tanzania forest research programme utende village, mafia … · 2017-06-30 · tanzania forest...

Author Kate Helliwell TZF141 Science Report

[1]

Tanzania Forest Research Programme

Utende Village, Mafia Island, Tanzania

TZF Phase 141 Science Report

1

tst January – 24

th March 2014

Author: Kate Helliwell


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Staff Members

Name Position

Kate Helliwell (KH) Principal Investigator (PI)


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TZF 141 Science Report

Contents

1. Introduction to TZF.................................................................................................5

1.1 Area Overview....................................................................................................................5

1.2 Mafia Island coastal forests................................................................................................6

1.3 Frontier Tanzania Forest Programme (TZF)......................................................................7

2. Training.................................................................................................................................8

2.1 Briefing……………………………………………………………………………..........8

2.2 Science Lectures................................................................................................................8

2.3 Field work training............................................................................................................9

2.4 BTEC……………………………………………………………..………………..….....9

3. Research Work Program.........................................................................................9

3.1 Survey areas………………………………………………………………………….........9

3.2 Bird Surveys: Avian abundance and species diversity in different habitats around

Utende village ........................................................................................................................14

3.1.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................14

3.1.2 Methods............................................................................................................15

3.1.3 Results...............................................................................................................15

3.1.4 Discussion and Recommendations...................................................................19

3.3 Butterfly presence in different habitats around Utende to monitor ecological health of

fragmented habitats.................................................................................................................20

3.3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................20

3.3.2 Methods............................................................................................................20

3.3.3 Results...............................................................................................................21


3.4 Expansion of the species list of reptiles, insects and amphibians on Mafia Island with the

aid of pitfall trapping and active searches..............................................................................23

3.4.1 Introduction......................................................................................................23

3.4.2 Methods............................................................................................................24

3.4.3 Results..............................................................................................................25


.

3.5 Wild Cats; Camera Trapping to the presence of a wild cat “fungo” around Utende and

surrounding area.....................................................................................................................25

3.5.1 Introduction......................................................................................................25

3.5.2 Methods............................................................................................................25

3.5.3 Results..............................................................................................................26


3.6 New Species.....................................................................................................................27


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4. Project Direction........................................................................................................................28

4.1 Proposed educational work programme for next phase................................................28

4.2 Contribution of future work...........................................................................................28

5. References……………………………………………………………………………………...29

6. Appendices................................................................................................................................31

6.1 Data sheets…………………………………………………………....……………….31

6.2 Species List………………………………………………………....…………………31


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1. Introduction

The coastal forests of Eastern Africa, particularly those found in Tanzania, are recognized as

important hotspots for biodiversity (Myers et al., 2000). These regions are vital as they contain the

vast majority of Africa’s endemic species, with a considerable amount of these found in Tanzania,

neighbouring Kenya and Mozambique (Mittermeier et al., 1998).

Tanzanian coastal forests are fragmented, small and surrounded by poor communities that heavily

depend on these areas for land and forest resources. Burgess and Clarke (2000) argue that even

though these coastal forests are of a significant cultural and traditional value for local communities,

they are not being adequately managed by the relevant government authorities and international

conservation institutions.

Forests in Tanzania cover an approximate area of 42 million ha, which is about half the total land

area of the country, with the other half being occupied by rough grazing lands. The forested areas

consist mostly of natural Miombo woodlands which are areas, dominated by the genera Brachestegia

and Julbernedia and are also populated with a variety of animal species (Makundi and Okiting Ati,

1995). The remaining forest area is composed of a small expanse of closed forest, mangrove forest

and human-grown plantations. Given the notable levels of fragmentation in these forests, habitat loss

is threatening endemic species, making them more vulnerable to extinction. The main threats to

habitats in this region are the expansion of agricultural land, timber extraction and charcoal

production, all of these factors are exacerbated by weak governmental management and community

input (Iddi, 1997).

Coastal forests of Tanzania are distributed through six regions of the mainland covering 17 districts

and Unguja and Pemba in Zanzibar. The coastal forests cover a total of 333,412 ha of which 263,932

ha are Central Government Forest Reserves (79.2%) and 66,950 ha (20.0%) are under public control.

An additional 2,530 ha (0.8%) belongs to Game Reserves/National Parks (Kaale, 2004). Ngusaru

and his colleagues (2001) argue that degradation is occurring in both government forest reserves and

in forests located on public land. Furthermore, there has been an observable decline over the past

two decades in the government’s ability to police forest reserves, chiefly those located on mainland

Tanzania. This is due to a reduction in man power and funding, which is also causing a severe

decline in coastal forests.

1.1 Area Overview

The Frontier Tanzania Forest Research Programme (TZF) is located on Mafia Island off the coast of

mainland Tanzania, East Africa (see Figure 1). Mafia Island is one of the Tanzanian Spice Islands,

together with Unguja and Pemba. It is centrally located in a group of 15 small sandstone and coral

rag islands in the Indian Ocean, with a total land area of 394 km2. Mafia is the largest of these,

measuring approximately 50km in length by 15km across at its widest point.

Much of Mafia’s coastline and surrounding sea areas are part of the Mafia Island Marine Park

(MIMP), which extends predominantly across the South-East corner of the island and covers an area

of 822 km2 (Goossens et al., 2006). The marine park envelopes some of the 15 islands in the

archipelago, several of which are inhabited with a total estimated population of 41,000 as of 2002

(Caplan, 2011). The people living on this archipelago are mostly smallholder farmers that are

involved in mixed farming and fishing. The main agricultural practices include plantations of

coconuts, cassava, rice, pigeon pea, pineapples, cashew and mango trees (Goossens et al., 2006).


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As one of the six districts of the Pwani Region, Mafia Island is governed from the mainland. As with

other coastal forests in Tanzania, Mafia Island’s forests and rich biodiversity are threatened by an

increased pressure on resources due to the same lack of government resource management, increased

poverty and limitations on financial and human resources for conservation that afflicts the rest of

Tanzania (Chami, 1999). Habitat destruction is one of the main drivers of species extinction

worldwide and recent reports have recognized the need for greater effort in studying the threatened

biodiversity of tropical hotspots (Mittermeier et al, 1998). This is especially important when coastal

Tanzanian forests host an estimated 75 endemic plant species and 61 endemic vertebrate species per

100 km2 of forest area (Myers et al., 2000).

Figure 1 - Map showing the location of Mafia Island

1.2 Mafia Island coastal forests

In the 1930s, there were reported to be extensive coastal forests on Mafia Island, with the last being

destroyed in the late 1980s in order to make way for coconut plantations (Greenway et al., 1988). By

the early 1990s, a coastal thicket with some small patches of forest occurred along a 40 km by 1 km

strip of coral rag on the eastern side of the island. Burgess and his colleagues (1992) had reported the

occurrence of previously undescribed species and genera of butterflies, toads and millipedes at the

time of their study, yet there was no further mention of whether these species had been

systematically identified. The thicket previously described has persisted as one forest (Mrora/Mlola)

at the southeast side of the island, this being characterised by localized brushes such as Mkamba

thicket on the western side of the island and remaining vegetation consists of swamps and mangrove

forest, many small forest/thicket pockets and coconut plantations (IAEA, 1999 in Goossens et al.,

2006).

Natural vegetation on Mafia ranges from tidal mangrove thickets and scrubby coastal moorlands to

palm-wooden grassland and lowland rainforest. One may also notice Baobab trees growing along

with the native Albizia (Swai et al., 2011). Patches of coastal forest remain in localities all over

Mafia Island, but the largest of these is the Chunguruma Forest, which is notable for its dense

canopy of palms, lianas and epiphytes and dense underbrush of ferns (Clarke, 2000). Coastal forests


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are also important habitats for several faunal species. Closed canopy coastal forests provide a

suitable ecosystem for numerous endemic plant and animal species (Luoga, 2000). Clarke explains

how the forests are already known to house 43 avifaunal species, 3 species of mammal, 29

herpetofaunal species (24 reptiles and 5 amphibians) and numerous invertebrates including 86

described species of molluscs and 75 described species of insects.

1.3 Frontier Tanzania Forest Programme (TZF)

With the closure of the Frontier TZS project in the Kilombero Valley at the end of phase 123, the

equipment from TZS was transported to Mafia with the aim of setting up a terrestrial research

programme to run alongside TZM.

Although there is coastal forest present on the Mafia archipelago (predominantly along the eastern

coast of the islands of Mafia and Juani), access to this forest was limited due to transport costs and

lack of RA’s during the phase. Access to the forest has been granted and the research proposal drawn

up by Frontier is currently being reviewed by Mafia Island Marine Park (MIMP) who should be

giving feedback very soon. The current plan looks at the project starting after the rainy season

between May/June dependant on staff and RA numbers. Most work during this phase was instead

focussed on expanding the species list and developing projects in and around Utende Village.

KH has continued using various terrestrial biodiversity survey methods, including the construction

of drift fences and pitfall traps, camera trapping and point counts for birds. A species inventory of all

successfully identified terrestrial vertebrates (photographed wherever possible) during the phase and

was compiled as part of a baseline survey of vertebrate biodiversity in the area surrounding Utende.

This has been added to the previous species inventory collated during phases 124, 131,132 and 133.

The butterfly surveying has continued which is contributing to the list of known invertebrate species

on the island.

The RA MT has returned to the TZF project and is continuing his camera trapping to find presence

of possible wild cats “fungo” in the area (Serval (Felis serval), or Genet (Genetta genetta). His

BTEC will focus on this subject. Many locals have answered questionnaires regarding the rumoured

wild cat or ‘fungo’ in the area, strengthening links between local communities and Frontier. The

environmental awareness days with the children of Utende have also been a great success.

As part of TZF’s ongoing work to build up the Tanzania Forest Programme, staff on site have been

making lectures and presentations for all RA’s working on the project, data sheets, species ID lists,

investigating possible survey sites and researching species of interest, including Sengi and Fungo. In

addition to the above, TZF staff have been developing new survey programmes and continuing those

established in phase 132, the methodologies for which are given below and developing relations with

local conservation organisations and lodges, which has allowed us enter to previously inaccessible

areas. The TZF staff have been provided with transport to a new Savannah site by Meremeta (a local

lodge owner) and have strengthened relationships with individuals who have useful local knowledge,

such as Mr. Kirobo Saiidi, Mr. Ramadhani Mohammed and Mr. Hassan Bakari, the contact details of

whom are listed below for future project staff to use.

During phase 131, 132, 133 and 141 TZF staff attended several meetings with representatives from

Mafia Island Marine Park (MIMP) and Mafia Island District Council to discuss beginning terrestrial

research in Mlola Forest, which lies on the east coast of Mafia Island, as well as the coastal forest on

Juani Island. The southern part of Mlola Forest falls under the jurisdiction of MIMP, as does the

forest on Juani, while the northern section of Mlola Forest is under the District Council’s

jurisdiction.

Both MIMP and the District Council have expressed significant interest in allowing and assisting

TZF to conduct research on their land to carry out a biodiversity risk assessment, given that

disturbance in the forest due to illegal human activity is a recurring problem.


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After a reconnaissance trip to Jibondo in phase 133, locals at MIMP have informed Frontier that the

locals of Jibondo are not interested in having Frontier conduct research. If this was a project that

Frontier wants to further; liaisons would have to occur and relations built with locals before any

research could occur.

2. Training

2.1 Briefing sessions

All briefings on health and safety, medical issues, TZF project history, phase aims and objectives,

safety and security on camp and life on camp were given after deployment (during the first few days

of each month) as listed in (Table 1).

Table 1. Briefing sessions conducted during phase 141.

Briefing session Presenter

Health & Safety KH

Medical brief KH

Introduction to TZF project KH

Camp life and duties KH

2.2 Science lectures

During 141 more lectures were developed and the previous lectures revised in order to add updates.

Table 2. Science lectures revised in 141

Science Lectures

Introduction to Tanzania Forest

Programme

Survey Related Health and Safety

Survey Techniques and Methods

Marine Turtle Conservation

Bat Lecture

Mlola Forest ecological importance


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2.3. Field work Training

During phase 141 there has been a focus on establishing specific projects, with the limited number of

people on the project; the focus has been on avian populations, wild cats and butterflies with further

interests in reptile species on the island. The training sessions are ready to be given as and when

RA’S arrive on the project.

Table.3 Training sessions to be given to new volunteers.

2.4 BTEC

Matt Tantons (MT): The presence of wild cat ‘fungo’ on Mafia island BTEC 10 week Diploma

(Mentor: KH)

3. Research Work Program

3.1 Survey areas

Training sessions Presenter

Training in bird identification KH

Training in butterfly canopy trapping

and Identification

KH

BTEC Mentor Meetings KH

Training in field applications of GPS KH

Training in amphibian and reptile

identification

KH

Training in the conduct of social

studies: questionnaires and interviews

KH

Training in the use of specialist field

equipment

KH

Training in survey techniques KH

Scale : 10km approx..


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Fig 2. Map of Mafia Island showing location of remnant forest, Mafia Island Marine park

boundaries. (http://www.tanzaniayachts.com/about-mafia.shtml) edited by KH

All project related survey sites are around Utende

Samango Forest

GPS coordinates: (S 0758684, E 03944507, S 0758749, E 03944173)

Fig. 4 Forest site

Located outside the Marine park gates is a small area of fragmented forest approx. 15min walk from

the Camp. Two areas are currently surveyed; one for bird point counts and another for butterfly

sweep netting. The surrounding land is used for cultivation, lodges and housing, some disturbance is

present due to these activities. See Fig 11 for site locations.

Whistling duck wetlands (WD Wetlands)

GPS coordinates: (S 0758113, E 03944652), (S 0758138, E 03944396), (S 0757989, E 03944300)

Fig 5. Wetland site

http://www.tanzaniayachts.com/about-mafia.shtml


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An area next to rice paddies, a site with a high abundance of avian species; the site is an open long

stretch of land surrounded by paddies, mangroves and scrubland. During the wet season the site is

less accessible due to waterlogging.

Bee-Eater Beach

GPS coordinates: (S 0758494, E 03944909)

Fig 6. Coastal site

The area is made up of a small stretch of mangroves along a white sandy beach; behind the beach

there is a stretch of coastal forest on a sharp incline.

Scrubland

GPS coodinates: (S 0758431, E 03944615)

Fig 7. Scrubland


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A site used for pitfall traps; there is a lot of logging and coconut harvesting around here as well as

being a passage for the mariners returning home from the beach, so equipment placed here needs to

be well disguised. Site also used for butterfly sweep netting.

Frog ponds


Fig.8 Pond site

Another area near to the wetlands but accessed through the scrubland. An area of scrubland is

present on one side and dense mangroves on the other. During the wet season this area is less

accessible due to waterlogging.

Hermit Park


Fig 9. MIMP


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This is the area inside of the marine park’s office area; a safe place to set up pitfall traps and

Sherman traps if given permission. It is a hot spot for Seychelles flying fruit bats and raptors.

Utende Village/Camp

Fig. 10 Utende village

The camp is located just on the edge of Utende village, both areas are covered in coconut plantations

with scattered one story buildings and other fruit bearing tree species. The sites have been used for

comparisons on avian surveys, as well as pitfall traps.

Other locations

Chole Island, Juani Island

A short boat journey from Mafia; it is easily accessible for day trips and opportunistic nature

observations. At low tide it is possible to walk between the two islands. Chole is a historically a

heavily populated island, but has a much more diverse species composition than Utende. Juani is

much larger, less populated island with dense mangrove forests covering much of the island. This

island is also an important area for sea turtle hatchings; occurring on certain east facing beaches.

Mlola Forest

This area is yet to have survey sites identified but when the research plan is initiated this will occur.

Mlola forest is located in the Northeast of Mafia and requires a 2 hour car journey followed by a

20min walk to enter the forest. The forest is a dense remnant of the woodland once covering the

whole of Mafia.


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Fig 11 Site locations for all surveys conducting during phase 141,The area of black shows the area

of Utende village, the area of pink represents frontier camp.

(http://www.tanzaniayachts.com/about-mafia.shtml) edited by KH.

All studies during this phase have been preliminary in nature, the successful ones have results that

can be analysed. Other projects such as the wild cat project are in there early stages of development,

so have not yielded results as of yet. These have been included to show the direction of the

programme.

3.2 Sampling of different fragmented habitats for avian populations around Utende

Village in order to identify habitats of ecological importance.

3.2.1 Introduction

The East coast of Mafia Island around the village of Utende is made up of a mosaic of different

habitats, from degraded forest to thick mangroves. These areas are decreasing in size due to human

disturbance and expansion of human populations on the island. With a new road being built, there is

expected to be an expansion in infrastructure which may lead to further encroachment on natural

habitats. Avian density is a good indicator of habitat health. (Krebs et al., 1999; Siriwardena et al.,

1998)

Mafia Island is on the route for migratory bird species and a popular area for feeding grounds. Little

research has been done on the island bar Baker et al. (2002). Here we sample a number of different

habitats including the village of Utende itself to determine the most species rich and abundant areas

that could be considered areas of ecological importance and therefore would need stringent

management in order to conserve them. This will be achieved by observing the species of bird

present, number of species in each habitat, diversity and habitat preference of particular species.

Utende is surrounded by significant areas of wetland habitat.

Scale 1km approx.



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3.2.2. Methods and Materials

GPS device

Notepad

Binoculars

Bird identification book

The sample method used to survey avian species were bird point counts. Previous literature from

phases 134 favoured this method which is the reason for continuation of point counts to keep to

previous protocol.(Fanning and Webb, 2013) Five locations were sampled; Samango Forest, Bee-

eater Beach, Frog Ponds, Whistling Duck Wetlands, and Utende village. Sites were visited 4 times

each over a period of 2 months between February and March. Surveys were undertaken by KH and

MT only. Surveys were weather dependant, if heavy rain occurred before the start time the survey

was terminated. Trial surveys at dusk were initially conducted with little success; these were later

discontinued favouring dawn surveys. Start times were standardised to 6.30-40am on survey days.

Transects were 200m long, with 5 intervals (0 m, 50 m, 100 m, 150 m and 200 m), a GPS device was

used to measure distance between points. Any birds seen between points were listed under extra

observations, as were any birds recorded during the first 3 minutes after arriving at a site. After the

initial settling period, 10 minutes of survey time was performed at each point, recording any birds

that were either heard or seen and the distance from observer recorded e.g.; less than 25m, less than

50m; birds further than 50 m were not recorded in order to standardise the area surveyed, in addition

these birds are also harder to ID (see data collection sheet Appendix 7.1). Weather conditions, GPS

location and tides were also recorded to account for variation within sites.

A Shannon Diversity index was calculated for each site, the standard error of these was also

calculated, as well as species richness and abundance, Results were tested statistically using General

Linear Model (GLM) to see if location had a significant effect on Shannon diversity index. A chi-

square test was performed, which compares the model’s residual deviance against the normal

distribution, to see if the GLM is best test for these factors. If the result is significant then we can

reject the null hypothesis in favour of the hypothesis that location has a significant effect on Shannon

diversity index, this was repeated for species richness, and abundance.

Null hypothesis: There will be no significant difference between species

richness/diversity/abundance/ across locations.

Alternative Hypothesis: There will be a significant difference between species

richness/diversity/abundance across locations.

3.2.3 Results

Twenty surveys were conducted over the phase, distributed equally between sites making for

comparable data sets. A total of 2041 birds were recorded, made up of 63 species, some of which,

such as African Pigmy Goose (Nettapus auritus) had never been recorded on Mafia Island to date.

The Shannon-Wiener index was calculated to analyse diversity, taking account of evenness and

abundance of species within sites. The results show little variation with regards to diversity index,

however all values are high for each site (Fig 12).


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Shannon's Index comapred across all sites

Fig. 12: Bar Graph the showing differences between sites for the diversity index, Standard error

bars present

The standard error bars show there is more variance about the mean in Frog Ponds and Bee-eater

beach than in other habitats. Looking at weather conditions over the period of surveys, weather has

varied slightly, with an increase in rain towards the end of the study. No obvious trends can be seen

in weather effecting richness, abundance or diversity. See appendix 6.1

A GLM for Shannon-Wiener Index result of p=0.021 for WD Wetlands was generated, meaning we

can reject the null hypothesis for the wetlands as this site differs significantly from the others

studied. However, the chi-square analysis results in p=0.051, meaning we can accept the null

hypothesis suggesting the GLM is not the favoured model to test Shannon wiener index.

Fig 13: Box plot showing median, upper quartile, lower quartile, and maximmum and minimun

values of Species Richness at each site.

When the species richness was compared to other sites (Fig 13). The WD wetlands and Frog Ponds

had the highest species richness. The results of the GLM show that species richness of the wetlands

site is significantly higher than other locations (p<0.001). The chi-square test had a very significant

result of p<0.001, so the null hypothesis can be rejected. For the effect of location on species


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richness, the GLM was a good test of the factors from the chi squared results. The species richness

of the sites differ signifcantly from one another, the wetlands being largely responsible for this

difference.

Fig 15. Box plot showing median, upper quartile, lower quartile, and maximmum and minimun

values of Abundance at each site.

The box plot shows that both the Wetlands and Utende village sites have the highest abundance of

individuals. The results of the chi-square test (p=0.038) means that the null hypothesis can be

rejected, favouring the alternative hypothesis that abundance differs significantly across locations.

The WD Wetlands is the location influencing this result, (p=0.045) meaning the abundance of

individuals at this location differs significantly from the other sites. Utende village has the lowest

species richness, but a high abundance of individuals; when looking at the species composition, two

species; the Village weaver (Ploceus subaureus) and House crow (Corvus splendens) dominate, with

relatively higher proportions (Fig 21) and overall abundance compared to other species.

Habitat preference

The 10 most abundant species in each habitat have been plotted on Fig. 16-20 below to compare

species presence and absence in each habitat. On Bee-eater beach the most abundant species are the

Dimorphic egret (Egretta Dimorpha) and Common ringed plover (Charadrius hiaticula), both are

waders, the plover is a flocking bird so is only seen in large groups; hence the large amount

recorded.

Frog ponds is an interesting site as none of the scavengers such as Crows or Weavers are found in

high numbers here, suggesting the area has had less anthropogenic disturbance (Fig 16). This site

also hosts many Dove species.

The species in highest abundance at WD Wetlands are the Village weaver and White-faced whistling

duck (Dendrocygna viduata) one of which is a scavenger, suggesting human disturbance. The

Whistling duck has not been found in any other habitat, suggesting the wetlands are its preferred

habitat. The Zitting cisticolla (Cisticola juncidis) is also not found in any other habitat other than

Frog ponds, suggesting this bird likes inland wetlands as well. The Samongo Forest is dominated by

Pied crows (Corvus albus) relative to other species. The pied crow is native to Africa whereas the


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house crow is an invasive species (Fig 17) The abundance of the pied crow does suggest possible

human disturbance.

Some birds seem to have no preference for any particular habitat and are found in high numbers

everywhere, the Black-headed Apalis (Apails melanocephala), African palm swift (Cypsiurus

parvus), Common bulbul (Pycnonotus barbatus), Sunbirds and the Yellow-fronted Tinkerbird

(Pogoniulus chrysoconus) are a few of these species.

Fig 19. Graph to show species

abundance at WD wetlands. Fig 18. Graph to show species

abundance at the Bee eater Beach


abundance at the Frog Ponds


abundance at the Samongo Forest


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3.2.4 Discussion

The results of the Shannon Index suggest that all sites have relatively high species abundance and

evenness. However the variability of standard errors (Fig 12) in Frog ponds and Bee-eater beach

suggest these two sites differ from the other survey sites in species composition and consistency.

This could be due to presence of migratory birds that come and go or they might be classed as

corridors between habitats, so all traffic does not stop in the habitat.

Wetlands are known for their diversity of bird species and are hot spots for wildlife across the world,

this could account for richness, abundance and the diversity index being significantly different to

other sites. (Weller, 1999) This site seems to be an important feeding ground for water birds, such as

the White-faced whistling ducks and Zitting cisticolla that have selected this environment over

others (Fig 16-20).

With regards to Utende village; the abundance of individuals was relatively higher than expected but

the species richness relatively small in comparison. This could be explained by the two scavenger

species found in high proportions (Fig 2). These birds live in flocks and are very well adapted to

living in manmade habitats.

Samongo Forest was similar in species richness to that of Utende village, as well as the bird species

present (Fig 17, 20). Previous studies show that Corvid abundance is a sign of habitat fragmentation

and have found higher abundance of such species in areas of cultivation than forested areas.

(Andren, 1992) The forest site suffers from a lot of human disturbance that may explain its similarity

to Utende village. A less disturbed forest area would be a useful comparison for future studies.

The Frog ponds had a relatively low number of scavenger species compared to other sites; this could

be due to being the furthest site from Utende village. Scavengers are known to live in human

habitats, so this would be a reasonable explanation. The high species richness could also be due to

lack of human interference, although grazing and mangrove harvesting still occur in the area.

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The abundance of all birds increased as the study continued across most locations. The change from

a hot, dry winter to a humid, wetter summer could account for the increase in abundance of

individuals at certain sites. For instance, the wetlands became more waterlogged as the study

progressed, which could have led to an increase in food for the birds. A look at the vegetation and

other fauna in future studies could explain this variation over time.

Surveyors inability to identify certain bird calls of more conspicuous species will have led to error in

early surveys, which will account for bias in species recording where surveyors were less

experienced. To account for this error; in future, surveyors should undertake more thorough training

of bird calls before undertaking further studies.

In conclusion, the sites of most interest seem to be Whistling Duck Wetlands for the abundance and

species richness present here; and Frog Ponds due to the lack of scavenger species and high species

richness. A study of vegetation composition would also help to account for some species present.

The site of least interest is Utende village as expected; however the area still hosts a number of

species, the majority of birds are human-adapted species that do not risk habitat loss. Bee-eater

beach hosts many migratory birds; many of them are the same as species found at the wetlands and

ponds, making it another interesting site. Samongo Forest is already relatively degraded; therefore

this site would be a good comparison to a primary forest habitat.

The next phase will focus on the 3 habitats with the highest abundance of species and individuals.

The same methods will be used to monitor changes throughout the year. If the project moves to

Mlola forest, Samongo Forest would be used as a comparison site.

3.3 Butterfly presence in different habitats around Utende indicating ecological health of

fragmented habitats

3.3.1 Introduction

There are 1583 known species of butterfly in Tanzania at present, 134 of which are known to be

endemic (Kielland, 2009). Butterflies are recognised as an important ecological indicator species and

are often used by biologists to assess the value of individual forests (Gowda et al., 2011; Burgess

and Clarke, 2000). Butterflies are pollinators of flowering plants, their larvae feed on forest

vegetation allowing alternative flora to break through and they are also prey for larger forest

dwelling organisms. Knowledge of a species’ preferences, habits and species interrelationships can

provide an overview of ecosystem health of the flora and fauna likely to be supported by the

invertebrates (Kielland, 2009). Furthermore, it is known that industries such as logging and

agriculture directly affect the range of butterfly species, allowing them to be used to identify early

deterioration of habitats (Pollard and Yates, 1994).

3.3.2 Methods

Nigel Venter’s Butterfly trap

Nigel Venter’s traps have been baited using over-ripened banana mixed with yeast and sugar, placed

in the Frontier camp and on the neighbouring field for one week; checked twice daily with the bait

replaced during this check, traps were hung 0.5m from the ground off branches.


[21]

Sweep netting for butterflies

Materials

Butterfly sweep nets (2)

Glass specimen jars

Callipers

Camera

GSP device

Note pad

Surveys were carried out at selected sites both known and unknown for species presence around the

village of Utende. These sites include: Paddy fields, Meadow, Mangrove/scrubland and areas of

fragmented forest. Survey lengths varied between 30-40 minutes and were undertaken during the

morning between 10-11am when species are known to be most active. The nets were moved around

in a figure of eight motion to catch butterflies. Once a butterfly was caught; the species was carefully

put into a jar, measured for wing span, wing length (from tip to apex) and abdomen length, it was

then photographed to be identidied back at camp if the species was unknown. At each site, the

weather conditions and GPS locations were recorded. The more experienced surveyors recorded

observational data in the field.

Results were tested statistically using General Linear Model (GLM) to see if location had a

significant effect on abundance of Butterflies. A chi-square test was carried out, which compares the

model’s residual deviance against the normal distribution to see if the GLM model is a good fit to

test these factors. If the result is significant then we can reject the null hypothesis in favour of the

hypothesis that location has a significant effect on abundance, this was repeated for species richness,

and Shannon diversity index species composition.

Species composition was measured by numbering each species and using GLM and chi-square to

test whether species present at each site differed significantly.

Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference between species richness abundance, Shannon

diversity index or species composition across locations.

Alternative hypothesis: There is a significant difference between species richness abundance,

Shannon diversity and species composition index across locations.

3.3.3 Results

The study is currently ongoing, 14 new species have been identified over the study period, the

majority of which are endemic the Tanzania. It is already evident that some of the study sites have

higher species richness than others, for instance the forest and paddy fields have high species

richness and abundance for all individuals. (Fig 22)


[22]

Fig21: Box plot showing median, upper quartile, lower quartile, and maximmum and minimun

values of Species richness each site.

The results of the GLM for species richness were significant between locations; with mangroves

having significantly lower richness than others p=(0.0130); favouring the alternative hypothesis

that species richness does differ between locations. The chi-squared (p<0.0001) was highly

significant, favouring the GLM model .The mangroves have the lowest species richness overall.

Fig 22. Box plot showing median, upper quartile, lower quartile, and maximmum and minimun

values of Species Composition at each site.

The results of the GLM for species composition came out with a significant result between

locations; with mangroves having significantly more species than the others (p=0.00311); favouring

the alternate hypothesis. The chi-square analysis was also significant, meaning we can accept the

GLM model; that the location does effect species composition (p=0.0106). The box plot Fig 22

shows that the Forest has the highest spread of species, followed closely by the Meadows and Paddy

fields. The number of species present at the mangroves is different to other locations as well as the

composition.

The GLM and chi-square results for abundance and Shannon-Weaver index were both insignificant,

meaning we can accept the null hypothesis that the factors do not differ between locations.


[23]

3.3.4 Discussion and Recommendations

From current data; it can be concluded that the sites differ on both variables of richness seen from

Fig 22. Looking at the mangroves, it is interesting to note that their low numbers of species were

found in high numbers, many of these species were found in other habitats, but in much lower

abundance. This suggests the area could be a niche for certain species that can live in harsher

conditions.

The forest seems to be an area that attracts a diverse number of species, indicating that it is a healthy

environment for wildlife and should therefore be conserved. Forests are known for having high

species richness in comparison to other habitats so this was to be expected. (Burgess and Clarke,

2000) Currently some of this forest is used for cultivation of cassava, a potato-like vegetable

common in Tanzania and is experiencing human disturbance. If further studies were conducted here

to produce a significant data set, this could be used as a management instigator to increase protection

of the forest.

With regards to errors, a bias may occur due to some butterflies being easier to catch as their flight

pattern or speed meant they were in the right location, this is why observations should also be taken,

(refer to methods)

The proposed research for the next phase will continue to survey a range of habitats around the area

of Utende, eventually extending to areas further afield such as Mlola forest and the neighbouring

islands.

3.4 Expansion of the species list of reptiles, and amphibians, on Mafia Island with the aid of

pitfall trapping and active searches.

3.4.1 Introduction

Herpetofauna species are on the decline worldwide due to factors such as loss of habitat, water

contamination, global climate change and the chytrid fungus that devastates populations of

amphibians worldwide. (Alford and Richards, 1999; Stuart et al., 2004; Pounds et al., 2004; Gower

et al., 2012) This decline has led to much research being conducted in order to develop management

schemes and aid in their conservation efforts. Much work has been conducted over the last decade in

Tanzania, especially in the mountainous areas such as the Nguru Mountains in east Tanzania. Where

high endemism has been found and hotspots for biological diversity have been discovered. This

research has led to the area being recognized as an ecologically important area of Tanzania.

(Menegon et al., 2008) Less thorough research has been conducted on the coastal forests of

Tanzania, this research is lacking in consistency and far from complete. (Burgess et al., 2000) A

study on Mafia Island could fill in this knowledge gap and may reveal endemic species. The

majority of species of reptiles and amphibians can be found in waterlogged areas, they make up a

relatively large amount of terrestrial biomass in forests and prey on insect populations, stabilising

forest ecosystems. A decline in any predator can upset the balance of an ecosystem, favouring

species that in large numbers may cause detrimental effects on the habitat. This is evident with large

predators but could also affect smaller predators. (Ripple and Beschta, 2012) A study on species

presence on Mafia could reveal species endemism, especially in areas such as Mlola forest, a

relatively untouched area of forest.


[24]

3.4.2 Methods

Setting traps

Pitfall Trapping

Buckets x3

Drift fence

Duct tape string

Trowel/shovel

Machete

Sampling traps

Sample specimen bags

Ruler

Camera

Gloves for handling specimens species keys

Four drift fences (10m long) were placed in different locations, each consisting of 3 buckets (a total

of 12 buckets, 3 per transect) for 12 days at a time. Traps were checked once daily, at dawn. Four

habitats were surveys in this way: MIMP, Scrubland, Inside camp, Outside camp. See GPS

coordinates in Appendix 6.1. All species present were recorded and released, using correct handling

procedures.

For different phylum measurements were recorded; although all species were recorded, the main

focus was the herpetofauna

Reptiles: Using Vernier callipers to record body length (nose to tip of tail), body width (at widest

part), tail length, head length, head width and for lizards leg length (knee to longest toe). Specimens

have also been weighed and photos taken where immediate identification was not possible.

Arthropods: Recording family of individuals. We have taken a particular interest in millipedes as

they are said to be the most endemic of all species (Burgess et al., 2000). We have taken records of

individual identifying features including length, width, patterning and photographs where possible.

Crustaceans: In each case we measured Shell species and hermit crab species for shell width (at

widest point), length, primary leg length, length of largest claw as well as the terminal segment of

this limb (pincer). From these we can estimate individual size; for some individuals; leg, claw and

pincer measurements were not attainable due to species shyness.

Amphibians: Photographs of new species were taken to assist with ID as well as measurements

(Knee to longest toe, body length, width)

Active Searches

This was complimented with active searches along the transect over an area 25 m wide. Active

searches were undertaken twice for each site.


[25]

3.4.3 Results

Over 82 individuals across all phyla were recorded over a two week period. Some individuals were

not identifiable due to lack of ID resources. The site location of MIMP had a high catch rate of

crustaceans in comparison to other species. No analysis has been done as the data is deficient due to

the survey being in its early stages.


We were successful in discovering the presence of species previously unknown to be on Mafia and

found the two techniques complemented one another.

In terms of habitats, the area at the Marine Park has a higher number of crustacean catches than other

sites. Wet areas seem to have been the most successful areas so far. Surveys will continue with the

hope of setting up a project in Mlola forest using similar methods, as it is suspected that there is

higher biological diversity in this forest. If the study were to reveal species endemism or ecological

hotspots, this could lead to increased legislation to better manage the habitats on Mafia.

3.5 Wild Cats; Camera Trapping to discover the presence of a wild cat “fungo” around Utende

and surrounding area.

3.5.1 Introduction

The Island of Mafia is set off the coast of Tanzania in the Indian Ocean. Not a lot is known about the

terrestrial fauna that inhabit the island. There have been reports of a medium sized cat-like mammal

around the village of Utende. A project of this kind has never been conducted on Mafia Island.

Although projects in other locations have yielded positive results using similar methods (Anile et al.,

2009; Kilshaw and Macdonald, 2011). As forests become more fragmented and greater habitat loss

occurs, the likelihood of the presence of such a species dramatically declines. If the project were to

successfully identify the so called ‘fungo’; further studies could then be conducted to monitor its

presence over time and location to help to conserve the habitat it exists within. A preliminary survey

was conducted to help narrow the scope of a full study. This involved interviewing local residents

and asking them to describe the target if they had seen it. The results of the preliminary survey

suggest that the target is cat-like, nocturnal and spotted. With the preliminary survey, a first-hand

sighting, considering known distribution and habitat (Kingdom, 1997), the list of possible species

has been narrowed to the Serval (Felis serval), the Genet (Genetta genetta) or a similar felid. This

survey is intended to investigate and identify this elusive species with the interviews of locals to

source locations for camera trapping devices to be set.

3.5.2 Methods

Sighting Surveys

In order to maximise the chances of capturing a wild cat in our camera trap survey we carried out

questionnaires with local people to utilise the wealth of local knowledge. A set of questions was

agreed. Questionnaires began with an introduction to who we were and what we were doing,

followed by a quick section on who they were (where they were from, profession, age...) and ending

in a series of neutrally phrased questions. These questions ran through whether the individual had

seen a large cat and if so where, a description, frequency of sightings, how far away they were, time

of day and whether they knew of anybody else that had seen one. Finally a selection of pictures was


[26]

Fig 23. An example of a camera trap in the

field.

shown to the interviewee and they were asked to select the one that best resembles there

observations (4 pictures were used; a Domestic cat, a Wild cat (Felis sylvestris), a Serval cat and a

Common Genet). Translation of this list was performed by Rama Mohammad, a local contact, who

also accompanied us.

Camera Trapping

The location of camera trap placement will be determined by the results of the interviews. Only 4

camera traps are available for this study, so the 4 most promising sites will be selected and surveyed

for the duration. The majority of survey sites will be focused around the village of Utende.

All selected sites will be within walking distance of the Frontier Tanzania camp and as such no

special transport will be required. As the survey will take place in and around a settlement it is likely

that ideal camera trap locations will be on private land. All steps will be taken to determine if the

land is owned and to receive permission if that is

the case.

Camera traps will be deployed every evening

before sunset and retrieved every morning after

sunrise. There are two main reasons for this. The

first being that a preliminary study suggested

that the target species was most active during

this time as is in line with activity patterns of

(F. serval) and (G. genetta). The second reason

is security; even though the camera traps are

contained within a metal housing and secured in

place with security cables they are to be placed

along trains that are used by both wildlife and

locals and are at risk of theft.

The traps will be set at the eye level of the

suspected wild cat, approximately 50 cm above

the ground. In order to calculate the size of the

animal photographed, a 1 m pole will be placed

within camera shot of the traps with tape at different heights marked up the pole. To standardize the

location, markings will be made at the trees with

traps attached so that the traps are secured in the

same placed every day. Any possible sitings will

be recorded, the height measured and identification to species level made if possible. Fig 23 is an

example of how the traps are set.

Traps are digital and have an infra-red light that detects changes in heat, this acts as a motion sensor,

so any individual moving in front of the camera will be detected as having a different temperature to

its background and a photograph will be taken. These sensors work best at night when the

background temperature is lower.

3.5.3 Results

Interviews are currently being conducted, the results of which will lead to site selection. So far many

locals have mentioned that they have seen the so called “fungo”, the consensus is that the cat is


[27]

nocturnal and can be seen at night in forested areas. Some local farmers say that the cat preys on

chickens and destroys agricultural land. No results have been collected from camera traps as of yet.


If the presence of a “fungo” was documented on Mafia Island, this could be used as a flagship

species for further conservation effort. Much of the habitat around Utende is becoming more and

more fragmented, potential niches of these suspected forest-dwelling species may be decreasing,

meaning these animals are being pushed further into the small forests. If a population survey was

done on this species, we could monitor the cat’s presence over time to account for decline or

increase and set controls on agricultural activities in certain areas to account for habitat loss. For

instance; buffer zones could be introduced around forested area to reduce the decline of forests

(Gascon et al., 2000).

3.5 New Species

Avifauna

African pigmy gouse Nettapus auritus

Burchels Coucal Centropus burchelli

Crab plover Dromas ardeola

Lepidotera

Short barred sapphire lolaus aemulus aemulus

Common Joker Byblia ilithyia

Gold banded forester Euphhaedra neophron neophron

False dotted boarder belenois thsa thysa

Tree nymph Sallya Rosa

Sapphire Lolaus silas

Cream striped owl cyligram malatona

Common hottentot skipper Gegenes niso

Forest queen Euxanthe wakefield

Novice Amauris ochleaochlea

Paul’s Buff Pentili pauli

White buff Teriomima subpuntata

Brown Play Boy Deudorix antalus

Natal acraea Acraea natalica


[28]

Myriapoda

African Red legged millipede Epibolus pulchripes

Amphibian

Reed frog Afrixalus sp

Reptiles

Boulengers Scrub Lizard Nucrus Boulengeri

Flap- necked Chameleon Chamaeleo Dilepis

4.0 Project Direction

4.1 Proposed educational work programme for next phase

Staff will continue to train new RAs in biodiversity survey techniques listed. Surveys will be carried

out on Reptiles, Birds and Butterflies, in and around Utende as well as further afield continually in

order to add to the species list for Mafia and to identify possible species of interest to develop a more

in-depth research programme. It will also aid in training and teaching of survey techniques to RA’s

to ensure correct procedures are followed when access to the forest is available.

4.2 Contributions of future work

MIMP and the District Council are both keen to have research conducted to assess biodiversity (and

any associated loss) in both disturbed and undisturbed sections of the forest, so that any adverse

effects of anthropogenic activity can be mitigated by working with the local community. As a project

of this nature will take time, it is hoped that a long term, ongoing study can be set up with MIMP

and the District Council to monitor the terrestrial flora and fauna within the forest on the

archipelago.

The results of any surveys carried out in the forest on Mafia can hopefully be used to work with

MIMP and the District Council to develop some form of ecotourism programme for the terrestrial

wildlife on the island. The “fungo” or wildcat could be a focus of ecotourism if hides were to be

erected in the forests where the cats were best seen. As very little terrestrial research has been done

on Mafia previously and most work has focussed on the marine biodiversity instead, a project of this

nature would provide a unique and important opportunity to learn more and raise awareness about

the terrestrial biodiversity in Mafia’s coastal forests.

Acknowledgments: Jen Freer, for her assistance with Statistical Analysis.

Matt Tantons for contributions to wild cat project and all areas of data

collection across projects and Alex Caldwell for editing.


[29]

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6. Appendices (Attached)

6.1 Data sets

6.2 Species List

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