention of the introductionof damaging invasive foreign pests.

There are various types of certificationprograms:· Phytosanitary only where the focus is on

diseases & other pests.o Pest list may be comprehensive or

limited;o May or may not include pest

tolerance levels for different pests.· May also include quality (such as grades)

and variety (trueness to variety or clone)standards.

· For export or only domestic purposes.· Mandatory or voluntary.· Official (government run or approved) vs

industry run vs nursery based (under aquality assurance program accreditedunder Standards Council of Canada orother association).

Sources of certified grapevines include:· Canadian CFIA-certified nurseries.

o Foreign pest risks eliminated;o Domestic pest risks greatly reduced;o Only official Canadian certification

program.


· Imported from foreign CFIA-approvedprograms in the United States (California,Washington, Oregon) and Europe (France& Germany).

o Reduces but does not totallyeliminate risks of introducing bothknown and unknown foreignquarantine pests such as viruses,phytoplasmas, other diseases, andinsects;

o Some economically damaging non-quarantine viruses have beendetected in samples tested fromimportations.

Even if you are purchasing from Canadiansources, it is important to purchase certifiedplants. Economically damaging viruses such asGrapevine fanleaf virus, Arabis mosaic virus,Tomato ringspot virus, Grapevine leafroll-associated viruses, and X-disease and Asteryellows phytoplasmas are present in someCanadian vineyards. Other, currentlyunknown pests may also be present inCanadian vineyards as a result of illegalimportations. The unknown origin ofuncertified plants is a main reason forpurchasing certified plants. Both varieties androotstocks should originate from certifiednurseries. Viruses in either the variety orrootstock will spread throughout the plantafter grafting. Whether you buy plant materialor receive cuttings from a friend, always askfor the parentage and source of bothrootstock and scion.

For more information on Canadian nurseriesparticipating in the CFIA grapevinecertification program contact your local CFIAoffice.

For information on import and domesticmovement requirements for grapevinepropagative material seewww.inspection.gc.ca/english/plaveg/protect/dir/d-94-34e.shtml or contact your local CFIAoffice.

BC Coastal and Mainland Office4321 Still Creek Dr., Suite 400Burnaby, British Columbia, V5C 6S7Tel: 604-666-6513Fax: 604-666-1261

3.8. Vineyard Layout

Vineyard uniformity makes vineyardoperations more efficient, leads to uniformcrop development and ultimately leads tohigher quality fruit. To achieve this, the growermust first:

· Determine row orientation based on sitephysical features (i.e. soil type, slope,aspect, prevailing winds);

· Divide the vineyard into blocks based onuniformity;

· Ensure vineyard design and row directionallow for safe and easy access;

· Ensure headlands are wide enough forequipment to make turns; and

· Ensure erosion is minimized.

A vineyard is best laid out when it is dividedinto blocks based on uniformity. It is generallynot ideal to design the vineyard layout basedon existing fence and property lines, toaccommodate the fewest possible tractorturns or to make rows as long as possible.

http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/plaveg/protect/dir/d-94-34e.shtml

http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/plaveg/protect/dir/d-94-34e.shtml


The site’s physical characteristics should bethe most important factor in determining roworientation. These physical characteristicscould be the result of:

· Environmental survey findings;· Soil profile inspection and

modification;· Soil tested for physical and chemical

properties and amended pre-planting;and/or

· Soil tested for biological problems pre-planting.

Additionally, the vineyard design should besafe and easy to farm with row directions thatminimize erosion and trellises alignedaccording to regional wind patterns and sunexposure. For vineyards that are adjacent to asensitive site such as a public highway, roworientation should be such that equipment(e.g. sprayers, dusters) turnaround isminimized next to the sensitive area.

Vine SpacingPlant spacing is an important decision whenplanting a new vineyard. Row spacingdetermines the amount of fruiting area or thenumber of linear feet of fruiting surface peracre.

Row and vines should be spaced toaccommodate the vigour of the clone, scionand rootstock, and take into consideration thefertility of the soil, quality of the water, theamount of available sunlight, the intensity ofsunlight and the length of the growing season,

with the purpose of creating a balanced vine toproduce high quality fruit.

3.9. Trellis and Vigour

The trellis system supports the vine to achieveoptimum production, which is dependent oncapacity and vigour of the vine. Soil propertiesand the rootstock will have an effect on thecapacity of the vine. The complexity of thetrellis system will differ depending on the vinevigour.

The following items should be consideredwhen selecting a trellis system:

· Site properties (e.g. soil fertility, slope)· Quality of irrigation water.· Growth habit· Vigour· Size· Winter hardiness of vine· Fruitfulness of basal buds· Site selection· Harvest and pruning methods

A good trellis system provides structuralsupport that creates an open canopy withmoderate fruit zone exposure to light and air,and allows for efficient farming whileminimizing canopy manipulation. Wine qualityshould be the main outcome of selecting theappropriate trellis type.

3.10. Planting

Some recommended practices when plantingnew vines are:


· Planting material should be handled andstored according to nursery directions.

· The soil around the newly planted vinesshould be compacted to remove airpockets. For green growing vines, tampsoil moderately to avoid breaking the roots.For dormant vines, tamp more vigorously,as breaking of roots is less of a problem.

· For grafted vines ensure the graft union iskept well above the final level of theunder-vine soil surface to prevent thescion from rooting.

· Support plant viability by increasing waterholding capacity (i.e. with coir, bone meal).A disadvantage of this is that it could limitplant root growth.

· Monitor soil moisture around the vineroots and observe vine characteristics suchas node length, cane diameter and shoottips and tendrils.

VINEYARD MAINTENANCE

3.11. Maintaining Young Vines

Once the vine has been planted, care must betaken to ensure a healthy plant. The firstshoots from a young plant are fragile.

3.12. Crop Estimation

Accurate crop estimation is critical forplanning in both vineyards and wineries.Viticulturists require early season estimates tomake decisions on canopy management, cropreduction and vine balance in order tooptimize tonnages to maximize quality andproductivity. Wineries rely on the cropestimate to ensure the grape intake

requirements are sufficient, there is allowabletank space, and to order adequate enologicalsupplies for the up-coming vintage.

3.13. Canopy Assessment andManagement

To achieve uniform vegetative growth andfruit development in the vineyard block (Dlott,et. al., 2006):

· prune vines differentially to match theirvigour,

· remove weak and late blooming shoots,· tailor irrigation blocks to the soil and

rootstock requirements,· drop slow ripening fruit at or after veraison,

and· harvest units from uniform sections of the

vineyard.

A qualified professional should be retained tohelp you achieve appropriate vineyarduniformity.

3.14. Fruit Exposure

Special note: It is important to ensure the fruitis not exposed to too much sunlight, which willcause sunburn and splitting. Too muchexposure may also lead to hail and bird damageand potential reduction in positive fruit aromaand flavour compounds.

3.15. Frost Protection

Several options are available for frostprotection, including wind machines,helicopters, smudge pots, heaters, andirrigation systems. Crop value, expenses,


cultural management practices, and historicalfrequency and intensity of frost events shouldbe considered when implementing coldprotection strategies.

VINEYARD REMOVAL

3.16. Decommissioning a Vineyard

When decommissioning a vineyard, grind theabove-ground portions of the vines, or sellthem to a co-generation company that canuse the vines as biomass for fuel (if one isavailable), and remove as many roots aspossible.

Ensure the following refuse disposal practicesare implemented:Plastics· Reuse or return all waste plastics to depots

for recycling.· The Waste Exchange Program has a

Recycling Hotline 1-800-667-4321.· Properly dispose of plastics that have

contained or contacted toxic materialsTreated Wood· Waste wood that was treated with

registered preservatives is not consideredhazardous waste.

· Wood waste can include pallets, boards orposts.

· Reuse treated wood products for otherapplications (i.e. landscaping).

· Take treated wood product to an approvedlandfill.

· Obtain a permit from the Ministry ofEnvironment to bury the material on farmproperty.

· DO NOT burn treated wood as open firescannot reach the temperature required toeliminate the preservatives, not tomention the toxic fumes that emanatefrom the burn pile.

· A proactive approach when implementinga vineyard is to look into other optionssuch as metal, concrete or recycled plasticposts.

Metal Disposal· Most commercial suppliers accept the

return of metal containers.· Recycling options exist for most types of

metal containers.· Taking the metal containers to an

approved landfill is another option.

CHAPTER 4SOIL AND NUTRITION MANAGEMENT

Table of Contentspage

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 4-1

SOIL AND NUTRIENT CHARACTERISTICS ..................................................................... 4-1

4.1. Important Properties of Vineyard Soils ............................................................................... 4-1

4.2. Nutrients Necessary for Grapevine Growth ...................................................................... 4-4

NUTRITION MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................ 4-6

4.3. Nutrient Management Plan.................................................................................................. 4-6

4.4. Field Parameters .................................................................................................................... 4-8

4.5. Identifying Areas of Concern ............................................................................................... 4-9

4.6. Petiole Sampling and Analysis ............................................................................................ 4-10

4.7. Soil Sampling and Analysis .................................................................................................. 4-10

4.8. Water Sampling and Analysis .............................................................................................. 4-12

4.9. Cover Crops ........................................................................................................................... 4-12

4.10. Fertilizers ................................................................................................................................4-13

4.11. Rates and Timing of Nutrient Application ......................................................................... 4-17

4.12. Methods of Nutrient Application ....................................................................................... 4-17

4.13. Review and Update of Nutrient Management Plan .........................................................4-19

SOIL MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................................ 4-19

4.14. Soil Erosion Due to Water, Wind, or Equipment .............................................................4-19

4.15. Soil Erosion from Roads, Ditches, and Culverts ............................................................. 4-20

4.16. Tillage of the Vineyard Floor ............................................................................................... 4-21

4.17. Soil Compaction .................................................................................................................... 4-21

4.18. Soil Water Storage and Movement ................................................................................... 4-22

CHAPTER 4 SOIL AND NUTRITION MANAGEMENT | Page 4-1

4.0 SOIL AND NUTRITION MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

Chapter objective: To provide soil andnutrition management practices that minimizeimpacts on the natural environment andreduce the need for inputs such as water andfertilizer.

Soil is the foundation of your vineyard. Itprovides nutrients and anchorage for yourgrapevines. Optimized monitoring andmanagement of your soil and its nutrientsproduces healthier vines and ultimately betterwine quality and reduces the risk of negativelyimpacting the surrounding environment.

This chapter guides you step-by-step throughthe completion of a nutrient managementplan. The main objectives of a nutrientmanagement plan are to supply crops withnutrients at the appropriate rate, timing, andwith the appropriate method to produce aneconomically optimal crop in terms of bothyield and quality and to minimize the risk ofpollution by loss of nutrients via runoff,leaching, emissions to the air or other lossmechanisms.

The chapter also provides sustainable practicesto maintain soil quality by reducing erosionand sediment transport on-site and minimizeoff-site movement of soil and water.

Review Chapter 4 of the Best PracticesGuide and Chapter 8 of the EFP ReferenceGuide for more information on soil andnutrition management.

SOIL AND NUTRIENT CHARACTERISTICS

4.1. Important Properties ofVineyard Soils

The purpose of this section is to help youunderstand some of the terminology that willbe used throughout the chapter and to provideyou with general background information onsoil.

The three main components of soil are:

· Minerals: derived from decomposedrocks (ideally 45% of soil makeup)

· Organic matter: decomposed plant andanimal residues, living organisms (ideally5% of soil makeup)

· Pore spaces: space between solid partsof the soil. Pore space is occupied bywater and air. If the pore space isentirely made up of water the soil isconsidered to be saturated. If the porespace is entirely made up of air the soilwould be completely dry and unable tosupport plant growth. An ideal soil porespace to support plant growth is about50 / 50 air and water in the pore space(water at 25% of total soil makeup andair at 25% of total makeup).


These three components provide the physicalframework to support plant growth andanchorage. The balance between each of thesecomponents as well as the chemical propertiesof the soil determines a soil’s ability to supportplant growth over the long term.Other important characteristics of soil includetexture, structure, porosity, organic matter,and bulk density. These characteristics aredescribed in Table 4-1.

Soil Profile

A soil profile is examined to a depth of one totwo metres. While your interest is normallyconcentrated on the topsoil because it liesdirectly under your control, grapevine rootspenetrate into the lower horizons and areaffected by the composition of these deeperlayers. An accurate account of the soil mustinclude not just the topsoil, but the subsoil aswell. Knowing what type of soils you aredealing with is the first step to understandinghow to properly care for your vines.

Description of Soil Horizons

A) Topsoil (A Horizon(s)) is the layer formedover time from which plants obtain water andnutrients. It most often varies from 5 to 20cm in thickness. This zone is the mostinfluenced by soil management and containsthe most organic matter and biological activity.The amount of organic matter determines thefertility of the soil. Topsoil is easily lost whenland levelling is done; it should be carefullyremoved and then replaced after grading thesubsoil below.

B) Subsoil (B Horizon) contains less organicmatter and generally fewer roots but is still animportant zone for nutrient uptake. In fine-textured soils the B horizon may accumulatematerials leached from the topsoil such as claywhich can create a compact subsoil layer. Insand and/or gravely soils, the horizon isidentified as having a brownish or reddishcolour.

C) Parent Material (C Horizon) is basicallyunweathered, geologic parent material, oftenof glacial origin. There is limited biologicalactivity. In fine-textured soils the C horizon isidentified as a zone of lime accumulation andsometimes hard concretions composed ofcalcium carbonate. In coarse-textured soilsthe C horizon lacks the colours as seen insurface horizons.

Figure 4-1: Well-developed soil, showing thetypical sequence of horizons.Adapted from Brady (1990, fig. 1.3).


Table 4-1: Important physical properties of vineyard soils.

Property Description

Texture · the relative proportions of sand, silt and clay particles found in a soil sample· affects nutrient and water holding capacity and aeration of the soil· grouped into 12 classes (see Figure 4-2)

o sandy soils (those dominated by sand sized particles and are referred to as having coarse texture): waterenters at a rapid rate, does not retain water and nutrients well, good aeration and easy penetration by plantroots, often low in organic matter and nutrients

o silty soils (those dominated by silt-sized particles and referred to as having medium texture): holds morewater and nutrients than sand, but less than clay, has less drainage than sandy soils, but more than clayeysoils

o clayey soils (those dominated by clay-sized particles and referred to as having fine texture): good waterand nutrient holding capacity, may have poor drainage and little aeration, compaction may be a problem

o loamy soils (those dominated by a mixture of particle sizes): considered best for grape growing because ofthe desirable properties of a sand, silt, and clay mixture, which allows for ease of cultivation, adequatewater-holding capacity and nutrient-storage capacity and good drainage

Structure · the way soil particles clump together into larger units called soil aggregates· naturally occurring soil aggregates are called peds· affects the availability of air and water in soil· classified according to 3 groups of traits:

o type: the shape of the soil peds (granular, blocky, platey or structureless)o class: the size of the peds (very fine, fine, medium, coarse or very coarse)o grade: how distinct and strong the peds are (weak to strong where the peds are easily visible and can be

handled without breaking)· ideal soil structure for plant growth is well aggregated soil that contains large, continuous pores· takes a very long time to develop naturally but can be damaged very quickly by mechanical operations and

compactionPorosity · amount of pore space in the soil

· these pores convey oxygen, water and dissolved nutrients and provide the space in which roots grow· nature of the pore space will vary depending on:

o texture: sand (relatively large pore spaces, good aeration) and clay (relatively small pore spaces, holdswater but can have poor root aeration)

o structure: aggregation of particles creates larger pore spaceso mixing of the soil particles: excessive cultivation, for example, will decrease porosity by destroying natural

soil structure, compaction will reduce total pore space due to compressionOrganicMatter

· made up of living microorganisms and plant and animal residues in various stages of decomposition· plays an important role in many beneficial soil functions, including

o source of nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus.o contains chemical exchange sites that increase the ability of the soil to “hold onto” nutrient compoundso maintains soil structure and stabilityo increases soil water holding capacity; humic substances can hold up to 5 times their weight in watero provides a major energy source for soil microorganismso increases soil temperatures due to darker soil, which also promotes biological activity

· excessive tillage, soil erosion and poor cover crop management will speed the loss of organic matterBulkDensity

· measures, for a given volume of dry soil, how much is occupied by solids and how much by pore space (i.e. howcompact a soil is)


Figure 4-2: Soil textural classes (outlined in boldlines) are defined by percentage of sand, silt, andclay (fine lines parallel to arrows).Adapted from Brady (1990, fig. 4.6).

4.2. Nutrients Necessary forGrapevine Growth

The purpose of this section is to help youunderstand some of the terminology that willbe used throughout the chapter and to provideyou with general background information onnutrients.

Macronutrients and MicronutrientsNutrients come from the soil and areabsorbed through the root system. They canbe divided into two types:

· Macronutrients: essential elements thatplants use in large amounts (nitrogen,phosphorus, potassium, calcium,magnesium, sulphur).

· Micronutrients: essential elements thatplants use in small quantities (zinc, iron,

manganese, copper, boron, molybdenum,chlorine, nickel).

Table 4-2 provides information on some of themacronutrients and micronutrients essentialto grapevine growth and common effects ofdeficiencies or excesses.

Nutrient CyclesEach nutrient element has its own cycle, theprocess by which the nutrients required byliving organisms move through the living(biotic) and non-living (abiotic) componentsof an ecosystem.

Major plant nutrients include nitrogen,phosphorus and potassium. These nutrientsfollow cyclical patterns as they are used andreused by living organisms. Organic materials,like plant litter, decompose and arereincorporated into the soil as nutrients bydecomposer organisms. Some physicalprocesses, such as oxidation, mechanicalbreakage, lightening, fire and wind are nonbiological contributors to the nutrient cycle.

How nutrients are cycled is important inagricultural health and can be directlyinfluenced by soil and nutrition managementpractices. A complete nutrient managementplan (see Section 4.3) should take intoconsideration methods of managing and takingfull advantage of the natural nutrient cycle.


Table 4-2: Nutrients essential to grapevine growth and common effects of imbalances.

Macronutrients Use and Effect on Grapevine

Nitrogen · Of all soil nutrients, nitrogen is the most likely to be deficient· Makes up 1% to 2% of the dry matter of a grapevine· Used as a component of proteins, and in energy transfer and photosynthesis· Deficiency symptoms include: loss of vigour, yellow leaves, red petioles· Excess causes vigour, reduced fruit set, reduced bud fertility, bud necrosis, bunchstem necrosis

Phosphorus · Makes up 0.1% to 0.3% of the dry matter of a grapevine· Used in the fatty portion of cell membranes, carbon fixation, sugar metabolism, energy storage and

genetic material· Deficiency symptoms include: reduced shoot growth, yield, and fruit set, low bunch numbers, basal

leaves that turn pale or yellow and fall before flowering time, and red dots near the edges of mid orterminal lobes of basal leaves

Potassium · Makes up 3% of dry weight of a grapevine· Required to form sugars, starches, proteins, acids, colouring materials, odour and taste for grapes· Increases the hardiness of the plant for winter and makes it more drought resistant· Deficiency symptoms include: yellow leaves in centre of new shoots starting at edge and moving into

the centre, necrotic spots, holes, brittle leaves, uneven ripening of fruit, scorched leaves, reducedshoot growth, low vigour, reduced berry set and yields, and delayed growth of shoots and reductionsin initial yield of young vines.

· Excess reduces calcium and magnesium and produces high pH winesMagnesium · Essential for chlorophyll and is linked to phosphorus uptake

· Deficiency symptoms include: yellowing between the veins of older leaves, red pigmentation in redvarieties, grape stem drying, and yellowing of basal leaves

Calcium · Plays a part in root, protein and carbohydrate formation· Controls the uptake of water into the vine· Deficiency symptoms include: dead buds and tips, necrotic leaf edges· Excess can affect the uptake of other nutrients, especially magnesium, boron, and potassium, and

result in high soil pHMicronutrients Use and Effect on GrapevineZinc · Component of enzyme catalyst reactions

· Deficiency symptoms include: reduced fruit set, reduced internode length and small leaves, hen andchick berries

· Deficiency symptoms usually occur at the shoot tipIron · Used for chlorophyll development, enzyme system activation, and the formation of organic

compounds· Deficiency symptoms include: chlorophyll loss starting between the small leaf veins, fading beginning

at the leaf margins and progressing interveinally, reduce set, and dry leaves· Deficiency often referred to as iron chlorosis, lime chlorosis, or lime-induced chlorosis

Manganese · Used in the formation of chlorophyll and works to activate enzymes· Deficiency symptoms are similar to iron or zinc deficiency symptoms

Boron · Regulates plant hormones· Influences cell differentiation, cell growth, pollen germination and growth of pollen tubes· Deficiency symptoms include: reduced fruit set, puckered leaves, brown necrotic spots on leaf

margins and base of shoots· Excess can cause toxicities


NUTRITION MANAGEMENT

4.3. Nutrient Management Plan

The main objectives of a nutrient managementplan are to:

1. supply crops with nutrients at theappropriate rate, timing, and with theappropriate method to produce aneconomically optimal crop in terms ofboth yield and quality; and

2. minimize the risk of pollution by loss ofnutrients via runoff, leaching, emissions tothe air or other loss mechanisms.

Nutrient management planning is included asa component of the Environmental Farm Plan.The nutrient management plan outlined in theEFP is more appropriate for large-scale farmsthan it is for vineyards. With this in mind, anutrient management planning process hasbeen developed here that is more appropriatefor vineyards. Some technical components ofthe EFP Nutrient Management ReferenceGuide will be essential to preparing yourmanagement plan, and are referred to in theappropriate sections below.

Please download the EFP NutrientManagement Reference Guide fromwww2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/agriculture-seafood/agricultural-land-and-environment/soil-nutrients/nutrient-management/reference-guide

Acknowledgement: The structure and contentrecommended for your nutrient managementplan in the following sections is based, in part,

on the Lodi-Woodbridge WinegrapeCommission’s Soil Management – CompanionDocument.

A recommended structure for your nutrientmanagement plan includes:

· Field Parameters· Petiole Analysis· Soil Analysis· Water Analysis· Sources and Forms of Nutrients· Areas of Concern· Rates of Fertilizer Application· Timing of Fertilization· Methods of Application· Environmental Considerations with

Fertilizer· Fertilizer Storage· Annual Review and Update

Nutrient management planning is an ongoingprocess. Your nutrient management plan mustbe kept in a form that will make it easy for youto find information and record newinformation as necessary. There are variousways to organize your plan, but the best is byplacing it in a binder and using tabs to separatethe different sections of the plan and thedifferent vineyards if you have more than one.Organize the tabs of your nutrientmanagement plan to match the guidelinesabove. Not all of the guidelines may apply toyou, but try to be as thorough as possible.

A template is included below.


NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT PLANTEMPLATE

Title PageThe title page identifies the vineyard name and allpertinent contact information for the vineyard.Table of ContentsThe Table of Contents gives an outline of all thesections of the plan. It should be insertedimmediately after the Title Page but prior to Tab 1.Tab 1: Field Parameters· Information related to your soil classification· Size of your property· Soil site history, answers to questions on page

4-10 of the Guidebook· This information can also be used in your Soil

Conservation PlanTab 2: Identifying Areas of Concern· Site plan with areas of concern identified· Accompanying written description· Records of predominant wind direction, water

table depth, vineyard irrigation system, andpotential for leaching based on soil type andwater table

Tab 3: Petiole Sampling and Analysis· Test results and analysis from labTab 4: Soil Sampling and Analysis· Test results and analysis from labTab 5: Water Sampling and Analysis· Test results and analysis from labTab 6: Cover Crops· Species of cover crops that you are or will be

using in your vineyard· Reasons for use (e.g. managing nitrogen

excess in soil, reducing erosion)Tab 7: Fertilizers· Specific environmental considerations for

fertilizer use on your property· Type of fertilizer you are or will be using· Reasons for useTab 8: Rates and Timing of Fertilization

· Amount of fertilizer you will be applying

· Timing of that application (i.e. what timeof year and how many times during theyear

Tab 9: Methods of Nutrient Application· Where the fertilizer will be applied (e.g. below

dripper, row middles)· What method will be used to apply the

fertilizer· Who will apply the fertilizer· What equipment will be used· Factors you will use to adjust the application

date or method (e.g. slope, rainfall patterns,soil type)and how they will be changed basedon those factors

Tab 10: Review and UpdateTo be completed periodically throughout theseason and formally before starting your fertilityprogram for the following year.· Actual application rates· Actual application dates· Actual material that was used· Tonnage· Outcome of application (i.e. enough, too

much, too little for crop and quality goals)· Events that caused deviation from the plan

(e.g. weather, lack of labour, crop maturity)

You can start a new binder each year or add datafrom multiple years into the same binder. If thesame binder is used for the second year, all newreports for year 2 should be inserted within thesame tabs as in year 1 and placed immediatelybehind the year 1 reports.

For subsequent years, the same process should berepeated. A new binder should be started after thefifth year.

If using a new binder each year, the information inthe binder should be inserted in the same ordereach year.


4.4. Field Parameters

For each vineyard, the nutrient managementplan requires information on soil classification,size, and history.

Soil ClassificationThe interaction of the climate, physiography,geology, and vegetation ecology is whatcreates soil on the earth’s surface. Becausethese factors can vary so greatly, they createmany types of soils with different properties.The soil types that make up the grape growingregions of BC are diverse and may vary in pH,depth, texture and organic matter content,among other things. You will need to use soilmaps to determine the soil series that occuron your vineyard.

Soil MapsThe Canadian System of Soil and Soil ClimateClassification is a taxonomic system used tocategorize soil in Canada. The levels of soilcategories descending from broad to morespecific are: Order, Great Group, Sub- Group,Family and Series. Because soil series is amore specific level of classification, it is thebest to use for local and site specificinformation. The soil series is the name of thesoil (example Penticton silt loam) and willinclude information on soil texture(proportions of sand, silt, clay and gravel), pH,organic matter content, and soil depth towater table or bedrock if these occur near thesurface. However, the regional soil surveyswere conducted many years ago and so thedescriptions of soil series that may be availablefor your vineyard may not reflect the currentcondition of the soil, particularly if the soilshave been intensively managed (irrigated,

fertilized, levelled, amended) over the last 20years.

The soils of interior BC vineyards are generallyalkaline (pH >7.5) and low in organic matter.Many fine-textured soils contain abundantfree lime which promotes high pH (>8.0).Most of the soils of the south Okanagan aresandy and/or gravely in texture, mildly alkalinebut very low in organic matter. pH valuesexceeding 8.0 occur in some of the calcareousfans of the Similkameen. By contrast soils ofcoastal regions are acidic (pH <7.0) and tendto be higher in organic matter.

The soil properties at a given site are theproduct of natural soil forming factors likeclimate and parent material origin but alsopast management history. In particular, ahistory of poor land levelling may result in longterm management challenges for grapegrowers particularly where free lime subsoilhas been exposed on the surface.

The Viticulture Research Program at theSummerland federal research station hasconducted surveys of grower vineyards in theOkanagan and Similkameen valleys andproduced variety block maps with soil seriesinformation from published soil surveys listed.In most cases a soil scientist has field checkedand validated this information. Allparticipating growers should have thisinformation. It is planned that this informationwill be collected and updated as new vineyardsare established or existing vineyards change asfunding allows. For more information aboutthe availability of soil information for theOkanagan and Similkameen valley vineyardscontact Carl Bogdanoff at (250) 494-2124.


While the same format of information doesnot exist for vineyards in other parts of theprovince, detailed soil survey maps do exist formost agricultural areas where grapes aregrown in the province. For soil information forother areas of the province contact ElizabethKenney at (604) 796-2221.

Soil PitsA soil map is a good starting point inidentifying your soil types, but the best way toget to know your soil is to dig a pit and have alook. At pre-planting, it is necessary to dig to aminimum of 1 to 2 metres deep. In anestablished vineyard your soil pits should be 1metre deep.

Based on your own knowledge of soil variationin your vineyard, or from information from thesoil map, make observations using a soil pit ofeach soil series (type) on your vineyard.Starting from top of the pit, observe profile todetermine properties and differences betweenhorizons. Place golf tees or markers at the topand bottom of each horizon to clearly identifyit. Look for and record: different colors,shapes, roots, the size and amount of stones,small dark nodules (called concretions),worms, or other small animals and insects,worm channels, and anything else that isnoticeable. Periodically observing your soil willhelp you to plan and interpret your soilmanagement outcomes. A soil professional orviticulture consultant can help you withinterpreting soil features as you observe themin the field.

Hectares of Property/VineyardRecord the size of your property in its entiretyand the size of each of your vineyards.

Soil Site HistoryConsider the following when documentingyour soil site history (adapted, in part, fromWashington Association of Wine GrapeGrowers, 2006):

· How long has this site been a vineyard?· List any past irrigation history and the

systems used.· List any past crop and/or animal

management practices.· List any past herbicide usage and

carryover potential for each material.· List any past fertilizers and soil

amendments used.· Was the past land use uniform or variable

across the site?· Has the site been levelled, eroded, or

altered in any significant way?· What is the native vegetation on the site

or in the surrounding area?

4.5. Identifying Areas of Concern

Areas of concern include adjacent areas thatmay be impacted by your vineyard operations(e.g. wetlands, streams, residences, schools)and areas on your vineyard that may requireextra attention. Use the site plan you createdin Chapter 1 to record areas and provide anaccompanying written description. Refer tothis new map as your soil management map.


For adjacent areas of concern identify thefollowing attributes:

· type,· why it is of concern,· proximity to vineyard, and· size and type of buffer present

To identify areas on your vineyard that mayneed extra attention consider the following:

· unproductive regions of the vineyard,· overly vigorous regions of the vineyard,· regions with poor water drainage,· areas with very shallow top soil,· areas that have variations in canopy colour,

and· areas where there is a variation in cover

crop.

Also record the predominant wind direction,water table depth, vineyard irrigation system,and potential for leaching based on soil typeand water table.

4.6. Petiole Sampling and Analysis

An annual petiole (leaf stem) sample andanalysis will provide an accurate determinationof the nutritional status of your grapevine andhelp you to develop a nutritional and fertilizerregime.

Contact the lab in advance to discusspackaging and timing of sample and results.

Interpreting Petiole Test ResultsNitrate-nitrogen (NO3) can also be used asa guideline to determine nitrogen levels, butambiguity exists in defining critical values.NO3 is highest at bloom, and progressively

decreases until stabilization several weeks afterbloom; therefore sampling should be done atfull bloom. Below 350 ppm is considereddeficient, above 500 ppm adequate, andabove 2000 ppm excessive. It is importantto note that if vines display high vigour,additional nitrogen is not needed,regardless of NO3 or nitrogen lab results.

It may be appropriate to obtain a second,independent interpretation (e.g. from aconsultant or soil expert) of the petioleanalyses and their application to your nutrientmanagement plan, even if you understand howto interpret and apply the results.

4.7. Soil Sampling and Analysis

Soil tests provide reliable information relatingto organic matter content, pH, degree ofsalinity, and relative quantities of availableplant food.

Soil sampling and analysis should be doneevery 5 years or every 2 to 3 years ifundergoing a soil amendment program or iffertigation is the soil’s primary source ofnutrients. Fall (post harvest) is the best timeto sample soils.

Soil tests are not reliable for determiningfertilizer requirements because of the volumeof soil that grapevines can mine, differences innutrient uptake rates among rootstocks, soilvariability, root health, nutrient interactions,and other factors. Soil testing is useful inidentifying nutrient imbalances, deciding theform of fertilizer to apply, and tracking soilchanges in your vineyard over time.


Make a map of your vineyard that separatesvarieties and indicates areas that are differentfrom each other (e.g. slope, surface soil colour,drainage, soil texture). Add thesecharacteristics to the soil management mapyou began creating in section 4.5.

Contact the lab in advance to discuss samplepackaging, how quickly you should deliver thesample to the lab after taking it, and when toexpect results. Avoid contamination of thesamples. Make sure to store the samples in acool place and mail or deliver them to the labas soon as possible.

Interpreting Soil Test ResultsSome of the most important soil parametersare described in Table 4-3.

Table 4-3: A description of important soilparameters and guidelines for interpreting lab

results

Parameter Description/Importance

Interpreting Lab Results

pH · Measure ofacidity (lowpH) oralkalinity (highpH) of the soil

· Influences theplantavailability ofmacronutrients andmicronutrients

· 6.0 to 7.0 idealbecause all nutrientsavailable at this pH

· Vines can grow in soilthat is pH 4.0 to 8.5

· pH greater than 8.0indicates high calciumcarbonate and salts

· pH greater than 9.0indicates high levels ofsalinity

· Low pH can be causedby years of fertilizerand sulphur use andmay induce aluminumtoxicity

· Low pH can alsocreate fungi problems

· High pH can beaccompanied by ironchlorosis

CationExchangeCapacity(CEC)

· Also known asthe bufferindex

· Measure ofthe electricalcharge of thesoil

· Measure isused tocalculate theamount of limeneeded to raisethe pH

· CEC can bealtered withsoil organicmatter

· Varies widely with soiltype

· The more negative thecharge of the soil, thegreater its ability toattract and holdpositively chargednutrient ions (cations)including (magnesium(Mg++), calcium (Ca+)and potassium (K+))

· As the amount of basecations increases, sodoes the pH

BaseSaturation

· Indicates theratio of basecations in thesoil to totalcationexchangecapacity

· For all alkaline soils,base saturation willtypically be greaterthan 50% and manywill approach 100%

Electroconductivity(EC)

· Measure of soilsalinity

· Values < 0.7mmho/cm indicate nosalinity present

· 0.7 to 2.0 mmho/cmindicate minor saltspresent, potentiallyproblematic

· 2.0 to 4.0 mmho/cmindicate moderatesalinity that will affectplant growth and fruityield

· over 4.0 mmho/ cmcan result in majoryield reductions

Chlorides · A smallamount ofchlorides areessential forgrapevinegrowth butchlorides canbe toxic at lowconcentrations

· < 300 ppm are good· 300 to 700 ppm are

acceptable· > 700 ppm are

problematic


4.8. Water Sampling and Analysis

The purpose of water sampling and analysis isto determine what your water is contributingto the nutritional balance of the soil.Section 5.3 of the Water Managementchapter contains information on watersampling and analysis.

4.9. Cover Crops

A cover crop is any plant that improves thesoil on which it grows. The use of cover cropsin a vineyard is a long term cost effective wayto regulate the amount and persistence of soilorganic matter. It takes approximately threeyears from the initial planting of cover cropsto see nutrient cycling benefits in the soilorganic matter whereas the changes in soiltilth and water penetration and infiltration canoccur within one or two years.

Cover crops are featured predominately inthis section because they are a very effectiveway to manage soil and nutrients in yourvineyard. Cover crops can consist of grasses orlegumes, but are typically planted together fortheir complimentary benefits; the grass makesup the bulk and the legumes provide additionalnitrogen.

Choosing the correct cover crop requires theconsideration of a number of factors, asoutlined in Table 4-4.

Table 4-4: Factors to consider when choosing acover crop.

Consideration Questions

GrowthHabits

· What kind of growth habit isneeded?

· When is the growth required, e.g.lots of vigorous late fall growth orrapid early spring growth?

Tendency toCompete withVines

· Rooting depth· Water requirements· Nutrient requirements

Overwintering · Does the cover crop need to surviveover winter?

· Would it suit the cropping scheduleand soil type if the cover crop winterkilled and dried out by spring?

ControlOptions(Tendency tospread)

· Will the cover crop become a weedconcern?

· How is it controlled?· What options are there for control?

Sensitivity toherbicides

· How sensitive is the cover crop toherbicide residues?

Seed cost andavailability

· What is the seed cost and is the seedavailable in your area?

Environmentalimpact

· Can the cover crop damage naturalhabitat (e.g. orchard grass)?

Establishment · What is the best way to plant theseed?

· Is different equipment required?· How easy is it to establish?

NutrientManagement

· Is the cover crop a nitrogenproducer or does it require nitrogento grow well?

PestManagement

· What crop family is the cover cropin?

· Is it related to other crops in therotation?

· Are there pest concerns?Source: adapted from Ontario Ministry of Agriculture,Food and Rural Affairs, 2002.


4.10. Fertilizers

A fertilizer is a substance used to supplyessential elements. Two major questionspeople ask about fertilizers are what specificfertilizer to use and how much to use. Thereare no universal answers to these questions.

The ability of roots to take up nutrientsdepends on the nutrient supply, but it alsodepends on other factors, such as soilstructure, the availability of air and water, andthe population of soil organisms surroundingthe roots. After the initial nutrient application,a grower should be prepared to makeappropriate modifications later in the seasonor in the following year, considering theweather and how the grapes are growing.

Grapes can often be grown without addedfertilizers. A sustainable vineyard will usenutrients released through the decompositionof inherent soil organic matter, nitrogen fixedby leguminous cover crops and contained inirrigation water to maintain nutrient levels asmuch as possible.

All types of fertilizers can have negativeimpacts on the environment if not managedproperly. Rather than promoting the use ofcertain fertilizers over others, this programpromotes the “responsible use” of anyfertilizer, whether organic or inorganic(synthetic). The following sections providebest practices for fertilizer use that willminimize environmental impacts, enhanceenergy and other cost savings, and benefitsociety.

Environmental ConsiderationsSome of the environmental concerns to beaware of when working with any kind offertilizer are:

· Water pollution (nitrogen andphosphorus leaching): occurs when thefertilizer washes into surface water(streams, lakes or rivers) or leaches intogroundwater. A cover crop that establishesquickly in the fall and stays throughout thewinter can prevent/reduce nitrogenleaching by taking up added nutrients ascan careful use of irrigation water to avoidadding excess water to the root zone thatwill facilitate leaching of any solublenutrients.

· Air pollution: a problem primarily withdry, powdery fertilizers or when fertilizersare applied by spraying. Avoid air pollutionproblems by only spraying on days whenthere is no wind.

· Habitat and animal risks: proper storageand application of fertilizers can reducethe risk of natural habitats and animalsbeing adversely affected by fertilizers.

· Energy costs: some fertilizers have a highenergy cost. The mining and processing ofphosphate and potash fertilizers consumesome energy but the highest energy costis involved in making ammonia.

Organic FertilizersOrganic fertilizers include manure, mulch andcompost. Many are considered “slow release”because nutrients are released gradually overthe growing season as the organic matterdecays.


The responsible use of organic materials as soilamendments also benefits society becauseother options for disposing of the materials,such as landfilling and incineration, often carrygreater risks to the environment. That said,organic fertilizers are usually bulky andexpensive to transport (both financially andenvironmentally) so it is important to look atlocally-sourced options first.

Many organic materials contain low amountsof nutrients. Although organic fertilizers arenot always a quick fix for immediate nutrientrequirements, they can be applied to balancethe nutrient levels over time.

Animal ManureAnimal manure is the oldest known fertilizer.Throughout history, people have long relied onanimals as a source of soil nutrients. To realizethe potential value of manure and to avoidpollution problems, well-planned manurehandling and storage systems are essential.

Manure has several benefits:

· it has good amounts of nitrogen andpotash, fair amounts of othermicronutrients, and traces of severalmicronutrients;

· it adds organic matter to the soil – 20 to40 percent of manure is made up oforganic solids;

· it is low in phosphorus but it helps preventphosphorus from being tied up in the soils,thus making it available for plants; and

· it has longer-lasting effects than anequivalent amount of chemical fertilizer.

Table 4-5 provides an estimate of the averagenutrient content of several types of animalmanure. Manure includes both solids andliquids, which are for the most part the fecesand urine of the animal. The solid part mayalso include bedding. Most of the potash inmanure is contained in the urine, and thephosphate is contained primarily in the feces.Nitrogen is distributed equally between thetwo parts. The nutrient content of manures islow compared to commercial fertilizers.

Table 4-5: Nutrient content of several animalmanures, in pounds of nutrients per ton.

AnimalPounds/Ton

N P2O5

K2O S Ca Mg

Dairycattle

10 4 8 1 6 2

Beef cattle 11 8 10 1 3 2Poultry 23 11 10 3 36 6Swine 10 3 8 3 11 2Sheep 28 4 20 2 11 4Horse 13 5 13 -- -- --Source: Plaster, 1997.

Table 4-5 is provided as a guideline – thenutrient value of manure can varyconsiderably depending on several factors,including the feed, the age and productivity ofthe animal, and the amount and type ofbedding in the manure. Always be sure themanure added to your vineyard meets thenutrient need of your vineyard. Although it isnot always practical, testing your manure attime of application will be very helpful indetermining its nutrient content.

Proper handling of manure reduces nutrientlosses and lowers the chance of pollutingsurface or groundwater. The best way to


handle manure is to spread it on unfrozenground and turn into the soil immediately. If itis not practical to mix it into the soilimmediately, the manure should be storedshort-term in a storage structure with aconcrete floor and walls and a roof to stopdrainage losses and slow down the drying ofthe manure. Sharp nitrogen losses occur if itbegins to decay before it is spread. The lossesoccur when urea changes to ammonia gasduring decay – the loss is most rapid when it iswarm and the concentration of urea is highest.Covering manure piles with straw, hay or tarpswill reduce N loss.

Raw manure might contaminate the soil withE. coli bacteria, so it is better to use properlycomposted material.

Green ManureGreen manure is a cover crop that is grown tobe tilled and turned under while still green.

Green manure reduces erosion, weed growthand increases organic matter and nutrients insoil. Legumes, grasses, or other plants can begrown for green manure, depending on the soilnutrient requirements. The turning under ofthe cover crop can increase the nutrient andwater holding capacity and aeration levels ofthe soil.

Green manure crops can be planted in Marchor April, after the fall cover has been removed.A good time to consider green manuring isprior to vineyard establishment.

Green manuring is generally not practiced indry climates where water is chronically alimiting element to plant growth. Considerablesoil water is lost in transpiration from thegreen manure plant, lowering the water table.

MulchMulch is an organic matter material (e.g. straw,leaves, vine and grape waste) that is spread onthe soil surface. Mulch decomposes andprovides the soil with increased nutrients andsoil aggregation. Mulches also blockevaporation of water from the soil, moderatesoil temperatures, slowing down soil drying,and help control the growth of weeds

CompostComposting is the decomposition of wasteproducts by aerobic means (i.e. throughmicroorganisms that require oxygen). Thesuccessful production of compost dependsprimarily on the moisture content, air supplyand quantity of material.

The unique feature of compost as a fertilizer isits usually predictable and ideal C/N ratio,combined with a high concentration ofminerals. Compost also contains high levels ofmicroorganisms that aid in the decompositionand may increase pest and disease resistanceof the vineyard. Composting also destroysviable weed seeds that may be present inuncomposted manures.Compost made up of manure or food wastecan have quite high concentrations of salt.Grapevine growth can be affected if salinitylevels of the compost are greater than 2.5ds/m and certainly will be impacted if salinity


levels exceed 4.0 ds/m. Therefore, it is advisednot to use manure or food waste compost ifyour vineyard soil is somewhat saline (soil testresults for EC > 3.0 ds/m).

If using compost in high quantities or forspecific nutrient needs, have the composttested to find out what levels of nutrients arein it. Because compost can be made up ofsuch a variety of materials, it can vary greatlyin nutrient content and salinity levels. If yourcompost is from an Okanagan landfill, be sureto test for boron levels as they are higher thandesirable in many cases.

The pros and cons of various types of compostand manure are included in Table 4-6.

Table 4-6: Compost and manure pros and cons(characteristics may vary per product, especially

from mixed sources).

Material Pros and Cons

Greenwastecompost

High carbon and low nitrogen, potassium,and phosphorus. Good choice for buildingstable organic matter. May immobilizenitrogen if incorporated (particularly aproblem with high C/N ratio material).Recycles urban yard wastes. Typically low insalt content. Source and quality is importantbecause it can be a source for undesirablechemical residues.

Dairymanurecompost

High nitrogen (slow release) and low carbon.

Steermanurecompost

High nitrogen (slow release) and low carbon.May contain high levels of salts.

Grapepomacecompost

High potassium and nitrogen (slow release).Recycles winery waste products.

Chickenmanure

High nitrogen (slow release) and very highphosphorus.

compostDairymanure

Moderate nitrogen, but needs incorporationfor maximum contribution because ofammonia volatilization. May containnumerous weed seeds.

Steermanure

Moderate nitrogen, but needs incorporationfor maximum contribution because ofammonia volatilization. May containnumerous weed seeds and high levels ofsalts.

Chickenmanure

Very high nitrogen and phosphorus, butneeds incorporation of maximumcontribution because of ammoniavolatilization. Has strong odour, can burnyoung vines, and can tie up zinc if includesbedding.

Raw grapepomace

High potassium and moderate nitrogen.Recycles winery waste.

Source: Ohmart and Matthiasson, 2008

Special note: do not apply fermented grapepomace to vineyard soils because it can behighly toxic.

Synthetic FertilizersSynthetic fertilizers are manufactured in labsand are composed of synthetic chemicalsand/or minerals. Some fertilizers contain onemain nutrient source, while others containmultiple sources. Different nutrientcompositions suit different crops and soiltypes.

Advantages of synthetic fertilizers include:· nutrient amounts can be tweaked

depending on what is lacking in the soil,· quickly available to the plant upon

application,· cost effective,· easily transported, and· can be bought in quantities needed.


Over-application of synthetic fertilizers maylead to burning of the root, plant death,leaching due to rain or irrigation, increasedsalinity to toxic levels, and excessive vigour.

The production of synthetic fertilizers useslarge amounts of energy. The bulk of energyuse is not consumed directly at theagricultural site, but indirectly during theproduction, packaging and transportation ofthe fertilizer. Additional energy is then usedon site during application.

4.11. Rates and Timing of NutrientApplication

This section of your nutrient managementplan should outline the amount of fertilizeryou will apply and the timing of thatapplication (i.e. what time of year and howmany times during the year).

The amount and type of fertilizer appliedshould be based on the results of your petioleand soil tests, the nutrients available to thevines, the amount removed with harvest, thenutrients incorporated into root and trunkgrowth (5-10% of that removed with harvest),and the vineyard vigour. It is important toensure vines are balanced, leaching isminimized, and nutrients are not over or underapplied.

Knowledge of deficiency symptoms (see Table4-2), good record keeping, andexperimentation with quantities and timing offertilizer applications will also aid in assessing

the soil capability and determining theappropriate rates and timing of applications.

The timing of fertilization is important tomaximize the positive effects of the fertilizerto the soil and to minimize its potentiallynegative effects to the grapevines and thesurrounding environment.

General best management practices forfertilizer timing and application include:

· Add fertilizers in small amounts and inmultiple doses to decrease the possibilityof leaching into the groundwater or ofcreating excessive nutrient levels;

· Add fertilizers during the growing seasonwhen the uptake of nutrients by thegrapevines is at its peak, or at post harvestto allow the grapevines time to take up thenutrients for the next growing season;

· Do not apply nutrients on excessively wetsoils and soils which are cold, frozen orsnow covered as these soils are less likelyto absorb nutrients; and

· Never add fertilizers when the grapevinesare dormant.

4.12. Methods of NutrientApplication

This section of your nutrient managementplan should address the following questions:

· Where will the fertilizer be applied (e.g.below dripper, row middles)?

· Will the irrigation system be used to applythe fertilizer?

· Who will apply if someone from youroperation won’t be doing the application?


· What equipment will be used?· What factors will you use to adjust

application date or method and how willthey change (e.g. slope, rainfall patterns,soil type)?

FertigationFertigation (or chemigation) is the process ofapplying highly soluble inorganic fertilizersusing an irrigation system for application.Fertigation is only as effective as the irrigationsystem it is used in. Fertigation works best in atrickle/drip system but can also be usedthrough sprinkler or surface irrigation.

Advantages of fertigation include distributionuniformity, reduced fertilizer use, minimal off-site movement, flexible in timing fertilizerapplication and significantly less labourintensive, all of which reduce overall costs.

An alternative to fertigation is the use of abiological source to add nutrients to the soil. Abiological source may be compost, pomace ora cover crop. As the crop is irrigated, watertransports nutrients from the biological sourceinto the root zone of the plants.

Soil Surface ApplicationsSome fertilizers are added directly onto thesoil and then worked into the soil for optimalresults. This includes the organic fertilizerssuch as manure and compost and somesynthetic fertilizers as well.

Topical application is one of the simplestmethods of fertilizing, it is the easiest methodof applying organic fertilizers (i.e. manure,

compost), and it can be used to apply bulkblends rapidly.

The disadvantages of topical application are:

· Some nutrients do not leach very far intothe soil, and if left on the surface may notreach the root zone;

· Runoff can occur if rainfall or irrigationrates exceed the infiltration capacity ofthe soil. Some moisture is needed tosolubilise the nutrients and transport themdownward into the root zone so they canbe utilized by the plant;

· Nutrients can have an adverse affect onanimals that enter the vineyard too soonafter application; and

· Light and powdery fertilizers can blowaway on a windy day. Be sure to work thefertilizer into the soil as soon as possible.

Foliar SprayingFoliar feeding involves spraying solutionsdirectly on the leaves of the vines. Thenutrients are absorbed through the stomata(openings in leaves that allow gases to move inand out). The most practical use of foliarsprays is to solve trace element shortages.Spraying the leaves bypasses any soil problems(e.g. trace elements being tied up in the soil).

The advantage of foliar spraying is that it oftenprovides the quickest response of any methodof fertilization so may be used as a quick curefor a deficiency.


The disadvantages of foliar spraying are:

· Results are usually short-lived so it may benecessary to repeat feedings several times;

· Difficult to supply enough of the majorelements; and

· Sprays strong enough to supply muchnutrient value can burn the leaves anddamage application equipment.

Nutrient Application EquipmentCalibrationIn order to manage nutrients effectively, bothmanure and fertilizer spreaders need to bemaintained and calibrated to ensure uniformdistribution. Calibration is a determination ofthe amount of solid or liquid applied to a givenarea for a specific piece of applicationequipment. Uniformity is the evenness ofapplication across the band spreading widthfrom the beginning to end of each pass.

4.13. Review and Update ofNutrient Management Plan

Your nutrient management plan should bereviewed periodically throughout the seasonand a formal annual review and updateconducted before starting your fertilityprogram for the following year.

The questions to consider during your reviewsare:

· What were your actual application rates?· When did you actually apply?· How did you actually apply?· What material was actually used?· What was your tonnage?

· Was the fertility enough, too much, or toolittle for your crop and quality goals?

· What events caused deviation from theplan (e.g. weather, lack of labour, cropmaturity)?

· Reflect on these deviations from your planand update or change components tobetter predict next season.

SOIL MANAGEMENT

4.14. Soil Erosion Due to Water,Wind, or Equipment

Agricultural lands lose surface soil every yearto different types of erosion.

Water erosion happens when rainfall ormelting snow or even excess irrigation washesvaluable topsoil away. Water erosion can belimited by ensuring your soil has good waterinfiltration, good water holding capacity (bythe addition of organic matter to yourvineyard). If possible and necessary, youshould consider a drainage system for yourvineyard. (Although some larger vineyards usea tile drainage system, this can be costly andnot feasible for many viticulturists. Drainageditches or gullies to catch excess water areanother alternative.) Cover crops will helpprotect the surface soil and prevent watererosion as well. Drip irrigation will minimizewater use and runoff.

Mass movement erosion occurs when a largeamount of soil moves and takes more soil withit. This is like a landslump or small landslideand occurs on a slope. Generally mass


movements will be caused by concentratedrunoff flows that saturate soils on slopingterrain. If possible, avoid planting on steepgrades. Sandy or clayey textured soils aremore likely to be carried away in massmovement erosion. Add organic matter toyour soil to help limit mass movement erosion.Planting cover crops will also work to reducethe possibility of mass movement erosion.

Tillage erosion occurs through plowing anddiscing the soil on sloping and hummocky(uneven hilly) landscapes. On most cultivatedsoils this is the major factor in soil movementusually resulting in removal of topsoil fromconvex landform positions and deposition inconcave or depressional positions. The impactis to greatly reduce soil health on the erodedslopes and knolls. The object should be tominimize tillage on hummocky landscapes. Insome high-value vineyards in Europe it is notuncommon for vineyard managers totransport soils moved downslope throughtillage back onto upperslope positons tomaintain soil health and productivity.

Wind erosion occurs when wind blows awaysurface soil. Cover crops will help protect thesoil from wind. Also, planting trees and shrubson the perimeter of your vineyard will act as awindbreak and help to protect you vineyardfrom wind.

Air quality is an important consideration whenworking with soil. Dust particles in the air canbe considered air pollution. Particulate matter(PM) in the air is measured in diameter. PM10means particulate matter less than 10 micronsin diameter. At this size, the particles can be

inhaled and enter the lungs and it is verydifficult for the body to get rid of them. Ifenough of these particles accumulate in thelungs, they can create health problems.

It is important to be aware of PM10 and howyou can reduce them in your vineyard. Usingdust suppression materials (paving, oil,roadmix gravel, organic matter) on roadwaysand shifting soil only when it is moist and noton windy days are two measures to reduceyour impact on air quality.

Breaks in water supply lines or irrigationlines can result in large volumes of water beingdischarged over a small area. In fine texturedsoils (clayey and silty soil classes) considerableerosion can occur very quickly. Water supplylines must be inspected and maintained on aregular basis to prevent such erosion eventsfrom occurring.

4.15. Soil Erosion from Roads,Ditches, and Culverts

It is important to limit erosion associated withroads and their infrastructure and to preventerosion that does occur from reachingadjacent waterbodies.

Important sediment reduction measures forroads, ditches and culverts include (Horwathet. al, 2008):· Outsloping unpaved roads minimizes

surface erosion by rapidly moving waterfrom the roadbed. Outsloping alsodisperses eroded sediments along the hill-slope, where it can be filtered by cover


crops or natural vegetation, rather thanconcentrating sediment in the ditch.

· Vegetating unpaved roads with grass orother vegetation reduces erosion and dust.

· Grassing and hardening ditches to preventerosion and downcutting. For low tomoderate slopes use perennial grasses tostabilize ditch surfaces and filter sedimentsfrom unpaved road surfaces. For steeperslopes and points of potential high scour,hardening with stone or cement may benecessary.

· Stabilizing culverts at both the inlet andoutlet by ensuring soil is well compactedand points of scour hardened (e.g. withstone or cement); sizing culverts toaccommodate high flow events; installingculverts at a slope matching thedownstream grade; and installing energydissipaters below the culvert outflow.

4.16. Tillage of the Vineyard Floor

Tillage or discing (tilling which cultivates onlythe top few inches of soil) should be usedsparingly. Once a vineyard is established,tillage of the vineyard floor should not be donemore than once every five years, if at all.Tilling can break down soil structure,deteriorate soil organic matter, and adverselyaffect soil aggregation. Tilling can also breakdown mycorrhizae fungi and contribute to soilcompaction.

Tilling can be necessary if you use greenmanure as part of your nutrient managementplan. Tilling is then used to turn under theseplants for decomposition in the soil for specific

nutrient requirements. This practice of tillingshould still be done only when required andthe adverse affects of soil compaction shouldbe considered in your soil managementpractices. Use a spader or cultivator tominimise the impacts of tillage.

4.17. Soil Compaction

Soil compaction occurs when heavy trafficsuch as tractors or other farming equipment,compresses soil, causing it to lose pore space.The loss of pore space makes the soil less ableto absorb and hold water, causing an increasedlikelihood of water erosion. Vine roots requirea certain amount of water and oxygen in orderto take in nutrients and grow and soilcompression makes less space for both waterand oxygen in the soil and can have an impacton vine growth.

To avoid soil compression:

· Do not use heavy equipment on wet soil;· Use lighter equipment when possible;· Use equipment with tracks or wide

diameter tires to reduce ground loading;· Keep tire pressure on equipment as low as

possible (tracked tractors have the lowestpsi);

· Plant cover crops (the roots create spacein the soil to reduce compaction); and

· Use equipment that can do 2-4 rows at atime.


4.18. Soil Water Storage andMovement

Soil should have good infiltration rates and ahigh water holding capacity to soak up surfacewater to minimize run off and maximize theamount of water that can be made available tovine root systems.

Water stress on the vine will affect the growthof leaves, shoots and fruit. Good soil structureis important for creating optimal levels ofwater infiltration, water holding capacity anddrainage.

If water from irrigation or rain puddles on topof the soil and runs off when the soilunderneath is dry, measures to improve theinfiltration capacity of the soil should be taken.

· Water infiltration: affected by how pronethe soil is to crusting. Covering soil withmulch or compost will improve the abilityof the soil to absorb water.

· Water holding capacity: affected by thesoil structure, texture and organic mattercontent. Inside the soil aggregates arewater holding micro pores. Soil with goodwater holding capacity will store waterduring rainfall for use by the vines roots.Grow cover crops or add compost ormulch to create well aggregated soil.

· Sufficient drainage: affected by internalporosity, which can be enhanced by addingorganic matter, or by landscape positionwhereby runoff water collects at a site. Inthis later case, artificial drainage may berequired.

CHAPTER 5WATER MANAGEMENT


INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 5-1

IDENTIFYING LOCAL CONDITIONS ............................................................................... 5-1

5.1. The Water Cycle .................................................................................................................... 5-2

5.2. Your Watershed ...................................................................................................................... 5-2

WATER QUALITY ................................................................................................................. 5-2

5.3. Water Quality Testing and Analysis .................................................................................... 5-2

5.4. Backflow Prevention .............................................................................................................. 5-4

WATER USE EFFICIENCY ................................................................................................. 5-4

5.5. Types of Irrigation Systems ................................................................................................... 5-4

5.6. Irrigation System Design and Operation ............................................................................ 5-5

5.7. Flow Meters ............................................................................................................................ 5-5

5.8. Delineating Irrigation Management Zones ......................................................................... 5-5

5.9. Distribution Uniformity and Application Efficiency ......................................................... 5-6

5.10. Pump Efficiency ......................................................................................................................5-7

5.11. Routine System Maintenance ...............................................................................................5-7

IRRIGATION SCHEDULING ............................................................................................. 5-8

5.12. Soil Moisture-Based Approaches ........................................................................................ 5-9

5.13. Plant-Based Approaches ..................................................................................................... 5-10

5.14. Deficit Irrigation and Dry Farming Methods .................................................................... 5-12

SURFACE WATER MOVEMENT ...................................................................................... 5-13

5.15 Stormwater Runoff ............................................................................................................... 5-13

5.16 Drainage ................................................................................................................................. 5-13

CHAPTER 5 WATER MANAGEMENT | Page 5-1

5.0 WATER MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

Chapter objective: To promote responsibleuse of water through monitoring, properirrigation system design and scheduling,efficient technologies, and runoff control.

Effective irrigation management can helpgrowers reduce their water consumption,minimize the likelihood of excess nutrientsleaching beyond the plant’s rooting depth,increase crop yield, improve fruit quality, andcapitalize on related cost savings.Consequently, the environment and societyalso benefit: reduced water consumption inthe vineyard means more water is available forthe future or for other needs; reducing oreliminating runoff and nutrient leachingmeans less impact on streams, lakes andaquifers.

Not only will water conservation save water,but in many cases energy use will be reduced,thus having a significant impact on operatingcosts for the vineyard.

To be effective, irrigation management mustbe tailored to suit site conditions, plantcharacteristics, vine size, spacing and variety,and must be compatible with othermanagement goals such as cover cropmaintenance, frost protection, and disease andpest control. Growers should use a varied setof tools to help them make more informeddecisions. These tools may include monitoring

equipment, weather stations, online databanks (i.e. evapotranspiration data) andcalculators (i.e. irrigation calculator).

Chapter 4 of the Best Practices Guide andChapter 9 of the EFP Reference Guideshould also be reviewed to learn more aboutwater management in the vineyard.

IDENTIFYING LOCAL CONDITIONS

Soil type, land features, and irrigation watersource are examples of local conditions uniqueto every vineyard that should be considered inany water management scheme, as they willinfluence how the crop objectives can beachieved. Local parameters and conditionsshould be monitored on an on-going basis, toidentify shortfalls in the strategy and to takethe necessary corrective actions.

Some monitoring tools may include:

· soil monitoring devices,· weather stations, and· other information resources (e.g.

www.irrigationbc.com andwww.farmwest.com).

Some local parameters to track may include:

· visual plant stress,· leaf water potential,· soil moisture, and· evapotranspiration (ET) estimates.

http://www.irrigationbc.com/

http://www.farmwest.com/


The data should not only be collected but alsorecorded and interpreted to support irrigationscheduling decisions. Other considerationssuch as energy efficiency should also be takeninto account when relevant.

5.1. The Water Cycle

The water cycle is an essential component toagriculture and life in general. It is importantfor all water users to optimize the waterreceived from the natural cycle, especially aswater becomes a scarcer resource.

During precipitation, moisture is stored asboth surface and ground water. Some of thiswater is lost through evaporation back to theatmosphere or runs off the site as surface flow.Additionally, some water is taken up by plants,where it is stored in the plant and transpiredback into the atmosphere. The plantcommunities on the vineyard and particularlythe vine and cover crop selection can have asignificant impact on how water is cycled, asvarious plants use and store water differently.

To take full advantage of natural waterresources you should have a basicunderstanding of the water cycle and of howpractices such as monitoringevapotranspiration, increasing the waterholding capacity of your soil, improving soilfiltration, and managing runoff fit into thecycle.

5.2. Your Watershed

Your vineyard is located in a watershed. Awatershed is an area where surface water

captured by precipitation, filtration and storedwater, drains into the same water source.Watersheds can be large areas that drain intoan ocean or smaller areas that drain into a lake.All living things in a watershed area depend ontheir common water source and therefore allhave a vested interest a healthy watershed.Activities on the land in a watershed can haveboth a local environmental impact and animpact downstream.

Knowledge of the local watershed is importantin understanding what issues a region facesregarding their water resources. To find outwhich local watershed your property is locatedin, contact your water purveyor or localgovernment (i.e. municipality or regionaldistrict).

WATER QUALITY

5.3. Water Quality Testing andAnalysis

Water quality is an important aspect inirrigation planning. Water of poor quality cancarry pollutants, pathogens and salts that cannegatively impact the vineyard and theenvironment.

Irrigation water suitability is greatly influencedby the concentration of salts. The long-termgrowth of a crop and health of the soil will begreatly influenced by salinity and theproportion of sodium relative to magnesium inwater. It will also depend on soil type,irrigation practices, grape variety androotstock. High levels of salts can affect theosmotic effect at the root zone, meaning that


greater tensions are needed within the rootsto extract water in higher salinity soil.

Additionally, some of the salts may be in aform that is toxic to vine roots (i.e. chlorideand sodium), which can affect shoot growthand yield potential. High levels of boron cancause leaf damage (cupping and spotting),defoliation and depressed growth.

Methods of dealing with salt toxicity include:

· Ensuring good drainage. Soil type has alarge effect because good drainage resultsin leaching of salt out of the root zone.

· Adding calcium to the soil.· Water filtration may be necessary as

carbonate and bicarbonate ions in watercan combine with calcium and magnesium,precipitate and block drippers andemitters.

Most vineyards in BC are supplied with waterby irrigation districts, municipalities orregional districts. These water purveyors carryout regular water testing and usually treatwater to drinking-water standards prior todistribution. Where this is the case, growersmay not need to test their water for irrigationsuitability, however, growers should requesttest results from their water purveyor at leastonce every five years.Where private groundwater wells are thesource of water, testing for irrigationsuitability and nutrient content should beperformed every three years. Where dynamicwater sources such as streams are the source,a more frequent monitoring scheme isrecommended as water quality can change

more often. Growers should inspect wellheadsand water sources on an annual basis toidentify potential contamination, andadditional water testing should be carried outwhen a cause for concern is identified.

Table 5.1 shows parameters according to theBC Approved Water Quality Guidelines. In allcases the values shown are maximum limits. Incase of dispute, the original document(available from BC Ministry of Environment)must be consulted.

In addition to the parameters listed in Table 5-1, it may be beneficial to analyze forbicarbonate, calcium, magnesium, manganeseand total suspended solids (TSS).


Table 5.1: Test parameters for irrigation water forwine grapes.

Analysis IrrigationParameters**

Comments

pH 7.0 – 8.7 8.5 or greatersuggestspossible sodiumhazard

Aluminum 5mg/Ldissolved

Boron 0.5 - 1.0 mg/LChloride 100 mg/LCopper (sheep) 200ug/LFaecal coliform 1000/mlLead, neutral andalkaline – finetextured soils

400ug/L

Lead, all other soils 200ug/LSodium 300mg/LSulphate 500mg/LNitrate No levelNitrite No levelIron 0.3mg/L Aesthetic

objective only.Total dissolvedsolids (salinity)

500mg/L Objective level:Higher valuesindicate highsalt content

Hardness - Forinformationonly

Zinc for irrigationwater with pH <6

1000ug/L

Zinc for irrigationwater pH >7

5000ug/L

Zinc for irrigationwater with pH 6-7

2000ug/L

**Irrigation parameters are for systems that do notprovide public access and do not provide overheadirrigation to crops that are eaten raw.Source: BC Approved Water Quality Guidelines

5.4. Backflow Prevention

Fertigation is a way of distributing fertilizers,soil amendments or other water solubleproducts through an irrigation system. Theprocess involves injecting fertilizer intoirrigation lines and delivering it to the plantalong with the irrigation water. See Section4.12 for more information on fertigation.

Backflow prevention devices are essential in afertigation system to prevent water sourcecontamination.

WATER USE EFFICIENCY

5.5. Types of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation systems used in BC vineyardsinclude high-volume, high pressure sprinklersystems and low pressure systems such as dripor trickle and micro-sprinklers.

Regardless of the irrigation system type, it isimportant to know the rate of waterapplication per area to calculate the amount oftime required to wet through the root system.Water delivery rates will be influenced by siteand crop characteristics such as terrain, slope,cover crops and the rate of water absorption,and percolation within the soil.

Most vineyards in BC are irrigated byoverhead sprinklers, which are used not onlyto supply water but to provide frost protection.While overhead sprinklers are thepredominant method of irrigation, drip andmicrojet systems are also being used.


5.6. Irrigation System Design andOperation

The irrigation system must be designed toprovide vines their maximum waterrequirements. Also, the system design musttake soil characteristics into consideration.Irrigation companies can help growersdetermine flow rates, sprinkler sizes, pipe andpump needs for the land and crop to beirrigated.

Irrigation systems must be designed andinstalled correctly. You should use a CertifiedIrrigation Designer (CID) to help you designand install your system. CIDs are held to acode of ethics that require the selection anddesign of irrigation systems that meetstandards and specifications outlined inindustry adopted irrigation design manuals.They also provide scheduling information tothe property owner to ensure that the systemsare operated correctly. Visitwww.irrigationbc.com to find a CID in yourarea.

The irrigation system designer must set waterapplication rates that are ideal for the local soilcharacteristics and vine vigour. Equallyimportant are the number of emitters andtheir spacing from each other; these should beset to deliver a water rate adequate for thevine size and soil texture.

An irrigation system should include certainbasic components:

· back-flow preventers· flow controls

· filtration and injection equipment· pressure compensation· energy efficiency· accommodation for site variation.

To prevent plugging of irrigation emitters, afiltration system and regular inspections of theemitters are recommended. Thesecomponents and controls can enhance safetyand energy efficiency.

5.7. Flow Meters

Water metering in an irrigation system helpsby providing a visual representation of waterconsumption and can help detect leaks in thesystem. Metering usually leads to waterconservation efforts, including a reduction inwasted water.

Flow meters can be installed on wells andother pumps to provide an accurate measureof water usage. Monthly checks and recordingof flows are recommended.

5.8. Delineating IrrigationManagement Zones

An important component of irrigationmanagement is the identification of zones ofthe vineyard that have similar plant-availablewater storage and similar crop-waterextraction patterns. Zones will havesignificantly different water and nutrientrequirements that will affect irrigationscheduling.


To delineate irrigation management zones youcan follow these steps, which consist ofcreating different layers of drawings (usingtracing paper) and overlaying these on top ofthe site plan of your site (FAO, 2005):

Step 1:· Make a copy of the site plan created

in Chapter 1.Step 2:

· Make a copy of the soil managementmap created in Chapter 4 on tracingpaper.

· Ensure the drawing identifies thedominant soil types and key soilproperties that affect soil-waterstorage.

· Mark areas with similar irrigationrequirements.

Step 3:· Draw your irrigation system plan on a

new sheet of tracing paper, andoverlay on top of the soilmanagement map and site plan.

· Mark areas watered by each valve andin each irrigation shift.

Step 4:· Overlay a planting plan of grape

varieties.· Integrate this information to draw up

irrigation-scheduling units.· Delineate areas that have similar

irrigation requirements according tosoils, aspect, topographic location andvine type/cultivar.

· Some modification may be required tothe irrigation system.

Refer to the resulting map (or maps) as yourirrigation management map(s).

Figure 5-5: Steps in delineating irrigationmanagement zones. (FAO, 2005)

5.9. Distribution Uniformity andApplication Efficiency

Distribution Uniformity (DU) is ameasurement of the evenness of waterapplication over a field, and is expressed as apercentage. Application efficiency is anindication of the percentage of water appliedby the irrigation system that is actuallyavailable to the crop. It is important forirrigation water to be distributed evenlythroughout the vineyard so the vine canopy,yield and fruit quality are uniform throughoutthe block. The goal should be to avoidoverwatering one area and not wateringenough in another, since this will affect cropuniformity -- one of the most importantparameters influencing wine quality. Table 5-2lists the impacts of irrigation extremes.


Table 5-2: Impacts of irrigation extremes

Over-Irrigation Under-Irrigation

· Drowns roots, stressingplants

· Reduces cropyield

· Leaches nutrients andpesticides from theroot zone togroundwater

· Reduces cropquality (fruit andvegetable size)

· Reduces nutrientuptake

· Reduces plantgrowth

· Cools soil, thusreducing root growth

· Weakens plant

· Encourages rootdisease

· Reduces crop quality· Increases system

operating costs· May impact

unnecessarily on waterresources and impactfish and wildliferesources that rely onadequate and sustainedwater quality andquantity

Source: Nyvall and Tam, 2005, p. 4

Simple catch can trials can be conducted onany type of irrigation system and the dataused to calculate the distribution uniformityfor the system. Yearly testing and recording ofdistribution uniformity of the irrigation systemis recommended, unless subsurface dripirrigation is employed, in which case reliefvalves should be checked weekly. Testing canbe done by monitoring emitter outflows andpressure differences across the block andmake corrections where needed.Irrigation systems should be assessed fordistribution uniformity and applicationefficiency before scheduling is developed.

5.10. Pump Efficiency

An irrigation system can be made moreefficient firstly by having a custom designeddistribution system with adequate pump andpipeline sizes, and by irrigating according tocrop requirements.Energy efficiency of pumps can be optimizedby having a pump operate at or close to its“Best Efficiency Point”, accomplished by:

· Ensuring that the correct impeller isused

· Improving friction loss in fittings atpump discharge.

· Replacing worn nozzles as these canapply more water than desired and canthrow off your irrigation schedule(water budget).

· Replacing pump with a more efficientmodel.

Pumps fed by electricity produced from cleanalternate sources of energy such as wind orsolar photovoltaic, have become aneconomically viable option for many vineyardsin North America and are considered the mostsustainable.

5.11. Routine System Maintenance

Once your system is designed and installed itis up to you to make sure it is being used(scheduled) and maintained properly.Irrigation scheduling takes into account thelocation, landscape, soil and irrigation systemoperation parameters. The IIABC provides anonline irrigation calculator that can be used tohelp develop watering times and amounts for


landscape irrigation. The scheduling calculatoris integrated with the climate network so thatcurrent evapotranspiration data is used in thecalculations. See www.irrigationbc.com for thecalculator and instructions on how to use it.

Routine checks of your entire system will helpensure proper functioning and reduce waterwaste.

Low-Volume Surface SystemsSprinkler systems can be expensive to installand can have many components. These mayrequire a significant amount of maintenanceto continue operating at maximum efficiency.Irrigation system leaks waste water and canresult in significant off-site movement ofwater, contributing to non-point sourcepollution.

For proper performance it is necessary thatfilters, lines and sprinkler heads are operatingas designed without interference fromclogging, leaks or breaks. A backflushing orself-cleaning filter is ideal for this application.

Routine maintenance should include:

· checking for leaks,· backflushing filters,· flushing lines,· chlorinating (if needed),· acidifying (if needed),· cleaning or replacing clogged emitters, and· inspecting or replacing other parts.

Low-Volume Subsurface SystemsLow-volume sub-surface systems may requirea significant amount of maintenance tocontinue operating at maximum efficiency.

Routine maintenance should be done whileirrigating, and should include:

· checking for leaks,· backflushing filters,· flushing lines,· chlorinating (if needed),· acidifying (if needed),· cleaning or replacing clogged emitters, and· inspecting or replacing other parts.

High-Volume Sprinkler SystemsRoutine maintenance should be done whileirrigating, and should include:

· checking and fixing head rotation problems,· checking and fixing nozzle clogging, and· repairing line leaks and breaks.

IRRIGATION SCHEDULING

High quality fruit depends on an irrigationschedule that is started at the right time ofthe season and continued at optimal intervals.The definition of ‘adequate’ will depend on soil,crop, atmospheric, irrigation system andoperational factors. The decision makingprocess can include simple things, such asmaking decisions based on personal experienceor following neighbours’ practices, or morecomplex methods, such as using soil watermeasurements, forecasts/meteorological data,climate projections, plant stress indicators,and monitoring leaf turgor pressure, trunkdiameter and sap flow.

The goal of any irrigation program should be tosupply the vine with enough water to surviveand produce high quality fruit, whileminimizing loss due to percolation and runoff.



Irrigation scheduling is a systematic way ofdetermining when and how much to irrigate.Its purpose is generally to replace the amountof water lost from the soil over a specifiedperiod of time, although other considerationsexist (i.e. winter hardiness).

Benefits of irrigation scheduling include(Prichard, nd):· reduced costs (energy and water,· control of excess vegetative growth,· reduced cost of hedging and multiple leaf

removal,· reduced disease susceptibility,· increased fruit quality,· reduced environmental risks (off site and

percolation movement, and· reduced fertilizer losses (deep percolation.

FACT BOX: IRRIGATIONSCHEDULING CALCULATOR

The Irrigation Industry Association of BC(www.irrigationbc.com) has developedagriculture irrigation scheduling and landscapeirrigation scheduling calculators. Thecalculators use real time climate data todetermine an irrigation schedule andinformation on when to apply the nextirrigation. They are tools to help the systemoperator make quick decisions without havingto do numerous hand calculations. User guidesare available to help you through the process.

5.12. Soil Moisture-BasedApproaches

As the vine canopy expands and temperaturesrise, the evapotranspiration rate increases,which can deplete the soil of surplus waterreserves from winter rain and irrigation. Vinewater stress generally occurs when half of theroot-available water has been depleted andstress increases as the dry point is reached.

To manage irrigation effectively, thescheduling of irrigation events should be basedon direct measures of soil moisture, which willhelp determine what is available for the plant,and what needs to be supplied. Monitoringfrequency will depend on the rate at which soildries.

Soil water measurements are easy to apply inpractice and can be quite precise. Manycommercial systems are available and somesensors can be readily automated.Disadvantages include the fact that soilheterogeneity requires many sensors (oftenexpensive) or an extensive monitoringprogram and selecting a position that isrepresentative of the root-zone can bedifficult. (Jones, 2003).

Water Holding Capacity of SoilDuring irrigation or rainfall, gravity pulls waterthrough large pores in the soil andapproximately 50% of it ends up being ‘held’in the smaller pores of typical soil. Sandy soilshave larger pores and therefore hold on to lesswater, while clay soils have smaller pores thatcan hold more water per unit volume.



However, the smaller pores hold on to watermore tightly and leave less water available forthe vine.

Knowing your soil’s water storage capacity,along with annual rainfall, cover crop water useand soil variation, is essential in developing awater budget, and in conducting properirrigation initiation in the spring/summer andirrigation scheduling later in the growingseason.

Methods and Instruments for MeasuringSoil Moisture Content

Soil water potential and soil water content canbe measured using a variety of techniques. Soilmoisture testing techniques and devices haveadvantages and disadvantages depending onthe use of the measurement. For example,tensiometers, conductivity blocks, timedomain reflectometry probes, and the soil feelmethod are useful for monitoring soil moisturestatus; however, these may not be sufficient ifemploying a deficit irrigation strategy.

Equipment should be professionally calibratedto ensure accurate readings.

5.13. Plant-Based Approaches

Irrigation scheduling can also be done basedon sensing of the plant response to waterdeficits. Plant stress sensing includes bothwater status measurements and plant responsemeasurement.

Visual CuesVisual cues are easy to detect, but often notprecise. They should be used in combinationwith one or more other irrigation schedulingtechniques.

Pressure Chamber (“Pressure Bomb”)The pressure chamber, also called a pressurebomb, is an invaluable tool for monitoringwinegrape vine water status and is availablecommercially at a reasonable cost. It isportable and the measurements are done inreal time in the vineyard, so irrigationmanagement decisions can be made as data iscollected.

Two disadvantages of this method are that it isslow and labour intensive (and therefore canbe expensive) and it is unsuitable forautomation.

There are basically three ways a pressurechamber can be used to measure vine waterstatus. These include: predawn leaf waterpotential, mid-day leaf water potential, ormid-day stem water potential. The threemethods vary mainly in the timing of themeasurement and the preparation of the leafto be sampled.

Leaf water potential (LWP)· Taken in the one-hour period from 30

minutes prior to and 30 minutes aftersolar noon (time can be lengthened in apractical field situation to 1 hour beforeand 1 hour after solar noon).

· Fully expanded leaf exposed to directsunlight is chosen for measurement.


· Leaf is covered with a small plastic bagthat is wrapped tightly around leaf andsecured before cutting from shoot.

· Petiole of bagged leaf is cut from shootwith sharp razor as close to shoot aspossible.

· Petiole is quickly placed in chamber withcut edge of petiole facing outside andbagged leaf blade inside chamber.

· Operator carefully watches exposed edgeof petiole for appearance of drop of water– as soon as it appears the operator readsthe corresponding pressure from thechamber gauge.

· Main limitation is the time frame allowableto ensure consistency, which limits thenumber of vines that can be measured inone day.

Stem water potential (SWP)· Taken in the one-hour period beginning

30 minutes prior to solar noon and ending30 minutes after solar noon.

· Leaf on the shaded side of canopy ischosen to minimize any possible heatingeffects.

· Leaf is wrapped in black plastic bag that iscovered with aluminum foil.

· Leaf is left in bag for 90 to 120 minutes(allows LWP to come into equilibrium withSWP).

· Leaf is then excised and tested in pressurechamber using same method as LWP.

Predawn leaf water potential (PDLWP)· Same basic method as LWP except

readings are taken beginning at 3:30 amand ending before sunrise.

· Questionable practicality due to timing

To ensure appropriate and consistent results, itis imperative that technicians be well-trainedin the use of the pressure chamber and thechoice of leaves to sample.

EvapotranspirationWeather records and evapotranspirationestimates can also be used to help todetermine how much water to apply to thevineyard.

Evapotranspiration is an estimate of theamount of water lost through the evaporationof water from the soil surface and thetranspiration of water vapour from the plant.This estimated amount can help determinehow much water to apply to the crop toreplace the water that was lost.

Frequent irrigation, wetting a larger area, hightemperatures, low humidity, and wind increaseevaporation from the soil surface

Plant transpiration is mostly affected by wind,temperature, humidity, light intensity, rootdepth, soil-water availability, soil texture andstructure, and plant physiologicalcharacteristics.

Evapotranspiration can be estimated using anevaporation pan (atmometer or evaporimeter)


or climatic data obtained from weather stations.Real time evapotranspiration estimates areavailable from numerous weather stations acrossBC and can be found at www.farmwest.com orwww.irrigationbc.com.

The evapotranspiration estimate provided bythe weather office (ET0) is based on areference grass, so growers must use a formulato estimate the evapotranspiration value fortheir crop.

The quantity of water applied can be based onreplacing all (no deficit) or a portion (deficitirrigation) of the estimated evapotranspiration.

Section 5.14 describes in more detail deficitirrigation techniques aimed at reducing waterconsumption while still maintaining a highquality crop.

5.14. Deficit Irrigation and DryFarming Methods

Regulated Deficit IrrigationRegulated Deficit Irrigation (RDI) is thepractice of applying mild water stress atdifferent phenological stages of growth toinfluence vine growth, improve berry qualityand to reduce the incidence of bunch rot.

RDI can be a component of a “standard”irrigation strategy or utilized in a “droughtstrategy” to limit vine water use during periodsof limited water availability. For RDI to beeffective, accurate measurements of soiland/or plant water deficits must be taken, asopposed to simply replacing the amount of

water lost, which relies mainly on estimates ofevapotranspiration.

Successful RDI programs have been known tocut vine water consumption by 50%-65%,although the risk of delayed harvest and poorquality fruit is higher. Clay soils and deeperroot zones can sustain vines at lower RDIlevels due to the better water-holdingcapacity of clays and the longer reach of theroots.

RDI is not ideal for young vineyards, lowvigour vineyards from rootstock/scionselection, limited soil resource or vineyardswith nutrition or pest related issues. RDI maynot be feasible or advantageous (or moredifficult to implement) on coarse texturedsoils.

While much is known to date, there is still a lotto learn about successfully applying RDIconcepts to different regions, site conditions,varieties, rootstock, soil types and trellissystems. Ultimately, it is up to the grower tofine-tune the system for their own vineyards.

Partial Root Zone DryingThe basis for PRD is that the positive effectsof mild water stress and high vine water statuscan be achieved simultaneously by having partof the vine root system in moist soil and theother part in relatively dry soil.

Important Note on Irrigation SchedulingDuring Vineyard EstablishmentIt is important for newly planted vines toreceive enough water to maintain fullevapotranspiration, which allows the plant to

http://www.farmwest.com/



establish a healthy root system and canopy.Even mild water stress should be avoided inyoung vineyards. Make sure the soil in theroot zone is well drained and has sufficientporosity. Also, the young vines may needfrequent, low rate applications of fertilizersince over-application of water can leachnutrients from the root zone.

SURFACE WATER MOVEMENT

Surface water run-off from excess irrigation orprecipitation events, can collect and carrypollutants to nearby watercourses and degradewater quality. Pollutants can include pesticides,fertilizers and sediment. A properly designeddrainage system can go a long way in reducingor preventing negative environmental impacts.

5.15 Stormwater Runoff

Stormwater originates from roofs, paved andnon-paved areas within the vineyard.Unmanaged stormwater flow can substantiallyincrease the risk of overloading thewastewater storage and treatment system.

Runoff quality degrades as it moves andcollects pollutants, and ends up in surfacewater or groundwater bodies. It may form rillsor gullies on unprotected soil, which can leadto channel and stream bank degradation.

Areas bordering water bodies such as streams,lakes, ponds and wetlands should be protectedfrom pollution by setting up a buffer strip ofundeveloped land, preferably with native

vegetation, between the water body andhuman activity or development.

Look into the feasibility of using separatednon-contaminated stormwater in yourvineyard for irrigation.

Make sure to inspect banks along streams forerosion during and after heavy storm events,especially if they are unstable. Any erosionsproblems that are identified should be fixed ona timely basis.

The following is a list of practices that can beadopted to prevent excessive runoff on yoursite:

· soil and water conservation,· planting of cover crops,· vegetation filter strips separating vineyard

from water bodies,· conservation tillage,· installing subsurface drainage that is built

for the specific soil conditions and plantrooting requirements,

· ditch banks,· unpaved roadways,· increasing channel capacity to higher-

than-normal levels ,· restricting access and use of critical

riparian areas, and· addressing soil permeability problems.

5.16 Drainage

Adequate drainage can help increase soilstrength, control salinity and alkalinity in somecases, and improve nutrient uptake.Significantly higher volumes of precipitation


on the BC coast make subsurface drainagenecessary to control saturation of the rootzone, soil compaction, overland flow (run-off)and erosion.

Inadequate drainage can lead to flooding,which can lead to increased amounts ofpollutants being washed into water bodies.Flooding can be an issue in BC coastal areas,especially if they also experience runoff fromneighbouring, uphill areas.

Consider implementing the following practices:

· Install receptor drains to reduce overlandflow and erosion potential.

· Obtain a sketch of where your drains areand where they lead to. Make sure thestormwater system is not cross-connectedwith the sanitary or septic systems.

· Make sure your drainage system directsrunoff away from sensitive water bodies.

· Where drains may be susceptible topollution, install catch basin inserts, draincovers or other protective devices.

· Keep waste away from drains to preventwater pollution.

· Keep floatable material (e.g. branches,plastic materials) located away from anydrains.

· Grade land to reduce shallow surfaceponding that attracts unwanted wildlife(not wetlands!).

· Install permanent drop structures inchannels to allow water to flow gentlywithout causing erosion.

Surface water run-off, from excess irrigationor precipitation events, can collect and carrypollutants to nearby watercourses and degrade

water quality. Pollutants can include pesticides,fertilizers and sediment. A properly designeddrainage system can go a long way in reducingor preventing negative environmental impacts.

CHAPTER 6PEST MANAGEMENT


INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 6-1

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT ................................................................................. 6-1

6.1. Avoid Pest Problems .............................................................................................................. 6-2

6.2. Identify and Understand the Pest ........................................................................................ 6-2

6.3. Monitor Populations and Damage ....................................................................................... 6-3

6.4. Establish Action Thresholds .................................................................................................. 6-4

6.5. Choose Appropriate Control Methods ............................................................................... 6-4

6.6. Review and Assess Effectiveness ......................................................................................... 6-6

WEED MANAGEMENT ....................................................................................................... 6-7

6.7. Integrated Weed Management .............................................................................................6-7

WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................ 6-8

6.8. Birds ......................................................................................................................................... 6-9

6.9. Rodents .................................................................................................................................. 6-10

6.10. Snakes .................................................................................................................................... 6-10

6.11. Deer and Elk ........................................................................................................................... 6-11

6.12. Bears......................................................................................................................................... 6-11

PESTICIDE MANAGEMENT .............................................................................................. 6-11

6.13. Reducing Environmental and Health Risks ........................................................................ 6-11

6.14. Pesticide Transport ............................................................................................................... 6-12

6.15. Pesticide Storage ................................................................................................................... 6-12

6.16. Mixing and Loading Pesticides............................................................................................. 6-12

6.17. Pesticide Application ............................................................................................................ 6-12

6.18. Pesticide and Pesticide Container Disposal ..................................................................... 6-12

CHAPTER 6 PEST MANAGEMENT | Page 6-1

6.0 PEST MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

Chapter objective: To encourage integratedpest and weed management practices thatminimize economic, health and environmentalrisks associated with pesticides and herbicides.

A vineyard, like any other agriculturalecosystem, attracts a range of organisms.Some are beneficial, some are neutral, andsome are counterproductive to aneconomically sustainable operation.

The incidence, frequency, and severity of pestimpacts vary depending on the vineyardlocation, climate, soil type, ecologicalconditions and other factors.

For thousands of years, humans have usedpesticides in one form or another in anattempt to destroy, repel or mitigate pests.

Synthetic pesticides were developed in the1940s, and their widespread use led to a“green revolution” that saw increased yieldsand crop viability. By the 1950s and 1960s, itbecame apparent that pesticides and theirapplication practices were responsible for thecontamination of soil and water, human healthproblems, and the emergence of pesticideresistant pests.

As a response to this new reality, a newapproach was developed to manage pests whilereducing or eliminating the use of pesticides.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is anessential component of a sustainableviticulture program.

Chapters 5 and 7 of the Best Practices Guideand Chapter 5 of the EFP Reference Guideshould be reviewed to learn more about pestmanagement in the vineyard.

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is asystematic ecosystem-based approach thatuses biological, cultural, physical and chemicaltools to manage pests. While the use ofchemicals form part of an IPM program, itsmain goal is to use a variety of managementpractices to reduce the need for chemicals,and when they are needed, to use productsthat are least damaging to the crop, non-target organisms, humans, and theenvironment.

IPM relies on an understanding of pests; theirlifecycles, feeding and reproduction patterns,and natural enemies. IPM discourages relyingsolely on calendar sprays without regard forthe effects of the control materials used.

Its goal is not to eradicate pests, but to controlthem. That is to keep their populations atlevels that are not detrimental to the ongoingsustainability of the vineyard.


6.1. Avoid Pest Problems

The first step in any IPM Plan is to identifyand implement practices that will help you toprevent pests for establishing in your vineyardin the first place.

6.2. Identify and Understand thePest

In agriculture, a ‘pest’ is an organism thatdamages crops or impedes operations throughfeeding, parasitizing, infecting, attacking.However, it is possible for an organism to be apest for one crop and beneficial or neutral foranother, which is why accurate identificationand understanding of pests and their naturalpredators is important.

In order to plan and manage crop productionto avoid pest problems, growers need tounderstand the ecology and dynamics of thecrop, along with its common pests and theirnatural predators (beneficial organisms).Learning about common pest life cycles, thetiming of pest activities, their naturalpredators, and ways of affecting theirpopulations, enables growers to plan andmanage production in economical andenvironmentally-friendly ways that focus onpest prevention.

The following actions should be completedregularly in order to identify and understandthe pests that may occur in your vineyard:

· Identify pest damage - use the BestPractices Guide for Grapes for BritishColumbia Growers and other referencematerial as needed.

· Identify pests - use 10 to 20x hand lens orphotograph and match against referencematerial.

· Identify beneficial organisms (naturalenemies) - use hand lens or photographand match against reference material.

· Research the life cycles, natural predators,and other relevant information ofidentified pests.

Insects and MitesFewer insect pests attack grapes grown inBritish Columbia compared with most othermajor grape producing regions of the world.For this reason, growers in BC are able topursue programs that preserve populations ofbeneficial insects and predacious mites thathelp regulate numbers of pests.

Pests that may cause problems in yourvineyard include leafhoppers, cutworms, wasps,spider mites, thrips, grape mealybug, scaleinsects, grape erineum mite, snailcasebagworm, wood boring beetles, grasshoppers,and whitefly.

Beneficial organisms can help keep pestnumbers under control, but the vineyard mustbe generally hospitable for them to thrive. Anenvironment that is friendly to beneficialorganisms can be kept by limiting pesticideand other chemical applications to a minimum,and by providing natural habitat for them tolive in.

Beneficial organisms may include bacterial andviral diseases and vertebrates such as toads,bats and birds. However, predators such asspiders, mites and other insects can be singled


out as the most important natural controlagents for pest insects and mites.

Plants that help to increase beneficials include(examples only, not a comprehensive list):· nectar producing plants,· aromatic plants,· flowering plants, and· roses.

Soil-borne PestsSoil-borne pests and diseases are caused byorganisms that live in or on the surface of thesoil. The most common soil-borne pestmanagement strategy is fumigation of the soilprior to planting or using pest-resistantrootstock. However, other managementmethods exist that are crucial in developing aproductive vineyard. Nematodes are anexample of a typical soil-borne pest.

Pathogens and DiseasesDiseases can be very damaging to grapeproduction as they negatively impact fruitquality. As with insects and mites, accuratediagnosis of diseases is an importantcomponent of integrated pest management.Correct identification of a disease and anunderstanding of its life cycle will enable youto select the most appropriate control method.

The most common diseases in BC includePowdery Mildew, Botrytis Bunch Rot, SourRot, Crown Gall and viruses. Other diseasesbeing watched closely (but do not currentlypresent economic challenges) include Pierce’sdisease, Eutypa dieback, and young vinedecline.

6.3. Monitor Populations andDamage

Finding an organism that is known to damagecrops does not automatically mean that pestcontrol is required. You need to know howmany of them there are, and whether thenumbers are static, increasing or decreasing asthe season progresses in order to determinethe potential damage to the crop and decide ifand what control measure is needed.

The following monitoring methods should beconducted if a pest is found in your vineyard.Observations should be noted on anannotated map (use the site plan you createdin Chapter 1).

· Use sampling and detection methods toestimate the abundance and distribution.

· Examine for damage symptoms anddetermine if the damage is spreading.

· Examine for beneficial organisms (naturalenemies) and determine if theirpopulations are healthy.

· Estimate potential cost of damage.

Sampling is a disciplined, reliable andrepeatable approach to measuring pests sothat samples taken in different vineyards or atdifferent times can be meaningfully compared.

Sampling techniques are the specific methodsused to collect the information. Pest numbersare usually monitored either by using beatingtrays, sweep nets, or insect traps andcollecting parts of the grapevine and countingpest numbers. The technique will depend onthe pest.


6.4. Establish Action Thresholds

To determine when pest control is required,growers have to estimate the point at whichthe cost of remedial action is less than thecost of tolerating the pest. This point isreferred to as an action threshold (sometimesreferred to as a spray threshold or economicthreshold). Establishing an action thresholdfor each pest in the vineyard is critical inguiding pest control decisions.

Acceptable action thresholds for sprayingshould be set for each vineyard based on:

· past experience,· vine vigour,· numbers of beneficial insects present,· potential damage to the crop,· cost of control methods,· value of production,· impact on other organisms and the

environment,· what has already been applied, and· potential impact on neighbours.

Generic threshold data for the majority ofpests does not exist, making it crucial forgrowers to develop their own based on carefulobservation and experience.

Ideally, preventive measures are taken beforethe action threshold is ever exceeded.

6.5. Choose Appropriate ControlMethods

The first line of defence in an IPM isprevention, which means managing the crop insuch a way that discourages the proliferation

of pests while maintaining optimal cropproduction (see Section 6.1). Preventivemeasures are often cost- effective and poselittle to no risk to humans or the environment.

When preventive measures are no longersufficient and action thresholds are exceeded,a grower may employ various strategies tobring pest population levels under control.

Effective control methods are used from lessrisky (e.g. pheromones that disrupt pestmating or mechanical control such as trappingor weeding) to most risky (e.g. pesticidebroadcast spraying). Riskier pest controlmethods should be used only if furthermonitoring, identification and actionthresholds indicate the less risky controlmeasures have not been effective.

To prevent pests from reproducing to levelswhere they will cause problems, consider thefollowing:· Examine alternate control strategies.· Evaluate effectiveness and risk of each

strategy.· Explore biological controls such as

pheromone use, predator enhancementstrategies, alternate food sources forbeneficial insects.

· Explore cultural (physical) controls(including mechanical, behavioural andphysical) such as pest-resistant cropvarieties, weeding, encouraging naturalcompetition, reducing the number ofpotential hiding places, canopymanagement strategies.


· Explore chemical controls (such asinsecticides, fungicides) after otheroptions have been explored.

· Record your mode of action.

Growers should select least disruptive ororganic chemicals first and avoid using broad-spectrum, persistent materials that areharmful to beneficial insects and theenvironment. Table 6-1 lists chemicals whoseuse is discouraged under this program.

Growers using any of the pesticides listed inTable 6-1 must provide written documentationthat demonstrates a clear need for the use ofthe pesticides, that no safer alternatives exist,and that describes the application details (suchas timing, location, and amount used). Pleasenote that the list in Table 6-1 does notoverride legislation or organic standards.

Growers should consider the impact ofchemicals applied for the control of one peston the natural enemies of secondary pest.Eradicating natural enemies may lead to anoutbreak of other pests (e.g. most mealybugoutbreaks appear to be induced by insecticidesapplied against other pests).

For some pests, the best action is the earlyuse of safe, non-persistent and selectivepesticides that can be less damaging thanother practices. Disruptive chemicals, on theother hand, not only damage the environment,but can also cause outbreaks of secondarypests that require additional insecticideapplications.

While some cultural and biological controlscan be applied when pests reach the actionthreshold, most need to be applied months oreven years earlier to prevent pests reachingthe action threshold. For example, increasinggroundcover diversity is an ongoing process,while sticky tape in areas heavily infested withleafhoppers needs to be applied in spring.

Table 6-1: Pesticides (listed by chemical group andactive ingredient) whose use is discouraged underthe Sustainable Winegrowing British Columbia.

Avoid use of Reason

methyl-bromide highly toxic to humans,contributes to destruction of theozone layer

azinphos-methyl neurotoxin, harmful tobeneficials, banned in theEuropean Union since 2006

Use stronglydiscouraged

Reason

paraquat highly toxic to humans andwildlife, high risk to salmon andaquatic life

organophosphates(diazinon, malathion)

nerve agent, toxic to otherinsects, wildlife, pets and humans,high risk to salmon and aquaticlife

endosulfan highly toxic to humans andwildlife

neonicotinoides(acetamiprid,clothianidin)

harmful to beneficials, particularlybeesdevelop resistance

pyrethroids(permethrin,cypermethrin)

permethrin harmful to allbeneficial arthropodscypermethrin harmful to allbeneficial insects and mites, highrisk to salmon and aquatic life

carbamates(carbaryl)

moderate to high impact on allbeneficials, high risk to salmonand aquatic life

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrethroid


A note on copper formulations: Copperbuild-up in the soil – in some cases to toxiclevels – has been experienced in areas where ithas been used extensively to control downymildew. This is not a problem in BC becausethere is no downy mildew here; copper is usedsparingly and mostly for hardening off theplants in the fall or for prevention of sour rot.Some organic standards limit the amount ofactual copper applied per year per acre. Usewith caution in your vineyard.

6.6. Review and AssessEffectiveness

IPM depends on continual improvementthrough learning about the crop, pests andbeneficial organisms. Keeping accuraterecords of observations and actions taken inthe vineyard is very important. Records will beinvaluable in identifying changes in pest andbeneficial organism prevalence and theirweaknesses, which should aid in evaluating theeffectiveness of your treatment options, andfor planning adjustments for the next growingseason.

IPM RECORDS CHECKLIST

The following records should be kept in anotebook or computer.

When identifying and monitoring pests andbeneficial organisms, record the following:� Date of monitoring sampling� Location of sample� Sample size (how widespread)� Pest/disease identified� Number found� Block/variety� Growth stage of vines (phenology)� Crop yield and quality (and any other

observations related to crop condition)

When applying control methods, record thefollowing:� Application date� Block� Vine growth stage� Pest controlled� Technique used� Weather conditions� Observations

If applying pesticides, also record the followinginformation:� Product used (trade name) and amount

per tank� Rate used per hectare� Spray volume per hectare� Pre-harvest interval� Re-entry interval (as stated on label)


WEED MANAGEMENT

6.7. Integrated Weed Management

For the purposes of this program, weeds aredefined as plants that grow in the vineyardthat are unwanted and have a detrimentaleffect on vineyard production. Weeds areunwanted because they compete with cropplants for soil nutrients, light and water. Insevere cases, weed infestation can lead to cropproduction delays and even crop failure. Manyweed species are also considered “invasiveplants” by provincial and regional governments,and as such, there is legislated controlrequired on private lands.

Growers should be aware of the distinctionbetween unwanted ‘nuisance’ weeds (asdiscussed here) and invasive weeds (noxious)as classified by the province, which landownershave an obligation to eliminate.

Growers can learn more about invasive weedsby visiting the following websites:

· Regional District Okanagan-Similkameen:Invasive Plant Program:http://www.rdos.bc.ca/index.php?id=122.

· Invasive Plant council of BC:http://www.invasiveplantcouncilbc.ca/.

An Integrated Weed Management (IWM)approach that uses a combination of differentpractices to manage weeds is the mostsustainable approach a grower can use. Thegoals of IWM are to maintain weeds atmanageable densities and to prevent moreaggressive weeds from taking hold in your

vineyard. Relying on a variety of preventionand control techniques keeps weeds frombecoming resistant to one control method.

The focus of IWM should be prevention,keeping chemical methods as a last resort tocontrol the spread of weeds. Combinations ofdifferent mechanical, cultural, biological andchemical methods may be necessary fordifferent species. For example, experts nolonger recommend pulling knapweed, butcutting it down and leaving the roots tosupport the biological control agent. It is nowpreferable to sustain a small population of thebiological agents who keep the weeds inmanageable numbers.

An effective IWM program relies on threemain sets of practices.

· Practices that limit the introduction andspread of weeds (prevention).

· Practices that help the crop compete withweeds (help "choke out" weeds).

· Practices that keep weeds "off balance"(make it difficult for weeds to adapt).

To create an IWM plan, refer to the Ministryof Agriculture and Lands: Weed ManagementPlanning section (part of the Integrated WeedManagement Introductory Manual) atwww.agf.gov.bc.ca/cropprot/weedman.htm#PLANNING.

The manual helps growers create a plan bygoing through the following essential steps indetail:

http://www.rdos.bc.ca/index.php?id=122

http://www.invasiveplantcouncilbc.ca/

http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/cropprot/weedman.htm#PLANNING

http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/cropprot/weedman.htm#PLANNING


Diagnosing the problem (identifying theweed and possible causes):· More often than not, weeds are a

symptom of a problem, and this should beaddressed first. Causes may range frompoor seedbed, land, or drainagepreparation, soil pH, diseases/insects,herbicide-resistant weeds, weedpopulation shifts, microbial degradation,weather effects on herbicide activity, andlack of an integrated management plan.

· Learn to identify weeds or contact yourlocal Ministry of Agriculture and Foodoffice to assist you. This will be crucial inselecting the right control strategy.

Preparing a plan of attack (planning thecontrol program):· Record relevant information (i.e. crops,

cropping sequence and weeds that arepresent) on your site plan (created inChapter 1). Are the weeds caused byunderlying factors such as poor drainage,poor fertility or pH? If so, correct thesefirst.

· Learn about weed control strategies andwrite them on the map along with noteson timing of control operations. Is theherbicide you plan on using registered foruse on your crop? Is the target weed listedon the herbicide label? What is the costper hectare?

· How will my control program impact theenvironment? If using herbicide, howpersistent, and how toxic is it to fish andwildlife?

· Choose a control method based oneffectiveness, cost and environmentalconsiderations.

Implementing the program:· Strictly follow the timing outlined in your

plan.· If using herbicides, ensure accurate

herbicide application to (1) avoid over-application, which could result in cropdamage, environmental impacts andwasted money and (2) avoid under-application, which can lead to lower cropyields and waste money.

Monitoring Success/Failure:· Keep good records of actions taken and

record the effectiveness. This will help inmaking improvements in the future.

WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

Wildlife such as deer, bear, rodents and birdscan develop a liking for grapes or the vine itselfand cause significant crop losses. Some ofthese animals are managed as pests (e.g.rodents and some birds) while others aremanaged as “problem wildlife” (i.e. deer, elkand bear).

It is important to balance the need to protectyour vines and grapes with the need tomaintain healthy local ecosystems and supportthe species that depend on them. Refer to theEcosystem Management chapter for moreinformation.

Good wildlife management requires using anintegrated approach (like that discussed earlierin the Integrated Pest Management section).Your approach should include prevention ofconflict, identifying and learning about thespecies, monitoring them and the damage


they cause, choosing appropriate controlmethods and reviewing the effectiveness ofyour actions.

Most wildlife issues can be managed throughpreventative measures. For example, habitatalteration and exclusion strategies can reducethe number of pests and problem wildlifefrequenting your vineyard. These strategiesmay include using grow tubes around youngvines to discourage chewing by rodents;selecting cover crops that are less desirable towildlife, locating compost heaps away fromforests and thickets; and clearing away brushpiles that create habitat for birds.

Your Integrated Pest Management planshould include a section on wildlifemanagement. The following information willhelp you determine when and what controlmethods to use for birds, rodents, snakes, deerand elk, and bears.

6.8. Birds

Birds can be divided into invasive bird species(e.g. starlings) and other birds that may beunwanted but are native. Some birds areprotected by the Migratory Birds ConventionAct (e.g. bluebirds) and the Species at RiskAct (e.g. Lewis's Woodpecker).

Starlings, robins, house finches and other birdsfeed on grapes. Starlings, however, cause themost damage. Ensure that starlings are notable to nest in farm structures, or destroytheir nests before the young fledge. Creatingnest traps can be effective in controlling

starlings but care should be taken not to trapother cavity nesting birds (e.g. bluebirds,flickers).

If birds begin to attack the crop, actimmediately and implement a combination oftwo or three control methods.

FACT BOX: AUDIBLE BIRD SCAREDEVICES – INTERIOR AND SOUTHCOAST BC

Audible bird scare devices can be a nuisance tonearby residents. The Ministry of Agriculturehas developed guidelines for the use of audiblebird scare devices.

See the Interior BC Wildlife Damage Controlfact sheet at:www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/agriculture-and-seafood/agricultural-land-and-environment/strengthening-farming/farm-practices/870218-60_wildlife_damage_interior_bc.pdf

See the South Coast BC Wildlife DamageControl fact sheet at:www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/agriculture-and-seafood/agricultural-land-and-environment/strengthening-farming/farm-practices/870218-59_wildlife_damage_south_bc.pdf.

http://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/agriculture-and-seafood/agricultural-land-and-environment/strengthening-farming/farm-practices/870218-60_wildlife_damage_interior_bc.pdf






http://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/agriculture-and-seafood/agricultural-land-and-environment/strengthening-farming/farm-practices/870218-59_wildlife_damage_south_bc.pdf







It is illegal to kill or harass most native birdsand their nests in Canada as detailed in theMigratory Birds Convention Act and the BCWildlife Act.

Note: The European Starling is a non-nativebird for which there is an aggressive campaignof extermination and netting to prevent fruitloss. Starlings compete with native birds fornest sites.

6.9. Rodents

Rodents can damage young vines by gnawingon grape shoots, roots and crowns. While thedamage they cause in vineyards is usuallyminor, they can also attract animals such asbadgers, snakes and coyotes, which canbecome problem wildlife.

In addition to the control methods listed in theBest Practices Guide, consider the following:· Manage food and water supplies:

o Avoid spilling farm animal feed (ifapplicable),

o Store feed in covered containers, ando Eliminate water sources such as leaky,

and taps, sweaty pipes and open drains;· Rodent-proof buildings and eliminate

nests:o Keep building doors in good condition,o Keep areas around buildings free of

weeds, long grass and debris, ando Install screens on ventilation ports and

other openings;· Maintain good general sanitation and

cleanliness through the vineyard;· Rake under vines to prevent mice; and

· Promote the predators of rodents, whichinclude owls, raptors, weasels and snakes.

If rodenticides are used in and around manureor compost piles, be sure to collect the trapsbefore any manure or compost is removed toprevent spreading to unwanted parts of theproperty where they could pose a risk to pets,birds, farm animals and wildlife.

6.10. Snakes

Snakes are not an agricultural pest but canbecome a nuisance or a danger to vineyardworkers. In fact, snakes are beneficial to cropsbecause they are significant predators ofrodents. Provincial and federal laws make it anoffence to harass or kill snakes.

Recommend snake management practicesinclude:

· Maintain natural buffer of at least 100 mfrom rocky slopes.

· Leave draws/ravines as migration corridors;use culverts or bridges where roads crossthese corridors.

· Maintain or enhance existing debris/coverfeatures to which snakes are drawn toreduce accidental encounters and for easyrelocation of snakes.

· Provide artificial cover (e.g. small pallets,rock piles) away from frequented workplaces and clearly identify them. In thisway the snakes can reside in the coverareas and forage all night for rodents inthe crop and are rarely encountered bypeople.


· Install snake barrier fencing along theperimeter of an agricultural area, wherethis is needed and practical.

· Develop irrigation-fed ponds outside thesnake barrier to reduce the attraction ofsnakes to irrigated crops.

· Inform workers if snakes are found in thevineyard, how to avoid encounters andhow to respond to an encounter.

· Avoid accidental killing of snakes duringvineyard activities such as driving, mowing,tilling, and haying.

· Contact your local conservation officer oranother qualified person if you need helprelocating snakes.

6.11. Deer and Elk

Deer and elk can severely damage vines. Theyeat buds, spurs, shoots, fruit and leaves and/orrub their antlers against the plant, breakingbranches and removing bark in the process.

In addition to the control methods listed in theBest Practices Guide, consider the following:

When dealing with deer and elk, the followingpractices should be considered:

· Scare deviceso Cracker or whistler shells, propane

exploders and electronic Av-Alarm orPhoenix Wailer Systems.

o Short term solution as animals becometolerant of the noise.

· Allow hunters (especially bow hunters)access to your land during hunting seasons,where this is permissible.

· Plant “lure crops” or crops less desirable towildlife.

6.12. Bears

Bears can be a nuisance in some vineyards andcan pose a threat to workers. The only long-term, proven and effective method forkeeping bears out of vineyards is properlyconstructed electric fencing.

PESTICIDE MANAGEMENT

A pesticide is any material used to kill, controlor manage pests, including products tomanage the growth of plants.

The main environmental concern withpesticides is the direct or indirect impact theiruse may have on the soil, water, air, fish,wildlife, pets and humans. Pesticide pollutioncan result from the inappropriate applicationof pesticides (due to wrong volumes or badtiming), spills, backflow and improper disposalof chemicals and/or containers. Short-termand long-term effects on wildlife that comeinto contact with treated crops are also anissue.

6.13. Reducing Environmental andHealth Risks

The primary environmental concern related topesticides is any unwanted movement tosensitive environmental areas such aswatercourses, ground water, and fish orwildlife habitat. Pesticides can move by:· drift – movement of spray droplets or

vapour in the air,· runoff – movement in the water or bound

to eroding soil,


· leaching – movement in water through thesoil, and

· direct transport – movement of soil,vegetation, and other materials thatcontain pesticide residues.

Special safety precautions must be takenwhen handling pesticides. See Chapter 7 ofthe Best Practices Guide for moreinformation.

6.14. Pesticide Transport

Refer to Chapter 7 of the Best PracticesGuide and Chapter 5 of the EFP ReferenceGuide.

6.15. Pesticide Storage


6.16. Mixing and Loading Pesticides


6.17. Pesticide Application

Application characteristics affecting themovement of pesticides include:

· Application methods – direct appliedpesticides (wipe-on) have a lower risk thansprayer applied.

· Droplet size – coarse droplets are lessprone to drift than fine droplets (although

they are also less effective so a balancemust be achieved).

· Application rate – lower rates decreasethe risk of runoff and leaching.

6.18. Pesticide and PesticideContainer Disposal


CHAPTER 7SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY


INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................7-1

HUMAN RESOURCES .........................................................................................................7-1

7.1. Staffing and Recruiting .......................................................................................................... 7-1

7.2. Employee Orientation ............................................................................................................7-3

7.3. Employee Handbook ..............................................................................................................7-5

7.4. Internal Communications.......................................................................................................7-6

7.5. Employee Relations ................................................................................................................7-6

7.6. Education and Training .......................................................................................................... 7-8

7.7. Health and Safety ...................................................................................................................7-9

7.8. Succession Planning ................................................................................................................7-9

7.9. Documentation and Record Keeping ................................................................................. 7-13

NEIGHBOUR AND COMMUNITY RELATIONS ............................................................ 7-13

7.10. Identifying Potential Concerns ........................................................................................... 7-14

7.11. Outreach and Communication ........................................................................................... 7-14

7.12. Responding to Complaints ................................................................................................... 7-15

CHAPTER 7 EMPLOYEES, NEIGHBOURS AND COMMUNITY | Page 7-1

7.0 SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY

Chapter objective: To provide practices thatwill contribute to a positive workingenvironment for you and your employees andenhance your relationship with yourneighbours and community.

INTRODUCTION

Recruiting, training and retaining goodemployees, promoting a safe workenvironment, and building positive employeerelations play a major role in the level ofproductivity, competitiveness, innovation,liability and profitability of your vineyard.

Implementing sustainable practices at yourvineyard requires willing, dedicated and skilledemployees that feel committed to thevineyard and care about its success. In otherwords, your employees are critical to achievingtangible environmental results from yoursustainable practices program.

Your vineyard can contribute to social equitythrough job creation, bringing tourism andother revenue to your community, andeducating the public about sustainabilitythrough vineyard tours and other events.

The better you are at anticipating conflict andeducating and communicating with yourneighbours and community the less likely youand/or your employees will have to spendvaluable time responding to complaints. Agood reputation with your neighbours and

community will go a long way - these samepeople could also be your customers!

HUMAN RESOURCES

Whether you have 5 or 75 employees, clear,consistent and documented human resources(HR) policies and practices are fundamentalto maintaining positive employee relations.The next sections will help you learn moreabout these topics and the practices that canbe used to promote HR sustainability.

7.1. Staffing and Recruiting

Understanding Staffing Needs and LabourAvailability

A strategy that analyses your staffing needsfor 2 to 5 years into the future will help youhire the correct number of employees withthe appropriate skills to successfully operateyour vineyard. Understanding your staffingneeds will enable you to prepare budgets forwages and salaries, recruiting costs, andemployee education and training.

Consider the following questions whendeveloping your staffing strategy:· What type of labour do you need (i.e.

skilled, unskilled or highly skilled; seasonalor permanent)?

· When are your peak periods? When areyour slower periods?


· Do your peak periods coincide withanother local industry and, if so, how willthat affect your potential labour pool?

· Can any of the work be moved to avoidpeak labour demands?

· Are there any major activities in theregion that could affect your ability to getthe right people at the right time?

· Can you accomplish the same amount ofwork with fewer people over a longerperiod of time (i.e. full-time, long-termemployees)?

· Can you round up instead of down for thenumber of employees you need? Forexample, if you determine you haveenough hours and budget for 4.5employees, can you round up to 5employees instead of down to 4?

Flow charts and schedules are useful whenplanning your staffing needs on a long term,annual, and seasonal basis.

Having clearly defined job positions you arelooking to fill and profiles of the backgroundsneeded for key employees will help you inidentifying and fulfilling your staffing needs.

Standard Job Description

Clear, concise, and realistic individual job titlesand descriptions will help employeesunderstand what is expected of them andprovide them with a sense of direction.Standard job descriptions will also help toalleviate conflict among staff andmanagement and will ultimately increaseproductivity.

Consider including the following points in yourstandard job descriptions:

· how to complete the job,· why the job must be completed a certain

way,· when the job needs to be completed,· why the job needs to completed within a

specific time frame,· what the job performance expectations

are, and· what the employment conditions and

terms are.

Publish your standard job descriptions in anemployee handbook (see section 7.2). Makesure to update them on an annual basis.

Recruiting

Recruitment is the process of identifying andhiring the best-qualified candidate for a jobvacancy, in a most timely and cost effectivemanner.

Your recruiting methods may differ dependingon whether you are looking for temporary orfull-time employees. You will need to establisha budget for recruiting that is based on yourevaluation of staffing needs.

Examples of recruiting methods include:· relationships with labour contractors

or temp agencies,· word of mouth,· keeping contact information on those

seeking work for use at a later date,· advertising in local and regional

newspapers and industry publications,· advertising on the Internet,· attending job fairs, and· relationships with community colleges

or universities


It is important to use consistent messaging inyour job descriptions and to coordinate yourhiring, especially if you have differentmanagers hiring for different job positions.

If a position comes available make sure to lookinternally first before going through therecruiting process.

Standard Interviewing Format

Your job position descriptions and employeebackground profiles will help you to fairly andquickly screen resumes and applications thatyou receive and determine who is mostsuitable for an interview.

A standard interviewing format will help youto:

· provide consistent and fair interviews,· ask all of the pertinent questions needed

to fully evaluate the potential employee,· avoid questions that are inappropriate, and· effectively evaluate people applying for

the same position against each other tochoose the best person for the job.

Interview questions should be related to thejob description and generally fall into fivecategories:

1. Previous work experience that may berelevant to the position

2. General skills and aptitudes related to jobcriteria

3. Education4. Attitudes and personality5. Career goals and occupational objectives

Exit Interviews

An exit interview is a meeting between at leastone representative from a company and adeparting employee. An exit interview will helpyou gather information for improving workingconditions and retaining employees.

Exit interviews are most commonly conductedwith employees who have voluntarily resigned,but are also useful to conduct with casualemployees to learn how the employee enjoyedhis or her term and whether or not he or she isplanning on returning next season.

In small operations it may not make sense totrack statistics of number of employeesleaving because the numbers may be verysmall. However, it is still important todetermine why an employee leaves and todocument the reason in the employee file.

7.2. Employee Orientation

The orientation of new employees to theirwork environment and associated task(s) is anessential component of due diligence onbehalf of the employer. An EmployeeOrientation Checklist is included in below.Your employee orientation should includemost or all of the following components.

Orientation is an ideal time to introduceemployees to your company’s sustainabilitypolicies and practices. Also, make sure thatyour company’s health and safety policies andpractices are included in the orientation andthat applicable employees are given WHIMISand First Aid training.


EMPLOYEE ORIENTATIONCHECKLIST

Employee Handbook� Provide Employee Handbook to the

new employee and use it to guideorientation

Overview of Company� Organizational structure� Mission and values� Goals and objectives� Products, priorities and strategies� Sustainability philosophy and practices

Overview of Position� Job description review (provide copy

to employee)� Specific performance standards and

expectations� Probationary period and probationary

review process (if applicable)

Company Policies and Procedures� Work procedures such as timekeeping,

dress code, work schedule, time off,overtime, breaks

� Grievance and complaint system� Discipline policies, including for

specific issues such as tardiness,absenteeism, drug and alcohol use,violence, harassment

� Process for performance evaluations� Benefits and eligibility requirements� Transportation and travel policies� Health and safety policies

Health and SafetyYour health and safety training will varydepending on the job description. It mayinclude the following:

� Availability and interpretation ofMaterial Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)

� Hazardous materials handling� Solid waste handling� First aid� Importance of personal hygiene� Prevention of heat stress� Equipment operational and confined

space safety� Fork lift� Personal protective equipment� Fall protection� Respiratory protection� Hearing loss protection

Work Site Familiarization� Tour of operations� Introduction to immediate supervisor� Introduction to other employees and

others she/he will regularly interactwith in her/his job

Employee Documentation� Employee signing of required

documents such as employmentcontract, handbook receipt


7.3. Employee Handbook

Having an accurate, clear, and up-to-dateemployee handbook enables the employee andemployer to have a firm understanding of theirrelationship and various responsibilities. Itresults in less worker confusion, mistakes andcomplaints and can reduce the risk ofpotential costly legal suits.

An employee handbook serves to informemployees about company policies,procedures and practices and to communicateexpected standards of performance andconduct. The size, format and content of youremployee handbook will vary depending onthe size and operations of your vineyard. For asmall owner-operated vineyard, a few piecesof paper stapled together may be sufficient;however a larger operation may require a fullydeveloped, bound handbook or an outlineformat on the company website

Common employee handbook contentsinclude:

· Welcome and Purpose· Disclaimer (specify that handbook is not a

contract of employment)· Company Strategy and Values· Sustainability Philosophy and Practices· Employee Definitions (distinguish

between full-time staff and contractemployees)

· Communication and Grievance Policies· Work Schedules and Compensation

Policies· Benefits and Time Off Policies· Transportation and Travel Policies

· Performance Management and DisciplinePolicies

· Environmental Health and SafetyPractices

Important legal considerations regardingemployee handbooks include:

· Have your handbook reviewed by a lawyerto ensure your policies are clear andconsistent and cannot be misconstrued

· Update your handbook as needed toreflect the actual practices of thecompany

· Implement handbook policies andprocedures because if you do notimplement them as outlined in thehandbook, your company can be heldlegally liable

· Ensure that your handbook is regarded asa resource of policies and guidelines ratherthan a contract or employment

· Obtain written acknowledgement ofEmployee Handbook receipt and of anyrevisions or updates by having youremployee sign a document.

Below is an example acknowledgement ofreceipt.


I, ______________, acknowledge that I havereceived a copy of the (Your Company Name)Employee Handbook dated: (date).

By my signature below, I acknowledge,understand, accept and agree to comply withthe information contained in the EmployeeHandbook. I understand that this handbook isintended as a guide only, and is not intendedto be a complete description of employer’spolicies and procedures. Furthermore, Iunderstand that this handbook is neither acontract of employment nor a legally-bindingagreement.

Employee signature:__________________Date:___________________

7.4. Internal Communications

Clear, continuous lines of communicationthroughout all levels of employment, fromsupervisor to seasonal workers, are critical to awell-functioning workplace. The moreemployees know, the more they feel part ofthe company.

Communication methods include:· regular staff meetings,· one-on-one meetings with each employee,· newsletters or bulletins,· informal, brief “tail-gate” sessions to

discuss safety and/or sustainable practices,· company Intranet,· email and phone calls,· bulletin board with current information,· posters promoting safety, health, and good

housekeeping procedures, and· Employee handbook (see Section 7.3).

Communication is as much about listening asit is about talking. Make sure you payattention to your employees when they speakabout their ideas, problems, needs orsuggestions. If managers are accessible andencourage staff to share their thoughts, boththe business and employee will benefit.

Conduct all verbal communications in theprimary language of the employees, or ensurea translator is present. Also, translatecommunication materials (e.g. job descriptions,applications) into primary language.

7.5. Employee Relations

This section provides information on policiesthat you should consider in order to create apositive company culture, increase employeejob satisfaction and productivity, and decreasethe risk of legal liability issues.

The following topics are covered: complaintsand grievances, performance evaluation,discipline and recognition, and compensationand benefits.

Your policies related to these topics may differfor casual versus long-term employees.

Complaints and GrievancesA step by step employee grievance processavoids uncertainty and anxiety that may arisefrom uncomfortable situations anddemonstrates that the communicationchannels are open and issues will be dealt within a professional, confidential, and timelyfashion.


Performance Evaluation, Discipline andRecognitionA performance management system shoulddocument the following information:

· How employees will be evaluated for jobperformance (e.g. one-on-one meetings,written performance reviews).

· How often their performance will beevaluated and when (e.g. once per year atthe end of the year, every six months).

· How the performance managementsystem is linked to pay and promotions.

Work with your key employees to developannual goals and assess their progress at theirperformance reviews. Train your managers andemployees on how your performancemanagement system works.

Consider having a post-production wrap-upmeeting to discuss things that went wellduring the year and those that did not. Usethe results of this meeting to improve youroperations the next year.

Employee recognition can enhance jobsatisfaction and performance, promotecohesiveness among employees, and promotesustainable practices. Recognition may begiven to acknowledge good work ethic, goodsafety performance, contribution tosustainable practices, length of service,teamwork, or community service.

Incentives work extremely well when theemployer acknowledges employees beforethey ask for time off, salary increase. Provide

the incentive close to when the employee didthe task that you are recognizing.

Prepare a written discipline policy and explainit to your employees before you need to use it.The policy should include stepped andprogressive procedures and must be uniformlyimplemented.

Compensation and BenefitsQuestions to address when documenting yourcompensation and benefits philosophy andstrategy include:

· Do you pay all employees competitivewages at or above the average wage foryour region?

· How do you determine salaries for eachjob or job family? How often do youupdate your salary structure? How is itorganized and documented?

· Do you participate in wage surveys?· What benefits do you provide to

employees? Document complete list,including government required benefitssuch as workers compensation. Describewhy you offer each benefit and how thebenefits administered (i.e. who does it,when, and what are the eligibilityrequirements)?

· How are wages and benefitscommunicated to employees?

· How is payroll administered (i.e. who doesit, when, and what methods are used)?


Family Support ServicesExamples of family support services include,but are not limited to, the following:· housing opportunities referral information

and resources,· community resources referral information,· childcare referral program,· nutrition, health and wellness resources

and/or referrals,· employer participation in groups dedicated

to increasing housing opportunities, and· employer donating money and other

resources to local housing groups.

7.6. Education and Training

Your employees are an integral part of theteam that successfully works together toproduce quality wines. They need basiceducation and training required to completetheir job to a satisfactory level. They shouldalso be provided with opportunities to enhancetheir understanding and skills in the workplace,especially if that training covers sustainablepractices.

An effective training and professionaldevelopment program ensures that employeesthat have the skills needed to accomplish theirwork, increases employee satisfaction, andenhances job performance.

You should develop an annual education andtraining plan for you and your employees. Theplan should include specific training that isrequired for each major job category, based onwhat you can afford. Consider where yourgrape growing and business knowledge is

lacking and consider how your business canimprove by providing education to keyemployees.

A good understanding of your employee’scareer goals and aspirations is key to ensuringjob satisfaction and reducing turnover rates.

Your training plan will need to consider thedifferent job categories at your vineyard.Management staff will require differenteducation and training than regular employees.Managers need to be well versed in all areas ofyour vineyard operations and share your vision.They need to have the skills, managementstyle, personality, and value system conduciveto managing employees in this type ofemployment situation. They also need to beclear on all job titles and expectations and beknowledgeable of labour laws and complianceissues.

You may also want to provide differentopportunities for key employees than forcasual or seasonal workers. That said, yourcasual staff are more likely to come back yearafter year if they are rewarded with excitingprofessional development opportunities thatenhance their job satisfaction.

You will need to establish an annual educationand training budget that includes requiredtraining and also funds for additional, moreexpensive professional developmentopportunities for key employees. If you arenot willing or able to cover all education andtraining costs, you can consider providing paidtime off or other incentives instead.


Education and training ideas include:· academic or industry workshops, seminars,

and continuing education courses,· wine and grape associations annual

meetings and other events,· membership in local vintners’ associations,· grape growing publications, technical

bulletins, and newsletters,· in-house education by inviting a speaker or

teaching your employees yourself,· organizing tours through suppliers (e.g.

tour of glass factory that makes bottles),· visiting other wine regions,· cross-training (having employees work in

different parts of the business for a day orso), and

· attending industry conferences and othernetworking opportunities.

Document all education and training providedto employees.

7.7. Health and Safety

Worker health and safety is a majorcontributor to the social equity component ofyour sustainable business.

The kind of program you have depends on thenumber of regularly employed workers in yourworkforce (“regularly employed” means thosewho work at least one continuous month in ayear, whether full time or part time).

Vineyards with more than 20 workers musthave a formal written program, while vineyardswith less than 20 workers must have a more

informal program based on regular meetingswith workers.

Resources to help you prepare your healthand safety plan include:

· The Health and Safety for Small-andMedium-Sized Wineries, published by theBC Wine Grape Council.

· WorkSafe BC www.worksafebc.com.· FARSHA’s Vineyard and Orchards

Coordinator and the Regional SafetyCoordinator for your area. Contactinformation is available from the mainFARSHA officehttp://www.farsha.bc.ca/contact-us/

7.8. Succession Planning

In BC, family-owned estate wineries andvineyards are common and many will soon befaced with a transfer of ownership. Successionplanning is a continuous process to plan forthe transfer of knowledge, skills, labour,management, control and ownership of thebusiness between one generation and the nextor to new owners outside the family (Coughler,2004). Succession planning is usually onlydone at the top management team level.

Each vineyard is unique and no singleapproach works for everyone. However,succession planning can be thought of as a six-step process. The steps are not necessarilycompleted in a sequence or in a set order. Adescription of the six steps is included below.The format of your written succession plan willvary, but you should consider all of thecomponents described below.

http://www.worksafebc.com/


STEPS IN THE SUCCESSIONPLANNING PROCESS

(Coughler & Anderson, Ontario Ministry ofAgriculture, Food & Rural Affairs, 2004)

Step 1: Open the Lines of Communication· Define personal, family (if applicable) and

business objectives and goals· Identify successor:

o Does the next generation wish to beinvolved in the business?

o If yes, the process moves forward withinthe framework of transitioning to the nextgeneration.

o If no, the discussions and decisions willfocus on preserving family wealth and thetransition out of farming.

o Assess the compatibility of objectives andgoals.

o Work towards reaching consensus betweenthe founder(s) and the successor(s) onmajor objectives and goals.

o Consider hiring a trained outside facilitatorto assist in these discussions.

· Identify a team of advisors to help youthrough the process.

Step 2: Collect and Analyze Information· Collect relevant technical information

(particularly financial)o Compile and review documents such as

the legal will, the power of attorney,property deeds, mortgage and loaninformation, tax returns, bank accountinformation, financial statements, currentfinancing arrangements, retirementsavings position, business and legalagreements, current list of suppliers andservice providers, production andperformance records

o Identify missing pieces· Analyze financial viability and profitability of

the business

o Compare the financial performance of thevineyard to industry benchmarks

o Develop projected cash flow and incomestatements

· Review additional specific technicalinformationo This includes details related to methods of

transfer, financing options, tax and legalimplications, business structure options,business agreements, and tenancy issues

Step 3: Generate Options· Address the various issues related to, but not

limited to:o Ownership transfer options- purchase,

rent, gifts, bequestso Financing optionso Business organizations/structure (i.e. sole

proprietorship, partnership, corporation)o Legal considerations (e.g. will, power of

attorneyo Tax strategies and implications

· Generate numerous options that consider theinformation gathered in Step 2

· Investigate different “what if” scenarios anddevelop contingencies to address such things asdisagreement, disaster, death, disability anddivorce

Step 4: Make Preliminary Decisions· Start narrowing down your options and make

preliminary decisions on the direction of theplan

Step 5: Design, Develop and Review· Write the succession plan· As decisions are documented, your team of

advisors should review the plan and providedetailed feedback, advice and comments

Step 6: Implement and Monitor· Provide copies of the plan to all those involved· Follow the timetable laid out in the plan· Monitor progress as the plan is implemented· Modify the plan as needed·


COMPONENTS OF A WRITTENSUCCESSION PLAN

(Coughler & Wenger, Components of a FarmSuccession Plan, 2010)

A. Business Overview· Executive Summary of the overall plan· Action points to implement the plan· Description of current business, including

relevant points such as:o Size and location of the operationo Productso Production amountso Organizational structureo Type(s) of business arrangement(s)

· Include enough detail to set the stage for therest of the plan, but not so much that it isoverwhelming

B. Description of Business and Personal Goalsand Expectations

· Describes the business and personal goals andexpectations of the founder(s) and thesuccessor(s)

· The rest of the process and the resulting planshould flow from this section

C. Retirement Plan· Deals with two issues – financial and lifestyle· Lifestyle includes how the founder(s) will be

involved in the business, living arrangements,desired activities for the founder(s)

· Financial component includes whereretirement money will come from, anexplanation of any retirement-incomestrategies and how the money will be spent

D. Training and Development Plan forSuccessor

· Outlines the necessary skills and knowledgerequired by the successor(s) to successfullyoperate a winery

· Includes a “skills profile” of the successorcompared to the founder, a gap analysis andan action plan to address those gaps

· A “skills profile” breaks down commonactivities to operate a winery and the skillsneeded for each

· The action plan may include such things asadditional training, responsibility sharing, jobshadowing, etc.

· A performance review process is also outlinedunder this component; it helps identify bothstrengths and where improvements areneeded

· In all cases a regular meeting should take placeto review the successor’s progress. It shouldfocus on what has worked, what has not, why,and what could be done differently. Thisshould be a two-way discussion and a positiveexperience for both the founder and thesuccessor — a chance to share and learn.

E. Business Plan· Describes how the winery business will meet

the needs of both the founder and thesuccessor

· Includes a financial analysis of the business –past, present and future – to determine if it isprofitable and viable

· Describes the future direction of the business(e.g. maintaining the same scale, downsizing,expansion, diversification, etc.) and how thisdirection will affect the business

F. Operating Plan· Outlines how to manage everyday business

activities· Identifies the roles, responsibilities and

authorities related to day-to-day operationsand how decisions are made

· Outlines the plan for family businessmeetings to discuss the transfer process,including how they will function, who will beinvolved, who will be responsible for what,where the meetings will take place

G. Management, Control and Labour TransferPlan

· Related to the operating plan [F]


· Describes how the transfer of management,control and labour to the successor will takeplace

· Includes a timetable for transition (linked toimplementation timetable[I])

· Also needs to be closely connected to thesuccessor development plan [D]

H. Ownership Transfer Plan· Outlines how the business is currently

structured and how it will change during thetransfer process, including a description of thebusiness arrangement that will be used (e.g.sole proprietorship, partnership, corporation)

· Link to business overview [A]· Explains how the transfer of asset ownership

will be handled, including a description of thetransfer mechanism (e.g. purchase, gift,bequest, combination)

· Also may include:o an explanation of the financing required,

the various sources available and thepreferred financing option(s)

o an inventory and valuation of assets andliabilities

o an explanation of the tax implications ofthe proposed transfer process along with adescription of how these items will beaddressed

o an outline of the insurance requirementsrelated to life, disability, disaster andrelated insurance tools and a descriptionof the legal agreements (e.g. employmentcontracts, partnership agreements,shareholder agreements, buy-sellagreements). Copies of these could beattached as appendices for referencepurposes.

o A copy (or copies) of the legal will(s) andany prenuptial agreements could also beattached for reference.

I. Implementation Timetable· Provides a timetable to complete key activities

that are prioritized with deadlines

J. Communications Plan· A description of how those involved

communicate about transition and successionplanning (link to operating plan [F])o Rules of meetings and discussionso Schedule for regular meetingso Outline of who will participate in the

meetingso Meeting locations and mealso Meeting responsibilities and decision

making processes (e.g. who will set upthe meeting and agenda, chair meetings,take minutes)

o an outline of the ground rules for thediscussion (e.g. everyone has a turn totalk, not interrupting, no blaming, stayfocussed on the agenda item).

· A discussion of how disputes are managed andresolved (e.g. voting, third-party mediation)

K. Contingency Plan· Outlines what will happen and who will ensure

the implementation of contingency measuresin such situations as illness, death, disability,divorce, disagreement, disaster, businessdownturn or failure

· Includes reference to the insurancerequirements and selected mechanisms (linkto ownership transfer plan [H])


7.9. Documentation and RecordKeeping

Proper documentation is importantthroughout the employment process, fromhiring to disciplinary action to job termination.Documentation helps you review and evaluateyour HR plans and policies and makenecessary improvements. Certaindocumentation is also required for compliancewith federal and provincial labour laws.

Consider the following regardingdocumentation and record keeping:

· Ensure supervisors are aware of whatshould be documented, and when and howit should be documented.

· Determine the roles and responsibilitiesfor record keeping.

· Record the list of employee records anddocuments you maintain (e.g. employeeapplications, performance appraisals,discipline records).

· Describe where you keep the records andhow long you keep each document.

· Make sure you are complying withlegislative requirements for length of timeyou need to keep records and whatrecords you need to keep.

· Describe your process for preparing andsubmitting required documents togovernment.

· Make sure your documentation iscompleted in a timely, consistent manner,and using a comprehensive format that willstand up in court and is free of personalopinion.

NEIGHBOUR AND COMMUNITY

RELATIONS

Many vineyards in British Columbia arelocated in rapidly changing areas, wherecompetition for land can bringagriculture/rural areas and urban/suburbanareas close together. Rapid population growthin many winegrowing areas of BC is putting astrain on resources such as water, energy, andon air and environmental quality. There is alsoincreasing public concern and awareness aboutenvironmental and social issues and moreinterest in how businesses address these issues.For these reasons it has become imperativefor vineyards to establish good neighbour andcommunity relations.

To maintain a harmonious relationship withyour neighbours and community, it isimportant to take the time to research localissues and learn various perspectives,anticipate and minimize nuisances, andeducate the public about your processes sothey understand how and why you do certainthings through the year.

There are many potential positives to thecommunity from your vineyard practices andoperations. It is important to maximize thesebenefits by informing your neighbours andcommunity about your sustainable values,initiatives, production practices, products andtechnologies.

The purpose of this section is to identifypotential issues that can arise at theagricultural-urban interface and to help you


better understand, communicate about, andengage in positive problem solving solutions.

7.10. Identifying Potential Concerns

A proactive plan that emphasizes educationand communication will minimize conflicts andmaximize the potential benefits of yourvineyard to society. The first step in proactiveplanning is to anticipate potential concernsand sources of conflict and develop solutionsbefore they occur.

Potential concerns of your neighbours and/orthe community may include the following:

· transportation and traffico increased traffic at peak labour timeso traffic on vineyard roads and ancillary

roads· water quality and supply

o competing useso water pressureo sedimentation of water supply due to

erosiono chemicals and pesticides affecting

water quality· noise and vibrations

o vineyard groundworko wind machines for crop protectiono wind turbines for electrical generationo engine driven irrigation pumpso cropping equipmento night time grape harvesto bird control deviceso traffic

· visual impactso lighting: lights in greenhouses, grape

harvester and equipment lights duringharvest, yard security lights

o viewsheds· air quality

o dust (traffic on unpaved roads, soilerosion by wind from laneways andbare fields, livestock ventilation fans,field tillage)

o chemical sprayingo odours (manure, pomace or other

organics storage and field application,compost piles, pesticide applications,livestock pasturing)

o smoke (burning prunings, farm wastes,organic materials for heating shops,greenhouses)

7.11. Outreach and Communication

Formal and effective outreach andcommunication is essential to identifying andaddressing potential concerns and todeveloping positive relationships with yourneighbours and community. Consider thefollowing when developing your outreach andcommunications plan.

Get acquainted with vineyard neighboursand your local community and generategoodwill:

· Get to know those that may be impactedby your operations in a friendly setting.Invite them to tour your vineyard (forexample).

· Be involved in community events and civicand charitable groups to work alongsidecommunity members.


Educate your neighbours and communityand yourself:

· Share your sustainable vineyard goals andhow they benefit the surroundingcommunity.

· Inform your neighbours and communityabout your company outlining thesustainable practices you use, when, andwhy.

· Find out what issues are important toneighbours and fellow communitymembers and learn and understand variousperspectives.

· Pay attention to local and regional zoninglaws and growth management plans.

· Attend meetings and workshops withcommunity members to ensure that yourperspective is represented.

· Host neighbour/community events atyour vineyard and be involved incommunity events and civic and charitablegroups.

Communicate with your neighbours andlocal community:· Be open to discussing their concerns and

questions and respect their views.· Find a neutral setting to discuss their

concerns.· Seek common areas of interest.· Alert them to upcoming potential

nuisances before they begin.· Ensure that your neighbours know how to

contact you and consider providing anafter hours phone number.

· Communicate with neighbours oftenthrough such methods as periodic visits,

phone calls, community parties, postcardsto alert of spraying

· Explore changes to practices that couldsmooth tensions (e.g. reschedulingobjectionable activity to when neighboursare at work and not on weekends whenthey are likely to be outside.

· Make sure your employees are educatedand trained to answer questions and speakon your vineyard’s sustainability initiativeswith consumers and community members.

Develop a relationship with local media:

· Invite reporters to your vineyard and givethem newsworthy information.

· Share your sustainable practices andexplain what your operation is doing toreduce pesticide use, water use

· Respond promptly if media does call. Ifyou do not have the information they areasking for then contact them with thename of someone who can help.

7.12. Responding to Complaints

Even the best proactive planning may notentirely avoid complaints from yourneighbours. The following practices should beused to deal with complaints:· Develop a written procedure for

addressing complaints from neighbours.· Train all employees in the procedure.· Delegate one person to managing the

complaints process.· Document all complaints with

understanding and tact.· Ensure all complaints are followed up on.

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Thrupp, L. (2002). Fruits of Progress: Growing Sustainable Farming and Food Supplies. Washington,D.C: World Resources Institute.

http://www.conservancy.bc.ca/attachments/okanagan/sosstewardship/The%20Value%20of%20Riparian%20Habitat-single.pdf

http://www.conservancy.bc.ca/attachments/okanagan/sosstewardship/The%20Value%20of%20Riparian%20Habitat-single.pdf

http://www.wfa.org.au/files/what_we_do/Sustaining_Success.pdf


Thrupp, L., Costello, M.J., McGourty, G. (2008). Biodiversity Conservation Practices in CaliforniaVineyards: Learning from Experience. Bulletin from the California Sustainable WinegrowingProgram. URL: www.sustainablewinegrowing.org/docs/2008-Biodiversity_in_Vineyards.pdf.Accessed February 15, 2010.

Traynor, J. (2003). Leaf vs. Petilole Analysis to Find ‘N’ in Grapes. Grape Grower Magazine. URL:www.beesource.com/pov/traynor/ggmfeb2003.htm. Accessed March 13, 2009.

Vernal Pool Association. (nd). URL: www.vernalpool.org/vpinfo_1.htm. Accessed February 23, 2009.

VineBALANCE New York. (2009). Guide to Sustainable Viticulture Practices. Workbook Sections.URL: www.vinebalance.com/workbook_sections.php. Accessed October 15, 2008.

Washington Association of Wine Grape Growers. (2006). Vinewise: Washington Guide toSustainable Viticulture. URL: www.vinewise.org/245.html. Accessed October 15, 2008.

Westcoast Environmental Law. BC Guide to Watershed Law and Planning. Watersheds of BC. URL:www.bcwatersheds.org/issues/water/bcgwlp/d1.html. Accessed February 19, 2009.

Wetland Stewardship Partnership. (2009). Wetland Ways: Interim Guidelines for WetlandProtection and Conservation in British Columbia. URL:www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/BMP/bmpintro.html/. Accessed March 15, 2010.

Wild Farm Alliance. (2005). Biodiversity Conservation: An Organic Farmer’s Guide. Watsonville,California.

Wrysinski, J. (2002). Monitoring on Your Farm: A Guide to Tracking and Understanding theResources and Wildlife on Your Farm. Woodland, CA: Yolo County Resource ConservationDistrict.

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GLOSSARY | Page G-1

GLOSSARY

Annual: a plant that goes through the process of germinating, flowering and dying in one growingseason. They need to be replanted each spring. Winter annual plants germinate in the fall and maturethe next season.

Application rate (pesticide): the rate at which the pesticide should be applied over a given area. It isnormally found on the product’s label and is based on things such as target pest, weather conditions,soil conditions and plant development stages.

Beneficial organisms (beneficials): is a subjective term given to organisms that enhance cropproduction by contributing to pest control, pollination or maintenance of soil health. A beneficialorganism for one crop may be detrimental to another and vice versa.

Biodiversity: the richness and variety of all life forms plus the habitats and natural processes thatsupport them.

Biogeoclimatic zone: An ecosystem spread over a large geographical area that can be characterizedby its climate, vegetation, soils and animal life.

Cover crop: vegetation that is planted (e.g. grass), or allowed to grow (e.g. native plants) betweenrows of grape plants. A cover crop is a sustainable tool that can be used to effectively manage soilquality, water use, weeds and pests.

Drift (pesticide): Pesticide drift refers to pesticide droplets or dust that are transported by the windand deposited outside of target areas.

Ecosystem processes: the physical, chemical and biological actions or events that link organismsand their environment. Ecosystem processes regulate the climate, clean freshwater, regulate andclean soils, maintain genetic diversity, maintain the water cycle, recycle nutrients, and pollinatecrops.

Ecosystem services: resources and processes that are supplied by natural ecosystems. Collectively,these benefits are known as ecosystem services. These services are extensive and diverse, affectingthe quality of our land, water, food, and health. Ecosystems provide “services” that:

· contribute to climate stability and moderate weather extremes· disperse seeds· mitigate drought and floods

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· cycle and move nutrients· protect stream and river channels and coastal shores from erosion· purify the air and water and detoxify and decompose wastes· control agricultural pests· support diverse wildlife populations· maintain biodiversity· generate and preserve soils and renew their fertility· contribute to climate stability· purify the air and water· regulate disease carrying organisms· pollinate crops and natural vegetation· enhance aesthetic appeal· provide habitat

Ecosystem: a community of plants, animals, and microorganisms that live, feed, and interact in thesame area or environment. People are part of ecosystems. Ecosystems develop and exist at differentscales: in a drop of water, within a single tree, within a field, across a farm, and across a large regionlike a major river basin.

Evapotranspiration (ET): The combined loss of water to the atmosphere from a given area byevaporation from the land and transpiration from plants; used in determining crop irrigation needs.

Fertigation: the application of fertilizers, soil amendments, or other water soluble products throughan irrigation system.

Foliar spraying: Application of liquid fertilizer by spraying on the leaf of the plant.

Grafting: It is a form of asexual plant propagation where the scion of one plant is encouraged to fusewith the rootstock of another. Grafting is a method most commonly used for the propagation ofcommercial trees and shrubs.

Green manure: a cover crop that is grown to be tilled and turned under while still green for thepurpose of adding nutrients and organic matter to the soil.

Habitat: the living area of a community of plants and animals. It includes the air, soil, water, food andcover components upon which plants and animals depend upon to carry out their life processes.

Invasive (noxious) weed: Noxious weeds are typically non-native plants that grow uncontrollablybecause of a lack of local predators or plant pathogens that would keep their populations under

GLOSSARY | Page G-3

control. They are detrimental to crops because they are highly competitive and difficult to control.

Invasive species: Invasive species are plants, animals, aquatic life and micro-organisms that out-compete native species when outside of their natural environment and threaten Canada'secosystems, economy and society.

Leachate (pesticide): Pesticide leachate is pesticide in solution that gets transported by rain orirrigation down into or through the soil to unwanted areas.

Macronutrient: Macronutrients are soil nutrients consumed by plants in large quantities, and arenecessary for the healthy development of a crop. These are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium andsulphur. In areas that lack one or all of these nutrients, the soil can be amended by applying these asfertilizer.

Micronutrient: Micronutrients are those nutrients utilized by plants in small quantities but that arecrucial to their development. These are boron, copper, chlorine, iron, manganese, molybdenum andzinc. In areas that lack one or all of these nutrients, the soil can be amended by applying these asfertilizer.

Mycorrhizae: beneficial fungi that form a symbiotic relationship with the root of a plant, whichfacilitates nutrient intake for the plant.

Organic matter: Decayed material that was once part of a living organism usually rich in nutrients.

Perennial: a plant that returns year to year, meaning it does not die in the winter.

Pest: is a subjective term given to organisms (including plants, animals or pathogens) that aredetrimental to crop production. A pest for one crop may be beneficial to another and vice versa.

Pesticide: Any material used to prevent, destroy, repel, attract or reduce pest organisms.Insecticides, herbicides, fungicides and rodenticides are some of the more well-known pesticides.Less well-known pesticides include growth regulators, plant defoliants, surface disinfectants andsome swimming pool chemicals. Under federal legislation, all pesticides used in Canada must beregistered by Health Canada.

Petiole: The small stalk that attaches the leaf blade to the stem of a plant.

Rootstock: A rootstock is an established healthy root system used for grafting a cutting or budding

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from another plant.

Runoff (pesticide): Pesticide runoff refers to pesticide solution transported by rain or irrigationoutside of the target areas.

Scion: A scion is a plant cutting that contains desirable genes for things such as stems, leaves,flowers, or fruit. It is normally grafted onto the rootstock of another plant.

Soil amendment: Any material added to a soil to improve its properties (e.g. water holding capacity,drainage, aeration)

Soil compaction: Loss of pore structure and aggregate stability with soil caused by traffic and tillage,particularly in wet soil; reduces the movement of water, air, nutrients and soil microbes in soil.

Species at risk: are indigenous species, subspecies, and distinct populations that are at risk ofbecoming extinct at a local or global level.

Vine vigour: Vine vigour refers to the amount of vegetative growth produced by a vine in a singlegrowing season. It has a direct effect on nutrient transport and fruit quality. It is affected byenvironmental factors such as water availability, climate, soil quality, as well as vineyard practices.

Water holding capacity: Soil holds water in the space between its particles due to capillary action,ionic forces and surface tension. Water holding capacity refers to the water remaining in a soil whenthe downward water flow due to gravity becomes negligible.

Watershed: the region draining into a river, river system, or other body of water. Other terms usedinterchangeably with watershed include drainage basin or catchment basin.

Weeds: native or invasive (noxious) plants that grow and reproduce aggressively, and compete withcrop plants for soil nutrients, light and water.

Wilting point: When the plant goes into irreversible distress as the force required to remove waterfrom the soil exceeds the plant’s ability to do so. The permanent wilting point occurs at a higher(total) water content in clay soils than in sandy soils because the particles are smaller and water ismore tightly bound to clay soils.

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