syllabus on women in development

Syllabus on Women in DevelopmentAuthor(s): Helen HendersonSource: International Supplement to the Women's Studies Quarterly, No. 1 (Jan., 1982), pp.28-30Published by: The Feminist Press at the City University of New YorkStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40213390 .

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Teaching Aids

Syllabus on Women in Development Helen Henderson

Most development planning has not specifical- ly considered the economic and social involvement of women, who are, nonetheless, very active in the productive sector of most developing countries. In African rural areas, the United Nations has estimated that women spend more of their work hours in agriculture than do men;1 yet agricultural extension services have not been directed to women, and women's needs in the cash economy have often been ignored. Traditional migration theory about rural to urban movement has mini- mized the extent of autonomous female migration.2 There is, however, a growing body of literature which examines women's contributions to household and national economies and attempts not only to correct previous mis- conceptions, but also to challenge the assump- tions of development theory. It questions crite- ria of measurement (e.g., G.N.P. and "man- hours" ) and asks for a detailed examination of the circumstances under which women benefit or lose in the processes of social change associated with economic development.

The goal of the following course syllabus is to familiarize students interested in the field of international development with critical issues and to enable them to apply theories to practi- cal social change situations.3 At the University of Arizona, the course is listed under the School of Home Economics, and cross-listed in the Department of Anthropology and the Women's Studies Program in the College of Liberal Arts, as well as in the College of Agri- culture. When I have taught this course, I have supplemented the reading assignments with films and guest lecturers, especially speakers from developing countries under discussion.

Major Texts Boserup, Ester. Women's Role in Economic

Development New York: St. Martin's Press, 1970.

Zeidenstein, Sondra. Learning about Rural Women. Studies in Family Planning 10, no. 11/12 (November/December 1979).

Palmer, Ingrid. The Nemow Case: Case Stud- ies of the Impact of Large Scale Develop- ment Projects on Women: A Series for Planners, Working Paper No. 7. Washing- ton, D.C.: Agency for International Devel- opment, September 1979.

Readings Week 1. General Theories of Development in Relation to the Roles of Women

The writings in this section examine some of the major approaches to development and ask how research priorities should be formulated and which methodologies are likely to be most appropriate for data collection. Some of the negative aspects of development are discussed in an historical context. Sex roles in farming are considered in relation to agricultural tech- niques, population pressures, and cash crop- ping policies.

Boserup, Chapter 1, pp. 15-36. Elliot, Caroline. "Theories of Development:

An Assessment." Signs 3 (1977): 1-8. Okeyo, Achola Pala. "Research Priorities:

Women in Africa." In Learning about Rural Women, pp. 401-4.

Pala, Achola. "Definitions of Women and De- velopment: An African Perspective." Signs 3 (1977):9- 13.

Tinker, Irene. "The Adverse Impact of Devel- opment on Women." In Women and World Development, edited by Irene Tinker and Michele Bo Bramsen, pp. 22-34. Wash- ington, D.C.: Overseas Development Council, 1976.

Week 2. The Household We consider such major issues as the rela-

tion of types of marriage to household economic systems, the nature and causes of women-headed households, loss of status of women under colonial rule, and methodolog- ical approaches to studying rural women's time allocation and economic contributions.

Boserup, Chapters 2, 3, pp. 37-64. Buvinic, Mayra; Youssef, Nadia H.; and Kudat,

Anse. With Jennifer Sebstad and Barbara Von Elm. "Women-Headed Households: The Ignored Factor in Development Plan- ning," Washington, D.C.: International Center for Research on Women, 1978, pp. 1-33, 73-82.

Deere, Carmen, and de Leal, Magdalena. "Measuring Rural Women's Work and Class Position." In Learning about Rural Women, pp. 370- 74.

McSweeney, Brenda. "Collection and Analy- sis of Data on Rural Women's Time Use." In Learning about Rural Women, pp. 379- 83.

Okeyo, Achola Pala. "Women in the House- hold Economy: Managing Multiple Roles." In Learning about Rural Women, pp. 337- 43.

Smock, Audrey. "Measuring Rural Women's Economic Roles and Contributions in Ke- nya." In Learning about Rural Women, pp. 385-90.

Youssef, Nadia, and Turbitt, Caralie. "Learn- ing about Women through Household Sur- veys: An Experimental Module." In Learn- ing about Rural Women, pp. 390-93.

Week 3. Women's Role in Agricultural Production

The position of women as agricultural work- ers is explored and some survey questions and methodologies suggested. One study focuses on women's roles in subsistence and cash crop agriculture in West Africa; another details the impact of a new technology on women's traditional work patterns in Southeast Asia.

Boserup, Chapter 4, pp. 66-81. Cain, Melinda. "Java, Indonesia: The Intro-

duction of Rice Processing Technology." In Women and Technological Change in De- veloping Countries, edited by Roslyn Dauber and Melinda Cain. Boulder, Co.: Westview Press, 1981, pp. 127-237.

Gulati, Leela. "Profile of a Female Agricultural Laborer." inLearning about Rural Women, pp. 416-17.

Guyer, Jane. "Food, Cocoa, and the Division of Labour by Sex in Two West African Soci- eties." Comparative Studies in Society and History 22, 3 (1980): 355, 373.

Martius-von Harder, Gudrun. "How and What Rural Women Know: Experiences in Bang- ladesh." In Learning about Rural Women,

^NECA/Women's Programme, Women of Afri- ca: Today and Tomorrow (Addis Ababa: UNECA, 1975).

2Nadia Youssef, Mayra Buvinic, and Anse Kudat, with Jennifer Sebstad and Barbara Von Elm, Women in Migration: A Third World Focus (Washington, D.C.: International Center for Research on Women, 1979).

3A reading list developed by Myra Dinnerstein was

particularly helpful in pointing out important materials on African women. I have also benefited from the advice of Hanna Papanek and Janice Monk about

appropriate reading materials and topics.

28 January 1982



pp. 406-8. Mencher, Joan, et al. "Women in Rice Cultiva-

tion: Some Research Tools." In Learning about Rural Women, pp. 408-12.

Safai, Marsha. "Circumventing Problems of Accessibility to Rural Muslim Women." In Learning about Rural Women, pp. 405-6.

Sajogyo, Pudjiwati, et al. "Studying Rural Women in West Java." In Learning about Rural Women, pp. 364-70.

Week 4. Women's Access to Agricultural Services

Examining data from Kenya and Tanzania, the authors discuss the effects of sex-discrimi- natory practices in relation to such resources as credit, land, and extension training.

Fortmann, Louise. "The Plight of the Invisible Farmer: The Effect of National Agricultural Policy on Women," in Women and Tech- nological Change in Developing Countries, edited by Roslyn Dauber and Melinda Cain. Boulder, Co.: Westview Press, 1981, pp. 205-14.

Moock, Peter. "The Efficiency of Women as Farm Managers." American Journal of Ag- ricultural Economics (December 1976): 831-35.

Staudt, Kathleen, "Women Farmers and In- equities in Agricultural Services," Rural Africana, Winter, 1975-76, pp. 81-91.

Week 5. Nutrition and Family Health These studies explore women's functions

related to nutrition, especially reproduction, lactation, weaning, infant feeding, and hy-

giene. The need for planners to consider women's time and energy resources is stressed. Examples from Africa, Southeast Asia, and Latin America show beneficial and harmful effects of traditional health care, and empha- size the importance of understanding how women perceive their bodies and of giving them the knowledge and responsibility to help solve their own health problems rather than rely solely on professional health care services.

Hull, Valerie J. "Women, Doctors, and Family Health Care: Some Lessons from Rural Java." In Learning about Rural Women, pp. 315-25.

Protein-Calorie Advisory Group of the United Nations System, Food and Agricultural Or- ganization of the United Nations. Women in Food Production, Food Handling and Nu- trition. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper, Rome, 1979, pp. 17-70.

Shedlin, Michele G. "Assessment of Body Concepts and Beliefs Regarding Reproduc- tive Physiology." In Learning about Rural Women, pp. 393-97.

Week 6. Women and Education This section deals with women's opportuni-

ties for training and employment in vocational, clerical, administrative, and professional sec- tors, in contexts of cultural, historical, and technological constraints. An Upper Volta example shows that without labor-saving technology, rural women will continue to lack access to education.

Boserup, Chapter 7, pp. 119-38; Chapter 12,

pp. 211-25. McSweeney, Brenda, and Freedman, Marion.

"Laqk of Time as an Obstacle to Women's Education: The Case of Upper Volta," Comparative Education Review 24, 2 (June 1980): S124-S139.

Week 7. Examination

Week 8. Migration and Urbanization These studies examine characteristics of fe-

male migrants (age, marital status, education, and destination), and socioeconomic factors associated with female migration. Women's economic motivations are seen as critically im-

portant to rural-urban migration. Radical changes in women's roles in the urban setting are associated with their lack of work in the subsistence area and their entry into the mar- ket and service areas. Regional variations are noted.

Boserup, Chapter 5, pp. 85-105; Chapter 9, pp. 157-73.

Youssef, Nadia; Buvinic, Mayra; and Kudat, Anse; with Jennifer Sebstad and Barbara Von Elm. Women in Migration: A Third World Focus, pp. 68-98. Washington, D.C.: International Center for Research on Women, 1979.

Weeks 9-10. Informal and Formal Labor Markets

This section deals with the implications of women's strong involvement in informal labor markets (noncontractual, intermittent work

trading, casual jobs, and domestic service) and

How to Design an Education Program Participants in the Exchange workshops developed the following guidelines for setting up educational programs for women.

First, education for women must be geared toward women, with teachers specially trained to deal with adult women who have been out of the system for some time, or who may never have been in the system at all.

Second, the program should respond to the women's own expressed interests and needs, rather than being imposed from the outside. Education must be participatory.

Third, materials should be drawn from and be relevant to the women's lives and experiences. For example, vocational education must prepare women for real employment opportunities.

Fourth, forms of communication other than writing should be used. In Zambia, to educate women about new laws, one program finds someone in the community who is willing to

come and talk to others, someone who suf- fered personally from the old law. They share experiences and then bring in a lawyer to discuss the new law and how to implement it.

Fifth, unusual and creative approaches to learning must be explored. All sorts of media can be involved - slides, posters, television, radio, lectures, demonstrations. Videotapes of the women themselves have been successfully used in a program in the Philippines. Similarly, group dynamics work can produce valuable experiences in learning leadership skills.

Sixth, community support is essential. It is often important to involve men as well. For example, one participant in an Exchange family-planning session stressed: "In family planning, we must educate the men; we should go to the men and say, 'Here is an education program. You both can decide when your wife will have children and how many children to have.'"

Seventh, education must be accessible. Pro- grams must reach out to women where they already are spending time, for example, at the water wells.

Eighth, education should include formal lit-

eracy training, but must go beyond it as well. Women need training in new technical skills and in management and leadership. Women's

perceptions about themselves and society's expectations of women must change. Educa- tion must lead to empowerment.

Ninth, education must be part of an integrat- ed development approach. It must be linked to

building an infrastructure of support for women, to reducing their enormous work loads, to offering other services such as health and fam-

ily planning, and to providing opportunities for income generation.

- From The Exchange Report



their lesser involvement with industry (especially skilled positions) in developing countries.

Arizpe, Lourdes. "Women in the Informal La- bor Sector The Case of Mexico City." Signs 3 (1977):25-37.

Boserup, Chapter 6, pp. 106-18; Chapter 8, pp. 139-54; Chapter 10, pp. 174-93; Chapter 11, pp. 194-210.

Mintz, Sidney. "Men, Women and Trade." Comparative Studies in Society and Histo- ry 13 (1971):247-69.

Okonjo, Kamene. "Rural Women's Credit Systems: A Nigerian Example." In Learn- ing about Rural Women, pp. 326-31.

Peluso, Nancy Lee. "Collecting Data on Wom- en's Employment in Rural Java." \nLearn- ing about Rural Women, pp. 374-78.

Weeks 11-12. Political and Historical Aspects of Development and the Status of Women: Some National Examples

Articles about the United States, China, selected Muslim societies, and socialist societies in Africa explore the historical, religious, and political conditions under which women may make advances toward full equality with men. Revolutionary policies are examined in terms of their impact on the status of women.

Andors, Phyllis. "Politics of Chinese Develop- ment The Case of Women, 1960-1966." Signs 2 (1976):89-119.

Brain, James. "Less than Second-Class: Women in Rural Settlement Schemes in Tanzania." In Women in Africa, edited by Nancy Hafkin and Edna Bay, pp. 265-82. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1976.

Giele, Janet "United States: A Prolonged Search for Equal Rights." In Women: Roles and Status in Eight Countries, edited by Janet Giele and Audrey Smock, pp. 301- 46. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1977.

Mernissi, Fatima. "The Moslem World: Wom- en Excluded from Development" In Wom- en and World Development, edited by Irene Tinker and Michele Bo Bramsen, pp. 35-44. Washington, D.C.: Overseas De- velopment Council, 1976.

O'Barr, Jean. "Making the Invisible Visible: African Women in Politics and Policy." Afri- can Studies Review 3 (1975): 19-28.

Stiehm, Judith. "Algerian Women: Honor, Survival, and Islamic Socialism." In Wom- en in the World, edited by L. B. Iglitzin and R. Ross, pp. 229-41. Santa Barbara and Oxford, 1976.

Urgang, Stephanie, "Fighting two Colonial- isms: The Women's Struggle in Guinea- Bissau." African Studies Review 18 (1975):29-34.

Youssef, Nadia H. "Women in the Muslim World: A Comparative Study." In Women

in the World (see Stiehm, above), pp. 203- 17.

Weeks 13-14. Development Planning The authors stress the importance of looking

at all development programs in their initial planning stages from the point of view of their impact on women - even programs which may not appear to be gender-related, such as those dealing with the introduction of seed varieties, new technologies, or resettlement schemes. In this way, women will be fully inte- grated in project implementation, and "patch- up" measures will be unnecessary.

Abdullah, T, and Zeidenstein, S. "Women's Reality: Critical Issues for Program De- sign." inLearning about Rural Women, pp. 344-52.

Mazumdar, Vina. "From Research to Policy: Rural Women in India." InLearning about Rural Women, pp. 353-58.

Papanek, Hanna. "Development Planning for Women." Signs, 3 (1977): 14-21.

Palmer, Ingrid. TheNemow Case, pp. 1-92.

Helen K. Henderson is an anthropologist cur- rently serving as Women in Development Coordinator with the Office of International Agriculture Programs at the University of Arizona.

Reading List on Women in the Middle East Kathleen H. 8. Manalo Titles in this reading list were selected on the basis of their availability in English, and their interest to the general reader or beginning student of Middle East issues. The editors of the International Supplement welcome addi- tions to this bibliography.

Bibliography and Reference Buvinic, Mayra. Women and World De-

velopment: An Annotated Bibliography. Washington, D.C.: Overseas Development Council, 1976.

Gulick, John, and Gulick, Margaret An Anno- tated Bibliography of Sources Concerned with Women in the Modern Muslim Middle East. Princeton Near East Paper, no. 17. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974.

Keddie, Nikki R. "Problems in the Study of Middle Eastern Women." International Journal of Middle East Studies 10 (1979):225-40. Suggestions about meth- odology for the study of women in both

historical and contemporary perspectives. Meghdessian, Samira Rafidi. The Status of the

Arab Woman: A Select Bibliography. West- port, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980. Pro- duced under the auspices of the Institute for Women's Studies in the Arab World, Beirut University College. A well-selected and easy-to-use compilation.

al-Qazzaz, Ayad. Women in the Middle East and North Africa. Middle East Monograph, no. 2. Austin, Texas: Center for Middle Eastern Studies, University of Texas, 1977.

Sayigh, Rosemary. "Roles and Functions of Arab Women: A Reappraisal." Arab Stud- ies Quarterly 1 (October 1979):258- 74. An examination of how Westerners study women in the Middle East and identifica- tion of areas that should be studied by Arab women scholars.

Van Dusen, Roxann A. "Integrating Women into National Economies: Programming Considerations with Special Reference to the Near East" Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Agency for International Development, Of- fice of Technical Support, Near East Bu- reau, July 1977. Anyone seriously interested in women in development as applied to the Middle East should begin with this report.

Van Dusen, Roxann. "The Study of Women in the Middle East: Some Thoughts." Middle East Studies Association Bulletin 10 (1 May 1976): 1- 19. Suggestions for study and research. Includes a selective bibliography.

Books Alireza, Marianne. At the Drop of a Veil. Bos-

ton: Houghton Mifflin, 1971. Written by an American woman who married into a wealthy Saudi family. Insights are more about American reactions than the Saudi environment.

Beck, Lois, and Keddie, Nikki. Women in the Muslim World. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978. The most compre- hensive book on the subject

30 January 1982



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