TABLE 1-1 Theories of Child Development

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

Biological Theories

Behaviorism and Social Learning Theories

Psychodynamic Theories

Cognitive­Developmental Theories

POSITIONS

Investigators focus on genetic fac­tors, physiological structures, and inborn dispositions that help the child adapt and survive in his or her environment As an illustration, compared to young adolescents who slept well for relatively long periods at night, youngsters of the same age who slept less and re­ported interrupted sleep exhibited little activity in a part of their brain that is associated with positive emotions and sensations of being rewarded (Holm et al. 2009).

Investigators focus on effects of environmental stimuli on behav­ioral change. In one investigation a group of girls with cystic fibrosis were more likely to engage in health-promoting exercise for 20-minute segments of time when they were given small immediate rewards (e.g. special snacks) and allowed to earn points that could be saved up and later exchanged for larger prizes (e.g., playing their favorite game with their parents) (Bernard, Cohen, & Moffet. 2009).

Investigators focus on how early experiences and internal con­flicts affect social and personality development. In an investigation in which divorced parents and their children were studied over a 1 O-year period, researchers de­tected the emergence of sibling rivalries that were based, in part, on unconsciously held allegiances to different parents (Wallerstein & Lewis, 2007).

Investigators focus on major trans­formations in children's thinking. one researcher found that young children focused on their own con­crete views of an event. whereas older children and adolescents were able to consider how several individuals could see a single event from several valid points of view (Selman. 1980).

TIIIORIIS OF Cll!U) DEVELOPMENf 19

BASIC DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES

Nature and Nurture: Characteristics and behaviors that enhance an individual's chances for survival and reproduc­tion are supported by genetic instructions. Adequate nutri­ents, supportive social relationships, and exploration in the physical environment are essential to normal growth.

Universality and Diversity: Universally, children form bonds with caregivers, express themselves with language, infer other people's intentions and feelings, and use tools. Diver­sity in physical characteristics' and abilitiestfJccurs through variations in genes and expElrience.

Qualitative and Quantitative Change: Qualitative changes are seen in physical transformations at puberty and with sensitive periods in perceptual development and language learning. In other respects the child grows gradually, reflecting many quantitative transformations. •

Nature and Nurture: Emphasis is on nurture. When children act. the environment responds with rewards or punishments or ignores the behavior. Children modify their actions based on their experiences, goals, and beliefs about whether an action will lead to desirable or undesirable consequences.

Universality and Diversity: Children work for generally simi­lar kinds of rewards (e.g., food, praise, physical contact). Yet preferences for particular incentives are somewhat individ­ual, and because environments vary in how they respond to children's actions, diversity in behavior is expected.

Qualitative and Quantitative Change: Development is quan­titative: Children undergo countless incremental changes in behaviors.

Nature and Nurture: sexual and aggressive urges are inborn. Family and society affect how children express instinctual urges, their basic trust in others, and their per­ceptions of themselves as individuals.

Universality and Diversity: Universally, children struggle with strong feelings (e.g., aggression and sexuality, according to s. Freud) and personal challenges (e.g., the belief that they can or cannot make things happen, according to Erikson). Relation­ships with other people are highly varied and result in diversity in the ways in which children resolve life's challenges.

Qualitative and Quantitative Change: Through a series of qualitatively distinct stages, children learn to resolve mixed feelings and gain a sense of their own identity.

Nature and Nurture: Children are biological organisms strongly motivated to make sense of their personal worlds (nature). Access to a reasonably complex environment is vital to development (nurture). Young people also actively contribute to their own intellectual development

Universality and Diversity: Universality is emphasized. Vari­ations among youngsters are most common at the highest stages of development, which require certain experiences (e g. instruction in scientific reasoning).

Qualitative and Quantitative Change: Children's thinking undergoes transformations in the essence of reason­ing; new ways of classifying information build on previ­ous systems but also involve reorganizations in thOl]ght processes. Quantitative additions to the knowledge ba--se occur within stages.

REPRESENTATIVE THEORISTS"-

Charles Darvvin Arnold Gesell Maria Montessori Konrad Lorenz John Bowlby Mary Ainsworth Sandra Scarr Robert Plomin David Bjorklund Susan Gelman Henry Wellman

B. F. Skinner John B. Watson Ivan Pavlov Sidney Bijou Donald Baer Albert Bandura

Sigmund Freud Anna Freud Erik Erikson

Jean Piaget Barbel lnhelder Lawrence Kohlber~ David Elkind Robbie Case John Flavell

(continued:

TABLE 1-1 Theories of Child Development

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

Biological Theories

Behaviorism and social Learning Theories

Psychodynamic Theories

Cognitive­Developmental Theories

POSITIONS

Investigators focus on genetic fac­tors, physiological structures, and inborn dispositions that help the child adapt and survive in his or her environment. As an illustration, compared to young adolescents who slept well for relatively long periods at night, youngsters of the same age who slept less and re­ported interrupted sleep exhibitetl little activity in a part of their brain that is associated with positive emotions and sensations of being rewarded (Holm et al., 2009).

Investigators focus on effects of environmental stimuli on behav­ioral change In one investigation a group of girls with cystic fibrosis were more likely to engage in health-promoting exercise for 20-minute segments of time when they were given small immediate rewards (e g., special snacks) and allowed to earn points that could be saved up and later exchanged for larger prizes (e.g., playing their favorite game with their parents) (Bernard, Cohen, & Moffet, 2009).

Investigators focus on how early experiences and internal con­flicts affect social and personality development. In an investigation in which divorced parents and their children were studied over a 10-year period, researchers de­tected the emergence of sibling rivalries that were based, in part, on unconsciously held allegiances to different parents (Wallerstein & Lewis, 2007).

Investigators focus on major trans­formations in children's thinking One researcher found that young children focused on their own con­crete views of an event, whereas older children and adolescents were able to consider how several individuals could see a single event from several valid points of view (Selman, 19801

THEORIES OF CHILD DEVE LO PMENT 19

BASIC DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES

Nature and Nurture: Characteristics and behaviors that enhance an individual's chances for survival and reproduc­tion are supported by genetic instructions. Adequate nutri­ents, supportive social relationships, and exploration in the physical environment are essential to normal growth.

Universality and Diversity: Universally, children form bonds with caregivers, express themselves with language, infer other people's intentions and feelings, and use tools. Diver­sity in RDYSical charac;teristics and abilities occurs through variations in genes and experience.

Qualitative and Quantitative Change: Qualitative changes are seen in physical transformations at puberty and with sensitive periods in perceptual development and language learning. In other respects the child grows gradually, reflecting many quantitative transformations.

" Nature and Nurture: Emphasis is on nurture. When children act, the environment responds with rewards or punishments or ignores the behavior. Children modify their actions based on their experiences, goals, and beliefs about whether an action will lead to desirable or undesirable consequences

universality and Diversity: Children work for generally simi­lar kinds of rewards (e.g., food, praise, physical contact). Yet preferences for particular incentives are somewhat individ­ual, and because environments vary in how they respond to children's actions, diversity in behavior is expected.

Qualitative and Quantitative Change: Development is quan­titative: Children undergo countless incremental changes in behaviors.

Nature and Nurture: sexual and aggressive urges are inborn. Family and society affect how children express instinctual urges, their basic trust in others, and their per­ceptions of themselves as individuals

Universality and Diversity: Universally, children struggle with strong feelings (e.g., aggression and sexuality, according to s. Freud) and personal challenges (e.g., the belief that they can or cannot make things happen, according to Erikson). Relation­ships with other people are highly varied and result in diversity in the ways in which children resolve life's challenges.

Qualitative and Quantitative Change: Through a series of qualitatively distinct stages. children learn to resolve mixed feelings and gain a sense of their own identity.

Nature and Nurture: Children are biological organisms strongly motivated to make sense of their personal worlds (naturel Access to a reasonably complex environment is vital to development (nurture). Young people also actively contribute to their own intellectual development.

Universality and Diversity: universality is emphasized Vari­ations among youngsters are most common at the highest stages of development. which require certain experiences (e.g, instruction in scientific reasoning).

Qualitative and Quantitative Change: Children's thinking undergoes transformations in the essence of reason­ing, new ways of classlfy1n g information build on-previ­ous systems but also invol ve reorganizations in thought processes. Quan tatlve ad ditions to the knowledge base occur within stages ,

REPRESENTATIVE THEORISTS0

Charles Darwin Arnold Gesell Maria Montessori Konrad Lorenz John Bowlby Mary Ainsworth Sandra Scarr Robert Plomin David Bjorklund Susan Gelman Henry Wellman

B. F. Skinner John B. Watson Ivan Pavlov Sidney Bijou Donald Baer Albert Bandura

Sigmund Freud Anna Freud Erik Erikson

Jean Piaget Barbel lnhelder Lawrence Kohlberf David Elkind Robbie case John Flavell

(continued;

20 CHAIJf[R 1 " MAKl~IG A Dlff[RENCE INTHE LIVES OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS

TABLE 1-1 Theories of Child Development (continued)

THEORETICAL REPRESENTATIVE THEORISTS8 PERSPECTIVES

Cognitive Process Theories

sociocultural Theories

Developmental Systems Theories

POSITIONS

Investigators focus on the precise nature of human cognitive opera­tions. In one study adolescents who participated in debates with their peers and received instruc­tion in how to make counterargu­ments acquired more sophisticated reasoning and argumentation skills (Kuhn & Udell, 2003).

Investigators focus on acquisition of tools, communication systems, intellectual abilities, and social­emotional skills through practice in meaningful tasks with other people. In one study children's abil­ity to plan their informal activities (such as deciding what to do after school, what to eat for breakfast, and what to watch on television) improved over the elementary years and depended somewhat on their cultural background (Gauvain & Perez, 2005).

Investigators focus on the multiple factors that interact in children's development. In one study a wide range of factors were associated with hours children slept at night, including children's own activities (e.g., excessive television viewing was associated with little sleep), family functioning (e.g., eating fam­ily meals together on weekdays was associated with relatively lengthy sleep), and demographic factors (e.g., older African Ameri­can children slept fewer hours than did children from other groups) (Adam, Snell, & Pendry, 2007).

BASIC DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES

Nature and Nurture: Both nature and nurture are impor­tant. Children are born with basic capacities to perceive, interpret, and remember information; these capacities change with brain maturation, experience, and reflection.

Universality and Diversity: The desire to make sense of the world is universal. Diversity is present in the kinds of edu­cational experiences children have and, to some degree, in their natural intellectual talents.

Qualitative and Quantitative Change: Tl;le methods QY· which children perceive, interpret, and remember ir.iforma­tion gradually change both qualitatively (e.g., inver1ting new rules for solving arithmetic problems) and quantitatively (e.g., acquiring knowledge about plant species).

Nature and Nurture: Emphasis is on nurture. Children be­come familiar with tools used by their families as they tai.e part in daily activities with them (nurture) The capacity to acquire the traditions and ideas of one or more cultures is inherited (nature).

Universality and Diversity: All children learn language, beliefs espoused in their communities, and practical life skills. variation is present in the particular tools, customs, and ideas that children in various societies acquire.

Qualitative and Quantitative Change: Children shift quali­tatively in how they carry out tasks. Initially, a child may look to a teacher for help when completing a puzzle and later independently follow the teacher's strategies (e.g., beginning by inserting pieces with a straight line). Quantitatively, children gradually take on responsibility in social groups.

Nature and Nurture: Multiple factors in the child (nature) and outside the child (nurture) combine to influence de­velopmental patterns. The child's own activity is also an essential factor in development.

Universality and Diversity: Developmental changes occur in all individuals from conception to death. Some changes are common at a particular age, yet individual children face slightly different obstacles when acquiring new abilities de­pending on historical events and personal circumstances.

Qualitative and Quantitative Change: Most change is quan­titative, but shifts in action occur that result in entirely new ways of behaving. For example, a baby may use her arm to swat awkwardly at a toy and later learn to pick it up with a precise finger grip

David Klahr Deanna Kuhn Robert Siegler Ann L. Brown Henry Wellman Susan Gelman John Flavell Robbie Case

Lev Vygotsky A. R. Luria James Wertsch Barbara Rogoff Patricia Greenfield Mary Gauvain Jerome Bruner Michael Cole

Urie Bronfenbrenner Arnold Sameroff Margaret Beale Spencer Richard Lerner Kurt Fischer Esther Thelen Gilbert Gottlieb Paul Baltes

'Several theorists have contributed to two or more theoretical perspectives. For example, John Flavell and Robbie case have made important contributions to both cognitive-developmental and cognitive process theories, Albert Bandura has made contributions to social learning and cognitive process perspectives, and Henry Wellman and Susan Gelman have conducted research referring to biological functions and cognitive processes

know about child development. In a sense, any theory is like a lens that brings certain phenomena into sharp focus but leaves other phenomena blurry or out of the picture.

As you proceed through the book, you will see that we frequently summarize specific theoretical perspectives on particular aspects of children's development-for example, theo­ries about their cognitive development, moral development, and languagct acquisition. These specific frameworks offer precise analyses of children's learning in specific areas. Inevitably, however, any narrowly focused theory omits crucial information about the influences of

20 CHAPTER 1 • MAKING A DIFFERENCE INTHE LIVES OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS

TABLE 1-1 Theories of Child Development (continued)

THEORETICAL REPRESENTATIVE THEORISTS8 PERSPECTIVES

Cognitive Process Theories

sociocultural Theories

Developmental systems Theories

POSITIONS

Investigators focus on the precise nature of human cognitive opera­tions. In one study adolescents who participated in debates with their peers and received instruc­tion in how to make counterargu­ments acquired more sophisticated reasoning and argumentation skills (Kuhn & Udell, 2003).

Investigators focus on acquisition of tools, communication systems. intellectual abilities. and social­emotional skills through practice in meaningful tasks with other people. In one study children's abil­ity to plan their informal activities (such as deciding what to do after school, what to eat for breakfast, and what to watch on television) improved over the elementary years and depended somewhat on their cultural background (Gauvain & Perez. 2005).

Investigators focus on the multiple factors that interact in children's development. In one study a wide range of factors were associated with hours children slept at night, including children's own activities (e.g., excessive television viewing was associated with little sleep), family functioning (e.g., eating fam­ily meals together on weekdays was associated with relatively lengthy sleep), and demographic factors (e.g., older African Ameri­can children slept fewer hours than did children from other groups) (Adam. Snell, & Pendry, 2007).

BASIC DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES

Nature and Nurture: Both nature and nurture are impor­tant. Children are born with basic capacities to perceive. interpret, and remember information; these capacities change with brain maturation, experience, and reflection.

Universality and Diversity: The desire to make sense of the world is universal. Diversity is present in the kinds of edu­cational experiences children have and, to some degree, in their natural intellectual talents.

Qualitative and Quantitative Change: The methods by which children perceive, interpret. and remember informa­tion gradually change both qualitatively (e.g., inventing new rules for solving arithmetic problems) and quantitatively (e.g., acquiring knowledge about plant species).

Nature and Nurture: Emphasis is on nurture. Children be­come familiar with tools used by their families as they take part in daily activities with them (nurture). The capacity to acquire the traditions and ideas of one or more cultures is inherited (nature).

Universality and Diversity: All children learn language, beliefs espoused in their communities, and practical life skills. variation is present in the particular tools, customs, and ideas that children in various societies acquire.

Qualitative and Quantitative Change: Children shift quali­tatively in how they carry out tasks. Initially, a child may look to a teacher for help when completing a puzzle and later independently follow the teacher's strategies (e.g., beginning by inserting pieces with a straight line). Quantitatively, children gradually take on responsibility in social groups.

Nature and Nurture: Multiple factors in the child (nature) and outside the child (nurture) combine to influence de­velopmental patterns. The child's own activity is also an essential factor in development.

Universality and Diversity: Developmental changes occur in all individuals from conception to death. Some changes are common at a particular age, yet individual children face slightly different obstacles when acquiring new abilities de­pending on historical events and personal circumstances.

Qualitative and Quantitative Change: Most change is quan­titative, but shifts in action occur that result in entirely new ways of behaving. For example, a baby may use her arm to swat awkwardly at a toy and later learn to pick it up with a precise finger grip.

David Klahr Deanna Kuhn Robert Siegler Ann L. Brown Henry Wellman Susan Gelman John Flavell Robbie case

\'

Lev Vygotsky A. R. Luria James Wertsch Barbara Rogoff Patricia Greenfield Mary Gauvain Jerome Bruner Michael Cole

Urie Bronfenbrenner Arnold sameroff Margaret Beale Spencer Richard Lerner Kurt Fischer Esther Thelen Gilbert Gottlieb Paul Baltes

'Several theorists have contributed to two or more tl1eoretical perspectives. For example, John Flavell and Robbie Case have made important contributions to both cognitive-developmental and cognitive process theories, Albert Bandura has made contributions to social learning and cognitive process perspectives. and Henry Wellman and Susan Gelman have conducted research referring to biological functions and cognitive processes.

know about child development. In a sense, any theory is like a lens that brings certain phenomena into sharp focus but leaves other phenomena blurry or out of the picture.

As you proceed through the book, you will see that we frequently summarize specific theoretical perspectives on particular aspects of children's development-for example, theo­ries about their cognitive development, moral development, and language acquisition. These specific frameworks offer precise analyses of children 's learning in specific areas. Inevitably, however, any narrowly focused theory omits crucial information about the influences of