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  • 7/28/2019 Synthese Volume 21 issue 3-4 1970 [doi 10.1007/bf00484812] L. Jonathan Cohen; Avishai Margalit -- The role of i

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    L . J O N A T H A N C O H E N A N D A V I S H A I M A R G A L I T

    T H E R O L E O F I N D U C T I V E R E A S O N I N G I N T H EI N T E R P R E T A T I O N O F M E T A P H O R

    A c c o r d i n g t o m o s t c u r r e n t th e o r i e s th e s e m a n t i c s o f a n a t u r a l l a n g u a g es h o u l d b e f o c u s s e d q u i t e s h a r p l y o n t o t h e t a s k o f d e s c ri b in g l i te r a lm e a n i n g s . M e t a p h o r , o n t h i s v i ew , is e i t h e r a p a t h o l o g i c a l p h e n o m e n o nt h a t a n y a c c o u n t o f n o r m a l l a n g u a g e i s r i g h t to d i s r e g a r d , o r a r a r e a n ds p e c i a li s e d e x t e n s i o n o f l a n g u a g e , a s in p o e t r y , t h a t c a n s a f e ly b e l e f to n o n e s i d e f o r l a t e r a n a l y s i s w h i l e th e m a i n t a s k o f e x p l i c a t i n g li t e ra lm e a n i n g p r o c e e d s . Y e t t h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f s e m a n t i c s is f al s e t o t h e r e a l it ie so f t h e s i t u a t i o n , i n a t l e a s t t h r e e r e s p e c t s . F i r s t , s o f a r a s s y n c h r o n i c li n -g u is ti cs is c o n c e r n e d , n a t i v e s p e a k e r s o f t e n m o v e f r o m l it e ra l t o m e t a p h o r -i ca l sp e e c h , a n d b a c k a g a i n , w i t h o u t a n y s e n s e o f st ra i n o r a n y b i z a r re n e s s -r e a c t i o n s in t h e i r h e a r e rs . C o n s i d e r , f o r e x a m p l e , a c o n v e r s a t i o n i n w h i c ht h e f o l lo w i n g s e q u e n c e s o f s e n t e n c es a r e u t t e r e d :

    o rH a s t h e p r o d u c e r s e c u r e d a n y n e w t a l e n t?Y e s , R o s e m a r y h a s s w a l l o w e d h i s b a i t.

    There i s no f i r e burn i ng i n h i s be l ly .Yes , h e i s a ra t he r un i n t e re s ti ng pe r son .

    I t i s a l t o g e t h e r c o u n t e r - i n t u i ti v e t o w r i t e o f f t h e m e t a p h o r s h e r e a s b e i n gi n a n y w a y a b e r r a n t o r a b n o r m a l m o d e s o f s p e ec h . S e c o n d l y , s o f a r a sd i a c h r o n i c l in g u is ti cs is c o n c e r n e d , t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f m e t a p h o r a s as o u r c e o f n e w d i c t i o n a r y m e a n i n g s i s w e l l - k n o w n . B u t w h y s h o u l d o n es u p p o s e t h a t , w h e n m e t a p h o r o p e r a t e s t h u s a s a c a u s a l f a c t o r i n s e m a n t i cc h a n g e , i t o p e r a t e s f r o m o u t s i d e , a s i t w e r e ? I t i s m u c h m o r e p l a u s i b l et o s ee t h e d e a t h o f a d e a d m e t a p h o r a s a r e a d j u s t m e n t , o r b o u n d a r y - s h i f t ,w i t h i n la n g u a g e . F o r t h e n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d f a ll ss q u a re l y w i th i n t h e h i s to r y o f t h e l a n gu a g e , a n d t h e p o w e r o f m e t a p h o rt o c a u s e s e m a n t i c c h a n g e b e c o m e s m o r e i n t e l l i g i b l e . T h i r d l y , s o f a r a sSynthese 21 (1970) 469-487. All R ights ReservedCopyright 1970 by D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht-Holland

  • 7/28/2019 Synthese Volume 21 issue 3-4 1970 [doi 10.1007/bf00484812] L. Jonathan Cohen; Avishai Margalit -- The role of i

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    470 L . J O N A T H A N C O H E N A N D A V I S H A I M A R G A L I Tt h e p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c s o f l a n g u a g e - l e a r n i n g i s c o n c e r n e d t h e p i c t u r e i sg r o t e s q u e l y f a ls i fi e d i f m e t a p h o r i s r e g a r d e d a s a s p e ci a l f o r m o f l i n -g u i s t i c s o p h i s t i c a t i o n . C h i l d r e n d o n o t l e a r n t o s p e a k m e t a p h o r i c a l l y a sa k i n d o f c r o w n i n g a c h i e v e m e n t i n t h e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p o f l a n g u a g e - l e a r n -i n g. R a t h e r t h e y us e m e t a p h o r s n a t u r a l l y f r o m i n f a n c y o n w a r d s , a n dh a v e g r a d u a l l y t o l e a r n - w i t h r e s p e c t to e a c h n o u n , v e r b , a d j e c t i v e o ra d v e r b - h o w t o s p e a k l i t e r a ll y . ' T h e c a r s h o u t e d a t m e ' , s a y s t h e c h i ld .' N o , i t h o o t e d a t y o u ' , c o rr e c t s th e p a r e n t . I t i s p s y c h o g e n e t i c a l l y m o r ei l l u m i n a t i n g t o v i e w li t er a l p a t t e r n s o f w o r d - u s e a s t h e r e s u l t o f i m p o s i n gc e r t a i n r e s t r i c t i o n s o n m e t a p h o r i c a l o n e s , t h a n t o v i e w m e t a p h o r i c a lp a t t e r n s a s t h e r e s u l ts o f r e m o v i n g c e r t a i n r e s t r i c ti o n s f r o m l i te r a l o n e s .T h e d e l i b e ra t e u t t e r a n c e o f m e t a p h o r , i n th e a w a r e n e s s t h a t i t i s s u c h ,is n o d o u b t a p h e n o m e n o n o f a d u l t parole. B u t m e t a p h o r i c a l s e n t e n c e sa r e a s m u c h p a r t o f th e langue t h a t c h i l d r en a c q u i r e a s a r e n o n - m e t a p h o r -i ca l ones .

    O n e c o n d i t i o n o f a d e q u a c y , t h e re f o r e, f o r th e s e m a n t i c c o m p o n e n t o fa l i n g u is t ic t h e o r y is t h a t i t s h o u l d e l u c i d a t e th e n a t u r e o f t h e b o n d t h a tl i n k s m e t a p h o r i c a l t o l i t e r a l m e a n i n g w i t h i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a n a t u r a ll a n g u a g e . I n t h i s p a p e r w e s h a l l s u g g es t t h a t s u c h a n e l u c i d a t i o n c a n b ea c h i ev e d b y a n a p p r o p r i a t e a c c o u n t o f th e r o l e t h a t h a s t o b e p l a y e db y i n d u c ti v e r e a s o n in g in r e g a r d t o s t a te m e n t s a b o u t m e a n i n g i n n a t u r a ll a n g u a g e s . B u t w e s h a l l n o t a t t e m p t e v e n t o o u t l i n e a c o m p l e t e t h e o r yo f s e m a n t i c s . O u r o b j e c t is s o l e ly t o s h o w , b y m e a n s o f c e rt a i n p h i l o s o p h -i c a l l y i d e a l i s e d r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s , h o w i n d u c t i v e l o g i c c a n h e l p t o c l a r i f yt h e p r o b l e m o f m e t a p h o r . S o w e s h a ll d e v e l o p , f i rs t , a b r i e f s u m m a r y o fw h a t w e t a k e t o b e t h e m a i n f e a t u r e s o f i n d u c t i v e lo g i c , t o g e t h e r w i t hs o m e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f th e s e t o t h e c o m p i l a t i o n o f d i c t i o n a r y e n t ri e s , a n ds e c o n d l y , i n t e r m s o f a l l t h i s , w e s h a l l s k e t c h a n e x p l i c a ti o n o f m e t a p h o r i c a lm e a n i n g .

    I t i s w o r t h n o t i n g a t t h e o u t s e t , h o w e v e r , t h a t o n e i m p o r t a n t c o n s e -q u e n c e f o ll o w s d i re c t ly f r o m t h e a d e q u a c y c o n d i t i o n t h a t w e h a v e j u s tm e n t i o n e d . S p e c if ic a ll y , f r o m t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t a n a d e q u a t e l i n g u i s ti ct h e o r y s h o u l d e x p li ca te t h e n a t u r e o f t h e b o n d t h a t l i n k s m e t a p h o r i c a lt o l i t e r al m e a n i n g w i t h i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e , i t f o l l o w st h a t s u c h a t h e o r y c a n n o t a s s u m e t h a t t h e m e a n i n g s o f le x ic a l i te m s a r ei n v a r i a n t u n d e r t h e p r o c e s s o f s e m a n t i c c o m p o s i t i o n . A reduct io adabsurdum a rgumen t , i n s ix s t ages , su f f i c e s to show th i s :

  • 7/28/2019 Synthese Volume 21 issue 3-4 1970 [doi 10.1007/bf00484812] L. Jonathan Cohen; Avishai Margalit -- The role of i

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    THE ROLE OF INDUCT IVE REASON ING 471

    0 )

    ( i i )( i i i )( i v )( v )

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    A s s u m e , a s is c o m m o n l y a s s u m e d i n c o m p o n e n t i a l s e m a n t ic s , 1t h a t t h e m e a n i n g o f a s e n t e n c e is a c o m p o n e n t i a l f u n c t i o no f a s e l e c t i o n o f j u s t t h o s e m e a n i n g s o f i ts l e x ic a l i t e m s t h a ta r e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e d i c t i o n a r y .T h e n , a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f ( i) , i f m e t a p h o r i c a l m e a n i n g s o c c u ri n a s e n t e n c e , t h e y m u s t b e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e d i c t i o n a r y .I t is a n a c c e p t e d c o n v e n t i o n t h a t t h e d i c t i o n a r y s h o u l d r e c o r de x i st in g p a t t e r n s o f w o r d - u s e , n o t a n t i c i p a t e n e w o n e s .I t i s a t r u i s m t h a t t h e m o s t s t r i k i n g m e t a p h o r s a r e t h e o n e st h a t h a v e n e v e r b e e n u s e d b e f o r e .I t f o ll o w s f r o m (iii) a n d ( iv ) t h a t s o m e m e t a p h o r s t h a t m a yb e f o u n d i n th e s e n t e n c es o f a l a n g u a g e c a n n o t b e r e c o r d e di n t h e d i c t i o n a r y .S i n c e ( i i ) a n d ( v ) a r e i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h o n e a n o t h e r , ( i ) m u s tb e r e j e c t e d .

    W h a t i s e s se n t i a l t o r e c o g n i s e is t h a t t he " n o v e l t y o f a m e t a p h o r i ns p e e c h n o m o r e c o n s t i t u t e s i t a n i n n o v a t i o n i n t h e l a n g u a g e t h a n t h ef a c t t h a t a s e n t e n c e h a s n e v e r b e e n u t t e r e d b e f o r e c o n s t it u t e s it s u t t e r a n c ea p r o d u c t o f s y n t a c t ic c h a n g e . A n y l a n g u a g e , s y n c h r o n i c a l l y c o n s i d e r e d ,c o n t a i n s a n i n fi n it e p o t e n t i a l f o r n e w m e t a p h o r , ju s t a s it c o n t a in s a ni n fi n it e p o t e n t i a l f o r n e w s e n te n c e s. I t f o l l o w s t h a t m e t a p h o r i c a l m e a n i n g sc a n n o m o r e b e l i s te d i n a d i c t i o n a r y t h a n c a n s e n te n c es . S o i f t h e m e t a -p h o r i c a l m e a n i n g s o f l ex i ca l i te m s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e o v e r a ll m e a n i n g so f s o m e s e n t e n c e s , th e s e l e x ic a l i t e m s m u s t b e c o n c e i v e d t o t a k e o n t h e i rm e a n i n g s i n t h o s e s e n t e n c e s i n a w a y t h a t i s i n t e g r a l t o t h e p r o c e s s e so f s e m a n ti c c o m p o s i t io n . A n d i f t h e m e a n i n g s o f w o r d s t h a t o c c u rm e t a p h o r i c a l l y a r e t h u s n o t i n v a r i a n t u n d e r s e m a n t i c c o m p o s i t i o n i t i sn a t u r a l t o s u p p o s e t h a t l i t e ra l m e a n i n g s a r e a ls o l i ab l e t o b e a f f e c t e d b yt h is p r o c e s s . T h e d i f fe r e n c e b e t w e e n l i t e ra l a n d m e t a p h o r i c a l m e a n i n gw i l l l i e i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n t h a t t a k e s p l a c e i n e a c h c a s e .W e s e e k t o s h o w h o w t h e s e m o d i f i c a t i o n s c a n b e d e s c r i b e d i n t e r m s o ft h e u n d e r l y i n g i n d u c ti v e s t r u c t u r e o f se m a n t i c r e a s o n i n g .

    I n d e e d w e c o n c e i v e t h e i n v e s t i g a ti o n o f m e a n i n g s i n a n a t u r a l l a n g u a g et o i n v o l v e a n e s s e n t i a l st a g e o f i n d u c t i v e e n q u i r y i n w h i c h c o r r e l a t i o n sa r e e s t a b li s h e d b e t w e e n c e r t a i n o c c u r r e n c e s o f c e rt a i n w o r d s a n d t h ep r e s e n c e o f c e rt a i n c i r cu m s t a n c e s . K n o w l e d g e o f m e a n i n g s c a n n e v e r b e

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    4 72 L. JONATHA N COHEN AND AVISHA I MARGALITs a t i s fa c t o r i l y u n d e r s t o o d i f i t is c o n c e i v e d s o l e l y i n t e r m s o f a n a b i l i tyt o m a p r e a d i n g s o n t o s e n t e n c e s . W h e n a c h i l d l e a r n s t h e m e a n i n g s o fs e n t e n c e s i n h i s n a t i v e la n g u a g e , o r a l i n g u i s t th o s e o f s e n t e n c e s in af o r e i g n l a n g u a g e , h e a c q u ir e s a n a b i li ty t h a t n o m e r e p a r a p h r a s e - m a c h i n ee v e r p o s s e s s es - v i z . a n a b i l i t y t o m a t c h s e n t e n c e s w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e c i r-c u m s t a n c e s .

    I I

    W e t a k e i n d u c t i v e s u p p o r t t o b e a t y p e o f t im e l e ss r e l a t io n b e t w e e n p r o p -o s i ti o n s w h i c h i s g r a d a b l e o r r a n k a b l e b u t n o t m e a s u r a b l e . 2 T h a t i s t os a y : t h e i n d u c t i v e s u p p o r t - f u n c t i o n a p p r o p r i a t e t o a p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d o fe n q u i r y m a p s o r d e r e d p a i r s o f p r o p o s i t io n s o n t o t h e f ir st n i n te g e r s t h a ta r e g r e a t e r t h a n o r e q u a l t o z e r o . S u p p o s e f ir st a s et o f p r o p o s i t i o n s t h a ti s c l o s e d u n d e r t h e r e l a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s i m i l a r i ty t o o n e a n o t h e r - i . e . ,u n d e r t h e r e l a t io n o f si m i la r it y i n s u b j e c t - m a t t e r t o o n e a n o t h e r - w h e r et h i s s i m i l a r it y is d e t e r m i n e d b y a l is t , o r c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n , o f t h e n o n -l o g ic a l ex p r e s s io n s t h a t m a y o c c u r i n s u c h p r o p o s i ti o n s . N e x t s u p p o s ea l i s t o f r e l ev an t va r i ab l e s f o r t he s e p r op os i t i o ns , i . e . , a li s t o f a l l s e t so f m u t u a l l y e x c lu s iv e c i rc u m s t a n c e s ( n o t d e s c r i b a b le i n t h e t e r m i n o l o g yt h a t d e t e r m i n e s t h e s e t o f m a t e r i a ll y s i m il a r p r o p o s i t i o n s ) s u c h t h a t , f o re a c h s e t o f c i r cu m s t a n c e s , v a r i a t io n f r o m a n y o n e o f i t s c i r c u m s t a n c e s -l e t u s c a l l t h e m i ts ' v a r i a n t s ' - t o s o m e o t h e r m a k e s a d i f f e r e n c e t o t h ej o i n t s a t is f a c ti o n o f t h e a n t e c e d e n t a n d c o n s e q u e n t o f s o m e u n i v e r s a l lyq u a n t i f ie d c o n d i t i o n a l t h a t i s a m e m b e r o f t h e s e t o f m a t e r i a l ly s im i l arp r o p o s i t i o n s . E . g ., t h e s e t o f c i rc u m s t a n c e s i n - t h e - m a t i n g - s e a s o n / o u t - o f -t h e - m a t i n g - s e a s o n i s a r e l e v a n t v a r i a b l e f o r h y p o t h e s e s a b o u t b i r d s 'p l u m a g e . T h e n , g i v e n a n y s u i ta b l e w e l l - o rd e r i n g f o r t h e l is t o f r e le v a n tv a r i a b l e s , o n e c a n c o n c e i v e a h i e r a r c h y o f t es t s, o f c u m u l a t i v e l y in c r e a s i n gt h o r o u g h n e s s , f o r a n y m e m b e r o f t h e s e t o f m a t e r i a l ly s i m i la r p r o p o s i -t i o n s t h a t is t e s t a b l e in s t r u c t u r e , i . e ., f o r a n y m e m b e r t h a t i s a u n i v e r s a l l yq u a n t i fi e d c o n d i t i o n a l , a n d c o n t i n g e n t , w i t h a c o n t i n g e n t a n t e c e d e n t a n dc o n s e q u e n t , a n d s o o n . I n t e s t t ~ ( t h e n u l l c a s e ) o n e d o e s n o t y e t u s e t h i sl is t o f r e l e v a n t v a r i a b l e s b u t s e e k s j o i n t s a t i s f a c ti o n o f t h e a n t e c e d e n t a n dc o n s e q u e n t o f t h e t e st e d p r o p o s i t i o n u n d e r a p p r o p r i a t e v a r i a t io n s o f a n yv a r i a b l e t h a t i s m e n t i o n e d ( o r h a s a v a r i a n t t h a t i s m e n t i o n e d ) i n t h ea n t e c e d e n t . I n t e s t t2 o n e o p e r a t e s e v e r y p o s s ib l e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h es ev a r i a t i o n s w i t h v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e f i rs t v a r i a b l e i n t h e l i st o f r e l e v a n t v a r i -

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    THE ROLE OF INDUCTIV E REASONI NG 473a b l e s ; i n t e s t t a o n e o p e r a t e s e v e r y p o s s ib l e c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h v a r i a t i o n so f t h e f i rs t t w o v a r i a b l e s i n t h e l i st ; a n d s o o n . I n o t h e r w o r d s t e s t t li s l ik e a n a p p l i c a t io n o f M i ll 's m e t h o d s o f d if f er e n ce o r c o n c o m i t a n tva r ia t i on s , an d tes ts t 2 , t3 , . . . t n a r e l i k e m o r e a n d m o r e r e f i n e d a p p l i c a t i o n so f h is m e t h o d o f a g re e m e n t a l o n g s id e t h o s e o t h e r m e t h o d s . S o a r e p o r tE , t h a t s t a te s in e f fe c t t h a t a p r o p o s i t i o n H h a s s u r v i v e d t e s t ti, w i t h o u tb e i n g a ff e c te d b y a n y v a r i a n t o f a v a r i a b le n o t m a n i p u l a t e d i n t h a t t es t,m a y b e c o n c e i v e d t o g i v e H a n d i ts l o g ic a l c o n s e q u e n c e s a t l e a s t i t h g r a d es u p p o r t : i . e . , s [1t , E ] >1 i /n , w h e r e n i s t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f d i f f e r e n t t e st s .C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , i f E s t a t e s t h a t H i s f a ls i fi e d b y t i ( a g a i n w i t h o u t b e i n ga f fe c te d b y a n y v a r i a n t o f v a ri a b le s n o t m a n i p u l a t e d i n t h a t t es t) , t h e nE c a n n o t g i v e H a s m u c h a s i t h g r a d e s u p p o r t : i . e . , s [ H , E ] < i / n .

    M o r e o v e r , i f H i s ( o r m i g h t b e ) f a l si f ie d b y t e s t t i b u t n o t b y t i _ 1,i t is a lw a y s p o s s i b le t o i n t r o d u c e a n a p p r o p r i a t e q u a l i f i c a t i o n i n t o t h ea n t e c e d e n t o f H s o t h a t t h e r e s u l t a n t h y p o t h e s is is i m m u n e t o f a l si f ic a t io nb y t ~ . S u c h a q u a l i f i c a t i o n w o u l d s t a n d a r d l y c o n s i s t i n a r e s t r i c t i o n o ft h e g e n e r a l i s a t i o n t o s o m e s p e c if ie d v a r i a n t o f th e r e l e v a n t v a r i a b l e o fw h i c h a n o t h e r v a r i a n t i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r H ' s f a l s i fi c a t io n , o r i n a n i n s e r t i o no f t h e p r o v i s o t h a t n o v a r i a n t o f th i s v a r ia b l e h a s a n y e f f ec t. I n d e e d i t isp o s s i b l e t o g r a d e t h e s i m p l i c i t y o f a h y p o t h e s i s i n i n v e r s e r a t i o t o t h en u m b e r o f s u c h q u a l i f ic a t i o n s t h a t a r e i n t r o d u c e d . T h e n f o r e v e r y a s se ss -m e n t o f h o w w e l l E i n d u c t i v e l y s u p p o r t s H t h e r e w i ll b e a p r e c i se l ye q u i v a l e n t a s se s s m e n t o f h o w s i m p l e a h y p o t h e s i s r e s e m b l i n g H c a n b ei f i t is t o b e f u l l y s u p p o r t e d b y E . A l s o , t h e l e ss s im p l e t h e h y p o t h e s i sb e c o m e s , t h e s h o r t e r i s t h e s t a t e m e n t o f e v i d e n c e t h a t i s n e e d e d t o g i v ei t f u l l s u p p o r t . I n d e e d a h y p o t h e s i s t h a t i s q u a l i f i e d i n r e l a t i o n t o e v e r yr e l e v a n t v a r ia b l e ( e .g . , a h y p o t h e s i s t h a t i s r e q u i r e d t o h o l d g o o d o n l yu n d e r c e r t a in w e l l u n d e r s t o o d l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t io n s ) c a n b e f u l ly su p -p o r t e d b y a s i n g le e v i d e n t ia l in s t a n c e ( e . g ., t h e o u t c o m e o f a s i n g le e x -p e r i m e n t ) .

    N o w t h e s e m a n t i c a l c o n t e n t o f a n i d e a l d i c t i o n a r y f o r t h e o r e t i c a lp u r p o s e s m a y b e v i e w e d a s a s e t o f h e a v i l y q u a li f i ed in d u c t i v e h y p o t h e s e st h a t a r e f u l l y s u p p o r t e d b y r e p o r t s o f a v a i la b l e e v id e n c e . I f t h e d i c t i o n a r yi s c o n c e i v e d a s a p a r t o f a l in g u i s t ' s s y n c h r o n i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f a n a t u r a ll a n g u a g e , t h e e v i d en c e w i ll n o r m a l l y b e c o n s t i t u t e d b y t h e ( p r e s u m a b l yn o n - m e t a p h o r i c a l ) u t t e r a n c e s o f n a t i v e s p e a k e r s u n d e r s u s t a i n e d in t e r -r o g a t i o n i n a p p r o p r i a t e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o r u n d e r s e l f - i n t e r r o g a t i o n ( i . e . ,

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    474 L. J O N A TH A N CO H EN A N D A V I SH A I M A RG A LI Ti n t r o s p e c t i o n ) . I f in s t e a d t h e d i c t i o n a r y is c o n c e i v e d o f a s a p a r t o f t h ec o m p e t e n c e t h a t i s i n g e s t e d b y a n i d e a l n a t i v e s p e a k e r t h r o u g h t h e p r o -c e ss e s o f l a n g u a g e - l e a r n i n g , t h e n t h e e v i d e n c e w i ll b e c o n s t i t u t e d b y t h e( p r e s u m a b l y n o n - m e t a p h o r i c a l) u t t e r a n c e s a n d r e a c ti o n s o f a d u l t s p e a k er si n a p p r o p r i a t e c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h e r e l e v a n t v a r i a b l e s w i l l b e t h o s e s e t so f m u t u a l l y e x c lu s i ve c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h a r e s u c h t h a t v a r i a t i o n f r o mo n e c i r c u m s t a n c e t o a n o t h e r w i t h i n th e s a m e s e t s o m e t i m e s f al s if ie s ah y p o t h e si s a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g o f a w o r d o r m o r p h e m e .

    W h a t p r e c i s e s t r u c t u r e s h o u l d t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s b e c o n c e i v e d t o h a v e ?I n o r d e r t o s i m p l if y o u r a c c o u n t o f t h e m w e s h a ll a s s u m e h e r e t h e a v a i l-a b i l i t y o f s o m e b i d i r e c t i o n a l c a t e g o r i a l g r a m m a r l i k e t h a t o u t l i n e d b yL y o n s z. W e c o n c e i v e s u c h a g r a m m a r t o a f f o r d d e s c r i p t io n s o f d e e ps t ru c t u re s o n l y , a n d t o r e q u i r e s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n b y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l r ul e si n o r d e r t o a f f o r d s y n t a c t i c d e s c r i p t io n s o f s u r f a c e s tr u c t u r e s . B u t w ec h o o s e a c a t e g o r i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f d e e p s y n t a x r a t h e r t h a n a n e q u i v -a l e n t 4 p h r a s e - s t r u c t u r e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n b e c a u s e o f c e r t a i n a d v a n t a g e s( w h i c h w i l l e m e r g e i n w h a t f o l l o w s ) s o f a r a s s e m a n t i c c o m p o s i t i o n i sc o n c e r n e d . W e s h a l l t a k e a l e xi c al i t e m t o b e i n d i v i d u a t e d b y i t s p h o n o l o g -i c a l f o r m a n d s y n t a c t i c c a t e g o r y , s o t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n t l i te r a l m e a n i n g so f a p o l y s e m e w o u l d a l l b e d e s c r i b e d , i d e a l ly , b y a s in g le d i c t i o n a r y e n t r y .W e s h a l l c o n c e r n o u r s e l v e s h e r e , h o w e v e r , o n l y w i t h t h e m e a n i n g s o fn o u n s , v e r b s ( o t h e r t h a n t h e c o p u l a ) , a d j e c t i v e s , a d v e r b s a n d p r e p o s i -t i o n s , s i n ce it w o u l d c o n f u s e t h e p r e s e n t i s s u e i f w e w e r e t o g o b e y o n dw h a t i s n e c e ss a r y f o r a n e x p l ic a ti o n o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l n a t u r e o f m e t a p h o r .F o r t h e s a m e r e a s o n w e s h a l l n o t c o n c e r n o u r s e l v e s h e r e w i t h t h e t r a n s -f o r m a t i o n a l ru l es t h a t w o u l d b e n e e d e d , i n a c o m p l e t e g r a m m a r , t os u p p l e m e n t o u r p o s t u l a t e d c a t e g o r i a l s y n t a x , n o r s h a l l w e c o n c e r n o u r -s e l v e s a t a l l w i t h t h e s e m a n t i c s o f t o k e n - r e f l e x i v e w o r d s o r o f n o n -d e c l a r a t i v e s e n t e n c e s ( s u c h a s p e r f o r m a t i v e s , i n t e r r o g a t i v e s o r i m p e r -a t i v e s ) . F o r t h i s r e a s o n a l s o w e s h a l l i l l u s t r a t e o u r a r g u m e n t s o n l y b yv e r y s i m p l e , s y n t a c t i c a ll y u n i v o c a l e x a m p l e s , a n d w e s h a ll t a k e a l l o u re x a m p l e s f r o m s t a n d a r d E n g l is h .

    W e s h a ll m a k e c o n s i d e r ab l e u s e o f th e c o n c e p t o f a n ' o c c u r r e n c e ' o f ap h r a s e o r d i c t i o n a r y i t e m . T h e s a m e e x p r e s s i o n w i ll b e s a i d t o h a v ed i f fe ren t occu r rences so f a r a s i t ha s d i f fe ren t l i ngu i s t i c se t t ings . B u t wes h a l l n o t c o n c e r n o u r s e l v e s h e r e w i t h d i f f e r e n c e s o f o c c u r r e n c e t h a t a r ed e t e r m i n e d b y s o c i o - p h y s i c a l s e t ti n g s . A n u n m o d i f i e d o c c u r r e n c e o f a

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    THE ROLE OF INDUCTI VE REASONI NG 4 75

    w o r d o r p h r a s e W is a n o c c u r r e n c e o f W in a s e n t e n c e t h a t c o n t a i n s n oo t h e r n o u n , v e r b , a d j ec t iv e , a d v e r b o r p r e p o s i t i o n o u t s id e W , a s t y p i ca l lyi n a s e n t en c e t h a t d o e s n o t h i n g b u t i n d i c a te a n i n s ta n c e o f w h a t W n a m e sor de s c r i be s , e . g . , This i s a ca t ( f o r t h e n o u n ca t ) , Th i s i s b l ack ( f o r t h ea d j e c t i v e b l ack ) o r Th i s i s runn i ng ( f o r t h e v e r b run) .

    T h u s a t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l i m i t o f s im p l i c i t y - w h i c h i n p r a c t i c e i s f a rt o o s im p l e t o b e o f a n y u s e in t h e d i c t i o n a r y - a s e m a n t i c a l h y p o t h e s i so f t h e k i n d w i t h w h i c h w e a r e c o n c e r n e d w o u l d h a v e t h e s t r u c t u r e o f

    ( 1) F o r a n y x a n d a n y y , i f x i s a n u n m o d i f i e d o c c u r r e n c e o ft h e w o r d - f o r m W t h a t b e l o n g s t o th e s y n t a c t i c c a t e g o r y C ,t h e n x n a m e s o r d e s c r ib e s y .

    w h e r e t h e v a lu e s o f x a n d y c o n s t i t u t e t h e w h o l e d o m a i n o f h u m a nd i s co u r s e . T h e r e l e v a n t v a r i a b le s f o r o u r d i c t i o n a r y h y p o t h e s e s w i ll t h e nb e t h o s e v a r i a b l e s w h i c h a r e s u c h t h a t v a r i a t i o n f r o m o n e v a r i a n t t oa n o t h e r ( o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s b e i n g t h e s am e ) s o m e t i m e s fa ls if ie s a h y p o t h -e s is l ik e ( 1 ) . S o m e o f t h e s e s e m a n t i c a l l y r e l e v a n t v a r i a b l e s w i ll h a v ev a r i a n t s t h a t a f f e c t o b j e c ts , e . g . , t h e s i z e v a r i a b l e , t h e c o l o u r v a r i a b l e , t h es h a p e v a r i a b l e , o r t h e l i v e / d e a d v a r i a b l e . O t h e r s w i ll h a v e v a r i a n t s t h a tp r i m a r i l y a f f e c t e v e n t s o r p r o c e s s e s , e .g . , f a s t / m e d i u m - s p e e d / s l o w , o rh a r m f u l / b e n e f i c i a l / n e u t r a l . Y e t o t h e r s w i l l h a v e v a r i a n t s t h a t p r i m a r i l ya f f e c t c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s , e .g . , t e m p o r a r y / p e r m a n e n t . A n d s o m e v a r i a b l e s w ~illa f f e c t e v e r y t h i n g , e . g ., p o s s e s s o r o f f i r s t - o r d e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s / p o s s e s s o ro f s e c o n d - o r d e r c h a r a c t e ri s ti c s /e t c . ( W e a s s u m e t h e n o r m a l l o g ic a l h ie r -a r c h y w h e r e b y e v e n ts , s u b s t a n c es a n d o b j e c ts p o s se s s f ir s t -o r d e r c h a r a c -t e ri s ti c s, f i r s t - o r d e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s p o s s e ss s e c o n d - o r d e r o n e s , a n d s o o n . )T h e s e r e l e v a n t v a r i a b le s f o r s e m a n t i c a l h y p o t h e s e s c o r r e s p o n d t o , t h o u g ht h e y a re c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e n u m e r o u s t h a n , w h a t A r i s t o t le c a ll e d t h ec a t e g o r ie s o f b e i n g . I n d e e d m o s t s e m a n t i c th e o r i e s h a v e w o r k e d w i t hs o m e s u c h n o t i o n a s t h a t o f a s e m a n t i c c a te g o r y o r d i s t in c t iv e fe a t u r ec l a s s i f i c a t i o n . W h a t w e e m p h a s i s e h e r e i s t h e f a c t t h a t s u c h a n o t i o n i sn o t a p e c u l i a r a n d su i gener i s e l e m e n t o f s em a n t i c s, b u t ju s t t h e l o c a lm a n i f e s t a ti o n o f a c o n c e p t t h a t i s i n t e g ra l t o t h e m e t h o d o l o g y o f i n -d u c t i v e e n q u i r y i n a n y f i e ld w h a t e v e r - v iz . t h e c o n c e p t o f a r e l e v a n tv a r i a b l e . C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y t h e r e i s n o n e e d t o r e s t r i c t e a c h m o d e o fc l a s s i f i c a t i o n t o a b i n a r y c h o i c e , a s i n a J a k o b s o n i a n d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e

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    4 7 6 L. JON ATHA N COHEN AND AVISHAI MARGAL IT

    m a t r i x . A n i n d u c t i v e l y r e l e v a n t v a r i a b l e , w h e t h e r in s e m a n t i c s o r e l se -w h e r e , m a y h a v e a n y f in i te n u m b e r o f v a ri a n ts .A n a c c e p t e d l is t o f s e m a n t i c a l l y r e l e v a n t v a r i a b l e s v l , Vz . . . m a y b e

    g i v e n a t l e a st a p a r t i a l o r d e r i n g b y t h e n u m b e r o f d i ff e r e n t h y p o t h e s e sl ik e ( 1 ) t h a t a r e f a l s if ie d b y v a r i a t i o n s o f v~ i n a c o r p u s o f i n t e r r o g a t i o n so f n a ti v e s p e a k er s , a n d w h e r e t w o o r m o r e v a r i ab l e s s c o r e t h e s a m e n u m -b e r o f fa l s if i c a ti o n s t h e c o r p u s m a y b e e x t e n d e d u n t i l a w e l l - o r d e r i n g isa c h i e v e d f o r th e m . T h e e v i d e n c e o f s u c h a c o r p u s m a y a l s o b e e x p e c t e dt o s h o w - o r t o b e c a p a b l e o f a n e x t e n s i o n t h a t w i ll s h o w - h o w f a r e a c hh y p o t h e s i s l i k e (1 ) n e e d s t o b e q u a l i f ie d , i n r e s p e c t o f t h e s e m a n t i c a l l yr e l e v a n t v a r i a b le s , i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e a f u ll y s u p p o r t e d v e r s io n . F o r au n i v o c a l d i c t i o n a r y i t e m t h e r e q u i r e d q u a l i f i c a t i o n w i l l c o n s i s t i n t h es p e c i f ic a t i o n , in r e s p e c t o f e a c h v a r i a b l e v~ t h a t c a u s e s t r o u b l e , e i t h e r o fa n a p p r o p r i a t e d i s j u n c t io n o f o n e o r m o r e v a r i a n ts o f v~ t h a t e x c l u d e t h ef a l s i fi c a t o r y v a r i a n t o r v a r i a n t s , o r o f a p r o v i s o t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n isu n a f f e c t e d b y a n y v a r i a n t o f v~, a s i n , e . g . ,

    ( 2) F o r a n y x a n d a n y y , i f x is a n u n m o d i f i e d o c c u r r e n c e o f t h ew o r d - f o r m s h i p , t h a t b e l o n g s t o t h e s y n t a c t ic c a t e g o r y n, a n dy i s a p o s s e s s o r o f fi r s t - o r d e r c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s , a n d m o b i l e , a n de i t h e r a q u a t i c o r a e r i a l, a n d u n a f f e c t e d b y t h e l i v e / d e a dv a r i a b l e , e t c . e t c ., t h e n x n a m e s o r d e s c r i b e s y

    w h e r e n o q u a l i f i c a t i o n i s n e e d e d i n r e s p e c t o f , s a y , t h e s i z e o r c o l o u rv a r i a b l e s )

    N o w ( 1) m a y b e r e g a r d e d a s s h o w i n g t h e l im i t in g s t r u c t u r e o f t h eh y p o t h e s i s w h i c h a n i n v e s t ig a t o r se ts o u t w i th a b i n i t i o , i s t r y i ng t o d i s -c o v e r t h e m e a n i n g o f a s in g le w o r d f r o m a c o r p u s o f i n t e r r o g a t i o n s o fn a t i v e s p e a k e r s ; a n d ( 2 ) m i g h t t h e n a p p e a r t o b e a n e x a m p l e o f th e k i n do f h y p o t h e s i s a t w h i c h h e e v e n t u a l ly a r ri v es . I n d e e d , u p t o a p o i n t a ni n v e s t i g a t o r m a y w e l l p r o f i t b y c o n f i n i n g h i s a t t e n t i o n , s o f a r a s h e c a n ,t o u n m o d i f i e d o c c u r r e n c e s , a s in ( 2) , s in c e w i t h o u t a n e x t e n s i v e k n o w l e d g eo f o t h e r w o r d s i t w i ll b e q u i t e d i ff ic u l t t o a s c e r t a i n t h e m e a n i n g o f s h i pb y s t u d y i n g w h a t f e a t u r e s a r e p r e s e n t o r a b s e n t w h e n a n a t i v e s p e a k e ris b r o u g h t t o s a y T h i s i s a t o y s h i p , T h is " i s a m o d e l s h i p , T h i s i s a w r e c k e ds h i p , o r T h i s i s a s a i l i n g s h i p . B u t t h e r e a re t h r e e r e a s o n s w h y a s e m a n t i c a lh y p o t h e s i s l ik e (2 ) c a n n o t b e r e g a r d e d a s a p a r a d i g m d i c t i o n a r y e n t ry .F i r s t , t h e r e w i l l b e m a n y o c c a s i o n s o n w h i c h a n i n v e s t i g a t o r f i n d s i t

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    T H E R O L E O F I N D U C T I V E R E A SO N I N G 4 77

    n e c e s s a r y to i n v e s t ig a t e t h e m e a n i n g s o f m o d i f ie d r a t h e r t h a n u n m o d i f i e do c c u r r e n c e s . F o r e x a m p l e , i n th e c a s e o f a n a d v e r b t h e r e m u s t a l w a y sb e s o m e t h i n g t h a t i s b e i n g e x p r e s s l y s t a t e d a s h a p p e n i n g o r b e i n g d o n ei n th e m a n n e r d e s c r i b e d b y t h e a d v e r b . S e c o n d l y , i t w i ll o f te n b e c o n v e -n i e n t t o i n v e s t i g a t e m o d i f i e d o c c u r r e n c e s i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a s u f f i c i e n tr a n g e o f e vi d en c e o r t o m a k e u s e o f w h a t is a lr e a d y k n o w n a b o u t o t h e rw o r d s . T h i r d l y , m o s t o c c u r r e n c e s o f w o r d s i n s en t e n c es a r e n o t u n m o -d i f ie d o n e s . S o a h y p o t h e s i s l i k e (2 ) w o u l d b e r e l a t i v e l y u s e le s s a s ad i c t i o n a r y e n t r y . I t f o l lo w s t h a t a p a r a d i g m d i c t i o n a r y e n t r y f o r t h e n o u nship w o u l d n o t t a k e t h e f o r m o f ( 2) b u t r a t h e r o f

    ( 3) F o r a n y x a n d a n y y , i f x i s a n o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e w o r d - f o r mship t h a t b e l o n g s t o t h e s y n t a c t i c c a t e g o r y n , a n d y i s ap o s s e s s o r o f fi r s t- o r d e r c h a r ac t e ri s ti c s , a n d m o b i l e , a n d e i t h e ra q u a t i c o r a e r i a l , a n d u n a f f e c t e d b y t h e l i v e / d e a d v a r i a b l e ,e t c. e t c ., a n d y is n o t e x c l u d e d b y a n y m o d i f i e r o f x , t h e n xn a m e s o r d e s c ri b e s y

    w h e r e a n o c c u r r e n c e o f a n o u n , v e r b , a d j e c ti v e , a d v e r b o r p r e p o s i t i o n ,o r o f a p h r a s e o f a n y o f t h e s e t y p e s , is s ai d t o b e a m o d i f i e r o f a n o t h e ro c c u r r e n c e o f a n o u n , v e r b , a d j e c ti v e , a d v e r b o r p r e p o s i t i o n i f b o t ho c c u r r e n c e s a r e i n t h e s a m e s e n t e n c e .

    W h a t h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d s o f a r , h o w e v e r , i s a s t r u c t u r e f o r d i c t i o n a r ye n t r i e s t h a t r e l a t e t o u n i v o c a l i t e m s , l i k e t h e n o u n ship. F o r a p o l y s e m e ,l ike ban k o r carriage, a m o r e c o m p l e x s t r u c t u r e is o b v i o u s l y in v o l v e d .A l a rg e d i s j u n c t io n h a s t o b e in s e r t e d i n t o th e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e a n t e c e d e n t ,a s i n

    ( 4) F o r a n y x a n d a n y y , i f x is a n o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e w o r d - f o r mW t h a t b e l o n g s t o t h e s y n t a c t i c c a t e g o r y C , a n d y i s E I T H E RV~, and 1 / i , and una f f ec t ed by v3 , e t c . e t c . , OR V( , and un -a f f e c t e d b y v 2 , a n d V~, e t c . e t c . , OR e t c . e t c . , an d y i s no te x c l u d e d b y a n y m o d i f i e r o f x , t h e n x n a m e s o r d e s c ri b e s y ,

    w h e r e V ~ a n d V ~ n a m e v a r i a n t s o f v l , a n d V I a n d V~ n a m e v a r i a n t s o fv2 and v3 , r e s pec t i ve l y .

    N o r s h o u l d i t b e s u p p o s e d t h a t h y p o t h e s e s l ik e (3 ) a n d ( 4) c a n a lw a y sb e e s t a b l is h e d i n a f u l ly d e t e r m i n a t e f o r m w i t h c o n c l u s i v e c e rt a in t y . I th a s t o b e b o r n e i n m i n d t h a t t h e m e a n i n g s o f m o s t w o r d s i n a n a t u r a l

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    478 L. JONATHAN COHEN AND AVIS HAI MARGALITl a n g u a g e p o s s e ss w h a t W a i s m a n n c a l le d ' o p e n t e x t u r e ', 6 s o t h a t f o r a n yg i v e n s e m a n t i c a l h y p o t h e s i s l i k e ( 3 ) o r ( 4 ) o n e m a y s o m e d a y e n c o u n t e ra b o r d e r l i n e s i t u a ti o n t h a t i s u n d e r - d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e h y p o t h e s is . F o re x a m p l e , i s a h o v e r c r a f t a s h i p o r n o t ? I f o n e w a n t s t o s a y t h a t i t is n o t as h ip , i t lo o k s a s t h o u g h t h e r e m u s t b e s o m e s e m a n t i c v a r ia b l e o f h i t h e r t ou n d e t e c t e d r e l e v a n c e, s u c h a s t h e p r e s e n c e /a b s e n c e o f s u p p o r t b y t h em e d i u m t h r o u g h w h i c h t r a v e l i s e f f e c t e d . N o w c e r t a i n l y t h e o n c e u n -s u s p e c t e d e x i s t e n c e , a n d l a t e r d i s c o v e r y , o f h i d d e n v a r i a b l e s i s a f a m i l i a rp h e n o m e n o n i n a l l fi e ld s o f s c i e n ti f ic e n q u i r y , 7 a n d e s p e c i a l ly w h e n i n -v e s t i g a ti n g a r a t h e r e x o t i c la n g u a g e a l i n g u i s t w il l o f t e n n o t f e e l c o n f i d e n tt h a t h e h a s d i s c o v e r e d a ll th e s e m a n t i c a l ly r e l e v a n t v a r ia b l e s . S o i f ad i c t i o n a r y h y p o t h e s i s i s f o r m u l a t e d i n a f u l l y d e t e r m i n a t e f o r m , t h e i n -d u c t iv e s u p p o r t f o r it m a y n e v e r b e g r a d a b l e a s m o r e t h a n n/e w h e r e t e s tt n i s t h e m o s t t h o r o u g h t e s t t h a t is k n o w n a n d t e ( w i t h t h e v a l u e o f eu n k n o w n ) is th e m o s t t h o r o u g h t e s t p o s s ib l e. O f c o u r s e if n < e a n d g r a d e so f i n d u c ti v e s u p p o r t a r e t h o u g h t o f a s p r o b a b il it ie s , t h e m u l t i p l ic a t io n -l a w f o r c o n j o i n t p r o b a b i l i t i e s m i g h t t h e n p r o d u c e a n i m p l a u s i b l y l o wg r a d e o f in d u c t i v e s u p p o r t f o r th e d i c t i o n a r y a s a w h o l e , s in c e m a n yt h o u s a n d s o f it s e n tr ie s , o r i n d i v id u a l h y p o t h e s e s , w i l l b e i n d e p e n d e n to f o n e a n o t h e r o n t h e e v i d e n c e o f a p a r t i c u l a r c o r p u s - e s p e ci a ll y w h e r et h e c o r p u s c o n t a i n s m a n y u n m o d i f i e d o c c u r r e n c e s . B u t i t c a n b e s h o w nt h a t , i f g r a d e o f in d u c t i v e s u p p o r t i s a s se s se d b y t h e m e t h o d o f r e l e v a n tv a r i a b l e s , i t c o n f o r m s t o t h e p r i n c i p l e

    I f s [H2, E]>~s[H 1, E ] , t h e n s[H2 & H 1, E]=s [H 1, E]a n d t h a t f o r t h is a n d o t h e r r e a s o n s g r a d e o f in d u c t i v e s u p p o r t i s n o t o n l yn o t a p r o b a b i l i t y b u t n o t e v e n a n y f u n c t i o n o f p r o b a b i li ti e s . 8 A n d i na n y c a s e t h e r e is a l w a y s a w a y o f e n s u ri n g f u ll s u p p o r t f o r a d i c t i o n a r yh y p o t h e s i s t h a t h a s b e e n q u a l if ie d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i th t h e e v i d e n c e a v a il -a b l e a t a f a i r l y a d v a n c e d s t ag e o f in v e s t i g a t io n . A l l t h a t i s n e e d e d i s th ei n s e r t io n o f a p r o v i s o t h a t t h e h y p o t h e s i s i s i n t e n d e d t o a p p l y ' i n n o r m a lc i r c u m s t a n c e s ' o r ' c e r t e r i s p a r i b u s ' , a n d f u l l s u p p o r t is b o u g h t , a s i t w e r e ,a t t h e p r i c e o f fu l l d e t e r m i n a t e n e s s . E v e n s o t h e h y p o t h e s i s w i l l o f t e nb e a v e r y l e n g t h y o n e . T h e m e a n i n g s o f m a n y w o r d s i n a n a t u r a l l a n g u a g ea r e i m m e n s e l y r i c h , a n d i t i s o f t e n im p r a c t i c a b l e ( e s p e c i a l ly w h e r e aw o r d d o e s n o t b e l o n g t o a c l o s e d a n d i n t e r c o n n e c t e d g r o u p , l i k e t h ev o c a b u l a r y o f f a m i l y re l a ti o n s ,) t o d r a w a s h a r p l in e b e t w e e n w h a t a

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    THE ROLE OF INDUCTIVE REASONING 479native speaker knows about the meaning of a word and what he knowsabout the things or situations which he would use the word to describe.

    I I I

    It will be remembered that in a categorial grammar the operation ofso-called 'cancellation', which reduces a sentence's concatenation ofmorpheme categories to 1;, determines in the process an asymmetricalrelation of dependence within pairs of constituents. E.g., in terms ofLyons's own example we can write the categorial classification of a sen-tence's lexical items underneath them, thus:

    Poor John ran away( n ; , ) n ( ( 1 ;

    Then in order to produce just t; at the end, poor has to cancel with Johnand ran with away, and then poor John with ran away. At each stage theconstituent with the more complex classification is to be regarded as thedependent constituent, and the one with the less complex classificationas the independent one. A categorial description of the deep structureof a sentence may therefore be taken to afford a sufficient guide to thesentence's successive stages of semantic composition, so far as the deepstructure is concerned. At the first stage, where pairs of individual lexicalitems are involved, the dictionary entry for the dependent constituent isincorporated into the dictionary entry for the independent constituent,in the case of each pair, with appropriate alterations being made to oneor other or both of the two hypotheses, and a semantical hypothesisthus becomes available for each phrase formed by two such constituents.At the next and all subsequent stages this procedure is repeated, withthe semantical hypothesis for the dependent constituent being incor-porated into the semantical hypothesis or dictionary entry for the in-dependent constituent, until finally a single semantical hypothesis emergesfor the sentence as a whole (as far as its deep structure is concerned). Thisfinal hypothesis will not need (except at the level of discourse analysis)to include any clause of the form 'and y is not excluded by any modifierof x'. E.g., in the case of Poor John ran away, what we get are, first,hypotheses about anything's being named or described by poor John if

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    480 L. JONATHA N COHEN AND A VISHAI MARGALITit has certain characteristics, and about anything's being named or de-scribed by ran away if it has certain characteristics, and, secondly, ahypothesis about anything's being named or described by the sentencePoor John ran away if it has certain characteristics.

    In the process of carrying out such incorporations five different typesof alteration may need to be made to one or other or both of the twohypotheses that are being amalgamated.

    First, there may be alterations that are necessary for disambiguatingthe two constituents, so far as such an alteration is determined by eitheror both of them. This type of alteration would normally take the formof eliminating one or more major disjuncts from the antecedent of oneor both of the hypotheses. For example, the dictionary entry for thenoun b a n k will no doubt have a disjunctive antecedent, as in (4). But thedisjunct for the sense in which a bank is a financial insti tution (as distinctfrom the building that houses one) will presumably include some suchrestriction as 'and unaffected by the colour variable'. So in composingthe semantical hypothesis for the phrase green bank (so far as literalmeaning alone is concerned) this disjunct must be wholly omitted, sincegreen describes a variant of the colour variable. Similarly, the dictionaryentry for the ad jec t i v e fa i r will no doubt also have a disjunctive antecedent.But the disjunct for the sense in which f a i r contrasts with d a r k willpresumably include some such restriction as 'and light-brown or off-white'. So in composing the semantical hypothesis for the phrase f a i rpr ice this disjunct must be wholly omitted, since the dictionary entry forpr ice will presumably contain the restriction 'and unaffected by the colourvariable'. In other cases, perhaps, it will be just a clash of variants thatsecures omission of one disjunct as in the difference between the senseof the noun min i s t e r in the vocabulary of politics and its sense in thevocabulary of religion. We do not underestimate the immense difficultyof filling in the etc.-clauses of (3) and (4) and constructing each dictionaryentry in just the right way to achieve such disambiguations. But it canhardly be denied that where a native speaker feels no ambiguity in regardto a particular occurrence of a polyseme this must, ideally, be reflectedin corresponding interrelationships between the dictionary entries con-cerned (so far as differences of occurrence are determined solely by lin-guistic, and not at all by socio-physical, settings).

    Secondly, once this operation of disambiguation has been carried out

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    THE ROLE OF INDUCTI VE REASONIN G 481as far as is possible it is necessary to look at whether the hypothesesconcern possessors of first-order characteristics, possessors of second-order characteristics, and so on. In the simplest type of case, as withg r e e n b a n k or t a l l sh ip , both hypotheses concern possessors of first-ordercharacteristics. Almost all that need be done in such a case is to conjointhe restrictions specified in the semantical hypothesis for the dependentconstituent with the restrictions specified in the semantical hypothesisfor the independent constituent. The latter hypothesis, thus altered, andwith any duplications removed, and speaking of a phrase of the appropriatesyntactic category, will then become the semantical hypothesis for theliteral meaning of the phrase as a whole.

    Thirdly, however, there will be many cases, like r a n a w a y or d a n c e sbeau t i f u l ly 9 where the hypothesis for the dependent constituent concernspossessors of characteristics of the next higher order than those possessedby anything that the hypothesis for the independent constituent concerns.In such a case the restrictions specified in the former hypothesis will notbe conjoined with those specified in the latter but inserted as a modifica-tion of them, i.e., 'and is V1~and V~ and.. , and this conjunction of charac-teristics is VIk and.. .' . The same will hold for dependent constituentsthat apply polysemically either to possessors of first-order characteristicsor to possessors of second-order characteristics or to possessors of third-order characteristics (e.g., use fu l , as in use fu l ob j ec t , u se fu l a t tr ibu t e , u se fu lm a n n e r ) , or to those tha t apply equally well to the last two of these threeor to others (e.g., v e r y , as in very beau t i f u l , v e ry beau t i f u l l y , etc.). Incertain cases the restrictions specified in the hypothesis for the dependentconstituent will need to be conjoined with those already inserted as amodification of the main restrictions specified in the hypothesis for theindependent constituent, as in d r i ve s f a s t a n d s k i l f u l l y . In other casesthere will be a modification of the modification as in d r i ve s f a s t s k i l f u l ly .In yet others the polysemy of the dependent constituent will generate anambiguity in the compound phrase, as in beau t i f u l dancer . Also, there willbe cases where a lexical item may need to be displaced by the reversal,or quasi-reversal, of a transformation before its semantical role can beproperly understood. E.g., T h e s n o w h a s f o r t u n a t e l y m e l t e d needs to beunderstood as T h a t t h e s n o w h a s m e l t e d is o r t u n a t e so that i s o r t u n a t e canbe seen to be the dependent constituent that modifies T h e s n o w h a s m e l t e d .But there are far too many such points of detail for us to discuss them all here.

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    4 8 2 L. JONATHA N COHEN AND AVIS HAI MARGALIT

    I n a f o u r t h k i n d o f c a s e t h e h y p o t h e s i s f o r t h e d e p e n d e n t c o n s t i t u e n tc a n o n l y h a v e i ts r e s tr i ct i o n s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h o s e f o r t h e i n d e p e n d e n tc o n s t i t u e n t i f o n e o r m o r e o f t h e l a t te r a r e d e l et e d . N o r m a l l y , f o r e x a m p l e ,o n e w o u l d n o t c a l l a n y t h i n g a ship u n l e s s i t w e r e c a p a b l e o f tr a n s p o r t i n gp e o p l e . B u t w o r d s l ik e toy, model, e t c . a p p l y o n l y t o t h i n g s t h a t d o n o td o w h a t i s n o r m a l l y d o n e b y t h in g s r e s e m b l i n g t h e m i n m o s t o t h e rr e sp e c ts . S o u n d e r t h e u s e v a r i a b le t h e y e n f o r c e a n a l t e r a t i o n f r o m , e . g .,a m e n t i o n o f h u m a n t r a n s p o r t a t io n t o a m e n t i o n o f c h i ld r e n 's p la y w h e nt h e s e m a n t ic a l h y p o t h e s i s f o r t h e p h r a s e toy ship i s c o n s t r u c t e d .

    F i f t h l y , t h e r e w i ll b e a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t y p e o f a l te r a t i o n t h a t is n e c e ss i -t a te d i n t h e c a se o f m e t a p h o r . T h e m e t a p h o r i c a l m e a n i ng s o f a w o r d o rp h r a s e i n a n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e a r e a l l c o n t a i n e d , a s it w e r e , w i t h i n i t s l i te r a lm e a n i n g o r m e a n i n g s . T h e y a r e r e a c h e d b y r e m o v i n g a n y r e s t r i c t i o n s i nr e l a t i o n t o c e r t a i n v a r i a b l e s f r o m t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s e c t i o n o r s e c t i o n s o fi ts s e m a n t i c a l h y p o th e s i s . F o r e x a m p l e , baby h a s a s o n e o f i ts m e t a p h o r i c a lm e a n i n g s t h e s e n s e o f very small of its kind: cf . baby airplane a s a g a i n s tbaby daughter. H e r e i t is o b v i o u s l y t h e a g e a n d h u m a n / a n i m a l / a r t i f ic i a l /e t c . v a r i a b l e s t h a t a r e b e i n g t r e a t e d a s i f t h e y i m p o s e d n o r e s t r i c t i o n , w h i l ea r e s t r i c t i o n o f s iz e is s ti ll r e t a i n e d . O r i f th i s i s c o n s i d e r e d a n e x a m p l eo f a lr e a d y d e a d m e t a p h o r , c o n s id e r That old man is a baby, w h e r e o n t h em o s t s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d i n t e r p r e t a t io n t h e a g e a n d s iz e v a r i ab l e s a r e p r e -s u m a b l y b e i n g t re a t e d a s if t h e y i m p o s e d n o r e s tr i c ti o n , a n d o t h e ra t t r i b u t e s o f b a b i e s a r e b e i n g a s c r i b e d , s u c h a s m e n t a l i n c a p a c i t y . O rc o n s i d e r o u r e a r l ie r e x a m p l e o f t h e s e n t e n c e The car ~houted at me. H e r ei t i s a p p a r e n t l y j u s t t h e h u m a n / a n i m a l / a r t i f ic i a l / e t c , v a r i a b l e w h i c h i sb e i n g t r e a t e d a s i f i t i m p o s e d n o r e s t ri c t io n o n t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f shouted.I f a c h i ld s a y s t h i s, h e h a s n o t y e t f u l ly g r a s p e d t h e r e l e v a n c e o f t h a tv a r i a b l e : i f a n a d u l t , h e i s m o m e n t a r i l y i g n o r i n g it . O r c o n s i d e r The poorare the negroes of Europe, w h e r e - o n a p l a u s ib l e m e t a p h o r i c a l i n te r p r e t a -t i o n - t h e c o l o u r v a r i a b l e i s p r e s u m a b l y b e i n g t r e a t e d a s i m p o s i n g n or e s t r i c t io n , a n d o t h e r a t t r i b u t e s o f n e g r o e s a r e b e i n g a s c r ib e d , s u c h a sb e i n g u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d . N o t e t h a t i n a l l s u c h c a s e s t h e v a r i a b l e o r v a r i a b l e st h a t h a v e t h e i r r e s tr ic t io n s r e m o v e d m a y b e e x p e c t e d to b e f a ir l y n e a r t h eb e g i n n i n g o f th e o r d e r e d s e q u e n c e o f r e le v a n t v a r ia b l es . A n y s u c h v a r i a b l em u s t b e a f a i r ly i m p o r t a n t o n e . O t h e rw i s e t h e r e w o u l d n o t b e s u ff ic ie n td i s ta n c e b e t w e e n t h e r e s t ri c te d m e a n i n g a n d t h e d e r e s t r ic t e d o n e f o r t h el a t t e r t o b e r e g a r d e d a s m e t a p h o r .

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    T H E R O L E OF I N D U C T I V E R E A SO N I N G 483B u t i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o d i s t i n g u i s h h e r e b e t w e e n m e t a p h o r i c a l m e a n i n gi n th e s p e ec h o r u t te r a n c e s o f a c o m m u n i t y , a n d m e t a p h o r i c a l m e a n i n g

    i n t h e s e n t e n c es o f it s l a n g u a g e . I n s p e e c h i t i s k n o w l e d g e o f b a c k g r o u n df a c t s o r o f t h e s o c i o - p h y s i c a l c o n t e x t o f u t t e r a n c e , a l o n g w i t h c e r t a i np r e s u m p t i o n s o f a p p r o p ri a t e n e ss , t h a t h e l p s a h e a r e r t o r e c o g n is e w h e t h e rt h e s p e a k e r i n t e n d s a l i t e r a l o r a m e t a p h o r i c a l m e a n i n g f o r a p a r t i c u l a ru t t e r a n c e o f a w o r d , p h r a s e o r s e n t en c e . B u t in a n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e a l m o s te v e r y s e n te n c e i s p o t e n t i a l ly a m b i g u o u s i n o n e o r o t h e r o f tw o m a i n w a y ss o f a r a s m e t a p h o r i s c o n c e r n e d ) a n d i ts c o m p l e t e s e m a n t i c a l h y p o t h e s i sc a n b e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y d i s j u n c t i v e .O n e w a y i n w h i c h t h i s h a p p e n s i s w h e n a m e a n i n g i s o b t a i n a b l e f o rt h e s e n t e n ce q u i t e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l y b y a m a l g a m a t i o n s o f s o m e o f t h ef i r s t f o u r k i n d s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . F o r e x a m p l e , T o m i s j u s t a b a b y iss u c h a s e n t e n c e , a n d i t h a s b o t h a l i t e r a l m e a n i n g , d e c l a r i n g T o m t o b ea n i n f a n t , a n d s e v e r a l m e t a p h o r i c a l m e a n i n g s , e . g . , d e c l a r i n g T o m t o b er a t h e r s m a l l , o r t o b e m e n t a l l y in c a p a b l e , o r n o t t o h a v e e x i s t ed v e r y l o n g .S i m i l a r l y T h e w e a t h e r is s t o r m y t o d a y e i t h e r d e c l ar e s t h e s t a t e o f t h ew e a t h e r , w i t h l i t e r a l m e a n i n g s f o r a l l i t s w o r d s , o r d e c l a r e s t h e g e n e r a lo u t l o o k to b e c u r r e n t l y u n f a v o u r a b l e , w i t h m e t a p h o r i c a l m e a n i n g s f o ra t l e a s t w e a t h e r a n d s t o r m y .

    T h e o t h e r m a i n f o r m o f a m b i g u i t y i s w h e n a s e n t e n ce 's m e a n i n g i s n o to b t a i n a b l e q u i t e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l y b y a m a l g a m a t i o n s o f s o m e o f th e f i rs tf o u r k i n d s m e n t i o n e d , b e c a u s e a t s o m e s t a ge i n t h e s e ri es o f a m a l g a m a -t i o n s t h a t e n d s i n t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e s e n t e n c e th e r e i s a c o n f l i c tb e t w e e n o n e o r m o r e r e s t r i c t i o n s i n t h e s e m a n t i c a l h y p o t h e s i s f o r t h ed e p e n d e n t c o n s t i t u e n t a n d o n e o r m o r e r e s t r i c t i o n s i n t h e s e m a n t i c a lh y p o t h e s i s f o r t h e i n d e p e n d e n t o n e . A n o b v i o u s e x a m p l e o f t h is is T h a to l d m a n i s a b a b y . B u t w h i c h h y p o t h e s i s t h e n d e f e r s t o w h i c h ? I t i st e m p t i n g a t f i r s t t o s u g g e s t t h a t b e f o r e a m a l g a m a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e t h ec o n f l ic t in g r e s t ri c ti o n s h a v e t o b e r e m o v e d i n e a c h c a se f r o m t h e h y p o t h -e si s f o r t h e d e p e n d e n t c o n s t i t u e n t . B u t t h o u g h t h is m a y b e t h e p r e s u m p -t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n s p e e c h , t h e p r e s u m p t i o n i s r e b u t t a b l e b y t h e e v i -d e n c e o f c o n t e x t e t c. : s o m e v e r y y o u n g b a b i e s d o l o o k c u r i o u s ly l ik eo l d m e n . T h e c o r r e c t v i e w s ee m s t o b e t h a t , i n t h e l a n g u a g e , t h e s e n t e n c eT h a t o l d m a n i s a b a b y i s a m b i g u o u s . E i t h e r i t s s u b j e c t i s l i t e r a l a n d i t sp r e d i c a t e m e t a p h o r i c a l , o r v i ce v e rs a . 11 D i s a m b i g u a t i o n i s a m a t t e r f o rs p e e c h . A n d t h e s a m e i s t r u e w h e n d e p e n d e n t a n d i n d e p e n d e n t c o n s t i -

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    4 8 4 L. JONATHA N COHEN AND AVISHAI MAR GALITt u e n t s d o n o t b o t h a p p l y t o p o s s e s s o r s o f f i r s t -o r d e r c h a r a c te r i s ti c s , asi n t h e p h r a s e a b a b y i n p o l i t i c s .

    I t s h o u l d n o t b e a c a u se f o r c o n c e r n th a t o u r a c c o u n t o f m e t a p h o ri m p u t e s s o m u c h a m b i g u i t y t o t h e s e n t e n ce s a n d w o r d - o c c u r r e n c e s o f an a t u r a l l a n g u a g e . R a t h e r , t h e l i t e r a l - m e t a p h o r i c a l a m b i g u i t y s h o u l d b es e e n as a v i t a ll y im p o r t a n t p a r t o f th e s e m a n t i c r ic h n e s s o f n a t u r a l l a n -g u a g e . I t i s c o m p a r a b l e , i n t h a t r e s p e c t , t o t h e r e s i d u a l v a g u e n e s s o f a llw o r d s t h a t i s m o s t c o n s p i c u o u s l y a p p a r e n t i n t h e i r u n m o d i f i e d o c c u r r e n c e s.L a n g u a g e e x p l o i t s t h i s v a g u e n e s s b y u s i n g i t a s a r a w m a t e r i a l f o r t h ev a r i o u s p r o c e s se s o f m o d i f i c a t io n t h a t a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y a m a l g a m a t i o n so f s e m a n t i c a l h y p o t h e s e s . I n d e e d s u c h p r o c e s se s o f m o d i f i c a t io n c o u l db e r e g a r d e d , w i th i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f d i sc o u r s e a n a ly s is , a s c a p a b l e o fc o n t i n u i n g f a r b e y o n d t h e l i m i ts o f a si n g le s en t e n c e . A s p e a k e r o f t e nh a s t o s t a te h is p o i n t v e r y v a g u e l y a t fi rs t, a n d t h e n g r a d u a l l y i n t r o d u c em o r e a n d m o r e p r e c i s io n i n t o it . S i m i la r ly a m e t a p h o r i s o f te n c a r r ie do n a n d d e v e l o p e d f r o m o n e s e n t en c e t o a n o t h e r . 12 M o d i f i c a ti o n a n dm e t a p h o r a r e t h e t w o m a i n i n s t r u m e n t s o f s e m a n t i c f le x ib i li ty i n n a t u r a ll a n g u a g e . I f t h e w o r d s a n d p h r a s e s o f a n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e w e r e n o t a sv a g u e a n d a m b i g u o u s a s t h e y a re , i t w o u l d n e v e r b e p o s s ib l e f o r sp e e c ht o b e a s i n d e f i n i t e ly p re c i s if i a b le a n d v a r i e g a t e d a s i t is .

    T w o f u r t h e r p o i n t s a r e p e r h a p s w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g w i t h i n t h e li m it s o ft h e p r e s e n t a r t ic l e .

    F i r s t i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t a d e f i n it i o n o f s y n o n y m y e m e r g e s f r o m o u ra c c o u n t o f s em a n t ic c o m p o s i t io n . A n o c c u r r e n c e o f o n e w o r d o r p h r a s em a y b e s a id t o b e f u ll y sy n o n y m o u s w i t h a n o c c u r r e n c e o f a n o t h e r i ft h e s e m a n t i c a l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t i s f u l l y s u p p o r t e d f o r t h e f o r m e r d i f f e r sf r o m t h a t w h i c h is f u ll y s u p p o r t e d f o r th e l a t t e r o n l y i n r e s p e c t o f t h ed i f fe r e n t w o r d o r p h r a s e i t m e n t i o n s . H e n c e , a s a n i n v e s t i g a to r l e ar n sm o r e a b o u t t h e s e m a n t i c s o f a l a n g u a g e , a n d c o m e s to t a k e m o r e o f t h er e l e v a n t v a r ia b l e s i n to a c c o u n t , h e m a y c o m e t o s ee t h a t o c c u r r e n c e sw h i c h h e o n c e t h o u g h t f u ll y s y n o n y m o u s w i t h o n e a n o t h e r a r e n o t i nf a c t f u ll y s y n o n y m o u s . S o s y n o n y m y in t h i s s e n s e is a n e m p i r i c al r e l a ti o n .M o r e o v e r s u c h a s y n o n y m y c a n a l s o b e p a r t ia l s i n ce tw o o c c u r r e n c e s w i llh a v e t h e s a m e m e a n i n g ju s t s o f a r a s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e f u l l y s u p p o r t e ds e m a n t i c a l h y p o t h e s e s re s e m b l e o n e a n o t h e r i n r e s p ec t o f e a c h r e l e v a n tv a r ia b l e . O f c o u r se , s u c h a d e f i n it i o n o f s y n o n y m y w i ll n o t f r e e u s f r o mQ u i n e ' s c h a r m e d c i rc l e o f s em a n t i c a l t e rm i n o l o g y , s i nc e in t h e c h a r a c -

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    T H E R O L E O F I N D U C T I V E R E A S O N I N G 4 85

    t e r i s a t i o n o f s e m a n t i c a l h y p o t h e s e s w e h a v e u s e d , a s u n d e f i n e d p r i m i t iv e s ,t h e t e r m s ' n a m e s ' a n d ' d e s c r i b e s ' . B u t w e d o n o t r e g a r d t h e r e d u c t i o no f s e m a n t i c a l te r m s t o n o n s e m a n t i c a l o n e s a s b e in g a t a s k t h a t e i t h e rc a n o r m u s t b e a c c o m p l i s h e d b y a p h i lo s o p h i c a l r e c o n s t r u c ti o n o f t h es e m a n t i c s o f a n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e .

    S e c o n d l y , o n o u r v i e w t h e s e n t e n c e s (i .e ., s y n t a c t i c a ll y n o n - d e v i a n tm o r p h e m e - s t r i n g s ) o f a n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e d o n o t a d m i t o f a n y d i s ti n c ti o nb e t w e e n t h e s e m a n t i c a l ly d e v i a n t a n d t h e s e m a n t i c al l y n o n - d e v i a n t . N o rn e e d t h e r e b e a n y d i s ti n c t i o n s o f s y n t a c t i c d e v i a n c e o r n o n - d e v i a n c e t h a ta r e b a s e d o n s e l e ct io n a l r u l e s, s i n ce w e d i s p e n s e a l t o g e t h e r w i t h s y n t a c t i cr u le s o f th i s k in d . W e d i s t i n g u i s h i n s t e a d b e t w e e n s e n t e n ce s t h a t a d m i to n l y m e t a p h o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t io n s , l ik e Tha t o ld man i s a baby , a n d s e n -t e n ce s t h a t a d m i t b o t h m e t a p h o r i c a l a n d n o n - m e t a p h o r i c a l o n e s, li k eTom i s a baby . A d m i t t e d l y t h e r e a r e s o m e e x t r e m e c a se s . M e t a p h o r i c a ls e n te n c e s t e n d t o g i ve a n i m p r e s s i o n o f m e a n i n g le s s n e ss w h e n t h e m e t a -p h o r s h a v e g o t b a d l y m i x e d a n d t h e re s e e m s t o b e a c o n s id e r a b l e v a r ie t yo f a lt e r n a ti v e m e t a p h o r i c a l d i s a m b i g u a t i o n s , a s i n Colour less green ideass leep fu r ious ly , o r w h e n r a t h e r a l o t o f r e s tr i c ti o n s h a v e t o b e r e m o v e d i nt h e p r o c e s s o f a m a l g a m a t i n g m e a n i n g s , a s i n Tod ay is in bed. N e v e r t h e l e s so u r p r o p o s a l s f o r t h e e x p li c a ti o n o f m e t a p h o r d o e n ta il , s o fa r a s d e e ps t r u c t u r e i s c o n c e r n e d , t h a t a n y s y n t a c t i c a l l y n o n - d e v i a n t m o r p h e m e -s t r in g o f a n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e a l w a y s h a s a t le a s t o n e m e a n i n g - j u s t a sf o r a n y a c t u a l s p e a k e r ' s u t t e r a n c e i n o r d i n a r y s p e e c h , u n l e s s s a n i t y o rs e ri o u sn e s s is i n d o u b t , t h e h e a r e r ' s p r e s u m p t i o n i s a lw a y s t h a t s o m em e a n i n g c a n b e f o u n d . N o d o u b t t h e r e a r e v e r y m a n y s y n t ac t ic a l ly s i m p l es e n t e n c e s t h a t a r e n e v e r u t t e r e d b e c a u s e t h e i r m e t a p h o r s a r e t o o di ff ic u ltt o d i s a m b i g u a t e . B u t t h e r e a r e a l so v e r y m a n y n o n - m e t a p h o r i c a l s e n te n c e st h a t a r e n e v e r u t t e r e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r s y n t a c t i c c o m p l e x i t y (d e g r e e o fn e s t i n g , e t c. ). T h e e x i s t e n c e o f a m e t a p h o r , l i k e t h a t o f a s e n t e n ce , i s af e a t u r e o f langue, n o t of parole . 13The Queen ' s Co l l ege , Ox ford

    R E F E R E N C E S1 Cf. , for instance, J . J . Ka tz and J . A. Fodor, 'The Structure of a Semantic The ory ' ,in The Structure of Language (ed. by J. A. Fodor and J. A. Katz). The rejection ofthis assum ption w as implicit in L. Jon atha n C ohen, The Diversity of Mean ing (2nd.

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    486 L . J O N A T H A N C O H E N A N D A V I S H A I M A R G A L I T

    e d . , 1 9 6 6) 7 , e s p . p p . 6 3 - 6 5 . B u t t h a t a c c o u n t o f d i c t i o n a r y e n t r i e s w a s a l t o g e t h e r t o os k e t c h y t o s u s t a i n a n e x p l i c a t io n o f t h e c o n c e p t o f m e t a p h o r .2 T h e v i e w o f i n d u c t i v e r ea s o n i n g t h a t i s p r e s e n t e d h e r e i s a v e r y b r i e f s u m m a r y o ft h e a c c o u n t t h a t is e x p o u n d e d a n d d e f e n d e d i n d e t a il i n L . J o n a t h a n C o h e n , T h eImplications of Induction, 1 9 7 0. I n A v i s h a i M a r g a l i t , The Cognitive Status of Metaphors( u n p u b l i s h e d d i s s e r ta t i o n fo r t h e H e b r e w U n i v e r s i t y o f Je r u s a le m ) a C a r n a p i a n v e r s i o no f i n d u c t i o n i s u s e d t o e x p l ic a t e m e t a p h o r .3 J o h n L y o n s , Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics (1968) p. 227ff .4 C f . Y . B a r H i ll e l , C . G a i f m a n , a n d E . S h a m i r , ' O n C a t e g o r i a l a n d P h r a s e S t r u c t u r eG r a m m a r s ' , The Bulletin o f the Research Council of Israel9F ( 1960 ) p . l iT ., r e p r in t e d i nY . B a r H i l l e l, Language and InJbrmation (1964) p. 99ff .5 T o d e a l w i t h p o l y a d i c t e r m s ( e .g . , t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s , p r e p o s i t i o n s l i k e between, e t c . )i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t m o r e c o m p l e x f o r m s o f h y p o t h e s i s (w i t h n - t u p le q u a n t i f ic a t i o n , w h e r en > 2 ) a re r e q u i re d . W e i g n o r e s u c h p o l y a d i c te r m s i n o u r e x p l i c a ti o n o f m e t a p h o r i c a lm e a n i n g , b e c a u s e t h e i r p e c u li a r it i e s a r e n o t c a r d i n a l t o t h e i ss u e . B u t t h e r e s e e m s t o b en o d i ff ic u l ty i n p r i n c ip l e i n e x t e n d i n g o u r e x p l i c a t i o n t o p o l y a d i c t e r m s .

    W e a s s u m e t h e d o m a i n s o f ( 1 ) a n d ( 2 ) t o i n c l u d e e v e r y t h i n g t h a t p e o p l e a c t u a l l yt a l k o f t h e m s e l v e s as t a l k i n g a b o u t , i n c l u d i n g o b j e c t s , a c t s , e v e n t s , p r o p e r t i e s , q u a l i t i e s ,s u b s t a n ce s , n u m b e r s , p e r s o n s , e tc . B u t w e t h i n k t h a t t h i s a s s u m p t i o n i s n o t a m e t a -p h y si c al c o m m i t m e n t o f a n y k i n d on our part, a n d t h a t i t n e e d n o t o b f u s c a t e p h i l o -s o p h i c a l d i s t in c t i o n s t h a t m a y b e i m p o r t a n t f o r o t h e r p u r p o s e s .

    I t s h o u l d p e r h a p s b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e o r d e r i n g o f t h e s e m a n t i c a l l y r e l e v a n tv a r i a b l e s i s i m p o r t a n t n o t o n l y f o r t h e e x p l i c a t i o n o f s y n c h r o n i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o fm e t a p h o r ( a s e m e r g e s i n t h e p r e s e n t p a p e r ) , b u t a l s o f o r t h e e l u c i d a t i o n o f t h e d i ff e r e n c eb e t w e e n t h o s e f e a tu r e s o f a w o r d ' s m e a n i n g t h a t d i a c h r o n i c s t u d i es r e v ea l t o b e m o r er e s i s t a n t t o n o n - m e t a p h o r i c a l c h a n g e a n d t h o s e t h a t s u c h s t u d i e s r e v e a l t o b e l e s sr e s i s ta n t t o n o n - m e t a p h o r i c a l c h a n g e .6 F . W a i s m a n n , ' V e r i f i a b i l i t y ' , Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, S u p p . V o l . X I X(1961) p. 236ff .7 O n t h e d i s c o v e r y o f s e m a n t i c ( a n d s y n t ac t ic ) v a r i a b le s in c h i l d h o o d l a n g u a g e - le a r n i n g ,c f. L . J o n a t h a n C o h e n , ' S o m e A p p l i c a t i o n s o f I n d u c t i v e L o g i c t o t h e T h e o r y o f L a n -g u a g e ' , f o r t h c o m i n g i n American Philosophical Quarterly 7 ( O c tobe r , 1970 ) . I t i s a l sow o r t h n o t i n g t h a t T r i e r 's n o t i o n o f a s e m a n t i c fi el d is e a si ly r e c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h i n t h ep r o p o s e d i n d u c t i v e f r a m e w o r k . E s s e n t i al l y , a f i el d i s a s e t o f w o r d s ( e .g . boil, fry)t h a t a r e s u b j e c t e d t o t h e s a m e r e s t r i c t i o n s a s o n e a n o t h e r u n d e r s o m e v a r i a b l e s b u tn o t u n d e r a ll .s F o r t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e a r g u m e n t , a n d t h e c o n c e p t o f e v i d e n c e i n v o l v e d , c f . TheImplications of Induction 3 , 8 , 12 a nd 13 .9 W e b o r r o w t h e e x a m p l e f r o m H . R e i c h e n b a c h ' s ' A n a l y s i s o f C o n v e r s a t i o n a l L a n -g u a g e ' i n h i s Elements o f Symbolic Logic (1948) p . 307.1 0 T h e e x c e p t i o n s s e e m t o b e e i t h e r r a t h e r v a c u o u s s e n t e n c e s l i k e That is so, o r s e n -t e n c e s i n v o l v i n g v e r y a b s t r u s e t e c h n i c a l t e r m s .11 I n B l a c k ' s t e r m s , i n t h e o n e c a s e t h e f o c u s o f t h e m e t a p h o r i s o n t h e b a b y a n d t h ef r a m e i s That old man is .... a n d i n t h e o t h e r c a s e t h e f o c u s o f t h e m e t a p h o r i s o n t h eo l d m a n a n d t h e f ra m e i s . .. is a baby: c f . M . B la c k , Models and Metaphor (1962) p . 27f f .13 T h i s i s n o t t h e s a m e a s a l l e g o r y , a l t h o u g h i t i s s o m e t i m e s s o r e g a r d e d ( e .g . , i nWebster's Collegiate Dictionary ( 1932 ) s . v . a l l e go r y ) . A n a l l e go r y i s a sy s t e m a t i c r e in t e r -p r e t a t i o n t h a t c a n b e i m p o s e d o n a s t r e t ch o f d i s c o u rs e , l ik e a o n e - t o - o n e c o r r e s p o n d -e n c e b e t w e e n t w o s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r m o d e l s f o r a l o g i s t i c s y s t e m . A n a u t h o r c o u l d

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    T H E R O L E O F I N D U C T I V E R E A S O N I N G 4 8 7

    s t il l i n t e n d a n a l le g o r y e v e n i f h e w r o t e i n a l a n g u a g e d e v o i d o f m e t a p h o r , s i n c e t oc r e d i t h i m w i t h k n o w l e d g e o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e a l l e g o r i c a l a n d t h en o n - a l l e g o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s t o c r e d i t h i m w i t h f a c t u a l w i s d o m r a t h e r t h a n l i n -g u i s t i c s k i ll . C o n t r a r i w i s e a n a l l e g o r i c a l l y i n t e n d e d n a r r a t i v e , l i k e G e o r g e O r w e l l ' sA n i m a l F a r m , c a n c o n t a i n o c c a s i o n al m e t a p h o r s t h a t a r e a s m u c h s u b j e c t t o a l l e g o ri c a lr e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as a r e t h e n o n m e t a p h o r i c a l p a s s ag e s .

    W h a t a l l e g o r i e s d o s o m e t i m e s e x p l o i t i s n o t s o m u c h m e t a p h o r a s s y m b o l i s m . I n ac u l t u r e in w h i c h t h e p i g is a s y m b o l f o r g r ee d , a n d a m a n m a y b e s a id t o b e a s g r e e d ya s a p ig , a s to r y a b o u t a p i g c a n m o r e e a s i ly b e r e i n t e r p r e t e d a s a s t o r y a b o u t a g r e e d yp e r s o n . I n s u c h c a s e s w e h a v e t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e d i c t i o n a r y e n t r y s h o w s p i g , s a y ,t o b e a p o l y s e m e t h a t n a m e s m e m b e r s o f t h e p o r c i n e s p e ci es e i t h e r t o u t c o u r t o r a ss y m b o l s o f g r e e d : i t i s t h e l a t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e t h a t a l l o w s t h e c o m m o n m e t a p h o r i c a luse , a s in T h a t m a n i s a p i g . O n e o f t h e w o r s t f e a t u r e s o f t h e o l d t h e o r y t h a t a l l l a n g u a g ei s s y m b o l i c ( e . g ., C . K . O g d e n a n d I . A . R i c h a r d s , T h e M e a n i n g o f M e a n i n g , C h . I )w a s t h a t i t b l o c k e d t h e w a y t o r e c o g n i si n g j u s t w h e n a n d w h e r e s y m b o l i s m d o e s i n -f l u e n c e la n g u a g e .13 I t i s s o m e t i m e s s u g g e st e d , b y g r a m m a r i a n s w h o t a k e a l l m e t a p h o r i c a l s e n t en c e st o b e l in g u i s ti c al l y d e v i a n t , t h a t m e t a p h o r i s a m e r e ly s u r f a c e st r u c t u r e p h e n o m e n o na n d a r is e s t h r o u g h t h e i m p r o p e r a p p l i c a t i o n o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l r u le s t o a d e e p s t r u c -t u r e t h a t h a s , f r o m a s e m a n t i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e p a t t e r n o f a s i m i le . B u t t h i s s u g g e s -t i o n b l u r s t h e d i ff e re n c e b e t w e e n s i m i le a n d m e t a p h o r . T o s t a t e a s i m i l a ri t y b e t w e e nt w o t h i n g s s i g n i f i c a n t l y o n e m u s t s t a t e i n w h a t r e s p e c t s t h e y a r e s i m i l a r , w h e r e a s a l lt h e i n t e r e s t i n g m e t a p h o r i c a l s e n t e n c e s a c h i e v e t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r c e w i t h o u t s t a t i n ga n y r e s p e c t s i n w h i c h a c o m p a r i s o n i s t o b e d r a w n .