TEACHINGTHEAUTHENTICPERFORMANCEOF

BRAZILIANPOPULARMUSICSTYLES

TONON-NATIVEMUSICIANS:

THEDEVELOPMENTOFAPEDAGOGICALAPPROACH

ADISSERTATIONSUBMITTEDTOTHEGRADUATESCHOOL

INPARTIALFULFILLMENTOFTHEREQUIREMENTS

FORTHEDEGREE

DOCTOROFARTS

BY

BRUNOMODOLOCABRERA

DISSERTATIONADVISOR:DR.DONP.ESTER

BALLSTATEUNIVERSITY

MUNCIE,INDIANA

MAY2018

ii

ABSTRACT

DISSERTATION:TeachingtheAuthenticPerformanceofBrazilianPopularMusicStylesto

Non-NativeMusicians:TheDevelopmentofaPedagogicalApproach

STUDENT:BrunoModoloCabrera

DEGREE:DoctorofArts

COLLEGE:FineArts

DATE:May2018

PAGES:129

ThelackofstylisticauthenticityinperformancesofBrazilianpopularmusicbynon-

nativemusiciansisasignificantandoften-citedissueamongnativeBrazilianswholiveand

performoutsidethecountry.Basedonresearchintheareasofmusicperception,music

cognition,andpsychomotorlearningtheories,acompletepedagogicalapproachwas

createdthatdevelopsculturalbackground,context,patternvocabulary,andtechnicalskills

andguidesnon-nativemusicianstoauthenticperformancesofBrazilianpopularmusic

stylessuchassamba,bossanova,choro,baião,andmaracatu.Abriefsurveyoffour

Brazilianpopularmusicexpertsobtainedanecdotalresultssuggestingthatstudent

ensemblespreparedusingthepedagogicalapproachwereperceivedasrelativelymore

authenticascomparedtoprofessionalnon-nativeensembles.Futurestudiescanprovide

moreinformationabouttheapproach’seffectivenessandapplicationstoculturalmusic

stylesfromdifferentcountriesaroundtheworld.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Therearenowordsthatcanexpressmydeepestgratitudetoallthepeoplewho

helped,encouraged,andsupportedme!Firstofall,Iwouldliketothankallfaculty

membersfromBallStateUniversitywhocontributedtomyeducationandcompletionof

thisdissertation.Specialthanksformycommitteememberswhoprovidedguidanceand

supportduringtheexaminationprocess,thedevelopmentofthisresearch,andfinallythe

defense.IappreciatealltheinsightandguidancereceivedfromDr.ScottRoutenbergand

Dr.AllenTruell.ThanksareduetoprofessorBrahamDembar,whowasmypercussion

mentorduringthepastthreeyearsandhelpedmeimprovetremendouslyasaperformer.

ThankyoutoDr.RobertWilleyforthesupportwithrecordingsandmeetingsrelatedtothis

andotherprojects,hisinputandfeedbackweredeeplyappreciated.ThankyoutoDr.Don

P.Ester,mydissertationadvisor,towhomIowemygreatestgratitudeandappreciation.

Withouthisunconditionalhelp,support,anddedicationthisprojectwouldnothavebeen

possible.Dr.EsterwasmyPsychologyofMusicprofessoranditwasduringhisclassthat

theinspirationandworkforthisresearchstartedtwoyearsago.Besidespushingmetothe

limitandgettingthebestoutofme,hespenthoursandhoursprovidingguidanceduring

meetingsandevenmorehourshelpingreviseandshapethisdocument.Ihavetearsinmy

eyesandnomorewordsinmymouthtoexpresshowgratefulIamforallhissupportand

wisdom.ThankyouDon!

Iwouldliketothankmanyfriendsandcolleagueswhoprovidedsupportandwere

patientduringmanystressfulmomentsduringthisprocess.Thankstoallmyfriendsfrom

manydifferentplacesintheUS,othercountries,andespeciallyfriendsfromBrazil,who

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supportedmefromallthewayoverthere.ThankyouLeonardoBertoliniLabrada,Helvio

Mendes,NeltonEssi,PauloDias,HeriveltoBrandino,andprofessorDinhoGebaraforbeing

alwaysreadytohelpwheneverIneeded!

Lastly,Iwouldliketothankmyfamilythatevenfromfarsupportedme.Thanksto

mylittlebrother,FelipeModoloCabrera–missyoubro!Specialthankstomyparents,José

GeraldoCabreraandLucilaModoloCabrera,whoalwayssupportedandprovidedmewith

thebesttheycould.Theyareexcellentparentswho,eventhoughheart-broken,accepted

mychoiceofmovingsofarawaytopursuemydream.Theyhavealwaysbeensupportive.

MymomiscallinginthisverymomentasIwritethis;thatwasweird!Thankstomy

fiancée,MarinaStojanovska,whoIloveverymuchandhavetreasuredbeingbymysidefor

manyyearsalready.Shehasbeenmywonderfulcompanionand,eventhoughsheisgoing

throughadoctorateherself,foundthetimeandstrengthtohelp,support,andbepatient

withmewheneverIneededherbymyside.Iloveyou,babe!

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………………………………..………iii

TABLEOFCONTENTS...……………..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..………………………………………………v

LISTOFTABLES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………ix

LISTOFFIGURES……………..…………………………………………………………………………………………ix

CHAPTER1INTRODUCTION………..………………………………………………………………………1

PurposeoftheProject………………………………………………...……………………………………3

LimitationsoftheProject…………………………………………...………………………………….…4

DefinitionofTerms………………..…………………………………...………………………………….…4

SignificanceoftheProject…………………………………………...……………………………………5

CHAPTER2REVIEWOFLITERATURE………………………………………………...…………….….6

TheRootsofBrazilianPopularMusicStyles………………………………………………………6

PerformanceAuthenticity………………………………………………...…………………………......10

MusicCognition,Perception,andLearningTheory…………………………………….……...14

CHAPTER3DESIGNANDMETHOD……………………………………...…………………...…………20

InceptionandBackgroundoftheProject…………………………………………...……………..20

OverviewoftheInitialPedagogicalFoundation………………………………………………..21

InitialValidationofthePedagogicalApproach……………………………………………..…..24

ChapterSummary…………………………….………………………...…………………………………...24

CHAPTER4THEPEDAGOGICALAPPROACH………………………………...…………...….……..26

Introduction……………………………………….…………………………………………...……………..26

OverviewofthePedagogicalApproach…………..………………………….…………..28

vi

TheVirtualLearningSequence…………………….……………………………………………..…..31

Listening……………………………….………………………...…………………………………...32

PassiveListening………………………………………………………………………..35

PatternListening………………………………………………………………………..36

RecognitionListening…..……………………………………………………………..36

Audiating………………………………………………………………………………….…………..37

DevelopmentofMeaning………………………………………………….…….…..38

SolidifyingrhythmicPatterns…………………………………………….……….39

Vocalizing………………………………….…………………………………………………...….…..39

VocalizingwithaSyllableSystem………………………………..………..….…..40

Observing.………………………………….…………………………………………………..….…..46

Imitating………………………………………………………………………………...…..46

Motor-mimesis……..………….…………………………………………………………..47

CognitiveMotor-Imaging………………………………………………………………….…....48

TheLevelsofCMI………………………………….…….………………………….…...48

CMILevel1…………………………………..…………………………….….....49

CMILevel2…………………………………..…………………………….….....52

CMILevel3…………………………………..…………………………….….…54

CMILevel4…………………………………..…………………………….….....57

UsingCognitiveMotor-ImagingwithDifferentInstrumentalists…....59

Samba…………………………………………..……………………………...…..60

Bossanova…………………………………………..……….……………....…..63

Choro…………………………………………………..……….……………...…..65

Baião………………………………….………………..……….……………...…..67

Maracatu……………………………………………..……….……………....…..69

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MentalPractice…………….………………………………………………………………………..71

Step1:MentalPracticeoftheCM-Image…………….…………….…….….....73

Step2:MentalPracticeofCM-ImagePlusPhysicalAction….….….…...74

SummaryoftheVLS…………………………………………..…………………………….….…74

TheMotorLearningSequence………….…………………….……………………………………………..….....76

MotorSkillDevelopment………………………………...…………………………………......76

RhythmicGroupings….….….………………………………………………………....77

PsychomotorFoundations………………………………………………………......79

ApplicationstoMotorSkillDevelopment…..………………………………....80

RhythmicInstruments…………………………………………..…..….…..82

DrumSetandPercussionSetUps..….….…..……….…….….….…....89

MelodicInstruments………………………………….………………..…....93

PracticeStrategies………………………………….….….……………………………………..100

DurationofPracticeSessions………..……………………………………….…..100

TheImportanceofAccuratePractice……………….….……………………..101

TheRoleofSleep………………………...……………………………..………….…..103

SummaryofPracticeStrategies………………………….………………………105

Conclusion.……….……………………….…………………………………………………….…..107

CHAPTER5SUMMARYANDRECOMMENDATIONS………………………………...........……..108

InitialEffectivenessandOtherApplicationsoftheApproach……..…..…..…..…..…….109

RecommendationsforFurtherResearch…………………..………………………….………….111

Conclusion.……….……………………….………………………….…………………………..……….…..113

REFERENCES…………………………….…………………………………………...…………..…………………..…114

APPENDICES……………………………….……..…………………………………………………...…………..…….116

AListeningGuide.…….…………….…..………………………….…………………………………….,...116

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BBasicVocabulary.…………………….………………………….…………………………………..……121

CQuestionnaire.……….……………………….………………….….………………………………….....126

DSummaryofQuestionnaireData.……….…………………………….….………………………..129

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LISTOFTABLES

4.1RhythmVocalizationSyllables……………………………………………………………………………..…41

LISTOFFIGURES

3.1ProposedOutlineofAPedagogicalApproachtoTeachingBrazilianPopularMusicStyles

toNon-NativeMusicians…..………………………………………………………………………..………………..22

4.1Generalsummaryofthepedagogicalapproach……………………………………...........................29

4.2TheVirtualLearningSequence……………………………………………………………………………….32

4.3One-measurejazzexerciseondrumset…………………………………………………………………..38

4.4Telecotecopattern…………………………………………………………………………………………………40

4.53rdsurdopattern……………………………………………………………………………………………………42

4.6Sambabasicpatterns……………………………………………………………………………………………..44

4.7Maracatubasicpatterns…………………………………………………………………………………………44

4.8Baiãobasicpatterns……………………………………………………………………………………………….45

4.91stsurdopattern……………………………………………………………………………………………………50

4.101stand2ndsurdopatterns…………………………………………………………………………………….52

4.11Pianoandguitarbossanovagroove……………………………………………………………………...54

4.12Vocalizationoptionsforbossanovagrooveonpianoandguitar…………………………….55

4.13Bossanovaonthedrumset………………………………………………………………………………….56

4.14Vocalizationofdrumsetbossanovagroove………………………………………………………….56

4.15Bossanovawithbrushesonthedrumset……………………………………………………………..57

4.16Vocalizationofdrumsetbossanovagroovewithfourpatterns……………………………..58

4.17Sambamainpatternswithsyllables……………………………………………………………………..60

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4.18Vocalizationofchocalhoand1stsurdopattern………………………………………………………61

4.19Vocalizationofchocalho,1stand2ndsurdopatterns………………………………………………62

4.20Vocalizationofchocalho,1st,2ndsurdos,andtelecotecopatterns…………………………...63

4.21PatternsfordevelopmentofCMIinbossanova……………………………………………………..64

4.22CMIvocalizationforbossanova……………………………………………………………………………65

4.23PatternsfordevelopmentofCMIinchoro……………………………………………………………..66

4.24VocalizationofCMILevel3forchoro……………………………………………………………………67

4.25VocalizationofCMILevel4forchoro……………………………………………………………….…...67

4.26PatternsfordevelopmentofCMIinbaião……………………………………………………………..67

4.27VocalizationofCMIlevels2,3,and4ofbaião………………………………………………………..68

4.28PatternsfordevelopmentofCMIinmaracatu…………………………………………………..…...69

4.29MaracatuvocalizationforCMIlevels2and3………………………………………………………...69

4.30PotentialmaracatuvocalizationforCMILevel4…………………………………………………....70

4.31Rhythmicskeletonofmaracatu………………………………………………………………………….....70

4.32VocalizationofCMILevel4ofMaracatu…………………………………………………………....…..71

4.33VLSstep-by-step………………………………………………………………………………...........................75

4.34ExamplesofGordon’sdefinitionsoftypesofbeats………………………………………………..78

4.35ComplexpatternsofMaracatu………………………………………………………………………….......80

4.36Bossanovagrooveonguitarandpiano…………………………………………………………......….82

4.37Patterndevelopmentcycle…………………………………………………………………………..............83

4.38Combinationcycles……………………………………………………………………………….....................84

4.39Sambagrooveondrumset………………………………………………………………………………......89

4.40Condensedapproachforpatterncombinations………………………………………………….….92

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4.41Condensedapproachfor3patterncombinations………………………………………………….92

4.42Condensedapproachfor4patterncombinations……………………………………………….…93

4.43ExcerptofTicoticonofubá……………………………………………………………………………….....94

4.44Mainpatternsofchoro………………………………………………………………………………...............94

4.45Ticoticonofubáexcerptwithhighlightedmotivesandvariations………………………....96

4.46Clarinetaccompanimentlineforbaiãocomposedbytwodifferentpatterns…………..98

4.47Clarinetaccompanimentdividedin2patterns………………………………………………………98

4.48Zabumbalowtonepatterns………………………………………………………………………………..106

CHAPTER1

INTRODUCTION

The20thcenturywasaperiodofgreatdevelopmentofpopularandfolkmusicin

manydifferentcountriesintheworld.Agreatpartofthisdevelopmenthappenedlocally,

buttheawarenessofthesevariouspopularandfolkstylesgrewsignificantlywhen

nationalistcomposersusedthemintheirclassicalworks.Cross-culturalgerminationwas

importantaswell.IntheUnitedStates,forexample,thedevelopmentofjazzwasinfluenced

byAfro-CubanandBrazilianstyles,resultinginmanycollaborativeworksbetweenartists–

notablyDizzyGillespiewithMarioBauzá,andFrankSinatrawithTomJobim.Currently,a

varietyofAfro-CubanandBrazilianmusicstylesarebeingtaughtinschoolsettingsand

universitiesthroughouttheworld.Teachingsuchstylescanbeachallengingtask,

especiallytostudentswhoarenotnativetothespecificculturefromwhicheachmusical

styleemerges.Suchstudentsmayfindthemselvesstrugglingtolearnforeignmusical

styles,mostlybecausetheavailablemethodbooksfocusonteachingpatterns,whilethe

culturalcontextandthesubtletiesofstyleareignoredornotapproachedwithenough

depthtodevelopanauthenticperformance.AsaBrazilianpopularmusicteacherlivingand

teachingintheUnitedStates,Ihavehadsuccessinstructingstudentsbyhavingthemplaya

seriesofpatternsrelatedtoeachstyleandthenapplythistoconcertliterature.Withoutthe

culturalbackgroundandpropertechnicalguidance,however,theywerenotdevelopingthe

skillstofullyunderstandhowthosepatternsandmusicalelementssynthesizetobecomea

style.Properinflections,feels,andapproachestobasicpatternswereoftenmissing,

resultinginperformancesthatdonotsoundasauthenticaswhenperformedbynative

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BrazilianmusicianswhogrewupinBrazilandweresteepedinitsmusicandculture.I

personallywitnessedaparallelexperiencestudyingjazzinBrazil:MostBrazilianstudents

learningjazzhavedifficultyunderstandingitsswingandtheproperfeel,regardlessoftheir

levelofproficiency.

Certainly,thereisnoshortageofmethodbooksaboutBrazilianpopularmusicstyles

inPortugueseandEnglish.Theseresourcesaremostlypercussion-relatedmaterialsthat

provideexcellentinformationandclearusageofallmusicalelementsandpatterns.Itis

alsocommontofindresourcesforpiano,guitar,andbassguitar–instrumentsthatfunction

asrhythmic/harmonicsupportinBrazilianpopularmusicstyles.InMarcoPereira:

BrazilianGuitarVirtuoso,Swanson(2004)statesthatmuchofPereira’seducationin

Brazilianstyles“camefromtherhythmicexamplesinthebookEssentialStyles:Forthe

DrummerandBassist(BookI)”(p.1).InBrazilianPiano–Choro,Samba,andBossaNova

(Willey&Cardim,2010),theauthorsincludebriefexplanationsabouttheBrazilianculture

andbasicmusicalfeel,asignificantvarietyofpatternsforpercussioninstruments,and

explanationsofhowthosepatternsareappliedandtransferredtothepiano.

Brazilianpopularmusicstylesarestronglyrootedinpercussionandrhythmic

patterns;therefore,theliteratureincludesconstantreviewandreinterpretationofpatterns

relatedtopercussionandharmonic/rhythmicinstrumentssuchaspiano,guitar,andbass

guitar.Incontrast,littleisavailableformelodicinstrumentssuchasreedsandbrass

instruments,whichplayamajorroleinseveralcontemporarymanifestationsofBrazilian

popularmusic.Asanensembledirector,Ihavedifficultydirectingstudentswhoplay

melodicinstrumentstoresourcesthatcouldhelpthemenrichtheirperformanceskills

relatedtoBrazilianpopularmusic.WhenIinstructnativeBrazilians,Ineedtoprovidelittle

3

ornoguidanceabouthowtoperformadeterminedmelodiclineoraccompanimentthat

worksbothasrhythmicandharmonicsupport.Thesamemusicalelements,however,often

becomeamajorchallengetonon-nativeplayerswhodidnothaveanypriorcontactwith

suchmusicalstyles.

DuringmymusicstudiesintheUnitedStates,IhaveperformedBrazilianpopular

musicinmanydifferentsettingsandwithbothnativeandnon-nativeBrazilians.Building

onmyexperiencesasaperformerandasamusicprofessor,Ihaveexperimentedwitha

pedagogicalapproachdesignedtoteachnon-nativeBraziliansthebackgroundofeach

Brazilianpopularstyleandanunderstandingofandtechnicalabilitytoperformthe

correlatedvocabularyofrhythmicpatterns,leadingthemtotheappropriatefeeland

authenticityforeachofthestyles.AuthenticityisamajorissueinBrazilianpopularmusic

stylesandmustbeapproachedwiththesamelevelofimportanceasgeneraltechnical

skills;thesimplefactthatmusicianscanperformaseriesofpatternsdoesnotmeanthey

are,inacertainmannerofspeaking,pronouncingitproperly.

PurposeoftheProject

Thepurposeofthisprojectwastodevelopandpresentapedagogicalapproachto

teachingtheauthenticperformanceofBrazilianpopularmusicstylestonon-native

musicians.Thefinaldissertationprovidesadetailedexplanationofthepedagogical

approach,whichincludesteachingculturalbackgroundandcontextaswellaspattern

vocabularyandtechnicalskillsviatheinterweavingoftworesearch-basedlearning

sequences:TheVirtualLearningSequenceandTheMotorLearningSequence.A

supplementalpartofthisprojectsoughtinitialvalidationofthepedagogicalapproach:A

fewBrazilianpopularmusicexpertswereaskedtocomparerecordedperformancesby

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native-Brazilianmusicianstoperformancesbynon-nativemusicianstaughtbytheauthor

usingthepedagogicalapproachinanauthenticensemblesetting.Thiswasnotaformal

researchstudybutratheraninformalapproachdesignedtoobtainanecdotalevidence

abouttheinitialeffectivenessofthisapproachintermsofauthenticity.

LimitationsoftheProject

Thesupplementalcomponentofthisprojectwasnotintendedasordesignedtobea

formalresearchstudy.Theresultsservedonlyasinitialanecdotalevidenceofthe

effectivenessofthepedagogicalapproach,providingdirectionforfuturerefinementand

research.

DefinitionofTerms

Thefollowingtermsaredefinedastheywereusedforthepurposesofthisproject:

• Brazilianpopularmusicstyles:AnygenreofmusicperformedbytheBrazilianpeopleas

part of their cultural expression; among other musical styles, themost common are

samba,bossanova,choro,baião,forróandmaracatu.

• Non-nativemusicians:AnymusicianwhodidnotgrowupinBrazilorwasnotraisedby

BrazilianparentswhowereembeddedinculturalexpressionsoftheBrazilianpeople.

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SignificanceoftheProject

ThelackofstylisticauthenticityinperformancesofBrazilianpopularmusicbynon-

nativemusiciansisasignificantandoften-citedissue.SeveralnativeBrazilianmusicians

withwhomIhaveworkedintheUnitedStatesconsistentlymakethisobservation.One

exampleisMr.PauloSauerDias,withwhomIhaveperformedseveraltimeshereinthe

UnitedStates.HehasanextensivecareerasaBrazilianpopularmusicpianistandhas

performedwithimportantBrazilianartistssuchasChicoBuarquedeHollanda,Moraes

Moreira,Djavan,NanaCaymmi,andClaraNunes.AftercomingtotheUnitedStates,Mr.

Diasbeganperformingwithlocalmusicians,includingbothnativeandnon-native

Brazilians.AccordingtoMr.Dias,alargegapofauthenticityexistsbetweenthesetwo

groupsofmusicians.Thisprojectbenefitsnon-nativeBrazilianmusicianswhodesireto

developanin-depthunderstandingofhowtoperformBrazilianpopularmusicstyles.The

developmentofthispedagogicalapproachalsobenefitsallmusicteachers,providingthem

withpedagogicalstrategiestoreduceoreliminatethegapofstylisticauthenticitybetween

nativeandnon-nativeperformersofBrazilianpopularmusic.

CHAPTER2

REVIEWOFLITERATURE Thedevelopmentofapedagogicalapproachtoteachingtheauthenticperformance

ofBrazilianpopularmusicstylestonon-nativemusiciansrequiresathoroughgroundingin

therootsofthesestylesaswellasresearchandlearningtheoryrelatedtoteaching

authenticperformancestyle.ThisliteraturereviewaddressestherootsofBrazilian

popularmusicstyles,researchrelatedtoperformanceauthenticity,andthescholarshipof

pedagogythatimpactsthedevelopmentofauthenticperformances.

TheRootsofBrazilianPopularMusicStyles

AgreatdiversityofBrazilianpopularmusicstylesexistsacrossthecountry,and

eachregiondevelopeditsownmusicalcultureovertheyears.Stylessuchassamba,bossa

nova,choro,baião,frevo,andmaracatubecamemorepopularthanothersbeingperformed

andtaughtaroundtheglobe.Amongthevastculturalinfluencesthataffectedthe

developmentofthesestyles,itisimportanttomentionthattheyareheavilyrootedin

Africandrumming.Theoriginsofsamba,forexample,“layinrhythmicdrumbeatsthat

traditionallyaccompaniedAfricanreligiousceremoniesbroughttoBrazilbyAfricanslaves”

(Raphael,1990,p.74).Theoriginalsettingofmaracatuinvolvesalargepercussion

ensemblesimilartoasambaschoolbateria(percussionensemble),includingalfaias,

ganzás,xequerês,tarois,gonguês,andotherpercussioninstruments.Otherstyleslike

frevo,choro,andbaiãowereinfluencedbyAfro-Brazilianrhythmsaswell.TheAfrican

rootsareacommontraitofallthesestyles,buteachoneincludesuniquerhythmicpatterns

thatdefineit.Asaresult,therhythmandthepatterninflectionsarethemostimportant

7

elementstobedevelopedduringtheteachingprocess.TheinfluenceofAmericanjazzalso

playedanimportantroleinthedevelopmentofsomeBrazilianstylessuchasbossanova,

especiallyintermsofperformingensembles.SomeBrazilianpopularmusicstyleswere

stylizedandplayedbyensemblessimilartojazzcombosinwhichthedrummerfunctions

asasynthesisofthepercussionensembles,playingseveralpatternsatthesametimeto

depictthelargepercussiongroupsandcreateauthenticgrooves.

Barsalini(2009)soughttodemonstratehowthedrumsetperformancesofBrazilian

musicstylesdevelopedfromthebeginningofthe20thcenturyuntilthe1960’s.According

tohisresearch,drumsetperformancesareconstantlychanging.Thefirstappearanceof

sambabatucadaonthedrumsetwasintheearly20thcenturywithLucianoPerrone.A

generationlater,significantchangestosambadeprato(sambaonthecymbal)weremade

byEdisonMachado.BothcontinuetobethemostsignificantinfluencesonBraziliandrum

setplaying.BasedonbibliographicalsourcesaboutBrazilianmusichistory,culture,socio-

politicalelements,andanalysesofrecordingsandtranscriptions,Barsaliniconcludedthat

drumsetpatternscanonlyrepresentamusicalstyleiftheyareputintocontext.Therefore,

establishingconnectionsamongthedrumsetapproaches,historicalandmusicalelements

ofdifferentstyles,andthedevelopmentofeachstylethroughoutthe20thcenturyiscritical

tounderstandingthemusicalcultureandidentityduringthoseyears.

Aquino(2014)investigatedthehistoricaldevelopmentofthedrumset.He

concludedthattheuseofthedrumsetinBrazilianmusicstartedaround1917andwas

consolidatedbyLucianoPerrone.AquinosoughttodetermineLucianoPerrone’s

importanceintermsofmediatingpracticesbetweendrumset,popularpercussion,and

concertpercussion,giventhatPerronewasactiveinallofthese.Healsowantedto

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establishPerrone’simportancetofuturegenerationsbyanalyzinghisperformance

characteristicsandcomparingthemwithlatterpracticecharacteristics.Basedonextensive

fieldworkandanalysesofbibliographicalmaterialsandalargediscography,Aquino

concludesthatthebossanovaperiodrepresentsagapwithrespecttodrumsetpractices

andthedivisionbetweentraditionalandmodernperformances.

Smith(2014)providedamorein-depthandmodernvisionofthecurrentdrumset

performancesceneinBrazil.Thepurposeofhisresearchwastoanalyzecurrentpractices

throughfieldworkandinterviewswithimportantandcurrentlyactiveBraziliandrummers

suchasRamonMontagner,EduardoRibeiro,andCelsodeAlmeida.Smithconcludedthat

performingsambaonthedrumsethasbecomeacontinuingandgrowinginterestfor

drummersaroundtheworld.Althoughmanymethodbooksapproachthesubject,they

seemtolackimportantelementsofcontemporaryBraziliandrumsetplayingthatmost

renownedprofessionalslearnedanddevelopedthroughoraltraditionandactual

performancesratherthaninpracticerooms.

TherhythmicpatternsinBrazilianpopularmusicstylesareveryimportantbecause

theyapplytoharmonicandmelodicinstrumentsaswell.Theguitar,forexample,isoneof

themostimportantinstrumentsinBrazilianmusic,appearinginmanysettingsofdifferent

styles.Lopes(2013)conductedastudyinvestigatingaplayingapproachknownas

“Brazilianguitar”–atermreferringtoaplayingapproachratherthanadifferent

instrument.Lopes’eventualgoalwastodevelopamethodologytoteachBrazilianguitar

performancestyle.Afteranalyzingaseriesofsolosandaccompanimentsfromrecordings

andinterviewingprofessionalguitarplayersandteachers,Lopesconcludedthatthis

performanceapproachischaracterizedbyuniquerhythmcomponents.Toteachit,the

9

methodologyshouldbedividedbystyles,teachingadifferentmusicalstylepersemester:

firstchoro,thenNortheasternstyles,andlastlysamba.

Swanson(2004)investigatedthedevelopmentofBrazilianguitar.Hisstudy

includedfocusingonhowtheinstrumentandtheguitaristMarcoPereiraareimportantfor

theBrazilianmusicalidentity,delineatingtheirhistory,andexaminingthehistoryof

performerswhoinspiredMarcoPereira,suchasBadenPowell,PaulinhoNogueira,and

JoãoGilberto.SwansondeterminedhowMarcoPereiradevelopedhisstyleandhowhe

becameanimportantfigureofBrazilianmusic.Heconcludedthattheguitarasan

instrumenthelpedtonarrowsocialgapsovertheyearsbecauseitwaspresentinmany

differentsettingsofbothpopularandclassicalBrazilianmusic–inpartbecauseMarco

Pereirahimselfwasveryinfluentialinbothscenes.

ThestyleknownasbaiãoisoriginallyfromtheNortheastregionofBrazil,whereas

samba,choro,andbossanovaarefromtheSoutheastregionofthecountry.Whilebaião’s

originalinstrumentationincludesaccordionandpercussioninstrumentslikezabumbaand

triangle,overtheyearsitbecamestylizedandperformedbybigbands,jazzcombos,and

otherensembles.Ramalho(1998)researchedthelifeandcareerofthecomposerLuiz

Gonzaga,whoiscreditedwithpopularizingthebaião.Ramalhoestablishedthereasonsfor

Gonzaga’spopularityand,byanalyzingcompositionssuchasGonzaga’smostfamoussong

“AsaBranca,”heconnectedthemusicwiththeculturalelementsoftheNortheastareaof

BrazilknownasSertão.

Witmer(2009)conductedastudyabouttheroleofthefluteandflutistsinthe

musicalstyleknownaschoro.InfluencedbyAfro-Brazilianrhythmsandcharacterizedby

rhythmicsyncopations,choroalsoincludeselementsofclassicalmusicsuchasrondoform

10

andcommonusageofcounterpointandmodulations.Witmer’spurposewasto

demonstratethatchoroensembleshelpedtoestablishthefluteasthefirstinstrumentto

requirevirtuosicperformancesinthestyleandthatearliercomposershelpedtransform

chorointoasophisticatedgenreofmusic.Witmeranalyzedinfluentialchorocomposers

suchasJoaquimAntoniodaSilvaCallado,Pixinguinha,andBenedictoLacerda.Followinga

thoroughreviewofstudiesaboutchorostyleandinterpretation,chorocomposers,andthe

roleoffluteinBrazilianmusic,Witmerconcludedthatchororemainsoneofthefew

popularmusicstylestoemphasizeinstrumentalvirtuosity,withtheflutetypicallythe

featuredmelodicinstrumentoftheensemble.

ItisclearthatBrazilianstylesareveryrootedinAfricandrumming,makingrhythm

andrhythmicpatternsthemostimportantcharacteristicelementsofeachstyle.Inorderto

developaneffectiveteachingpedagogyforsuchstyles,itisnecessarytounderstandtheir

rhythmicpatterns,aswellastherhythmicinflectionsandthedifferenttypesofswingthat

characterizeeachstyle.Althoughtherhythmicrootsareanimportanttraitofthestyles,

thisisnottheonlyelementneededforauthenticity.Todevelopateachingpedagogythat

leadstoauthenticperformances,itisimportanttoconsideralltheelementsthatmakeeach

styleauthentic,includinghownativeBrazilianslearnhowtoperformtheirownmusic.

PerformanceAuthenticity

Authenticityhasbecomeanimportanttopicinmusic.Whetherapproaching

WesternmusicstylessuchasMedievalandBaroqueorworldmusicstylessuchasSalsa

andIndianRaga,authenticityisoneofthemostsignificantchallengesformusiceducators.

Theliteratureaboutauthenticityinmusicfeaturesawidevarietyoftopicsincludingthe

challengesofchoosingappropriaterepertoire.Knapp(2012)suggestsoneofthereasons

11

forthis:“Becauseteachersareoftenaskedtoteachmusicfromcultureswithwhichthey

areunfamiliar,selectingclassroomrepertoirethataccuratelyrepresentsaculturecanbe

challenging”(pp.13-14).Anotherimportanttopicistheimportanceofinformallearningto

theprocessofachievingauthenticperformances.“Manymusiciansuseinformalprocesses

tolearnmusic,especiallypopularorvernacularmusicgenres”(Murray,2013,p.77).In

chorostyle,forexample,theinformallearningplaysanextensiverole.“Therodadechoro

providesauniquesocialgatheringinwhichmusiciansofalllevels,beginnerto

professional,experiencemusictogether–simultaneouslypracticing,performing,and

learning”(Murray,2013,p.22).ReinforcingKnapp,Murraydescribesanotherexample:

“Beyondreadingmusic,Brazilianmusiciansusefixed-dosolfegetodiscussmusicalideas.

Thissystemcanbeconfusingtopeopleunfamiliarwithit,especiallynativeEnglish

speakers”(p.141)

ThisprojectfocusesontheuniquestyletraitsofBrazilianpopularmusic. Theterm

brasilidade–mostcloselytranslatedas“Brazilianness”–isbestdefinedasthe

characteristicsorparticularitiesthatdefinesomethingorsomeoneasBrazilian.Thetermis

commonlyusedbynativeBrazilianstodepictculturalcharacteristicssuchasthe

personalitytraitsofBrazilianpeopleorthestyletraitsofBrazilianmusical.Inorderto

teachauthenticperformanceofBrazilianpopularmusicstyles,itisnecessaryto

understandhownativeBrazilianslearntheirownmusicandapplyelementsofthatprocess

intothepedagogy.Itisalsoimportanttounderstandcorrelationsbetweenthemusicand

theculturalfunctionofeachstyle.

Murray(2013)investigatedthehistoryofchoroschools:institutionsfocusedon

transmittingandsustainingcurrentpracticesofthechorostyle.Theauthorinvestigated

12

pedagogicalpracticesandprocessesfromdifferenttimeperiods,interviewedandsurveyed

bothperformersandteachers,andobservedthe“rodasdechoro”(chorocircles)andthe

teachingintheschools.Heconcludedthattheauthenticchoroperformerlearnsthecraft

throughexperience,performingwithothers,privatepractice,memorizationofrepertoire,

andperformingbyear.Agreatpartofthelearningprocessalsohappensthrough

socializingwiththechorocommunity,aswellasthroughwritingtranscriptionsof

recordings.

Brunet(2012)conductedinvestigationsaboutgenderrolesinsambaschoolsinthe

cityofSãoPaulo.Thismaybeconsideredadelicatetopic,butitsinvestigationisessential

tounderstandhowthemusicisdeeplyinfluencedbytheculture.Brunetsoughtto

understandhowcertainrolescametobelabeledasmasculineorfeminine,howtheyare

highlighted,andhowtheycametobetaught,learned,andnaturalizedamongsambaschool

members.Thestudyanalyzedactualperformancesthroughfieldwork,analysisofthe

organizationofsambaschools,andthehistoricalfactsthatledtothisorganization.The

studyconcludesthatmanyrolesarechosenanddefinedbyage,bodytype,skincolor,and

behavior.Brunetalsoobservedthatwomenand/orhomosexualmencannowfillmany

rolesthatpreviouslywerefilledbymenonly,showinganimportantevolutionincultural

behavior.Brunet’sconclusionsemphasizehowprofoundlythemusicisattachedto

Braziliancultureandidentity.Thissuggeststhatitisextremelyimportanttointegratethis

understandingintotheinstructionalprocesswhenseekingtoprepareatrulyauthentic

performance.Whendetermininghowbesttoteachnon-nativestudents,itisimportantto

takeintoconsiderationtheircurrentunderstandingsaboutBrazilianmusic–buildingon

13

associationswithmusicalelementstheyalreadyunderstandandthenaddingthenew

elementsrequiredforanauthenticperformance.

Knapp(2012)conductedastudywiththepurposeofassessinghowundergraduate

musicmajors’perceptionofauthenticityandpreferenceforteachingmulticulturalmusic

wereaffectedbymulticulturalmusicinstruction.Accordingtothisstudy,authentic

performancesofaspecificmusicstylerequirenativeperformers,theuseoforiginal

instruments,theuseoftheoriginallanguagespecifiedbythecomposer,audiences

consistingofmembersofthespecificculture,andsettingstypicalofthecultural

environment.Ifoneofthesecomponentsisnotpresent,theauthenticitywillbe

compromised.Theinstructorneedstobeawareofhowmuchcompromisecanbeallowed

beforetheoriginalislost.Althoughthisstudyconcludedthatmostundergraduatemusic

majorsreceivedtraininginworldmusicandthereisagrowinginterestinmulticultural

music,resultsalsosuggestthat1)thestudentsstilllacktheabilitytomakedistinctions

aboutwhetherornotperformancesareauthenticand2)teachersarestillunpreparedto

teachsuchmusic.

TakingintoconsiderationthatmostnativeBrazilianslearntheirculture’smusicvia

oraltradition(listening,observingmoreexperiencedplayersperform,andperformingin

pubsandothervenues)ratherthanviaformaleducationinaschool,itseemsclearthat

informallearningisresponsibleformuchoftheauthenticityofBrazilianmusic.When

teachingnon-nativestudents,therefore,thisinformalexperienceneedstobeincorporated

intothelearningprocess.Adams(2014)investigatedthevalueofimplementinginformal

learningpracticesintotheformallearningenvironment.AccordingtoAdams,informal

learninghappenswhenstudentsareresponsiblefortheirownlearning,oftenwithoutthe

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presenceofaninstructor.Thisistypicalforthelearningofpopularmusicstyles.Although

Adamsstudywasfocusingonincorporatinginformalmusiclearningintomusicstylesthat

areusuallytaughtformallyinschoolsettings,thismixtureofformalandinformallearning

couldbeextremelyvaluabletodevelopingauthenticityfortheperformanceofBrazilian

popularmusicstyles.Adamsconcludedthatstudentswhowereexposedtoinformal

learningmadeconnectionsinmorewaysthansimplyassociatingnotationwithinstrument

fingering,forexample.Theseextraconnectionsallownon-nativemusicianstodevelopa

senseofmusicalcontextthatisessentialforauthenticity.

Accordingtotheresearch,then,theachievementofauthenticperformances

requirestherecreationofasmanyauthenticcharacteristicsaspossible.These

characteristicsincluderecreatingnotonlytheinstrumentationbutalsothelearning

process.Theinstrumentationusedineachstyleandtheirrolesareimportantelements

and,althoughsomecompromisemaybenecessary,studentsandinstructorsmustbe

familiarenoughwiththestylestomaketheappropriatechangeswithoutlosingthe

originalityofeachstyle.Intermsofteachingauthenticperformance,itisimportantto

considertheinformaltypeoflearningthatnativeBraziliansengageinwhenlearningtheir

ownmusicandtointegratethisinformalapproachintotheteachingprocess.

MusicCognition,Perception,andLearningTheory

WhiletakingPsychologyofMusicaspartofmydoctoralstudies,myinterestin

achievingahigherlevelofperformanceauthenticityamongdrumsetstudentsledmeto

beginresearchingareassuchasmusicperception,musiccognition,andpsychomotor

learningtheories.Specializedresearchintheseareasprovidesimportantinsightsintothe

mosteffectiveandefficientapproachestodevelopingtheunderstandingandskillneeded

15

forauthenticperformancesofnewmusicalstyles.Researchandlearningtheoryrelatedto

audiation,modeling,musicalimagery,motortheory,andpracticestrategieseachplay

importantrolesinthislearningprocess.

Audiationisafundamentalelementofthelearningprocessbecause“soundbecomes

musicthroughaudiationwhen,aswithlanguage,wetranslatesoundsinourmindandgive

themmeaning”(Gordon,2012,p.3).BuildingonGordon’sMusicLearningTheoryand

integratingcurrentperceptionandcognitionresearch,Ester(2005)developedateaching

guideformusicliteracyentitledSoundConnections.Thispedagogicalapproachwas

thoroughlydevelopedwithalearningsequenceandtheuseofbest-practicesyllable

systems,facilitatingaseriesofcognitiveconnectionsbyhavingstudentsechowhatthey

hear,thenconnecttheseauralpatternswithsyllablepatterns,andeventuallyconnectthe

syllablepatternswithmusicalsymbols.AsGordonstates,audiationisnotpossiblewithout

priorauralperception;therefore,Ester’sfirststepofechoingwhatisheardisfoundational

toanymusicallearning.Additionally,beingabletovocalizemusicalpatternsisan

importantstepinthedevelopmentofmusicliteracy.AccordingtoEster:

Thesingingvoiceisthefundamentalinstrumentforeverymusicianbecauseitis

mostcloselylinkedtothemusician’sear.…Beingabletopressthecorrectkeyson

thepianoorclarinetinresponsetonotation,forexample,doesnotconfirmthatthe

performercanaudiatethemusic.(p.1)

Therefore,inordertoprovidemusicalunderstanding,itisnecessarythatbothinstructors

andstudentsareabletovocalizemusicalpatterns.Thisprojectuseslistening,audiation,

andvocalizationtodevelopmusicalunderstanding.Studentsneedtobeexposedto

recordingsinordertofamiliarizethemselveswiththenuancesofthestyletobestudied.

16

Listeningprovidestheprerequisiteforaudiationbecause“weaudiatesoundonlyafterwe

haveaurallyperceivedit”(Gordon,2012,p.3).Thus,audiationsuggestsstorageand

understanding,whilevocalizingrepresentsretrievalofthelearnedinformation:“Inorder

tobeverifiedaslearned,entitiesmustberetrievedfromlong-termmemory.Itisgenerally

supposedthattheprocesscalledretrievalrequiresthatcertaincuesbeprovided,eitherby

theexternalsituationorbythelearner”(Gagné,1977,p.73).

AccordingtosociallearningtheoristBandura(1970),humanslearnandformideas

aboutnewbehaviorsbyobservingothers’behaviorsandtheoutcomesofthosebehaviors.

Thosewhoareobservedarereferredtoasmodels,andBanduralabelsthisprocess

modeling.Appliedtothisproject,observingliveorvideoperformancesofnativeBrazilians

modelingauthenticperformancestylefacilitatestheencodingofthisinformation,which

willinturnserveasafoundationforfurtherlearning.

Godøytakestheconceptofmodelingastepfurther,proposingatriangularmodelof

cross-modalitythatemphasizesthe“inextricablerelationshipsbetweenaction,visionand

soundinmusicperceptionandcognition”(p.317).Heobservesthatmusicappealstomany

humansensesbeyondhearingalone.Forexample,soundsareoftendescribedusingterms

suchasdark,low,andpiercingthatarerelatedtoeyesightoractions.AccordingtoGodøy,

evidenceisemergingthat“wementallyimitatesound-producingactionswhenwelisten

attentivelytomusic”(p.318);theseimagesofactionsarereferredtoasmotorprograms.

Godøy’sresultingtriangularmodelservesasthebasisformotor-mimesis,whichcanbe

thoughtofasaudiationbutwiththeaddedsimulationofmovements:“Motor-mimesis

translatesfrommusicalsoundstovisualimagesbyasimulationofsound-producing

actions…formingmotorprogramsthatre-codeandhelpstoremusicalsoundsinour

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minds”(p.318).Statedanotherway,theimageofsoundproductionhasnotonlyaural

componentsbutalsovisualandmotorcomponents.Throughmotor-mimesis,performers

developconnectionsbetweensoundsandmovements.Inotherwords,beforethey

physicallyperformanyofthemusicalpatterns,theywillvisualizethemovements(actions)

thatproducethedesiredsoundsandthenstarttopracticeandperfecttheirmotorskills.

Thepedagogicalapproachdevelopedduringthisprojectuseslistening,audiation,

modeling,andmotor-mimesistocreateamentalimage,whichfunctionsasthebasisforthe

motorskilldevelopment.Creatingamentalimageisperhapsmoreimportantthanany

verbalexplanationbecausemusic“isanaural,aesthetic,nonverbal,perceptual-motorskill”

(Kohut,1985,p.8).Todeveloptheirmotorskills,studentswillbe“makingadjustments

untiloneisabletoimitatethemodeleffectivelyorreproducethementalimage”(Criss,

2008,p.44).ThecompletementalimageiscalledCognitiveMotor-Imagingandit

representswhattheperformerswilltrytorecreateasthedesiredsoundandthefinalgoal.

Ifthestudentsfocusonlyontechnicalaspects,the“performancemightbecomesterileor

mechanical”(Criss,2008,p.43).AccordingtoCriss,instructorscan“giveanimageofthe

goaltothestudentandthenencouragethemtofindtheirownstrategiesforimitatingthat

image”(p.44).Theskillswillthendevelopfurtherandbeconsolidatedduringphysical

practiceasstudentsrepetitivelyreproducethemodel.

Effectiveandefficientpracticestrategiesarecrucialtorefinedmotorskill

development.PerformingBrazilianpopularmusicstylesisaverydemandingtaskinterms

ofmotorskillsandcoordination,bothintermsoftheindividualandtheensemble;thisis

especiallytruefordrummers,pianists,guitarists,andotherswhomayneedtocombine

severalpatternstocreateauthenticgrooves.Eachpatternmayincludemanymusicalfacets

18

thatwereoriginallyplayedbyseparateindividuals.Asresearchindicates,itisimportantto

dividetheprocessintosmallertasksbecause“whentoomuchinformationispresentedat

once,ourshort-termmemorybecomesoverwhelmedandunabletoprocessit”(Luckner,

1990,p.101).AccordingtoTan,Pfordrescher,andHarré(2010),motorskillsare

developedmoreeffectivelyviadistributedpractice:shorterpracticesessionsspread

throughouttheday.Thisdistributedapproachinvolvesregularbreaks,allowingforthe

“opportunitytotakeafreshlookatthemusic,andtounderstanditsstructuremoredeeply”

(p.186).Alongwithbreaks,sleepingcontributestotheconsolidationofthemotorskills

because“thememorytraceformotorlearningcontinuestobereprocessedevenduring

periodswithoutinterveningtraining”(p.186).Gebrian(2015)summarizesavarietyof

researchthatsupportstheimportanceofsleeptotheconsolidationofmotorlearning:

Duringasleepspindle,thereisahugeburstofelectricalactivityinapopulationof

neuronsthatcausesmassiveamountsofcalciumtoenterthosecells.Calciumis

whatcausesallthechangesdiscussedearlier,fromstrengtheningandweakening

synapses,tomakingnewsynapses,tosynchronizingthefiringofneuronal

ensembles.(p.31)

Thedevelopmentofapedagogyfocusedonmotorskilldevelopmentrequires

carefulconsiderationoftheavailableresearchintheareasofmusicperception,cognition,

andlearningtheory.Thisincludesanalysisofthecomponenttasksanddeterminationof

themosteffectiveapproachleadingtosynthesis.“Ifthecomponentactsofatotalskillhave

beenpreviouslywelllearned,aminimalamountoftimemayhavetobespentinputting

themtogether”(Gagné,1985,p.207).Itseemsclearthatisolatingandthenreintegrating

19

musicalunderstandingandmotorskilldevelopmentresultsinthemosteffectivelearning

process.Thissuggeststheimportanceoftwoseparatebutrelatedlearningsequences:a

VirtualLearningSequenceandaMotorLearningSequence.Theseservedasthebasisfor

thedevelopmentoftheproposedpedagogy.

CHAPTER3

DESIGNANDMETHOD

Thepurposeofthisprojectwastodevelopandpresentapedagogicalapproachto

teachingtheauthenticperformanceofBrazilianpopularmusicstylestonon-native

musicians.Chapter4ofthedissertationprovidesadetailedpresentationandexplanation

ofthepedagogicalapproach,whichincludesteachingculturalbackgroundandcontextas

wellaspatternvocabularyandtechnicalskillsviathesynthesisoftworesearch-based

learningsequences:theVirtualLearningSequenceandtheMotorLearningSequence.The

VirtualLearningSequencefocusesondevelopingthestylisticaspectsvialistening,

audiation,andvocalization;andbuildingthefoundationfortherequiredmotorskillsvia

motor-mimesis,mentalimage,andmentalpractice. TheMotorLearningSequencefocuses

ondevelopingtheactualmotorskillsrequiredtoperformBrazilianpopularmusicstyles;

thisinvolvedthedevelopmentofthesequenceinwhichpatternsshouldbelearnedandthe

establishingofeffectiveandefficientpracticestrategies.Inadditiontothedetailed

presentationofthepedagogicalapproach,asupplementalcomponentofthisprojectsought

initialvalidationoftheapproachviathesolicitationofexpertobservationsofthe

performanceauthenticityofensemblespreparedusingtheapproach.

InceptionandBackgroundoftheProject

Whileworkingwithdifferentensembles,whichsometimeshadnativeBrazilian

studentsaswell,Icametorecognizeasignificantdifferenceinapproachbetweennative

andnon-nativestudents.Thenon-natives,regardlessoftheirtechnicalproficiencylevel,

oftenhadproblemswithproperinflections,feels,andapproachestobasicpatterns.Asa

percussionist,IwasparticularlyinterestedindrumsetperformanceofBrazilianmusic

21

stylesandhowtohelpmystudentsdevelopnotonlyastrongskillsetbutalsoan

understandingofthefeelsandinflectionsthatmakesaperformanceauthentic.While

takingPsychologyofMusic,myinterestinachievingahigherlevelofperformance

authenticityamongdrumsetstudentsledmetobeginresearchingareassuchasmusic

perceptionandpsychomotorlearningtheories.Thisresultedinafinalpaperthatoutlined

someinitialpedagogicalideasfocusedonaddressingthischallenge.Thisprojectinvolved

thefurtherdevelopmentofthesepedagogicalstrategiestoteachnotonlydrumset

performersbutalsootherinstrumentalistswhoarenon-nativeBrazilians.

OverviewoftheInitialPedagogicalFoundation

MyresearchandwritinginPsychologyofMusicfocusedonteachingdrumset

performanceofBrazilianpopularmusicstylesandresultedinthedevelopmentoftwo

mainlearningsequences:theVirtualLearningSequenceandtheMotorLearningSequence.

Eachofthosesequenceswasdesignedtodevelopdifferentcomponentsofthewholeskill

set.Itisimportanttoapproacheachcomponentseparatelybecause“ifthecomponentacts

ofatotalskillhavebeenpreviouslywelllearned,aminimalamountoftimemayhavetobe

spentinputtingthemtogether”(Gagné,1985,p.207).TheVirtualLearningSequence

intendstodevelopunderstandingofbothmusicalstyleandtheskillsinvolvedbycreating

associations,whichGagné(1977)claims“seemstooccurwithsuchfrequencythatit

deservestobecalledabasicprocess”(p.23). TheMotorLearningSequencedevelopsand

guidesthepracticeofmotorskills.ThissequenceisbasedonEdwinGordon’sMusic

LearningTheory,researchontheapproachtopracticestrategiesandtheirrelativeimpacts

onmotorskilldevelopment,brainhemispheresandstructuresusedduringeachtask,and

theroleofbreaksandsleepingintheconsolidationofmotorskills.

22

DuringthisprojectIfurtherdevelopedanddetailedbothlearningsequences,

focusingonhowtoteachBrazilianpopularmusicstylestonon-nativeBraziliansingeneral

andhowthosesequencesarecombinedduringthelearningprocesstoeffectivelydevelop

students’understandingandauthenticperformanceskills.Synthesisofthetwolearning

sequencesfacilitatesteachingstudentswhoplayinstrumentsthatrequirethecombination

oftwoormorepatternstocreateamorecomplexgroove;theseincludedrumset,piano,

guitar,andvibraphone.Inasimilarmanner,theblendingoflearningsequencesisessential

tointegratepatternsplayedbydifferentperformersinanensemblesetting.

Chapter4ofthedissertationprovidesadetailedpresentationandexplanationofthe

pedagogicalapproach.Figure3.1presentsanoutlineofthestructureoftheapproachand

contentofthechapter.

o VirtualLearningSequence§ Listening§ Audiating§ Vocalizing§ Motor-mimesis§ CognitiveMotor-Imaging§ MentalPractice

o MotorLearningSequence§ MotorSkillDevelopment§ PracticeStrategies

Figure3.1.ProposedoutlineofAPedagogicalApproachtoTeachingBrazilianPopularMusicStylestoNon-NativeMusicians.

Thepedagogicalapproachisfoundedonthepremisethateachmusicalstyleisalanguage

andthepatternsthatcharacterizeeachstylearethewordsthatconstituteitsbasic

vocabulary.Basedonthispremise,theVirtualLearningSequencefocusesondeveloping

thestylisticaspectsvialistening,audiation,andvocalization;andbuildingthefoundation

23

fortherequiredmotorskillsviamotor-mimesis,cognitivemotor-imaging,andmental

practice.Listeningdevelopsthemusicalbackground.Likelearninganewlanguage,when

studentslistentoaspecificmusicalstyle,theywillbelisteningtohowthewords(patterns)

areusedinthecontextandhowtheyfunctioninsidethelanguage(musicalstyle),helping

themtodevelopmoreautonomy.Audiationandvocalizationwereaddedtodevelop

understandingofmusicalpatternsthatareimportanttoeachmusicalstyle.“Sound

becomesmusicthroughaudiationwhen,aswithlanguage,wetranslatesoundsinourmind

andgivethemmeaning”(Gordon,2012,p.3).Vocalizingisimportantforretrievalofthe

learnedinformationanditalsoisa“fundamentalinstrumentforeverymusicianbecauseit

ismostcloselylinkedtothemusician’sear”(Ester,2005,p.1).Vocalizingisapproached

withthedevelopmentofasimplesyllablesystem,whichassistsstudentstoassociateand

vocalizethepatternswithappropriateinflections.

Motor-mimesis,cognitivemotor-imaging,andmentalpracticeconstitutethesecond

stageoftheVirtualLearningSequence.Motor-mimesisisaconceptbasedonatriangular

modelthatcreatesa“relationshipbetweenaction,visionandsoundinmusicperception

andcognition”(Godøy,2003,p.317).Itisdevelopedlikeaudiationbutformotor

movementsinsteadofmusicalunderstanding,whilecognitivemotor-imagingprovidesa

clearobjectivetobeachieved,andmentalpracticefunctionsasabridgeintotheMotor

LearningSequence.

TheMotorLearningSequencefocusesondevelopingtheactualmotorskills

requiredtoperformBrazilianpopularmusicstyles.Duringthispedagogicalapproach

studentsdevelopthesequenceinwhichpatternswillbelearnedandhowtoapproachthe

motorskillspracticebasedonpatterncomplexity,durationofpracticesession,useofbrain

24

hemispheresandstructures,andtheroleofbreaksandsleepingintransferringthelearned

materialintolongtermmemory.

InitialValidationofThePedagogicalApproach

Sincecompletingtheinitialresearchanddevelopmentofthedrumsetpedagogyto

teachBrazilianpopularmusicstyles,IhavebeenteachingBrazilianJazzensemblesaswell.

Ihaveappliedaspectsofthepedagogicalstrategiesduringtheensemblerehearsals.

Elementslikelistening,audiation,vocalization,watchingvideosofauthenticperformances,

motor-mimesis,andmentalpracticeseemedtobeeffectiveforthedevelopmentofmore

authenticperformancesonalloftheinstruments.Asupplementalcomponentofthis

projectsoughtinitialvalidationoftheapproachviathesolicitationofexpertobservations

oftheperformanceauthenticityofensemblespreparedusingtheapproach.Sample

recordingsofensemblespreparedusingthepedagogicalapproachwereinterposedwith

recordingsofnativeensemblesandnon-nativeensemblesthatwerenotexposedtothis

approach.OnceIRBapprovalwasobtained,asmallsampleofBrazilianpopularmusic

expertswereinvitedtolistentotherecordingsandcompleteabriefquestionnaire(see

AppendixC)thatsolicitedLikert-scaleratingsrelatedtotechnicalskillsandauthenticity.

ChapterSummary

ThelackofstylisticauthenticityinperformancesofBrazilianpopularmusicbynon-

nativemusiciansisasignificantandoften-citedissue.Thisdissertationprojectprovidesa

detailedpresentationandexplanationofaresearch-basedpedagogicalapproachto

teachingtheauthenticperformanceofBrazilianpopularmusicstylestonon-native

musicians.Asupplementalcomponentofthisprojectsoughtinitialvalidationofthe

approachviathesolicitationofexpertobservationsoftheperformanceauthenticityof

ensemblespreparedusingtheapproach.Thisprojectbenefitsnon-nativeBrazilian

25

musicianswhodesiretodevelopanin-depthunderstandingofhowtoperformBrazilian

popularmusicstylesandmusicteacherswhowishtoreduceoreliminatethegapof

stylisticauthenticitybetweennativeandnon-nativeperformersofBrazilianpopularmusic.

CHAPTER4THEPEDAGOGICALAPPROACH

Introduction

ThelackofstylisticauthenticityinperformancesofBrazilianpopularmusicbynon-

nativemusiciansisasignificantandoften-citedissue.SeveralnativeBrazilianmusicians

withwhomIhaveworkedintheUnitedStatesconsistentlycommentedthatthereisalarge

gapinthisperformanceauthenticitybetweennativeandnon-nativemusicians.This

projectwillbenefitnon-nativeBrazilianmusicianswhodesiretodevelopanin-depth

understandingofhowtoperformBrazilianpopularmusicstyles.Itwillalsobevaluablefor

musicteachers,providingthemwithpedagogicalstrategiestoreduceandpossibly

eliminatetheauthenticitygapbetweenthosetwogroups.Thispedagogicalapproach

providesin-depthguidanceonthedevelopmentofmusicawareness,authenticity,and

motorskillsinbothappliedlessonandensemblesettings.

Theapproachisdividedintotwomainlearningsequences:TheVirtualLearning

SequenceandTheMotorLearningSequence.Thefirsthasthepurposeofdevelopingmusical

understandingthroughlistening,audiating,vocalizing,observing,andmotor-mimesis.

Aftercompletingthosesteps,studentswillbeabletosynthesizethesefiveelementsinto

whatIlabelCognitiveMotor-Imaging(CMI):mentalimagerythatcombinesandassociates

thefivevirtual-learningelementsandservesasthefoundationforthemotorskill

development.CMIcombinesmusicalknowledgewithelementsofmotor–mimesis,

enhancingstudents’capacitytoeffectivelyusementalpracticethroughouttheentire

learningprocess.Thesecondsequence–theMotorLearningSequence–willdevelopthe

actualmotorskillsthroughtwomainsteps:motorskilldevelopmentinwhichmusical

27

patternsshouldbeapproachedinadeterminedorder,andthenpracticingeachmusical

patternseparatelythroughaseriesofstrategiesthatwilloptimizethetimespentoneach

task.Lastly,theVirtualandMotorlearningsequenceswillinterweave,creatingstrategies

tocombinemultiplepatterns,solidifyingconceptsandtechniques,andprogressively

developingmorecomplexskills,independentthinking,andhigherlevelsofauthenticityfor

eachstyleofBrazilianpopularmusic.

WhenapproachingBrazilianpopularmusicstyles,whichtypicallyinvolveseveral

overlappingrhythmicpatternsplayedonpercussioninstruments,musiciansarerequired

tonotonlyplaywhatisonthepagebutalsounderstandeachpatternpresentinthewhole

structure.Inaddition,itisnecessarytounderstandtheculturalaspectsofthespecificstyle

andhowitisplayedinitsoriginalsettinginordertoenrichperformancesandreach

authenticity.Itisimportanttoconsiderhowperception,cognition,culturalexperience,and

personalbackgroundaffectthelearningofthematerialandhowtoeffectivelytransferthe

patternsfromtheoriginalsettingtoagiveninstrumentaswellastotheoverallensemble

setting.Likewise,associationswillbecreatedconnectingeachstepofthelearningprocess.

“Associationisoneoftheprocessesthatoccursinlearning.Furthermore,associationseems

tooccurwithsuchfrequencythatitdeservestobecalledabasicprocess”(Gagné,1977,p.

23).BecausemanyBraziliangenresarederivedfrompercussionsettingsand/ordeveloped

fromstylesoriginallysetforpercussiononly,theyofteninvolvecomplexrhythmic

patterns.Studentsandinstructorswhoplayand/orteachdrumset,piano,guitar,bass

guitar,andotherrhythmsectioninstrumentswillfaceimportantdecisions.Such

instrumentsoftencombinerhythmicpatternstocreategrooves,whichmayormaynotbe

appropriateforagivensituation.Therefore,decisionsshouldbemadeaboutwhichgrooves

areappropriateand/orthebestfitforeachsetting.Choiceoftimbresmightbeinvolvedas

28

well,inanefforttobestdepicttheoriginalpercussioninstrumentsonthevariousrhythm

instruments.Thatisespeciallyimportantfordrumset,whichistheclosestinstrumentto

theoriginalsettings.Melodicinstrumentswillhaveacompletelydifferentrole,ofcourse,

butthosemusiciansmustalsoacquirein-depthknowledgeoffeel,inflections,andmain

patternsthatcharacterizeeachstyle.Thoseelementsoftengetlostduringthedevelopment

ofdemandingmotorskills,leadingstudentstobecometechnicallyproficientbutwith

limitedauthenticityandmusicalawareness.Therefore,thispedagogicalapproachis

designedtooptimizethetimespentontheprocessoflearningBrazilianpopularmusic

stylesbydevelopingdepthinauthenticity,musicalawareness,andmotorskillsthrougha

seriesofresearch-basedsteps.Studentswilldevelopauthenticityandmusicalawareness

first,thenapplythatknowledgeduringthemotorskilldevelopment.Thissequencewill

allowstudentstodevelopasenseofcontextualizationandbecomeabletocreatetheirown

generalizationsineachstyleapproached.

OverviewofthePedagogicalApproach

Itwillbehelpfulforthereadertofirstencounterageneraloverviewoftheentire

processandbecomefamiliarwiththemainstepsoftheapproach.Eachstepisrelatively

shortandthestepsmustoccurinthesequenceinwhichtheyarepresented;however,

somewilloccurinanalmostsimultaneousmanner.ThemainstepsoftheVirtualLearning

SequenceandtheMotorLearningSequencecanbeseeninFigure4.1,whichisdesignedto

provideanoverviewofthepedagogicalstepsthatleadtoanauthenticperformance.Prior

toanymotorskilldevelopmentandphysicalpractice,studentsshouldbecomefullyaware

ofeveryaspectofwhattheyaretryingtoachieve.Therefore,bothinstructorsandstudents

shouldfollowthedetailedinstructionsforeachstepoftheVirtualLearningSequence(VLS)

beforeapproachingtheMotorLearningSequence(MLS).

29

• VirtualLearningSequenceo Listeningo Audiatingo Vocalizingo Observingandmotor-mimesiso CognitiveMotor-Imaging(CMI)o Mentalpractice

• MotorLearningSequenceo Motorskilldevelopmento Practicestrategies

Figure4.1.Generalsummaryofthepedagogicalapproach.

TheoverallgoalofthispedagogicalapproachistousetheVirtualLeaningSequence

tocreateastrongandin-depthfoundationwherethestudentswillhaveallthetools

necessarytounderstandthemusictheyarelearning,understandhowthesoundsare

produced,anddeveloptheactualmotorskills.Itisalsoimportantthatstudentsunderstand

andlearntheprocess,sotheycanuseitineverydaypracticetobecomeindependent

musicians.Myexperiencesasateacherhaveledmetoconcludethatitisveryeffectiveto

brieflyexplainthisapproachtothestudentspriortotheactualteachingofanyBrazilian

popularmusicstyle.HereisabrieftranscriptionofwhatItellmystudentsbeforewestart

workingonthemusic:

Thefirststeptolearnthisstyleistolistentomanysongsinthestyle.First,

youcanlistentotheplaylistwhiledoingotheractivitiessuchaswalking,

cooking,workingout,etc.Afterthat,wewillbreakdownthestyletoitsbasic

patternstolearneachoneseparately,soyoucanunderstandthe“words”

[patterns]thatconstitutesthislanguage[style].Afterbecomingfamiliarwith

thebasicpatterns,youwilllistentosongsagainandtrytorecognizesuch

patterns;however,somevariationsmayhappenandIwillprovidefurther

30

guidance.Afterlistening,wewillselectonepatterntoworkonandwewill

followseveralstepstodevelopthispattern.Afterlisteningtotheselected

pattern,youwillaudiateit,meaninglistentoitinyourheadwithoutthe

soundbeingphysicallypresent.Itissimilartohavingasongstuckinyour

head.Afteraudiating,youwillsingthepatternwithsyllablesthatare

assignedtoit.Sometimes,youwillrealizeyouarenotsingingitthewayyou

hearitinyourhead[audiate],butyouwilltryagainuntilyoudo.Thenext

stepistoassociatesoundswithmotions.Forexample,ifsomeoneknockson

ourdoor,wewillnotseeithappening,butweknow,basedonwhatwehear,

howthatsoundwasproduced,correct?ConverselyifIdothis[movemy

handlikeknockingonthedoor]youwouldbeabletoaudiatetheresulting

sound,correct?Youaudiatedthesoundandyouassociateditwiththe

motion.Wewillbuildthesameconnectionsbetweenmusicalpatternsand

technique,associatingmotionswiththespecificsoundswearetryingto

produce.Whenyouareabletohaveallthoseelementsinyourmind

(listening,audiating,vocalizingwithsyllables,andassociatingmotionswith

sounds),youhaveamentalimageryofwhatyouaretryingtoachieve.During

thepracticetimeyouwilltrytoreproducethatimageusingstrategiesthat

willoptimizethetimespentinthepracticeroom.

Theprecedingnarrativeisanintroductoryexplanationofeachstepandithelps

studentswiththeirfirstcontactwiththispedagogicalapproachusedtoteachBrazilian

popularmusicstyles.ThereadershouldkeeptheoverallstructurefromFigure4.1inmind

andrevisititfrequentlytobecomefamiliarwiththemainsteps.Eachnewpattern

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presentedwillbelearnedthroughthesameprocessoflistening,audiating,vocalizing,and

associatingsoundswithmotionsbycreatingamentalpicture.ThisCognitiveMotor-Image

(orCM-image)willserveasthefoundationforbothmentalpracticeandactualphysical

practiceintheMLS.Thispedagogicalapproachisusedinacycle,repeatingitselfforevery

newpattern.Moreover,itisalsousedtocombinepatterns,creatingcomplexgrooves

composedoftwoormoresimultaneouspatterns,dependingontheinstrumentthestudent

plays.Thefollowingpagespresentin-depthinformationabouteachstepoftheVirtualand

Motorlearningsequences,resultinginacomprehensiveapproachtoteachingBrazilian

popularmusicstylesindifferentsettings.

TheVirtualLearningSequence

TheVirtualLearningSequence(VLS)isdesignedtodevelopmusicalawareness,

authenticity,andassociationsbetweensoundandactions.TheVLSiscompletedpriorto

anyphysicalpracticeandtechnicaldevelopment.Itsstepsenablestudentstodevelopa

seriesofassociationstofacilitatetheeventualmotorskilldevelopment.Thestepsofthe

VLS,asshowninFigure4.2,arelistening,audiating,vocalizing,observingandmotor-

mimesis,cognitivemotor-imaging,andmentalpractice.Althoughmentalpracticeispartof

thissequence,itshouldbeconsideredasaconnectorbetweentheVLSandtheMLS.The

VLSisdesignedtodevelopaspectsrelatedtoauthenticityanditdoesnotincludephysical

practiceandmotorskilldevelopment.Eachstepdevelopsspecificskillsthatarerequiredto

achieveanauthenticperformanceandeventuallyassociateitwithmotionsandtechnique,

butthisdoesnotyetincludeactualphysicalpractice.Listeningdevelopsmusical

backgroundandvocabulary.Audiationdevelopsmusicalawarenessandanincreased

understandingofhoweachpatternshouldsoundwithinthestyle.Vocalizingismeantto

developproperpatterninflectionandassistinstoringlearnedinformationinlong-term

32

memory.Observingandmotor-mimesiscreatesassociationsbetweensoundsandthe

techniquethatproduceseachsound.Cognitivemotor-imagingisasynthesisoftheprior

steps:Studentsdevelopamentalimageryofthemselvesperformingwhileaudiatingthe

soundassociatedwithaparticularpattern.Oncethisimageiscreated,studentswill

mentallypracticeeachpatternbeforemovingtotheMLS.

TheVirtualLearningSequence• Listening

o Passivelisteningo Patternlisteningo Recognitionlistening

• Audiating• Vocalizing• ObservingandMotor-mimesis

o Imitatingo Motor-mimesis

• CognitiveMotor-Imaging(CMI)• Mentalpractice

Figure4.2.TheVirtualLearningSequence.

Listening

Thefirststepindevelopinganauthenticperformanceistolistentomusic;thiswill

developthenecessarymusicalbackgroundandallowperformerstostartcontextualizing

themusicalelements.Audiofilescorrespondingtothefiguresinthisdocumentcanbe

foundat:

https://soundcloud.com/bruno-cabrera-40190673/sets/doctoral-dissertation-audio-examples

Theseaudioexampleswillbeextremelyhelpfulduringthelearningprocess.Eachspecific

stylewillrequireguidedlisteningtosongsthatarerepresentativeaswell.Forexample,

“GarotadeIpanema”(GirlfromIpanema)isoneofthemostrepresentativetunesofthe

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bossanovastyle.AlisteningguideisincludedinAppendixAtoassistthereaderwiththis

step.

Asthestudentsstarttheirstudies,thefirststepistobeexposedtothestyleand

listentoasmanyrecordingsaspossible.Theculturehasanimportantroleinthe

developmentofthemusicalexperienceofeachindividual;many“cognitivepsychologists

wouldadmitthatcultureplayssomesignificantroleintheactions,thoughts,andfeelings

thatareinvolvedinmusicalexperience”(Tan,Pfordrescher&Harré,2010,p.281).Also,

listeningwillhelptodevelopmusicalvocabularybecausethe“moretonalpatternsand

rhythmicpatternsstudentshaveintheirlistening,performance,andaudiation

vocabularies,thebettertheywillconceptualizefromandformgeneralizationsaboutmusic

theyhearorproduce”(Gordon,2012,p.99).Likelearninganewlanguage,whenstudents

listentoadeterminedstyle,theywillbelisteningtohowthewords(patterns)areusedin

thecontextandhowtheyfunctioninsidethelanguage(musicalstyle),helpingthem

developmoreautonomy.Toassistthevocabularydevelopment,thisdocumentoffersa

seriesofpatternsforthefiveBrazilianpopularmusicstylesaddressedinthispedagogical

approach.AppendixBpresentsabasicvocabularyforsamba,bossanova,choro,baião,and

maracatu.Sampleaudiofilesofeachofthesepatternscanbeaccessedat:

https://soundcloud.com/bruno-cabrera-40190673/sets/doctoral-dissertation-audio-examples

MostoftheVLStreatsamusicalstyleasifitwerealanguage:eachcomponent,as

partofthefullskillset,willbecarefullydeveloped.AccordingtoGagné(1985),“ifthe

componentactsofatotalskillhavebeenpreviouslywelllearned,aminimalamountoftime

mayhavetobespentinputtingthemtogether”(p.207).Thelisteningcomponentis

importantfortworeasons.First,itwillallowstudentstoaudiate:“weaudiatesoundonly

afterwehaveaurallyperceivedit”(Gordon,2012,p.3).Second,itprovidestheexperience

34

necessarytotrulyunderstandthemusicalstyle.NativeBrazilianmusiciansareexposedto

themusicalcultureeveryday.AsanativeBrazilianwhogrewupinthecountry,I

experienceddailyexposuretothemostvariedtypesofpopularmusicstylesinthestreets,

stores,bars,andtheatersandonthetelevisionandradio.Thisinvoluntaryexposurehelps

tocreatearichmusicalbackgroundthattranslatestofacilitationduringthelearning

process,providingelementsthatcontributetoauthenticity.InBrazil,thepeopleare

exposedtomanydifferentmusicalstyleseveryday.Whentranslatingthisinformallearning

toaformalinstructionalsetting,however,itisimportanttofocusononlyonestyleata

timetoavoidconfusionamongtheuniquemusicalpatterns.Forexample,ifthestudentis

learningaboutsamba,itiscrucialthatthisstudentisexposedtosambaenredo,whichisthe

musicplayedbythesambaschoolsfromRiodeJaneiroandSãoPaulo.Thesambaenredois

mostlyperformedbyBrazilianpercussioninstrumentsaccompaniedbystringinstruments

suchasguitar,cavaquinho(Braziliansmallguitarsimilartoaukulele),bandolim(Brazilian

versionofthemandolin),andvoice.Regardlessofwhichinstrumentthestudentplays,the

sambaenredocontainsmusicalpatternsthatmustbecomepartofthemusician’s

vocabulary.Additionally,studentsmustbeexposedtogroupsandartistswhoperform

othervariationsofsambaindifferentmusicalsettings,therebyhelpingtoexpandtheir

vocabulary.Duetotheiruniquetraits,styleslikebossanovaandchoroshouldbe

approachedseparately;theyaredifferentdialects(tocontinuethelanguagemetaphor)and

maysoundsimilaroreventhesametonoviceears.Samba,bossanova,andchoroshare

severalrhythmicpatterns,buttheyaresignificantlydifferentininflection.Theproper

inflectionofpatternswillgeneratetherightfeelofthestyle,makingitauthentic.Forthe

purposesofthispedagogicalapproach,inflectionreferencesthefactthat,withinagiven

musicalpattern,somenotesareslightlystrongerorweakerthanothers.Likeinlanguage,

35

differentwordsinasentencecanbeemphasizedtoslightlychangethemeaningofthe

sentence.Forexample,takethephrase“heisplayingmusic.”Sayitoutaloudseveraltimes,

emphasizingadifferentwordeachtime.First,“HEisplayingmusic,”then“heISplaying

music,”then“heisPLAYINGmusic,”andfinally“heisplayingMUSIC.”Althoughitisthe

samephrasewiththesamewords,theoverallmeaningmaychangedependingonwhich

wordhasastrongerinflection.Thesamehappenswithmusicandmusicalpatterns.

Inflectionshouldbecarefullyapproachedandunderstoodsothatstudentscanreacha

higherlevelofauthenticityineachstyle.Thiscanbeadifficultconcepttodevelop;

therefore,thelisteningguideofeachstylemustbecarefullychosen(seeAppendixBfora

suggestedlisteningguide).Thelisteningportionisdividedintouniquethreesteps:passive

listening,patternlistening,andrecognitionlistening.

Passivelistening.First,studentsshouldlistentoauthenticmusictobecome

familiarwiththestyleandestablishabasicbackground.Thisshouldfocusonlisteningto

BrazilianmusicplayedbynativeBrazilianmusicianssothatperformerscanlistentothe

mostauthenticsources;however,thefactthatamusiciangrewupinBrazilandplays

Brazilianstylesisnottheonlyelementthatbringsauthenticity.Therepertoiremust

containrenownedmusicianswhoarerepresentativeandcontributedtothedevelopment

ofthestyle.Insimpleterms,thisisapassivestepwherestudentsneedtolistentomusic

andbeexposedasmuchaspossible.Passivelisteningdoesnotrequirelistenerstobefully

attentivetothemusic;theycanlistenwhiledoingotheractivitiessuchasdishes,laundry,

homework,etc.Thisstepisaboutbeingexposedtoratherthanstudyingthemusic;thiswill

providethebasisforfutureassociationsandforaudiation.Themoreexposure,theeasierit

willbecometoaudiateandcontextualizemusicalpatterns;therefore,itisrecommended

36

thatstudentslistentothemusicalstyletheyarelearningeveryday,regardlessofwhich

stageofthelearningprocesstheyarein.

Patternlistening.Thesecondlisteningstepistoisolatethemainpatternsand

listentothemseparately(seeAppendixBandaccessaudiofiles).Forexample,students

learninghowtoplaymaracatuwouldhavetheirinstructorbreakitdowntoitsmain

patternsandlistentohoweachoneofthemisplayed,sothattheylearnaboutsubtle

inflectionsofeachpatternandthefeelofthestyle.Keepinmindthatsomestylesmayhave

considerablevariationsthatcreatesub-genres,suchasmaracatudebaqueviradoor

maracatudemarcação.Thepatternscanbepresentedtothestudentsinmanyways:short

samples,instructorperformsforthestudentduringalesson,etc.

Recognitionlistening.Thefinalstepofthelisteningportionistolistentosongs

again.ThelisteningguideinAppendixAprovidesrepresentativerepertoireandcanbe

usedagainduringthisstep.Studentswillactivelylistentothetunesfromthelistening

guide,nowattemptingtorecognizethepatternsincontextthattheypreviouslylistenedto

inisolationwhilebeingattentivetopossiblevariations.Assistancefromaninstructor

and/ormoreexperiencedplayerswillbeimportantduringthisstep.Thistypeofrelation

is,accordingtoVygotsky(1978),thezoneofproximaldevelopment(ZPD):“Thedistance

betweentheactualdevelopmentallevelasdeterminedbyindependentproblemsolving

andthelevelofpotentialdevelopmentasdeterminedthroughproblemsolvingunderadult

guidanceorincollaborationwithmorecapablepeers”(p.86).BecausemostBrazilian

popularmusicstyleshavetheirmainpatternsplayedandvariedinwaysthateven

experiencednativeperformersmayhavedifficultyrecognizing,thistypeofguidancewill

beessentialtostudentswhomustrecognizepatterns,variations,andcharacterizing

aspectssuchasinflectionsandfeel.AnotherimportantcharacteristicofmanyBrazilian

37

popularmusicstylesisthatpatternsarenotplayedandrepeatedthroughoutthesongs

(liketheclavepatternisinsomeLatinmusicstyles,forexample).Whenperforming

Brazilianpopularmusic,ifthereisarecurrentpatternthatisnotvariedorchangedatall

duringanentiresong,thatsongwillgenerallylackauthenticity.Whilethereareexceptions

tothis,patternvariationisanimportantelementforauthenticityanditispresentmore

oftenthannot.

Audiating

Audiationwillhelpstudentsattachmeaningtomusicandmusicalpatterns.

Audiation“takesplacewhenonehearsmusicsilently,thatis,whenthesoundisnot

physicallypresent”(Gordon,2012,p.11).Itisimportantformusiciansingeneraland

shouldbeencouragedbyteachersinordertofullydevelopstudents’musicalpotential.

“Soundbecomesmusicthroughaudiationwhen,aswithlanguage,wetranslatesoundsin

ourmindandgivethemmeaning,”andaudiationis“integraltobothmusicaptitudeand

musicachievement”(Gordon,2012,p.3).Itmightseemoddthatitwouldbepossibleto

givemeaningtoseveralrhythmicpatternsinisolation;however,thatisexactlywherethe

mainissueresideswhenitcomestoauthenticity.Manymusicianswithenoughmusic

readingandcoordinationskillscouldperformBrazilianpopularmusicgroovesfroma

methodbook,playingalongwithrecordings–butwouldthataloneproduceauthentic

performances?Withoutcreatingamusicalbackgroundanddevelopingaudiationskills,

musicalpatterns,melodiclines,orevenchordchangesarejusttechnicalelementsthat

alonewillnotgeneratemusicandstyle.“Beingabletopressthecorrectkeysonthepiano

orclarinetinresponsetonotation,forexample,doesnotconfirmthattheperformercan

audiatethemusic”(Ester,2005,p.1).Forexample,considertheexampleofamusic

instructorteachingjazzondrumsettoaBrazilianoranon-nativeAmericanstudent

38

throughamethodbook.Assumingthisstudenthasnotechnicalissuesandisaproficient

musicreader,itwouldbesafetoassumethisstudentwouldlikelybeabletoreproduce

whatisonthepagerhythmicallycorrect.SeeFigure4.3foranexampleofajazzexerciseon

drumset.

Figure4.3.One-measurejazzexerciseondrumset.

Nowconsideranotherstudentwhohadneverheardofjazzandhadneverlistenedtojazz

tunes.ThestudentmightbeabletoperformtheexampleinFigure4.3;however,wouldshe

playwithswingsincethereisnothingthatreferencesthat?Wouldsheperformbeatstwo

andfourwiththeappropriatefeelofthestyle?Lastly,wouldthestudentknowthat,onbeat

two,boththetopandthebottomvoicesaresupposedtobeplayedexactlythesameeven

thoughtheyarenotateddifferently?Veryunlikely.Thelisteningstepwillhelpstudents

developtherequisitebackgroundandallowthemtoaudiatetheexercisespresentedonthe

pageandthemusictheyarelearning,leadingtoamoreauthenticperformanceofeach

Brazilianmusicstyletheyapproach.

Developmentofmeaning.Inordertodevelopmeaningwithmusicalpatterns,one

canrelateaudiationtotheactofreadingabook.Whenreadingthetext,wordsimmediately

becomemeaningfultotheeducatedreader.Thereaderisaudiatingthewords,phrases,and

paragraphs.Thesameshouldhappenwhilereadingmusic:patternsareparalleltowords,

whileindividualnotesareparalleltosingleletters.Ifonetriestoreadatextletter-by-

letter,itwouldnotbeaveryE-F-F-E-C-T-I-V-Eapproachtoreadingandwouldnotfacilitate

comprehension.Thesameappliestomusicwhenmusicianstrytoreadeachsinglenote

39

ratherthantherhythmicpatternsand/ormelodicmotives.Bylisteningtoisolated

patterns,thestudentswillbecomeadeptataudiatingthemwithproperinflectionsand

stylisticfeel–inshort,withmeaning.

Solidifyingrhythmicpatterns.Rhythmicpatternsarefundamentaltoany

Brazilianpopularmusicstyleand“themannerinwhicheachrhythmpatternisaudiated

andperformed,inassociationtosomedegreewithtonequality,melodicandharmonic

implications,dynamics,andtempo,contributesformativelytoestablishingstyleinmusic”

(Gordon,2012,p.174).Duringthisstage,itisimportanttokeeplisteningtorecordingsand

startaudiatingpatternsseparatelytocreateastrongandauthenticbackground.Froman

instructor’sperspectiveitisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,toassessifstudentsareaudiating

thepatternscorrectly;however,itisnecessarytoencouragethemtodosoandgivethem

timetothinkandcreatetheirownideasaboutthepatternstheyheardduringthelistening

step.Keepinmindthataudiationisonlypossibleafterbeingexposedthroughlistening,

andthemoreexposuretheeasieritwillbetoaudiate.

Vocalizing

VocalizingwillbeanimportanttoolforstudentswhoarelearningBrazilianpopular

musicstyles.Theyshouldbeencouragedtovocalizeandsingtheirpartsinorderto

retrieveandsolidifytherecentlylearnedmaterials.Everystudent,regardlessofwhich

instrumenttheyplay,shouldbeencouragedtovocalizethebasicrhythmicpatternsplayed

bypercussioninstruments.Vocalizingthepatternsisextremelyimportantsince“the

singingvoiceisthefundamentalinstrumentforeverymusicianbecauseitismostclosely

linkedtothemusician’sear”(Ester,2005,p.1).Thevocalizationstepshouldbe

approachedimmediatelyafteraudiation.First,studentsshouldbegiventimetoaudiate

whattheyheardandthenaskedtovocalizewhattheyjustaudiated.Theaudiationstep

40

focusesonlisteningandwillallowthedevelopmentofmusicalunderstanding,while

vocalizingconfirmsretrievaloflearnedinformation.“Inordertobeverifiedaslearned,

entitiesmustberetrievedfromlong-termmemory.Itisgenerallysupposedthatthe

processcalledretrievalrequiresthatcertaincuesbeprovided,eitherbytheexternal

situationorbythelearner”(Gagné,1977,p.73).Whenstudentsorperformersvocalizethe

rhythmicpatternsofaspecificBrazilianpopularmusicstyle,instructorsandthestudents

themselvescanverifythatthematerialwaslearnedproperly.

Vocalizingwithasyllablesystem.Theuseofaneffectivesyllablesystemforthe

vocalizationofpatternsisveryimportanttotheprocessofassociation.Severalsyllable

systemsareusedinmusiceducation.Afewexamplesincludetakadimiorcountingfor

rhythmpatternsandvarioustonalsystemsthatapplysolfege:fixeddoormoveabledowith

do-andla-basedminoroptions,forexample.Thesesystemshelpstudentsmake

associations,learn,andreinforcelearnedmaterials.InBrazilianstylestheuseofsyllables

arealsoverycommon.Severalwordsarelooselyusedasmusicaltermsandassociated

withspecificpatternsorstyles.Wordslikeziriguidum,maracatuandtelecoteco,whichare

notactualtermsinBrazilianstyles,canbeassociatedwithdifferentpatternsandmusical

styles.Telecoteco(pronouncedteh-leh-coh-teh-coh)iscommonlyusedinsambaandit

“canbethoughtofasanequivalenttotheclaveinAfro-Cubanmusic.Oftenimpliedandnot

heard,itisanorganizingpatternthatfunctionsasatimeline”(Monteiro,2015,p.52).

Telecotecoisanonomatopoeicvocalizationofthetamborim(Braziliandrum)pattern,

whichisusedasshowninFigure4.4.

Figure4.4.Telecotecopattern. Accessaudiosamples

41

The“Te”and“Le”syllablesfallontheactualwrittennotes,whichareusuallyplayedwitha

stick,whileallthe“co”syllablesfallontheremaining16th-note-subdivisions,whichare

usuallytappedbythemiddlefingerofthehandholdingtheinstrument.Thisistheonly

patterninsambathathassyllablesattached,anditcanbehelpfulduringthelearning

process.Therefore,atthisstagestudentsshouldbegivenaseriesofsyllablesthatwillbe

associatedwithspecificsounds.Duringmyteachingcareer,Ihavedevelopedthesyllable

systemshowninTable4.1;theseareonomatopoeicsoundsassociatednotonlywiththe

instrumentbutalsowithproperinflections.AccesstheaudiosamplesforTable4.1tohear

thepronunciationofthesyllables.

Table4.1

RhythmVocalizationSyllables

Syllables Instrumentsassociated

Tu 1st,2ndand3rdsurdos,alfaia,zabumbalowersound(lowdrums)

Tum 1stand3rdsurdos,alfaia,zabumbalowertone(lowdrums)

Ts Chocalho,shequere(shakers),

K Chocalho,shequere(shakers),triangle

TeLecoTeco Tamborim(smallframedrumtraditionalfromBrazil)

Ke Gongue(Instrumentsimilartoacowbell)

Pa tarol,caixa(typesofsnaredrum),zabumbahighertone,

Bzz Tarol,caixa(whenrollingontheseinstruments)

T Chocalho,shequere(shakers),triangle

Tin Triangle

Gi Triangle

Keh Highertonesofwoodblocksandagogobells

Koh Lowertonesofwoodblockandagogobells

42

Thesyllablesarecombinedindifferentwaysdependingonwhichpatternisbeinglearned.

Idevelopedthissystemtohelpstudentsunderstandtheproperinflectionofeachpattern,

whichwillhelpnotonlywithestablishingassociationsandstoringthelearnedmaterialin

long-termmemorybutalsowithdevelopingauthenticity.Forexample,acommonpattern

ofthe3rdsurdo(lowdrumusedinsamba)isshowninFigure4.5.Althoughthisisonlyone

drum,thepatternwillhavedifferentsyllablesdependingonitsinflection.

Figure4.5.3rdsurdopattern. Accessaudiosamples

Tofullyunderstandtheapplicationandpronunciationofthesyllables,itwillbevery

helpfultolistentoaudiosamples.Eachfigurethatrequiresvocalizationandispartofthe

vocabularyhasacorrespondingaudiosampleat:

https://soundcloud.com/bruno-cabrera-40190673/sets/doctoral-dissertation-audio-examples

Also,thevocabularypatternsinAppendixBcanbeaccessedonthissamewebpage.The

followingexplanationsaresimplyattemptstoclarifytheuseofthesyllablesandtheir

associationswithspecificsoundsandpatterninflections;theaudiosampleswillbethebest

guidanceforunderstandingandmakingclearsyllabicassociations.Theaudioandvisual

materialsare,perhaps,evenmoreimportantthananyattemptatwrittenorverbal

explanationbecausemusic“isanaural,aesthetic,nonverbal,perceptual-motorskill”

(Kohut,1985,p.8).Visualmaterialscanbeanysourceinwhichthestudentcanseehow

somethingisperformed.Examplesofvisualmaterialsareinstructormodeling,YouTube

videos,andliveperformances.Eachsyllableisassociatedwithatypeofsound:forexample,

43

thesyllable“Tu”isassociatedwithashortnoteonlowdrums,whilethesyllable“Tum”–

alsoassociatedwithlowdrums–willrepresentalongnotewithmoreweighttoit.Note

that,forourpurposes,thewordweightisreferringdirectlytotheemphasisthatrelatesto

theinflectionwithinapattern.Injazz,forexample,beats2and4havemoreweightthan

beats1and3.Regardlessofthestyle,thesetwosyllablesshouldbeassociatedwithlow

drums.Ifthestudentisworkingonsamba,thesyllables“Tu”and“Tum”willbeusedto

learnthepatternsofthe1st,2nd,and3rdsurdos.Ifthestudentisworkingonmaracatu,those

syllablesareassociatedwiththealfaia(thelowdrumusedinmaracatu).Thesyllable“Pa”

isassociatedwithcaixa(atypeofsnaredrum)insamba,thehightoneofthezabumba(a

traditionalBraziliandrumwithalowandahightone)whenplayingbaião,thetarol(atype

ofsnaredrum)intheMaracatu,andsimilarinstruments.“T”and“K”areassociatedwith

shakersandthetriangleforsofterandshorternotes.“Ts”willbeusedonshakersfornotes

withmoreweightandareslightlylonger(thesoundisnotlonger,butitshouldbeaudiated

asalongernote).Thesyllables“Tin”and“Gi”onthetrianglehaveasimilarinflection.They

havemoreweight;however,ontriangletheyareactuallylonger.Whenplayingtriangle,the

performercanmuffletheinstrumentbyholdingitwithallfingersaswellasproducea

longernotebyopeningthehandthatholdstheinstrument,therebyallowingformore

resonance.Mufflednotesareassociatedwith“T”and“K”whileopennotesareassociated

with“Tin”and”Gi”.“Ke”isassociatedwiththegonguê(aninstrumentsimilartoacowbell).

Lastly,“Keh”and“Koh”areassociatedwithwoodblocksandagogobells–thefirstsyllable

forhigherpitchesandthesecondforlowerpitches.Figures4.6,4.7,and4.8showexamples

ofthesyllablesusedinbasicpatternsofsamba,maracatu,andbaião,respectively.

44

Figure4.6.Sambabasicpatterns. Accessaudiosamples

Figure4.7.Maracatubasicpatterns. Accessaudiosamples

45

Figure4.8.Baiãobasicpatterns. Accessaudiosamples

Afterlistening,audiating,andvocalizing,studentsshouldhaveamuchmore

completeunderstandingaboutthestyletheyarelearning.Again,itiscriticalfor

authenticitythatstudentsworkononlyonestyleatatimesothattheycanfocusonthe

appropriatepatterninflectionsineachstyle.Patterninflectionisakeyelementand

studentsshouldbeveryattentiveduringthelearningprocess,especiallywiththepatterns

thatarerhythmicallythesame.Oneexampleisthegonguêpatternofthemaracatu(see

Figure4.7)andhighzabumbapatternofbaião(seeFigure4.8).Althoughtheyare

rhythmicallyidentical,thesyllableusedforeachpatternisdifferent,asistheresulting

inflection.Inthisparticularcase,thepatternsareperformedoncompletelydifferent

instruments.Also,thegonguêpatternhasmoreweightonthedotted-eighthnotes,while

thezabumbahighpatternhasmoreweightonthelasteighthnote–thesecondeighthnote

ofbeattwo.Oncestudentsbecomefamiliarwiththestylebylisteningtoauthenticmusic,

audiatingisolatedpatternsandthemusicitself,andvocalizingassociatedsyllableswith

eachpattern,theywilldevelopanauthenticvocabulary.Thenextstepistoobservemore

46

experiencedplayersperforming.Throughobservingthoseplayers,studentswillstart

associatingmovementswiththesoundspreviouslydeveloped.

Observing

Aftervocalizing,studentswillbegintoobservevideosandperformancesthatcan

serveasmodels.Watchingmoreexperiencedplayerswillhelpthestudentsdevelopthe

understandingandconsciousnessofthetypesofmotionsthatshouldbeusedwhen

performing.Thisprocesswillbedevelopedthroughmotor-mimesis,whichislikeaudiation

formotorskills.Studentswillconsciouslythinkabouttheactionthatcreateseachspecific

soundtheyaretryingtoperform.

Imitating.Beforeactualphysicalpracticeandperformance,studentsneedto

understandhowtoproducethedesiredsoundsandinflectionsrelatedtothepatternsin

thestyletheyarelearning.Theycanbenefitfrommodeling:“fromobservingothersone

formsanideaofhownewbehaviorsareperformed,andonlateroccasionsthiscoded

informationservesasaguideforaction”(Bandura,1970,p.22).Whenwerefertodrums,

whicharethebasisformostBrazilianpopularmusicstyles,studentsneedtolearnand

understandhowdifferentsoundscanbeproducedonthesamedrum.Differenttimbresare

usedtoperformthepatternsthatarelatercombinedtocreateamusicstyle.Inorderto

understandthedifferenttimbresthatcanbeproducedwitheachinstrument,itis

necessarytoobserveactualperformancessothatstudentscanseehoweachpatternis

playedinitsoriginalsetting.Thisvisualcomponentcanbetransferredfromandappliedto

anyinstrument.Forexample,aclarinetstudentcanwatchvideosofasambaschoolbateria

(percussionensemble)tobetterunderstandtheinflectionsofeachpatternandoverallfeel

ofsamba,allowinghimtoeventuallyapplythatfeeltothemelodiclinetobeperformed.

Also,thesameclarinetistcouldwatchrenownedBrazilianclarinetistsandwatchfor

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performancepracticessuchasembouchure,breathingpatterns,andcommonfingerings.

AccordingtoBandura,humanslearnandformideasaboutnewbehaviorsthrough

modeling.Observingothersperformingmusichelpstoencodeinformationduringthe

learningprocess.

Motor-mimesis.Basedonthemotortheoryofperceptionasinitiallydevelopedin

linguistics,“wementallyimitatesound-producingactionswhenwelistenattentivelyto

music”(Godøy,2003,p.318).AccordingtoGodoythistheory

…wasfirstusedinlinguisticsasitbecamecleartosomeresearchersthatapurely

signal-basedmodelofperceptionwasnotgoingtoworkanditwouldbemore

fruitfultosuggestthatlistenersalsomakeaninternalimageofhowthesoundswere

assumedtobeproduced.(p.318)

Godøy(2003)developedatriangularmodelthatassociatessound,action,andvision.

Accordingtothemodel,thereisa“relationshipbetweenaction,visionandsoundinmusic

perceptionandcognition”,and“anysoundcanbeunderstoodasincludedinanaction

trajectory”(pp.317-318).Thismodelservesasthebasisformotor-mimesis,which

studentscanthinkofasthevisualparalleltoaudiation.Motor-mimesiscanbeappliedin

twodifferentways.First,whenlisteningtosounds,itispossibletoimaginetheactionthat

producedit.Forexample,whenapianistlistenstoamajorscaleonthepiano,shecan

imaginethefingeringusedtoperformthescale.Secondly,asound-producingactioncan

leadtoaudiationwhenthesamepianistperformsthatfingeringonatable.Duringthe

actionoffingeringthetable,hewillbeabletomentallyhearthescaleassociatedwiththe

fingering.Thathappensbecause“actionscantranslatefromthesonictothevisualand,

conversely,fromthevisualtothesonic”(Godøy,2003,p.318).Throughmotor-mimesis,

performersdevelopconnectionsandassociationsbetweensoundsandmovements;before

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theyphysicallyperform,theywillhaveaclearimageofhowtodoso.Whentheystart

practicingandperfectingtheirmotorskills,theywillberecreatingtheseimages.

Themotor-mimesisshouldbeappliedtoeachpatternseparatelyinordertodevelop

clearassociationsbetweenvision,sound,andaction.Motor-mimesiswillalsobeused

duringmentalpractice,whichcanbeveryusefulinmanysituations.Throughoutthe

learningprocess,especiallyduringlistening,studentscanimaginetheactionsassociated

witheachpatternormelodiclineandpracticementallyusingelementsofmotortheory,

“formingmotorprogramsthatre-codeandhelpstoremusicalsoundsinourminds”

(Godøy,2003,p.318).Beforeusingmentalpractice,however,studentsneedtodevelop

cognitivemotor-imaging,whichisthenextstepaftermotor-mimesis.

CognitiveMotor-Imaging

Cognitivemotor-imaging(CMI)isasynthesisofthepriorcomponentsoftheVLS:

listening,audiating,vocalizing,observing,andmotor-mimesis.Inordertosuccessfully

developCMI,studentswillneedtocreatestrongassociationsthatwillconnectallthe

elementsofeachindividualpatterntheylearned.ThemainpurposeofCMIistosynthesize

allpriorsteps,condensingthemintoamentalimagerythatwillserveasthefoundationfor

bothmentalpracticeandactualphysicalpractice.Additionally,studentswillstart

developingtheirownideasaboutthemusictheyarelearningtoperformandtheyshould

createasmanyassociationsaspossibletodevelopauthenticityandmotorskills.Thereare

differentlevelsofCMI;eachoneprovidesdifferentlevelsofassociations.Acognitive

motor-image(CM-image)canbedevelopedforasimplerhythmicpatternorfor

combinationsoftwoormorepatterns,creatingcomplexgroovesthatcharacterizeastyle.

ThelevelsofCMI.Conceptually,thereisnorestrictiontothenumberofCMIlevels

thatcanexist.EachlevelrepresentsthenumberofpatternsincludedintheCM-imageand

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itwillrelatetothedevelopmentofgroovescomposedbytwoormorepatterns.For

example,ifastudentisinthebeginningoftheprocessandlearningonepatternatthetime,

shewilldevelopaseriesofLevel1CM-images(sinceeachimagehasonlyonepattern),

whicharetreatedasthebasicvocabularyofaspecificstyle.Oncethevocabularyis

developed,studentswillmoveforwardandstarttocombinetwo,thenthree,thenfour

patterns.ALevel2CM-imagewillbecomposedoftwopatterns,aCM-imagewiththree

patternswillbeLevel3,andsoon.Conceptually,itispossibletodevelopCM-imageswith

asmanypatternsaspossibleandstudentsshoulddosoinordertodevelopeachstyleto

thehighestlevels;however,itisunlikelythatoneperformerwouldberequiredto

physicallyplaymorethanfourpatternssimultaneously.Forexample,melodicinstruments

playmelodiclinesmostofthetime;sometimestheyperformaccompanimentlinesthat

maysynthesizetwopatterns.Rhythmic/harmonicinstrumentspossiblyhavegrooves

combiningtwoorthreepatterns,whiledrummersandpercussionistscanhavegrooves

combininguptofourpatternssimultaneously.Anymorethanfourpatternswouldberare

and,ifattempted,severalcompromiseswouldhavetobemade;therefore,itwould

generateaninauthenticperformance.Again,itisstillconceptuallyacceptableandeven

encouragedtodevelopCM-imageswithafullorchestrationofpatterns,butanythingwith

morethanfourpatternswouldnotbeperformedbyonepersonalone.

CMILevel1.ThefirstlevelofCMIinvolvescreatinganimageofasinglepattern.For

example,astudentwhoislearningaboutsambawouldlistentoauthenticperformancesof

sambasongsandlistentothemainpatternsinisolation.Oneofthemainpatternsisthe1st

surdopatternshowninFigure4.9:

50

Figure4.9.1stsurdopattern. Accessaudiosamples

Afterlisteningtothispattern,studentswouldbegintounderstanditsinflection.Itisalong

notewithsomeemphasisduetothefactthatbeattwoisslightlystrongerthanbeatonein

thisstyle.Afterbecomingfamiliarwiththepattern–audiatingandrecognizingthispattern

inothersambatunes–thestudentwillcreateafirstassociation,inthiscasewiththe

syllable“Tum”,andthenbeginvocalizingit.Thenextstepistoobservehowthispatternis

played,includingwhatkindofmotionproducesthatspecificsound.Thisstepcreates

associationsbetweensound,vision,andaction(motor-mimesis).Theseassociationswill

allowstudentstoimaginethemselvesperformingthatpatternwhileaudiatingitwiththe

appropriatesyllableandinflection.Itisafairlystraightforwardprocedure:listening+

audiation+syllableassociation+motor-mimesis=Cognitivemotor-imaging.TheCMI

happenswhenonementallyvisualizesperformingsimultaneouswithaudiatingthe

resultingsoundsofthementalperformance.InstructorswhoareteachingBrazilian

popularmusicstylescanpresentthebasicpatternsofaparticularstyleinaone-hour

lesson,assumingthestudentisfamiliarwiththestyleasaresultoftheprerequisite

listeningtocorrelatedsongspriortothatlesson.AllstudentswhoarelearningBrazilian

popularmusicstyles,regardlessoftheirperformanceinstrument,needtodevelopCMI

Level1.Inadditiontothat,itwouldbeextremelyvaluabletolearnsomebasicperformance

skillsonthepercussioninstrumentonwhichthatpatternisoriginallyperformedora

similarinstrumentthatcloselyrelatestotheoriginal.Iftheinstructionalsettingdoesnot

allowforeitherofthosepossibilities,itcanalsobevaluabletoatleasttrytoair-playwitha

51

malletorappropriatestickinordertodevelopaminimumfamiliaritywiththefoundations

ofeachstyle.

ItisimportanttonotetwoimportantfactsaboutCMI.First,thereisnotyetactual

performingorphysicalpractice.Studentswilldevelopthemotor-mimesiscomponent–

visualizingthemotionsinvolvedinperformingthepattern(s)–buttheywillnotphysically

executethesemotionswhiledevelopingtheCM-image.Forexample,ifyouthinkaboutthe

actionofslammingadoor,theactioncanbecomeattachedtoaspecificsoundthatis

audiatedwhilevisualizingthataction.DuringCMIthereisnoactualdoorslammingor

physicalsoundpresent;rather,itispossiblethroughone’slifeexperiencetomentally

recreatethoseelements.Ifonehadneverexperiencedadoorslamming,itwouldbe

impossibletoimagineandmentallyrecreatetheactionandsound.Experienceisrequired.

Thesameappliesinthemusiclearningprocess:Listening,audiating,vocalizing,observing,

andmotor-mimesiswillbringtheexperience,afterwhichtheywillbesynthesizedintothe

CM-image.ThesecondimportantfactaboutCMIisthatitisthetransitionbetweenthe

VirtualandtheMotorlearningsequences.Althoughthereisnophysicalmovement

involvedinCMI,studentsmaytrytoair-performthoseactionsinordertoretrievewhat

wasobservedandlearned.AccordingtoChriss(2008),thisistrial-and-errorpractice,

whichispartofthenaturallearningprocess:“Itmeansrepeatingsomethingandmaking

adjustmentsuntiloneisabletoimitatethemodeleffectivelyorreproducethemental

image”(p.43).Inthispedagogicalapproach,CMIwilladdtotheideaofmentalimage,

creatinganimagerythatcontainsallthepriorstepsofthispedagogicalapproach.TheCM-

imageisstillamodel,butitincludesdetailedinformationabouteachsinglerhythmic

patternofagivenstyleandaseriesofassociationsbetweensoundandaction.After

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developingtheCM-image,sometrial-and-errorpracticewillhelpstudentsmakethe

appropriateadjustmentsbeforeusingthepracticestrategiesoftheMLS.

CMILevel2.CMILevel2consistsofdevelopingaCM-imagewithtwopatterns

simultaneouslybycombiningtheirelements.Todevelopthissecondlevel,itisnecessaryto

haveCMILevel1fullydeveloped.Forexample,astudentwhowentthroughtheprocessof

developingCMILevel1forthe1stand2ndsurdopatternsofsambacanstarttoaudiate

themsimultaneously,aswellasvocalizethem(seeFigure4.10).

Figure4.10.1stand2ndsurdopatterns. Accessaudiosamples

Studentswouldsimplysetametronometoaslowtempoandvocalize“Tu”onbeatoneand

“Tum”onbeattwo.NotethatforCMILevel2,thevocalizationstepwillalsobemore

complex,creatinganewvocalizationduringtheprocess.Forexample,whendeveloping

CMILevel1,thevocalizationstepwillhavethesyllablesofonlyonepattern,whileduring

thedevelopmentofCMILevel2,studentswillsynthesizesyllablesoftwodifferentpatterns

intoanewvocalization.Figure4.10hastwodifferentpatterns:1stsurdoassociatedwith

thesyllable“Tum”and2ndsurdoassociatedwiththesyllable“Tu”.Duringthedevelopment

ofCMILevel2,thosetwo,onceseparatevocalizations,willbecomeone:“Tu-Tum.”

TwodifferentdirectionscanbetakentodeveloptheLevel2CM-image.Thosetwo

pathscanalsobeusedinthefuturewhendevelopinglevels3and4.Thefirstoptionisto

approachthislevelintheexactsamemannerasCMILevel1:listentobothpatternsbeing

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playedsimultaneously,audiateandvocalizethemsimultaneouslywiththeassociated

syllables,observeaperformerplayingbothpatternstogether,usemotor-mimesistocreate

associationsbetweenthesoundandthemotions,andfinallysynthesizeallstepsintothe

Level2CM-image.Thesecondpathwouldrequiremoreeffortfromthestudentsandit

wouldfollowbasicallythesamestepsbutomitlisteningandobserving.Itwillforce

studentstodeveloptheirownideasratherthanfollowingwhattheylistenedtoor

observed.Ifthisapproachisused,studentsmustfullyrelyonwhatwaslearnedduringthe

developmentofCMILevel1.Thestepsthenwouldbetoaudiatebothpatternstogether

basedonlisteningtoeachpatternseparatelyduringCMILevel1,vocalizebothpatterns

withtheassociatedsyllables,anddevelopthemotor-mimesisbasedonobservingeach

patternseparatelyduringCMILevel1.Followingthosethreesteps,thestudentsmust

adjusttheirimagestocreatetheLevel2CM-imageandadapttheiraudiationandmotions

asnecessary.Thefirstapproachwouldsimplyreuseallthestepsandstudentswouldlisten

andobserveexactlywhathastobedone,whilethesecondwouldskiplisteningand

observing,requiringstudentstoadaptlearnedmaterials,developnewideas,andcreatea

newCM-image.Noresearchbasisexiststoconfirmwhichwouldbemoreeffectiveorlead

toamoreauthenticperformance.Myexperienceasaninstructorsuggeststhateach

studentrespondsdifferently.Someareabletousethesecondapproacheffectively,while

othersareabletoachievethesameresultsbyredoingallthesteps.Therefore,itseemsbest

tocommunicatebetweeninstructorandstudenttodefinetheapproachthatismost

effectiveandefficient.Regardlessofthedirectiontaken,itwillresultinthedevelopmentof

anotherCM-imagewithbothpatternstogether:Imaginetheactionthatcreateseachsound

plusaudiatethesyllablesand/ortheactualsoundofthedrums.

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CMILevel3.CMILevel3consistsofdevelopingaCM-imagewiththreepatterns

simultaneously.ItisdevelopedintheexactsamemannerasCMILevel2,nowaddinga

thirdpattern.Todevelopthethirdlevel,studentsarerequiredtohaveafullydeveloped

Level2CM-imageand,asaprerequisite,twodifferentpatternsfullydevelopedinCMI

Level1.Thispedagogicalapproachisstructuredasifyouwereconstructingabuilding:Itis

notpossibletobuildthethirdfloorwithouthavingthesecondandthefirstproperly

structured.ForCMILevel3thestudentswouldaddathirdpattern,whichwaspreviously

developedasLevel1CM-imageandintegratedintoaLevel2CM-image.Forexample,a

guitarorpianostudentlearninghowtoplaybossanovawouldplaythegrooveshownin

Figure4.11.

Figure4.11.Pianoandguitarbossanovagroove.

Figure4.11presentsacommonrhythmicaccompanimentforbossanovaonguitar

andpiano,whereeachcolorrepresentsadifferentpattern:blue=1stsurdo,black=2nd

surdo,andgreen=bossanovapattern.ThestepstoreachCMILevel3forthisgroove

wouldbetodevelopaLevel1CM-imageforeachoneofthethreepatterns,developaLevel

2CM-imagewiththe1stand2ndsurdopatterns,andfinallyaddthebossanovapattern.

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DuringthedevelopmentofCMILevel3,studentsshouldlistentoallthreepatterns

simultaneously,thenaudiatethem.Whenreachingthevocalizationstep,anothersynthesis

willbenecessary.Inadditiontobothsurdopatterns,studentswillvocalizethebossanova

pattern,synthesizingallthreeintoanewvocalizationlevel.Whenvocalizingthesethree

patternssimultaneously,somesyllableswouldbeomittedbecausetheyoccurattheexact

sameplaceintime;inthisexample,thathappensonbeatoneofthefirstmeasure.

Therefore,thestudentwillneedtochoosebetweenvocalizingthe2ndsurdo’ssyllable“Tu”

andthefirstnoteofthebossanovapattern,whichwillbethesyllable“Pa”.Thetwooptions

areshowninFigure4.12.

Figure4.12.Vocalizationoptionsforbossanovagrooveonpianoandguitar.

Accessaudiosamples

Itwouldbebesttousetheoptionthatbestcharacterizesthestyle.InthiscaseitisOption

1.Inbossanova,beatoneistheweakest:The2ndsurdonoteisnotasimportantor

stylisticallycharacteristicasthebossanovapattern,whichdifferentiatesthisgroovefrom

otherstylessuchassambaandchoro.Allthreestyleshavethefirstandsecondsurdo

patterns,butonlythebossanovahasthebossanovapattern;therefore,thefirstoption

wouldbetheonethatcharacterizesbossanovabeyonddoubt.Buthowwouldstudents

knowwhenandhowtomakethosechoices?Inthebeginning,teacherswouldneedto

56

guidetheirstudentsandpresentthebestoptionsforeachstyle.Themorestudentslearn

abouteachstyle,themoretheywillbeabletomaketherightchoicesandcreatetheirown

ideasabouteachstyle.Notethatthisexampleisfairlysimplecomparedtomoreadvanced

bossanovagrooves.Bothinstructorsandstudentsneedtokeepinmindthatvariations

playanimportantroleinBrazilianpopularmusicstylesand,asbeginners,studentsmust

startwiththesimplestversionsofthemainpatternssotheywillnotbeoverwhelmedwith

complexpatternsinthefuture.

AnotherCMILevel3exampleisthebossanovagrooveshowninFigure4.13,which

presentsoneofthemanypossiblegroovesofbossanovaonthedrumset.

Figure4.13.Bossanovaonthedrumset.

Thisgrooveisacombinationofthreepatterns:blue=1stsurdo,black=2ndsurdo,and

green=bossanovapattern.ThedrummerinthiscasewouldneedtodevelopaLevel3CM-

image,vocalizingtheentiregroovebycombiningthesyllablesofeachone.Inthiscasethe

studentwoulduse“Tum”forthe1stsurdo,“Pa”forthesnaredrum,and“Tu”forthe2nd

surdo,asinFigure4.14.

Figure4.14.Vocalizationofdrumsetbossanovagroove. Accessaudiosamples

57

Thisvocalization–alongwiththepriorlistening,audiation,andmotor-mimesis–

generatestheCognitiveMotor-ImagingatLevel3.OncestudentsareabletogenerateaCM-

imageandvocalizeitwiththeproperinflectionsandfeel,theywillalreadyhavedeveloped

authenticconceptsandknowledgeaboutthestyle;theonlyremainingcomponentwillbe

totransferthatknowledgetotheinstrument.Asareminder,althoughactualphysical

practiceisnotintegratedintoCMI,studentsarewelcometodotrial-and-errorpracticeto

verifytheirprogressandmakeappropriateadjustments.Atthisstagethetrial-and-error

practiceshouldhappeninthepresenceofaninstructorormoreexperiencedplayerswho

wouldbeabletoguidethestudentsappropriately,pointingoutmistakesthattheymaynot

beabletoperceiveyet.

CMILevel4.CMILevel4incorporatesfourpatternsatthesametime;itfollowsthe

samestepsfromCMILevel3andaddsanotherpattern.Wecanusetheexamplefrom

Figure4.13andaddanotherpatterntothedrumsetbossanovagroove(seeFigure4.15).

Usuallythatgroovewouldbeplayedwithbrushesonthesnaredrum,withtherighthand

playingsixteenthnotesthatdepicttheshakerpatternwhilethelefthandaccentuatesthe

bossanovapattern.

Figure4.15.Bossanovawithbrushesonthedrumset.

Thepatternsinthisexampleare:shaker=orange(righthandbrush),bossanovapattern=

green(lefthandbrushaccents),1stsurdo=blue,2ndsurdo=black.Keepinmindthatboth

surdopatternsareplayedonthebassdrum,eachwithitsowninflection.

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Figure4.16.Vocalizationofdrumsetbossanovagroovewithfourpatterns.

Accessaudiosamples

Withthisvocalization,studentscandeveloptheirLevel4CM-imageforbossanova.

TheseCMIlevelswillserveasaguideforthephysicalpracticeduringtheMotor

LearningSequence.AlthoughitispossibletocreateaCM-imagewithfive,six,orevenmore

patterns,itwouldbeeitherimpossibleforthestudenttorecreatesuchimagerieslateror

notnecessaryinanensemblesetting.Moreover,ifsuchcombinationscouldbephysically

recreatedbyoneperson,thepatternswouldmostlikelybetoocompromised,resultingin

lessauthenticgrooves.IntermsofusingCMIinthelearningprocess,thedevelopmentof

differentlevelswillbethesameforeverystudentofanyinstrument;however,students

whoplaypercussion,drumset,pluckedstrings,andotherrhythmicinstrumentswillneed

todevelopseveralCM-imagesatlevels2,3,and4sothattheycandevelopavarietyof

authenticgrooves.Ontheotherhand,studentswhoplaymelodicinstrumentswillrequire

justenoughtounderstandthemaincharacteristicsofeachstyleandthenapplythemto

theirmelodiclines.Melodicinstrumentplayerswillneedtolearnaminimumoffour

patternsforeachnewstylelearned.EachoneofthesepatternswillgenerateaLevel1CM-

image.Later,twoofthosepatternswillbecombinedtocreateoneLevel2,thenathird

patternwillbeaddedtocreateoneLevel3,andfinallythefourthwillbeaddedcreating

oneLevel4CM-image,sothattheycandevelopastrongfoundationfortheauthenticityof

themelodiestheywillbeperforming.Studentswhoperformonrhythmicinstruments

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(eitherharmonicorpercussion)willneedtodevelopthesameCM-imagesasmelodic

instrumentsplusafewotherLevel1CM-imagesinordertohaveavastvocabulary.Later,

suchplayerswilldevelopseveralcombinationsoftwo,three,andsometimesfourpatterns

usingthevocabulary.CombinationsoftwopatternswillbedevelopedasLevel2CM-

images,combinationsofthreepatternsasLevel3CM-images,andcombinationsoffour

patternsasLevel4CM-images.Therewillbecountlessoptionsofcombinationsasthe

studentprogressestohigherlevels.Somecombinationswillbeeffectivewhilesomemay

notbe.Todeterminewhichoneswillworkinthestyle,studentswouldalwayslistento

musicsothattheycananalyze,recognize,andassesswhicharethemostcommon

combinations–again,alwaysrememberingthatpatternswillbevariedandthose

variationsareessentialforauthenticity.

Usingcognitivemotor-imagingwithdifferentinstrumentalists.The

developmentofcognitivemotor-imaginglevelsisthesameforeveryinstrumentalist:Every

studentwillbegintheirstudiesofBrazilianpopularmusicbydevelopingfourmain

patternsforeachoneofthestylestheyarelearning.Bothinstructorsandstudentsmust

keepinmind,however,thatitisofgreatimportancetoworkononestyleatatimetoavoid

confusionabouttheproperinflections.Thissectionwillguidethereaderthroughthemain

patternsandthedevelopmentoffourlevelsofCMIforthefivemostpopularstylesof

Brazilianmusic:samba,bossanova,choro,baião,andmaracatu.Itwillalsoaddresswhatis

requiredfromeachinstrumentalisttodevelopauthenticity.Thefirststepsarecommon

amongallinstrumentalists.Rhythmicinstrumentplayerswillberequiredtodevelopmore

optionsforeachlevel.Finally,percussionistsanddrummerswillberequiredtodevelopa

greatervarietyofoptions,synthesizingmorepatternsandcreatingavarietyof

combinations.

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Samba.ThefirststepindevelopingthelevelsofCMIforsambaistolistentoseveral

recordingsofthestyle.Aftergoingthroughtheaudiation,vocalization,observation,and

motor-mimesissteps,thestudentswillbereadytodevelopCMILevel1.Thefourmain

patternstobedevelopedinsambaareshowninFigure4.17.

Figure4.17.Sambamainpatternswithsyllables.Accessaudiosamples

One-by-one,eachofthepatternswillbedevelopedintoLevel1CM-images,startingwith

thechocalho(shaker)pattern,thenthe1stsurdo,followedbythe2ndsurdo,andfinallythe

telecotecopattern,whichisthemostcomplexamongallfourpatterns.Thestepsare:

1. Listentosambatunes.

2. Listentochocalhopatternisolated

3. Listenandrecognizechocalhopatterninavarietyofsambatunes.

4. Audiatechocalhopattern.

5. Vocalizechocalhopattern.

6. Observeperformancesandobservehowtoperformthechocalhopattern.

7. Associatevision,action,andsound(motor-mimesis)ofthechocalhopattern.

61

8. SynthesizethepriorsevenstepsintoCMILevel1ofthechocalhopattern.

9. Engageintrial-and-errorpracticeofthechocalhopatternundersupervision.

Thestudentsshouldfollowallninestepsforthe1stsurdo,2ndsurdo,andtelecoteco

patterns,respectively.

AfterdevelopingtheLevel1CM-imagesforallfourpatterns,studentswilldevelopa

Level2CM-imagecombiningthechocalhoandthe1stsurdopatterns.Whenlistening,be

awareofthepossibilityofvariationsandthat,inseveraltunes,somepatternsmaybe

playedbydifferentinstruments.Forexample,thesurdopatternmaybeplayedonthe

drumset’sbassdrum,floortom,orothertraditionalinstruments.Additionally,patterns

couldbevaried.Similarly,thechocalhopatternmaybeplayedbyagreatvarietyofshakers,

reco-recos(traditionalinstrumentsimilartoaguiro),hi-hat,etc.Regardlessofwhich

instrumentisplayingthepattern,thestudentneedstobeabletorecognizeit.The

instructorwillneedtoguidethestudentverythoroughlyduringthisstep.Themore

studentslistenandrecognizepossibilities,thelessinvolvedtheinstructorshouldbe.From

aninstructor’sperspective,itisimportanttochallengethestudentsorelsetheywillnot

becomeabletodeveloprecognitionskills.ThestepstodeveloptheLevel2CM-imagewith

chocalhoand1stsurdoare:

1. Listentosambatunestryingtorecognizebothpatternsatthesametime.

2. Audiatebothpatternssimultaneously.

3. VocalizebothpatternssimultaneouslyasshowninFigure4.18

Figure4.18.Vocalizationofchocalhoand1stsurdopattern.

Accessaudiosamples

62

4. Associatevision,action,andsound(motor-mimesis)ofbothpatterns

simultaneously.

5. SynthesizethepriorfourstepsintoCMILevel2.

6. Engageintrial-and-errorpracticeofbothpatternstogether.

AfterdevelopingtheLevel2CM-imagewiththechocalhoand1stsurdopatterns,students

willdeveloptheLevel3CM-imagebyaddingthe2ndsurdopatternthroughthefollowing

steps:

1. Listentosambatunes,tryingtorecognizeallthreepatternsatthesametime.

2. Audiatepatternssimultaneously.

3. VocalizepatternssimultaneouslyasshowninFigure4.19

Figure4.19.Vocalizationofchocalho,1stand2ndsurdopatterns.

Accessaudiosamples

4. Associatevision,actionandsound(motor-mimesis)ofallpatternssimultaneously.

5. SynthesizepriorfourstepsintoCMILevel3.

6. Engageintrial-and-errorpracticepatternstogether(forrhythmicinstruments,

percussionanddrumsetplayersonly).

Finally,todeveloptheLevel4CM-image,studentswilladdthetelecotecopatterntothe

alreadydevelopedLevel3CM-image.Thestepsarethefollowing:

1. Listentosambatunes,tryingtorecognizeallfourpatternsatthesametime.

2. Audiatepatternssimultaneously.

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3. VocalizepatternssimultaneouslyasshowninFigure4.20.

Figure4.20.Vocalizationofchocalho,1st,2ndsurdos,andtelecotecopatterns.

Accessaudiosamples

4. Associatevision,action,andsound(motor-mimesis)ofallpatternssimultaneously.

5. SynthesizethepriorfourstepsintoCMILevel4.

6. Engageintrial-and-errorpracticepatternstogether(forpercussionanddrumset

only).

Notethatthemorepatternsyoucombine,themorecompromisesneedtobemade

intermsofvocalizationofsyllables;however,theaudiationcomponentneednotsufferany

loss.Oncestudentsreachthislevel,theywillhaveastrongfoundationtostartthephysical

practiceontheirinstruments.Bothstudentsandinstructorsmustkeepinmindthatthe

patternspresentedheretocreatethesambaLevel4CM-imageareastartingpoint;other

patternsmaybeincorporatedand/orsubstitutedtocreatemorevarietyinthefuture.The

morevocabularystudentslearn,thebettertheywillspeakthelanguage;themorethey

listentohowthislanguageisspoken,themoretheywillcontextualizethewords(patterns)

withinthelanguage(style).

BossaNova.ThedevelopmentofallfourlevelsofCMIforbossanovawillbeexactly

thesameasitisforsamba.Thefirstthreepatternsarealsothesameandthetelecoteco

patternwillbesubstitutedwiththebossanovapattern.Intermsofcharacterand

inflection,mostofthebossanovatunesaremorelaidbackthansamba.Whilesambaisa

veryenergeticstyle,usuallyatfastertempos(withalargenumberofexceptions),thebossa

novahasamore“chill”characterandslowertempos.KeepinmindthattheBPM(beatsper

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minute)onthemetronomeisnotexactlywhatdifferentiatesthesetwostyles;itisamatter

ofhowthetempoisapproached,howtheinflectionsaredifferent,andhowthepatternsare

treatedinthedeterminedtempos.Thisdifferencewillbeveryclearoncestudentsstartto

listentobossanovatunes.Theywillbeabletorecognizemanypatternsstudiedduringthe

sambasectionbutthecharacterwillbedifferent.Thepatternsforthissectionareshownin

Figure4.21.

Figure4.21.PatternsfordevelopmentofCMIinbossanova. Accessaudiosamples

Followingthesamestepspresentedinthesambasection,thestudentswilldevelop

CM-imagesforlevels1through4usingthepatternsfromFigure4.21.Itisimportantto

startwiththechocalhopatternfollowedby1stsurdo,2ndsurdo,andfinallythebossanova

pattern.SeethevocalizationofCMIlevels2,3and4inFigure4.22.

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CMILevel2vocalization

CMILevel3vocalization

CMILevel4vocalization

Figure4.22.CMIvocalizationforbossanova. Accessaudiosamples

Tounderstandthesubtledifferencesbetweensambaandbossanova,thestudentsare

requiredtolistentobossanovatunesduringtheentireprocess.Oncestudentshaveboth

sambaandbossanovastylesdeveloped,theyshouldbeencouragedtolistentosongsof

bothstylesandcomparetheirelementssothattheycanfurtherunderstandthedifferences

ofinflectionandcharacter.

Choro.TheVLSproceduresshouldbeappliedinchoroleadingtothedevelopment

ofallCMIlevels.Afterlisteningtochorosongs,studentswillproceedinthesamemanner.

Followingthesamestepsofthepriorstyles,developingLevel1CM-imagesforeachsingle

patterninFigure4.23.

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Figure4.23.PatternsfordevelopmentofCMIinchoro. Accessaudiosamples

The1stand2ndsurdopatternsarethesameinchoroastheyareinsambaandbossanova.

Thechocalhopattern,althoughrhythmicallyidenticaltothepriorstyles,hasadifferent

inflection.Thesyllablesareplacedinamannertoemphasizethesecondandthefourth

16th-notesofeachbeat.Thesameemphasisispresentedinthechorofeelpattern,whichis

notanactualrhythmicpatternpresentinthestyle,butitisstronglyembeddedinthe

overallfeel.Likejazz,whereeveryplayeremphasizesbeats2and4,choroemphasizesthe

2ndand4thsixteenthnotesofeachbeat;therefore,itisanimportantelementtobe

developed.Italsowillhelpstudentsdifferentiatechorofromsambaandbossanova,aswell

asfullycharacterizethestyle.WhendevelopingCM-imagesforthechorofeelpattern,the

studentsshouldcarefullylistentotheweightputonthosenotes.Todevelopthemotor-

mimesisportionoftheCMIinthisimpliedpattern,studentscandevelopanimageryof

themselvesclappingthechorofeel.Whenusingtrial-and-errorpractice,itisimportantto

dosowithametronome,especiallyinthiscasewhentheproperstylisticfeelandpattern

inflectionhavemoreweightonsyncopationsandupbeats.ThevocalizationforCMILevel3

isshowninFigure4.24.

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Figure4.24.VocalizationofCMILevel3forchoro. Accessaudiosamples

Sincethe4thpatternisareinforcementofthechocalhopatterninflection,thevocalization

forCMILevel4wouldsubstitutethesyllable“Ts”forthesyllable“Pa”asshowninFigure

4.25.However,theLevel4CM-imagewillincorporatebothpatternsinthementalimagery.

Figure4.25.VocalizationofCMILevel4forchoro. Accessaudiosamples

Baião.BaiãoisoriginallyfromnortheastBrazilanditssettingisusuallyatrio

consistingofzabumba,triangle,andaccordion.ThroughthestepsoftheVirtualLearning

Sequence,studentscandevelopallfourlevelsofCMIusingthepatternsshowninFigure

4.26.

Figure4.26.PatternsfordevelopmentofCMIinbaião.Accessaudiosamples

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AfterdevelopingtheLevel1CM-imageofthebaiãopatternsintheordershownin

Figure4.26,studentswilldevelopCMIlevels2,3,and4.ThefourLevel1CM-imagesand

CMIlevels2,3and4aremeantforallinstrumentalists.Figure4.27presentsthe

vocalizationforthevariouslevels.

VocalizationofCMILevel2

VocalizationofCMILevel3

VocalizationofCMILevel4

Figure4.27.VocalizationofCMIlevels2,3,and4ofbaião. Accessaudiosamples

NotethatthevocalizationofCMILevel4doesnotincludethewoodblockpattern.This

patternhasaroleofemphasizingtheupbeats,andsuchinflectionalsohappensbetween

thetriangleandthehighzabumbapattern.Therefore,thewoodblockpatternisimpliedin

thevocalization.Likeinthechorostyle,bothpatternswillbepresentinCMILevel4,but

onlyoneappearsinthevocalization.Studentswhoplayrhythmicinstrumentsshould

developmoreoptions,creatingaseriesofcombinations.Thosecombinationswillbe

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developedasadditionalCM-imagesinlevels2,3,and4,dependingonhowmanypatterns

areused.

Maracatu.Theproceduresformaracatuarethesameasthepreviousstyles.The

patternsforCMIdevelopmentareshowninFigure4.28andFigure4.29.

Figure4.28.PatternsfordevelopmentofCMIinmaracatu. Accessaudiosamples

MaracatuCMILevel2vocalization

MaracatuCMILevel3vocalization

Figure4.29.MaracatuvocalizationforCMIlevels2and3. Accessaudiosamples

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ForthevocalizationoftheLevel4CM-image,wewillhaveanexceptiontothegeneralrules.

ThesyllablesystemwillnothelpthevocalizationandthedevelopmentofCMILevel4for

maracatu;moreover,itwouldmakethelearningprocessmoredifficultandtheresults

wouldbefarlesseffective.Ifweweretofollowthesyllablespresented,wewouldhavethe

vocalizationshowninFigure4.30.

Figure4.30.PotentialmaracatuvocalizationforCMILevel4.

However,thevocalizationinFigure4.30willgoagainstthecharacteristicsofthestyle,

makingittoobusy,toocomplextovocalize,andineffectiveforaudiation.Allpatternsare

partiallypresent,buttoocompromisedtobemeaningful.Forthatreasonitisimportantto

keeptheoverallrhythmicskeletonthatmostcharacterizesthemaracatu,asshownin

Figure4.31.

Figure4.31.Rhythmicskeletonofmaracatu.

Havingadottedeighth-noteonthedownbeatwillprovideformoreauthenticaudiationand

vocalization,ratherthantryingtosqueezeallthesyllablesforallpatternsasshownin

Figure4.30.Still,theaudiationandtheLevel4CM-imagewillcontainallfourpatterns,

includingthegonguêpatternthatwasleftoutofthevocalization.NotethatCMIlevels2

and3startwithaneighth-note,creatingabreakandpreventinghavingsixteenthnoteson

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allbeatsofthemeasure.Thatbreakisextremelyimportantfortheauthenticityofthisstyle.

Lastly,thesyllablesusedtovocalizetheLevel4CM-imageofmaracatuwillbedifferent

thanthesyllablesweusedsofar.Wewillusethesyllablesfromthenameofthestyle–Ma-

Ra-Ca-Tu–thenewsyllablesandvocalizationcanbeseeninFigure4.32.

Figure4.32.VocalizationofCMILevel4ofMaracatu.Accessaudiosamples

Bothsyllables“Tu”and“Tum”canbeusedonthedownbeat,but“Tum”isrecommended

sinceitissupposedtobeperformedlongerandwithmoreweightthanbeatstwo,three,

andfour.

CMIinvolvesthedevelopmentofthementalimageriesthatwillbepracticed.Each

stylewillhaveitsownvocabularyofrhythmicpatterns,whichwillgenerateitsownsetof

CM-imagesinfourdifferentlevels,allowingstudentstohaveaclearobjectiveduringtheir

practicesessions.Eachstyleapproachedinthisdissertationhascountlessrhythmic

patternsandpatternvariationsthatmaybecombined,creatingdifferentgroovesforeach

instrument.EachcombinationwillgenerateanewCM-imagethathastobedevelopedprior

toanypracticesession.AfterthedevelopmentofaCM-image,studentswillmentally

practiceitbeforetheactualphysicalpractice.

MentalPractice Mentalpracticeisanimportantstepinthelearningprocess;itwillintroducethe

developmentofmotorskillsandbepartoftheMLS.Thisstepfunctionsasabridge

betweentheVLSandtheMLS.Notethatstudentsdonotactuallyplayanythingatthis

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point;however,theyshouldhaveaveryclearideaabouthowtodoso.Musiciansmay

overlooktheimportanceofmentalpractice,but“asasupplementtonormalphysical

practicing,mentalpracticingcanhelpusimprovemuchmorequickly”(Gebrian,2015,p.

33).Researchshowsthat,whendevelopingmotorskills,theportionofthemotorcortexthat

controlsthatactivitybecomeslarger.Thesameresearchtestedtwogroupsandfound“thatthis

areaofthemotorcortexgotlargerinthementalpracticegroupaswell”(Gebrian,2015,p.33).

Mentalpracticehasmanybenefitsforthedevelopmentofefficientandconsistentmotorskills

toperformBrazilianpopularmusicstyles.Additionally,itcanreducethetimespentinactual

physicalpractice.TheresultsofresearchconductedbyAlvaroPascual-Leoneandhis

colleaguesattheNationalInstituteofHealthdemonstratehowmentalpracticecandevelop

skillsalmosttothesamelevelasactualphysicalpractice.Twogroupsweretestedand

accordingtoGebrian(2015):

…afterfivedays,thegroupthatonlypracticedmentallycouldplayitatthesame

levelasthephysicalpracticegroupachievedafterthreedays.Thementalpractice

groupwasthenallowedtopracticeatthekeyboardfortwohours,afterwhichthey

couldplayitperfectly.(p.32)

Atthispointofthelearningprocess,studentswillbeencouragedtomentally

practicetheCM-imagestheyhavedeveloped.Theywillbementallypracticingthemotions

theylearnedbyobservingothersplay(motor-mimesis)whileaudiatingandvocalizingthe

appropriatesyllablesassociatedwitheachpattern.Notethatmentalpracticeisnotthe

sameasdevelopingCM-images.Practice(eithermentalorphysical)impliesrepetitionofa

procedurewithintenttoimprove.DuringCMIstudentsdevelopandcreateimageriestobe

practiced.OncetheCM-imagesarecreated,theywillbepracticed(repeateduntil

improved),mentallyandthenphysically.Duringthementalpracticestep,studentsmay

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starttotrysomeactualphysicalmovements,asiftheywereair-playingtheirinstrument;

however,aninstructorshouldoverseetheminordertoassuretheyareusingtheproper

motions.AccordingtoGebrian(2015):

Listening,singing,andmoving,aswellasjustthinkingaboutourmusicawayfrom

ourinstrumentswillleadtoimprovement.Oncewedoactuallyplaywhatwehave

practicedmentally,itwilltakefarlesstimetogetittothedesiredlevelthanifthey

hadonlypracticedphysically.(p.33)

Whilementallypracticingandair-playingsomeofthemotions,studentscouldverifytheir

techniquefromanyvideosamplestheywereinstructedtowatchinordertolearnthose

motionsinthefirstplace.ItisimportanttonotethatdevelopingtheCM-imageand

mentallypracticingthemotionswillnotmakethemotorskillpracticecompletelymistake-

free,butitwillsignificantlyreducethetimespentonit.

Inthispedagogicalapproach,thementalpracticeportionisdividedintotwosteps:

mentalpracticeoftheCM-imageandmentalpracticeoftheCM-imagewiththeadditionof

physicalaction.Bothstepswillhappeninparallelsothattheinstructorandthestudentcan

makesurethepracticeissuccessful.

Step1:MentalpracticeoftheCM-image.Thestudentwillstartbypracticinga

pre-selectedCM-image.Itwillhappeninternally:inthestudent’sbrainwithoutmakingany

soundormotion.StudentswillimaginethemselvesperformingtheCM-image,repeatingit

untiltheycanclearlyaudiateandmentallyseeeverymotionincorporatedinthatCM-

image.Inlikemannertophysicalpractice,mentalpracticeinvolvesrepetitionuntiloneis

abletoreproducemotionsandsounds.Therefore,studentswillspendafewminutes

imaginingthemselvesplayingwhilesimultaneouslyaudiatingthemusicalpattern.

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Step2:MentalpracticeofCM-imageplusphysicalaction.Afterafewtriesof

stepone,studentscanstartvocalizingandphysicallyreproducingthemotionsassociated

withtheCM-imagetheyarepracticing.Theair-playingwillhelpinstructorsandstudents

verifytheirinitialperformingskills.Oncemore,afewrepetitionsandadjustmentswillbe

necessaryuntiltheybecomeabletoperfectlyreproducetheCM-image.

Studentswillneedtogobackandforthbetweenbothstepsuntiltheyachievethe

desiredresult.Besidesdevelopingauthenticperformances,thisapproachwillallow

studentstobecometheirownteacherssincetheywillcreatestrongmentalimageriesof

whatneedstobeachieved.Studentswillneedtocomparewhattheymentallyseeand

audiatetowhattheyactuallydowhentheyaddthephysicalaction.Inamannerof

speaking,studentsbecomeself-taught,whichisanotherinformalwaytoacquireskillsand

knowledgewidelyusedbynativeBrazilianswhoarelearningtoperformtheirmusic.The

mentalpracticeanditsstepsfunctionasabridgeintotheMLS,whenstudentswillkeep

followingthementalpracticesteps.Theonlydifferencewillbethattheywillactuallybe

performingontheirinstrumentandencouragedtosingalongwiththesyllablesunlessthey

performwindinstruments;inthatcase,thevocalizationwillnotbepossibleforobvious

reasons.

SummaryoftheVLS

DuringtheVLS,studentsareexposedtoauthenticmusic,creatingastrong

background.Eachelementofthesequenceissynthesized,servingasafoundationtothe

MLSandtheactualphysicaldevelopmentoftechnicalskills.NotethattheVLSdoesnot

requirestudentstoplayanything.Itismeanttoteachauthenticitythroughlistening,

audiating,andvocalizing,andthendevelopingassociationsbetweensoundsandactions

throughobservingandmotor-mimesis.Alltheseelementsaresynthesized,generatinga

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seriesofCM-imagesthatserveasthefoundationtomentalpracticeandtheactualmotor

skilldevelopment.Figure4.33showstheVLSstep-by-step.

Figure4.33.VLSstep-by-step.

AfterthoroughlydevelopingeachstepoftheVLS,theactualmotorskillswillbedeveloped.

OncetheCM-imagesaredevelopedandmentallypracticed,studentswillusethestepsof

theMLStodeterminethemostappropriatesequenceofpatternsforphysicalpracticeand

preferredstrategiestobeusedduringthepracticesessions.

Listening• Passive• Pattern• Recognition

Audiating

Vocalizing

Motor-mimesis

CMI

Mentalpractice

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MotorLearningSequence

TheMotorLearningSequence(MLS)isdividedintotwomaincategories:motorskill

development–addressinghowtoorganizemusicalpatternsandtechnicalelementsina

sequence–andpracticestrategies–addressinghowtoorganizepracticesectionsinan

effectivemanner.TheMLSwillbringtolifetheCM-imagesdevelopedduringtheVLS.After

mentallypracticingtheCM-images,studentswillstartdevelopingphysicalmotorskillsvia

agradualsequenceofpracticingpatternsfromeachstyle.Duringthemotorskill

developmentprocess,studentswilllearnhowtodefinethesequenceinwhichthepatterns

shouldbepracticedandhowtostarttheprocessofcombiningpatternstocreategrooves.

Eachstylewillhaveitsownprogression,createdbasedontherhythmicstructureofeach

patternandrelatedpsychomotorfactors.Afterdefiningthesequenceinwhichpatternswill

bepracticed,studentswillapplyresearch-basedpracticestrategiestomaximize

effectivenessandefficiency.

MotorSkillDevelopment

PerformingBrazilianpopularmusicstylesdemandshighlevelsofmotorskillsforall

performers,althougheachinstrumentwillrequiredifferentlevelsofmotordevelopment.

Forexample,adrummerwhoislearningtoperformsambamayencounterorcreate

groovescontainingfourdifferentpatternsplayedsimultaneously,whileaflutistwouldplay

asinglemelodyorsometimesanaccompanimentlinethatcombinestwodifferentpatterns.

Whicheverthecasemaybe,thereisahighprobabilitythatoneperformerwillatsome

pointperformtwoormorepatternssimultaneously,synthesizingthefunctionsoftwoor

moreperformersfromtheoriginalsambasetting.Similarapplicationsareencounteredin

manyotherBrazilianpopularmusicstyles.Developingmotorskillsis,perhaps,themost

time-consumingtaskinperformers’lives;however,thisdemandingprocesscanbeeased

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byutilizingappropriatelearningsequences.Inmanycases,andespeciallyinBrazilian

popularmusicstyles,itisimportanttopracticeeachpatternseparatelybeforecombining

them;“whentoomuchinformationispresentedatonce,ourshort-termmemorybecomes

overwhelmedandunabletoprocessit”(Luckner,1990,p.101).Manytypesofinformation

areembeddedineachpattern.Sometypesareveryobvious,suchasthevarietyofrhythms

andpitches.Others,suchasinflectionandcontext,maynotbeasclearandmaybe

overlookedbecauseofthedemandingmotorskillsorbecausestudentsarenotyetfamiliar

withthestyleanditscharacteristics.Therefore,eachsinglepatternmustbestudiedand

practicedseparately.Afterlearningeachpatterninisolation,thetaskofcombiningthem

becomeseasierandlesstime-consuming.AccordingtoGagné(1985),acompleteskillisa

combinationofseveralpartsofinformationcontainedinthatskilland“procedurestobe

executedinaparticularorderareoftenconsideredtorequirethelearningofbehavioral

chains”(p.211).Giventhatthedesiredcomplexmotorskillistoperformaparticular

Brazilianmusicstyle,thesmallprocedureswillincludeeachoneoftherhythmicpatterns

presentinthestyle.Thus,theMLSisdesignedtoimprovetheeffectivenessandefficiency

ofdevelopingcomplexmotorskills.

Rhythmicgroupings.RhythmsarefoundationaltomostBrazilianpopularmusic

styles.Eachstyleincludesauniquesetofpatterns(vocabulary)withdifferentlevelsof

difficulty.Eachpatterninthevocabularycanbecategorizedaccordingtoitslevelof

difficulty,whichisdeterminedbyitsrhythmicconstruction.Thefirststepindefiningthe

sequenceinwhichpatternswillbepracticedistouseGordon’smetricalhierarchy:

macrobeats,microbeats,rhythmicpatterns,divisions,andelongations.AsGordon(2012)

writes:

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• Whicheverbeatsyoufeeltobethelongestarecalledmacrobeats.

• Microbeatsareshorterthanmacrobeatsandarederivedfromtheequal

divisionofmacrobeats.

• Arhythmicpatterninusualmeterisnotshorterthanoneunderlying

macrobeat(whichmayincludetwoorthreeunderlyingmicrobeats)andis

nolongerthantwounderlyingmacrobeats

• Divisionpatternsmayincludeoneormoredivisionsofmacrobeats,other

thanmicrobeats,oroneormoredivisionsofmicrobeats

• Elongationpatternsmayincludeoneormoreelongationsofmicrobeats,

otherthanmacrobeats,oroneormoreelongationsofmacrobeats.

(pp.175,177,203)

Figure4.34showsexamplesofGordon’scategories.

Figure4.34.ExamplesofGordon’sdefinitionsoftypesofbeats.

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Eachpatternfromthevocabularyofeachstylecanbeanalyzedandplacedintooneofthese

categories.Aftercategorizingthepatterns,studentswillsequencethepatternsstarting

withthosethatfitinthemacrobeatcategory,followedbypatternsinthemicrobeat

category,thendivisions,thenelongations,andfinallyrhythmicpatterns.Aftersequencing

thepatternsaccordingtothismetricalhierarchy,studentswilltakethenextstepand

considertheimplicationsofbrainfunctioninmotorskilldevelopment.

Psychomotorfoundations.Thebrainisdividedintotwohemispheres;motor

regionsofeachhemispherecontroltheoppositesideofthebody.Witelson(1985)found

that:

Functionalspecializationofcerebralhemispheresinthemediationofcognitionin

humanshasbeenknownforoveracentury….Onlyrecently,however,hassome

quantitativestudybeenmadeofgrossanatomicalandhistologicalasymmetry,and

hastheanatomicalasymmetrybeensuggestedtobeasubstrateoffunctional

asymmetry.(p.665)

Thisasymmetryaccountsforapersonbeingright-orleft-handed,whichtypicallyresultsin

onesidefunctioningbetterthantheotherintermsofexecutingparticularmovements.This

factisespeciallyimportantwhenstudentsstarttocombineseveralpatternstogetherto

creategrooves.Someinstrumentssuchasdrumset,percussionset-ups,percussion

keyboards,piano,harp,andothersmaydemandtheuseofthreeorevenfourlimbs

simultaneously;consequently,performerswillbeusingmotorregionsofbothhemispheres

atthesametime.Awarenessofthiswillhelpdeterminethemosteffectiveapproachto

sequencingandsynthesizingpatternsintocomplexmotorskills,resultinginthemost

efficientuseoftheavailablepracticetime.

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ApplicationstoMotorSkillDevelopment.BasedonGordon’smetricalhierarchy,

studentswillhaveaninitialsequencedefinedasfollows:patternsinthemacrobeat

category,followedbypatternsinthemicrobeatcategory,thendivisions,thenelongations,

andfinallyrhythmicpatterns.Somepatternsfromeachstyle,however,willconsistofa

combinationoftwodifferentcategoriesorbelongerthanwhatGordonconsidersa

rhythmicpattern.Ilabeledthesecomplexpatterns.ThemaracatupatternsinFigure4.35

areexamplesofcomplexpatterns.

Figure4.35.Complexpatternsofmaracatu.

Oncetheinitialsequencingisdeterminedbasedonthemetricalhierarchy,psychomotor

factorsshouldbeconsidered.Dependingontheinstrumentthestudentislearning,

however,differentapproacheswillberequired.ForBrazilianpopularmusicstyles,three

distinctcategoriescanbeidentified:RhythmicInstruments,DrumSetandPercussionSet-

ups,andMelodicInstruments.

WithintheRhythmicInstruments’category,themostcommoninstrumentsin

Brazilianstylesarepiano,guitar(acousticorelectric),cavaquinho,bandolim,doublebass,

andelectricbass.Otherlesscommoninstrumentsinthiscategorymayincludeharp,

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marimba,vibraphone,andothers.Theseareunusualandnon-authenticinstrumentsin

Brazilianpopularmusicsettings;however,theycanbefoundinrecordingsandschool

ensembles.

TheDrumSetandPercussionSet-upscategorymayincludenotonlythestandard

drumsetbutalso,ascommonlyusedinBrazil,thedrumsetwithadditionsofBrazilian

traditionalinstrumentssuchastamborim,agogobells,pandeiros,jamblocks,and

woodblocks.Percussionset-upsusuallyconsistoftraditionalinstrumentsusedinthe

originalsettingofthestyle,butinthiscaseoneperformerwouldperformontwoormore

instrumentssimultaneously,assumingmultipleroles.Itiscommonforsuchset-upsto

includemultiplesurdos,shakers,pandeiros,cuícas,anddrum-setbassdrum.

ThethirdcategoryisMelodicInstruments.Inthiscategory,themostcommon

instrumentsinBraziliantraditionalsettingsareflute,clarinet,saxophone,trumpet,and

trombone;however,anyothermelodicinstrumentsuchasstrings,otherwoodwinds,and

brassinstrumentsfitinthiscategoryaswell.Melodicinstrumentscanassumetwo

differentroles.Theprimaryrole,ofcourse,istoplaymelodies.Thesecondaryroleisto

playaccompanimentlines,whichmanytimesarecreatedbasedontwoormorerhythmic

patterns.Insuchcasestheywillhavetofollowtheappropriateprocedurestolearnhowto

playthoselinesinanauthenticmanner.

Eachofthethreecategoriesofinstrumentswillrequiredifferentapproachesduring

themotorskilldevelopment.Additionally,instrumentswithinthesamecategorymayalso

requireadjustmentsadaptingtheapproachtoeachsituation.Thefollowingpageswill

presentdetailedinformationaboutthecategoriesofinstruments,examplesofinstruments

withineachcategory,andhowtodevelopandapplythesequenceindifferentinstrument.

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Rhythmicinstruments.Figure4.36presentsabossanovagrooveplayedonguitar

andpiano.Thefirststepistodefinethesequenceinwhichthepatternswillbepracticed.

Studentsandinstructorsshouldstartdefiningthesequencebycategorizingeachpattern

accordingtothemetricalhierarchy.Thisparticulargroovecontainsthreepatternsadapted

topianoandguitar:blue=1stsurdo,black=2ndsurdo,andgreen=bossanovapattern.

Bothsurdopatternsfitinthemacrobeatcategory.The1stsurdopatternisaquarternote

restonbeat1andquarternoteonbeat2,whilethe2ndsurdopatternisthereverseofthat.

Thebossanovapatternisafour-beatcomplexpatterncomposedofmicrobeats(eighth

notes)andelongations(tiesanddotted-eighthnotes).Aftersequencingthemthisway,

studentsshouldconsiderpsychomotorfactorstodeterminewhichlimbplayswhich

pattern.Onpianobothsurdopatternsareinthelefthand,whilethebossanovaisinthe

righthand.Onguitar,thestudentwillneedbothhandsonallpatterns.Clearly,aslightly

differentapproachisrequireddependingonwhichinstrumentthestudentplays.

Figure4.36.Bossanovagrooveonguitarandpiano.

Beforeanalyzingeachinstrumentseparately,itisnecessarytounderstandthegeneral

approachtodevelopingthemotorskills.First,studentswilldeterminethesequencein

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whichthepatternswillbepracticed,thenfollowthecycleshowninFigure4.37.Notethat

theywillbeusingtheentirepedagogicalapproachasacyclethatrepeatseachtimeanew

motorskillisdeveloped.Forexample,eachofthethreepatternscomposingthebossanova

grooveshowninFigure4.36islearnedthroughacyclethatinvolvestheentiresequenceof

stepsfromtheVLStotheMLS.

Figure4.37.Patterndevelopmentcycle.

Inthisparticularcase,thesequenceis2ndsurdo,1stsurdo,andbossanovapattern.After

goingthroughthiscyclethreetimes–onceforeachpatternpresentinthegroove–the

studentwillusethesamecycletocombinepatterns.Thecombinationprocessalsofollows

thesequenceofpatternsdefinedpreviously.Therefore,studentswillcombinebothsurdos

first,andthenaddthebossanovapattern.Figure4.38showstheuseofcyclestocombine

patterns.

VirtualLearningSequence•  Listentopattern• Audiatepattern• Vocalizepattern• Motor-mimesisofpattern• CMIlevel1

Bridge• MentalpracticeofCMIlevel1

MotorLearningSequence• PhysicalpracticeofCMIlevel1

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1stcombinationcycle

2ndcombinationcycle

Figure4.38.Combinationcycles.

VirtualLearningSequence•  Listentopattern1and2simultaneously• Audiatepatterns1and2simultaneously• Vocalizepattern1and2simultaneously• Motor-mimesisofpattern1and2simultaneously• CMIlevel2

Bridge• MentalpracticeofCMIlevel2

MotorLearningSequence• PhysicalpracticeofCMIlevel2

VirtualLearningSequence•  Listentopatterns1,2,and3simultaneously• Audiatepatterns1,2,and3simultaneously• Vocalizepatterns1,2,and3simultaneously• Motor-mimesisofpatterns1,2,and3simultaneously• CMIlevel3

Bridge• MentalpracticeofCMIlevel3

MotorLearningSequence• PhysicalpracticeofCMIlevel3

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Forthisparticulargroove,therearethreepatterns:therefore,threecyclesforsingle

patternsplustwocyclesforthecombinations.Othergroovesmayincludemoreorless

patternsandthenumberofcycleswillbeadjustedcorrespondingly.Ifthegroovehastwo

patterns,therewillbeonecycleforeachpatterninisolationandonecombinationcycle,

totalingthreecycles.Ifagroovecontainsfourpatterns,therewillbesevencycles:onefor

eachpatternalone,onecyclecombiningtwopatterns,onecyclecombiningthreepatterns,

andonecyclecombiningallfourpatterns.

Thesequencingofpatterns,thepatterndevelopmentcycle,andthecombination

cyclecanbeusedwitheveryinstrument.Withthatinmind,thebossanovagroovefrom

Figure4.36willbedevelopedsimilarlyonbothguitarandpiano.Onguitar,regardlessofa

studentbeingright-orleft-handed,thestepswillbethesamesincetheinstrumentis

adaptabletothosedifferenttypesofpeople.Therefore,aguitarstudentwouldlearnthe2nd

surdopatternfirst,withtherighthandonly(strumminghand,remembertoreversehands

inallstepsifthestudentisleft-handedplayingaleft-handedguitar).Notethatonguitar,

therighthandisproducingtherhythm,whilethelefthandisproducingthedifferent

pitches.Byplayingthestrumminghandonly,studentswillbepracticingtherhythmofthe

patternalone(righthand)andnotaddingthepitches(lefthand)fromthescore.Whenever

astudentisusingonlythestrumminghand,theywillbeplayingwhatiscalledopenstring.

Onguitartheopenstringsaretraditionallysetonthefollowingpitches:E3,A3,D4,G4,B4,

andE5.Therefore,thispatternisplayedwiththethumbontheopen-stringA.Some

instruments(likeguitar)requirebothhandstoplayasinglepattern;insuchcases,some

adaptationsinthecyclesequencemaybenecessaryinordertopracticeeachhand

separately.Theintegrityofthepatternswillnotbeaffectedwhenseparatinghandsinthis

case.Theonlydifferenceisthat,bylearningonehandatatime,theactualpitcheswillbe

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differentortherewillbenostrumming.Thefollowingstepsexemplifytheproceduresto

learnthebossanovagrooveonguitar:

1. Patterndevelopmentcycle1sttime:Duringthe1stcyclethemotor-mimesisstepwill

developassociationsbetweenthe2ndsurdopatternandtheright-handthumb.No

useofthelefthandyet;therefore,duringtheactualphysicalpracticethestudent

willplayontheopen-stringA.

2. Patterndevelopmentcycle2ndtime:Repeatstep1todevelopthe1stsurdopattern,

whichisplayedwiththesamethumbontheEstring.Rememberithasadifferent

inflectionthanthe2ndsurdo;ithasasubtleweight,makingitslightlystronger.

3. Patterndevelopmentcycle3rdtime:Stillwiththerighthand,developthebossanova

patternusingtheappropriatefingers(index,middle,ringfingers).Donotusethe

lefthandyet.PlaythepatternontheG,B,andhighEopenstrings.

4. 1stcombinationcycle:Combinebothadaptedsurdopatternsandplaywitha

metronome.Thisisaneasiertaskontheguitarsincetheyarebothplayedwiththe

samehand.

5. 2ndcombinationcycle:Combineallthreepatternsontherighthandwithopen

strings.

6. 2ndcombinationcycle2ndtime:Developthelefthandalone.Placetheleft-hand

fingersonthenotesshowninthechordinFigure4.36.Practicethechangemadeby

theindexfingermovingfromCtoGwiththeuseofametronome.

7. 2ndcombinationcycle3rdtime:Combinebothhands.

Rememberthatforeachcycle,studentsareredoingallthestepsfromtheVLS;thisinvolves

enoughrepetitionstosolidifytheauthenticityandmotorskillsofeachpattern.

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Onpiano,theprocedurestodevelopmotorskillsforthesamegroovewillbesimilar.

Thesequenceofpatternswillbethesame,butpsychomotorfactorswillnotplaya

considerableroleinthiscase.Pianostudentswilllearnandadaptthe2ndsurdopattern

firsteventhoughitisplayedbythelefthand.Thefactthatbothsurdopatternstogetherare

muchsimplerthanthebossanovapatternwillallowstudentstolearnthosefirst,evenif

thenondominanthandplaysthem.Therefore,thestepswillbethefollowing:

1. Patterndevelopmentcycle1sttime:2ndsurdopattern(blacknotesinFigure4.36)

playedwithleft-handFinger1(thumb).

2. Patterndevelopmentcycle2ndtime:1stsurdopattern(bluenotesinFigure4.36)

playedwithleft-handFinger4.

3. Patterndevelopmentcycle3rdtime:Bossanovapatternplayedwiththerighthand.

4. 1stcombinationcycle:Combinebothsurdopatterns.

5. 2ndcombinationcycle:Combinebothhandscreatingthefullgroove(Note:forthis

particulargroovethereisnouseofpedal).

Notetwoimportantsituationsthatmayoccurwithpianoplayers.First,forthegroove

developmentpresented,thepsychomotorfactorswerenotconsideredbecauseithappens

thatthesimplerpatternsareonthenondominanthand(assumingright-handedplayers).

However,therearecasesthatbothhandsplaytheexactsamerhythmicpatternbutwith

differentpitchesorchords.Insuchsituationsthepsychomotorfactorswillbeconsidered

andthestudentwoulddeveloptherighthandfirst.Othersituationsmayarisewhenthe

patternsineachhandarefromthesamecategoryofthemetricalhierarchy.Inthosecases

itisalsonecessarytoconsiderthepsychomotorfactorsafterdeterminingthesequenceof

patternsthroughthemetricalhierarchy.Consideraleft-handedpianistdevelopingthe

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bossanovagrooveinFigure4.36.Inthiscase,themetrichierarchywillinteractwiththe

psychomotorfactorsandthepianistwouldpracticethepatternsinthesequencedefined,

butitwouldbethedominanthandsincetheplayerisleft-handed.

Whendevelopingmotorskillsforanyothergrooveorstyle,studentswhoplay

rhythmicinstrumentswillfollowthesamesteps.First,definethesequenceinwhich

patternswillbepracticed.Second,practiceeachpatternusingthedevelopmentcycle.

Lastly,combinepatternsusingthecombinationcycles.Keepinmindthatthenumberof

cycleswillchangedependingonhowmanypatternsarepresentwithinasinglegrooveand

thatadaptationsmayberequireddependingonhowpsychomotorfactorscanbeappliedto

eachparticularinstrument.Thefoundationalrule:Asinglepatternshouldnotbebroken

underanycircumstances.Patternsshouldalwaysbelearnedintheirentirety;otherwise,

therhythmicsyntaxandauthenticitywillbelost.Noticethatduringthedevelopmentofthe

bossanovagrooveonguitar,thestudentfocusedoneachhandseparately.Thepatterns

themselveswerenotbrokenordivided;theyweresimplyperformedondifferentpitches

duringthefirstfewsteps.

Anothercommonsituationencounteredonrhythmicinstrumentsisperformingthe

melodyandanaccompanimentsimultaneously.Apianistthatencountersthiswilltypically

usethelefthandtoplaytherhythmicaccompaniment–whichsometimesisacombination

oftwoorthreepatterns–whiletherighthandplaysthemelodysimultaneously.Insuch

casesthestudentscanapproachthemelodyasifitwereacomplexpattern:placedatthe

endofthesequenceandalsopracticedseparately.Afterlearningeachpatternandthe

melodyseparately,studentswouldcombinethemfollowingthepredeterminedsequence.

Similarsituationscanariseinmanyotherrhythmicinstrumentssuchasguitar,vibraphone,

andharp.Instructorsandstudentswillhavetomakeanassessmentaboutwhichwouldbe

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themostappropriatesequenceofdevelopmentaccordingtoeachsituation.Thegeneral

guidelineistodefinethesequenceofpatternsaccordingtothemetricalhierarchyand

psychomotorfactors,whichvaryaccordingtoeachinstrument’snecessity.Withthatin

mind,remembertoalwayskeeptherhythmicpatternsintactevenifitmeansusingboth

handsatthesametime.

Drumsetandpercussionset-ups.Theapproachtomotorskilldevelopmenton

drumsetandpercussionset-upswillrequireamorecarefulapproachsinceperformers

willlikelybeusingallfourlimbs.Therefore,psychomotorfactorswillplayaparticularly

importantrole.Figure4.39showsadrumsetgroovecomposedoffourpatternsadapted

fromtheoriginalbateriadesamba(sambapercussionensemble).

Figure4.39.Sambagrooveondrumset.

Thepatternsinthisgrooveare:blue=3rdsurdo,black=adaptationofrepiniquepattern,

orange=adaptationofthechocalhopattern,andgreen=adaptationofcaixapattern.To

buildthisgroove,studentswillconsidermetricalhierarchiesandsequencethepatterns

accordingly.Thesepatternsfitinthefollowingcategories:3rdsurdo=divisionsand

microbeatelongations;chocalho=microbeats;repinique=divisions;caixa=complex

pattern.Themosteffectivesequenceforpractice,therefore,ischocalho,repinique,3rd

surdo,andcaixa.Afterorganizingthepatternsaccordingly,studentsneedtoconsiderthe

psychomotorfactors.Forexample,the3rdsurdopatternisplayedonthebassdrumwith

therightfoot,therepiniquepatternisplayedontheridecymbalwiththerighthand,the

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caixapatternisplayedwiththelefthandonthesnaredrum,andthechocalhopatternwith

theleftfootonthehi-hat.Isolatingthepatternsaccordingtowhichsideofthebodyplays

eachofthem,thesurdoandrepiniquepatternsareontheright,whilethecaixaand

chocalhoareontheleft.Afteraccountingformetricalhierarchyandpsychomotorfactors,

thestudentwilloverlapbothparameterstodetermineasequencethatisgradually

increasingindifficulty.Insomesituationstherewillbemorethanonepossibleoption,

dependingonthelevelofdifficultyofeachpatternineachlimb.Inthisparticularexample,

thereareafewoptionsforsequencing.Basedonmyexperienceasadrumsetinstructor,I

wouldrecommendthataright-handedstudentpracticeeachpatternplayedwiththeright-

sidelimbsfirst,followedbyeachpatternplayedwiththeleftside.Consideringboth

metricalhierarchyandpsychomotorfactors,thesequencewouldbe:repinique(divisions,

righthand),3rdsurdo(elongationsanddivisions,rightfoot),chocalho(microbeat,leftfoot),

andcaixa(complexpattern,lefthand).Sincethedrumsetisadaptableforleft-handers,the

studentcouldswitchrightforleft.Thestepsforadrumsetstudentwillbeasfollows:

1-4 .Usecycle1foreachsinglepatternseparatelyfollowingthedefinedsequence.

5. Usecombiningcycletocombinerepiniqueand3rdsurdo(rightlimbs)

6. Usecombiningcycletocombinechocalhoandcaixa(leftlimbs).

7. Usecombiningcycletocombinerepiniqueandcaixa(hands).

8. Usecombiningcycletocombinesurdoandchocalho(feet).

9. Usecombiningcycletocombinerepiniqueandchocalho.

10. Usecombiningcycletocombinesurdoandcaixa.

11. Usecombiningcycletocombinerepinique,surdo,andchocalho.

12. Usecombiningcycletocombinerepinique,surdo,andcaixa.

13. Usecombiningcycletocombinechocalho,caixa,andrepinique

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14. Usecombiningcycletocombinechocalho,caixa,andsurdo.

15. Usecombiningcycletocombineallfourpatterns.

Althoughthisgrooveisacombinationoffourpatterns,thestudentwillusemorethan

sevencycles.Inthiscase,asstudentsstartcombiningpatterns,theywillnotsimplybe

addingthenextpatterninthesequence;rather,theyshouldgothrougheverypossible

combinationoftwopatterns,threepatterns,andfinallycombiningallfour.Therefore,they

willneedtouseonecycleforeachsinglepattern,sixcyclescombiningtwopatterns,four

cyclescombiningthreepatterns,andlastly,onecyclewithallfourpatterns.Thisresultsin

atotaloffifteencycles.Thesestepsdevelopeverypossiblecombinationamongtheoriginal

fourpatterns.Byapplyingthecycletoeverysinglepatternandeverypossiblecombination,

studentswilldevelopaconsistentsenseofauthenticityandmotorskillswhileeachstep

willgraduallyincreaseindifficulty.

Oncestudentsdevelopaconsistentvocabularyanduseittocreatedifferent

combinationsandgrooves,theycanuseacondensedapproach,whichwillalsohelpwith

solidifyingtheirskillset.Thiscondensedapproachprioritizesthedevelopmentofmotor

skillsandsubstitutesthecombinationcycleswithanapproachwithfewersteps.Ituses

onlyaudiation,vocalization,andCMI.Ifastudentalreadyhasanauthenticvocabularyand

themotorskillstoperformit,theListeningaswellastheObservingandMotor-mimesis

stepswouldbecomeredundant.Therefore,thecondensedapproachwouldbeideal,

allowingquickermotorskilldevelopment.ThecondensedapproachisshowninFigure

4.40.

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Figure4.40.Condensedapproachforpatterncombinations.

Thiscondensedapproachcanalsobeusedtocombinethreeandfourpatterns

simultaneously.Seefigures4.41and4.42.

Figure4.41.Condensedapproachfor3patterncombinations.

Playpattern1

Audiatepattern2whileplayingpattern1

Vocalizepattern2whileplayingpattern1

CMIofpattern2whileplayingpattern1

Performpatterns1and2together

Playpatterns1and2simultaneously

Audiatepattern3whileplayingpatterns1and2simultaneously

Vocalizepattern3whileplayingpatterns1and2simultaneously

CMIofpattern3whileplayingpatterns1and2simultaneously

Performpatterns1,2,and3simultaneously

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Figure4.42.Condensedapproachfor4patterncombinations.

Thecondensedapproachcanalsobeusedwithotherinstrumentsthatrequirepattern

combinations.Tohaveeffectiveresults,however,studentsmustfirstdevelopthepattern

vocabularyforthestyletheyarestudying.Ageneralrecommendationistousethefull

approachtodevelopasmanysinglepatterns(basicvocabulary)aspossible.Usingthefull

approach,studentsshoulddevelopaminimumoffourdifferentgroovesthatcombinetwo,

three,orfourpatternsaccordingtotheinstrumentcapabilities.Startingwiththe

developmentofthe5thgroove,studentscanstartusingthecondensedapproachbecause

theyshouldhaveastrongstylebackgroundandsufficientvocabulary.

Melodicinstruments.Melodicinstrumentswillbetreateddifferentlythanthe

instrumentspresentedintheprevioustwocategories.Theseinstrumentscanhavetwo

differentroles:playingthemainmelodiclineorplayinganaccompanimentline.Themain

melodyalsoneedstobeperformedwithauthenticityandwithappropriatefeelaccording

tothestyle.MelodicinstrumentplayerswillusetheVLSsteps(mainlythelistening

portion)tocreateabackgroundinhowthemelodiclinesareperformedwithproper

inflectionandproperfeelaccordingtothestyletheyarelearning.Melodieswilllikelyhave

Playpatterns1,2,and3simultaneously

Audiatepattern4whileplayingpatterns1,2,and3simultaneously

Vocalizepattern4whileplayingpatterns1,2,and3simultaneously

CMIofpattern4whilepatterns1,2,and3simultaneously

Performpatterns1,2,3,and4simultaneously

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inflectionsthatresemblecharacteristicrhythmicpatterns;however,studentsshouldnot

breakitdownintothosepossiblepatternsbecauseitwoulddisruptthemelodicdiscourse,

leadingtoinauthenticperformances.Studentslearnaboutrhythmicpatternsand

vocabularyduringtheVLSandthatservesasthefoundationtoperformmelodieswith

appropriatefeel.Figure4.43showsanexcerptofTicoticonofubá,achorostylesongby

ZequinhadeAbreueEuricoBarreiros.

Figure4.43.ExcerptofTicoticonofubá.

ThefourrhythmicpatternsinFigure4.44arecharacteristicofthechorostyle.Notethatthe

chorofeelpatternshownisnotanactualpatternbutareinforcementofthegeneral

stylisticfeelthatdifferentiatesitfromsambaandbossanova.

Figure4.44.Mainpatternsofchoro.

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Themainthemeofthesongstartsonthepickupintomeasurefive.Ifastudenttriestofit

thismelodyintoanyofthepatternsbyaddingaccentsortryingtodepictanysortof

inflectionrelatedtooneofthepatternsinFigure4.43,thewholemelodywouldloseflow

andcoherence,andthisprocesswouldnotcontributetoauthenticity.Formelodiclines,

studentsneedtoaudiatethepatternswhileplaying,ratherthanimplytheinflectionofa

specificpattern.Byaudiatingseveralcharacteristicpatterns–anddevelopingCMIlevels3

and4,forexample–theywilldevelopasenseofgeneralfeel.Therefore,listeningto

authenticrecordingsofchoroingeneraland,ofcourse,listeningtothisparticularsongwill

beamoreeffectivewaytoapproachandlearntoperformitauthentically.

Melodicinstrumentsmayalsohaveaccompanimentlines.Accompanimentlinescan

bedividedintwocategories:countermelodiesthat(likethemainmelody)resemble

foundationalrhythmicpatterns,andrhythmicaccompanimentlinesthatdepicttwoor

morepatterns.Thefirstshouldbetreatedandlearnedwithoutbeingbrokendowninthe

samemannerasthemainmelody.Thesecondwillhaveadifferenttreatmenttoachieve

propermotorskillsandauthenticity.Inordertorecognizethedifferenttypesof

accompanimentlines,melodicinstrumentplayersneedtodevelopasmuchvocabularyas

possibleduringtheVLS.Themorelisteningandexposurestudentsareexposedto,the

morerhythmicpatternstheywilllearn.Themorerhythmicpatterns(vocabulary)they

learn,themoreadepttheywillbeatrecognizingwhetherornotanaccompanimentlineisa

countermelodyorarhythmicaccompanimentdepictingtwoormorepatterns.

Distinguishingbetweenthesedifferentfunctionsisnotaneasytask;however,thekey

elementtodevelopthisskillisexposureandvocabularydevelopment,crucialstepsinthe

VLS.

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Afterdeterminingifthestudentisplayingamainmelodyoroneofthetypesof

accompanimentlines,studentswilldeveloptherequiredmotorskillstoperformthem

authentically.Whendevelopingmotorskillstoperformmainmelodiclinesand

accompanimentlinesthatarecountermelodies,studentswillconsiderthepsychomotor

factorsandpracticedifferenttechnicalaspectsseparately.Forexample,aclarinetplayer

wouldseparaterhythmfrompitchesbypracticingtonguingandbreathingpatternsalone

andalsothefingeringsalone.Instructorsshouldrecommendthattheylistentoseveral

recordings,analyzethemelody,andmarktheappropriatefingerings,breathing,and

tonguingpatternsintheirscores.Oncethatisdetermined,eachofthosetechnicalelements

willbepracticedseparatelyandthenrecombined.Forexample,aclarinetistwhois

learningthemelodyofTicoticonofubáwouldfirstanalyzethemelodyandmarkthetwo-

beatmainmotiveanditsvariations(seeFigure4.45).

Figure4.45.Ticoticonofubáexcerptwithhighlightedmotivesandvariations.

Afteranalyzingtheentirepiece,aclarinetinstructorwouldevaluatethebreathingand

tonguingpatternsandpossiblefingerings,andthendeterminewhichofthetechnical

elementswouldbesimplerandeasiertobelearnedfirst.Oncetheinstructordetermines

thebestcourseofaction,shewillguidethestudentthrougheachsteptodevelopan

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authenticperformanceforthismelody.Thisprocessmayvarydependingonthe

assessmentoftheinstructorandthetechnicalrequirementsoftheinstrumentthat

performsthemelody.Forexample,onwoodwindandbrassinstruments,breathingand

tonguingwillbeinvolvedalongwithfingerings.Onbowedstringstherewillbedifferent

technicalelementssuchasbowing.Whateverthecasemaybe,instructorsofthe

instrumentwilldeterminewhichtechnicalelementsshouldbelearnedfirstbasedon

psychomotorfactors.Eachtechnicalelementoftheinstrumentwillhaveadifferentlevelof

difficultyandtheinstructorshouldsequencethemfromtheeasiesttothehardest,adjust

themotordevelopmentcyclestothespecificsituation,andusethecombinationcycles.For

example,aviolinstudentwhoislearningtoperformtheanalyzedexcerptofTicoticono

fubáinFigure4.44wouldhavehisinstructordeterminewhetherthebowingorfingering

shouldbelearnedfirst.Aftereachelementislearnedintheappropriatesequence,the

instructorwillguidethestudentthroughthecombiningcyclestosynthesizetherequired

elementsandachieveanauthenticperformanceofthemelodicline.

Anothersituationencounteredbymelodicinstrumentplayersistherhythmic

accompanimentlinescomposedtointegratetwoormorepatterns.Todevelopmotorskills

toperformsuchlines,thestudentshouldfirstrecognizethepatternsbasedonthe

backgrounddevelopedduringtheVLS.Afterrecognizingthepatterns,thestudentwill

categorizethepatternsbasedonmetricalhierarchy,takeintoconsiderationpsychomotor

factors,andthenpracticeeachpatternseparatelybeforeplayingtheaccompanimentlinein

full.Figure4.46showsanexampleofarhythmicaccompanimentforbaiãostyleonclarinet.

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Figure4.46:Clarinetaccompanimentlineforbaiãocomposedbytwodifferentpatterns

Thisaccompanimentlineisbasedonazabumbagroovethatcanbebrokendownintotwo

differentpatterns.TheDpitchesplayedontheclarinetareadaptedfromthelowtoneof

thezabumba,whiletheotherpitchesareadaptedfromthehightone.Breakingdownthe

grooveintothesetwopatternswouldresultinwhatisshowninFigure4.47.

Pattern1(staccatoandaccentsaddedtodepictproperinflection)

Pattern2

Figure4.47:Clarinetaccompanimentdividedin2patterns

Recognizingsuchaccompanimentlinesandbreakingthemintoseparatepatternsisnotan

easytaskatfirst.Studentswillbecomemoreandmoreadeptatrecognizingthesepatterns

throughexposureandvocabularydevelopmentduringtheVLS.Forthisparticular

accompaniment,studentswouldlearnpattern1andthen2usingthecyclefromFigure

4.37.Themetricalhierarchydeterminesthesequenceinwhichthepatternsarepracticed.

Withineachpattern,theclarinetinstructorwilldeterminewhichtechnicalelementis

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approachedfirstbasedonpsychomotorfactors.Afterthosedeterminations,studentswill

developeachtechnicalelementofPattern1throughthedevelopmentcyclesandthen

combineelementsthroughthecombinationcycles.ThesamestepsareappliedtoPattern2.

Learningeachpatternseparatelywillallowstudentstounderstandtheinflectionofeach

patternontheirinstrumentandthegeneralfeelofthestyle.Basedonthenewlyacquired

knowledgeandmotorskills,theclarinetstudentwillrecombinethepatternsintothefull

accompanimentline.Inordertoprovideeffectiveguidance,theinstructorwillfirst

determine,basedonthepsychomotorfactors,thesequenceofthetechnicalelementstobe

practicedforthefullline(incaseanychangetookplacewhenbreakingitdown).Second,

theinstructorwillencouragethestudenttopracticeeachtechnicalelementofthefullline

separatelyusingthedevelopmentcycle.Lastly,studentswillcombineallelementsviathe

combinationcycle,therebydevelopinganauthenticperformanceoftherhythmic

accompanimentline.Itisimportanttoagainreinforcethefoundationalrulethatasingle

patternshouldnotbebrokenunderanycircumstances.Patternsshouldalwaysbelearned

intheirentiretytomaintaintherhythmicsyntaxandauthenticity.Technicalelementsof

anyinstrumentcanbedividedandpracticedseparately;however,doingsoshouldnot

disruptthepattern.Theauthenticityofeachsinglepatternismoreimportantthanany

otherelement;compromisingthewholenessofapatternwouldcompromisethe

authenticityoftheperformancedevelopedduringtheVLS.

Eachmelodicinstrumenthasdifferenttechnicalissues.Atromboneortrumpetwill

notrequirethesameconsiderationofpsychomotorfactorsrelatedtohemispherismsince

theseinstrumentsdonotrequiretheuseofbothhandstoperformamelody.Whenthese

instrumentshaveaccompanimentlinesdepictingandcombiningpatterns,thesequenceof

patternswillbedefinedbymetricalhierarchyonly.Forbowedstrings,psychomotor

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factorswillhavemorerelevancesinceitispossibletopracticefingeringandbowing

separatelywithoutbreakingpatternsapart;thiswouldbeasimilarsituationasseenwith

theguitar.

PracticeStrategies

Duringmotorskilldevelopment,instructorsandstudentswillcreateaspecific

sequenceofpatternsandadetailedapproachtothecyclesofmotorskilldevelopment.As

studentsgothroughthecycles,theywillneedtopracticeandsolidifyboththeknowledge

acquiredduringtheVLSandthemotorskillsacquiredduringthefirstpartoftheMLS.The

consistentapplicationofresearch-basedpracticestrategieswilloptimizethetimespenton

eachtask.Threemainfactorsshouldbetakenintoconsiderationtostructurethepractice

time:durationofpracticesessions,theimportanceofaccuratepractice,andthe

contributionofsleepduringthemotorskilldevelopmentprocess.

Durationofpracticesessions.Thelengthofpracticesessionswillhaveagreat

impactonthemotorskilldevelopment.WheneverstudentsstartlearninganewBrazilian

popularmusicstyle,theywillberequiredtodevelopawholenewsetofmotorskills,

vocabulary,senseofcontext,andauthenticity.Eachstylewillbefilledwithbasicrhythmic

patternsandaseriesofvariationsthatcreatesthestyle’svocabulary.Studentscanengage

inmassedpractice–practicingformanyconsecutivehours–orplanfordistributed

practice,splittingthetotaltimeintosmallersessionsspreadthroughouttheday.Tan,

Pfordrescher&Harré(2010)reportthat“studiesshowdistributedpracticetobemore

effectivethanmassedforlearningmanytypesofmotorskills”(p.186)andthebreaks

resultingfromdistributedpractice“givethestudentsanopportunitytotakeafreshlookat

themusic,andtounderstanditsstructuremoredeeply”(p.186).Therefore,students

shouldoptforspreadingseveralshorterpracticesessionsthroughoutthedayratherthan

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engaginginonelongsession.“The‘best’violinistsdistributedtheirpracticeintothreeto

foursessionsperdaythatvariedfromapproximatelyhalfanhourtoabout2hoursper

session,oftenplayingfornomorethanabout50minutesbeforetakingthefirstbreak”

(Tan,Pfordrescher&Harré,2010,p.186).Byorganizingthreetofourpracticesessionsper

day,studentswillhavebetterresultsduringthemotorskilldevelopment.Iusually

recommendtomystudentsthattheycreatefour90-minutesessionsperdaywith5-10

minutebreaksafterthefirst50minutesofeachsession.Ofcourse,eachstudentisunique,

sostudentsshouldbeencouragedtoexperimentuntiltheyfindtheappropriate

distributionoftimethatworksbestforthem.Studentsshouldbeencouragedtokeeptheir

sessionsbetween30to120minutesandonlytakebreaksiftheentiresessionsurpasses50

minutes.

Theimportanceofaccuratepractice.Accuratepracticeisextremelyimportantfor

thedevelopmentofanyskill.Manystructuresofthebrainareinvolvedduringmusic

performanceandpractice.Besidesinfluencingthedeterminationofthesequenceinwhich

patternswillbepracticed,theconsiderationofbrainfunctionwillserveasanother

parametertohelpstudentsorganizetheirpracticesessions.Forexample,whenusingboth

hands,performerswillbeactivatingmotorregionsinbothhemispheresofthebrain,which

communicatewitheachotherviathecorpuscallosum.Moreover,whenusingallfourlimbs

evenmoreregionsareactivatedsince“regionsofthemotorcortex(posteriorsectionofthe

frontallobe)[have]adirectrelationshiptomusclesinthebody”(Tan,Pfordrescher&

Harré,2010,p.60).Takingthesefactsintoconsiderationwillallowinstructorsand

studentstostructurethepracticesessionsinthemosteffectiveandprogressiveway,

optimizingthetimespentoneachtask.

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Itisnotasecretthatmotorskillsimprovewithpractice,butwhatispractice?Isit

thesimpleactofrepeatingactionsandmovements?Practiceisunderstoodas“repetitionof

theprocedure(1)withintentonthepartofthelearnertoachieveanimproved

performance,and(2)withfeedback,whichprovidesinformationtothelearner”(Gagné,

1985,p.207).Regardingtheintenttoimproveperformance,studentswillapplythesteps

intheVLS-MLScyclesastheprocedurestoberepeated.Byrepeatingeachcycle,theywill

besolidifyingnotonlymotorskillsbutalsotheauthenticityofeachpatternlearnedand

groovesresultingfromcombinations.TheCMIstepwillprovideclearobjectivestobe

achievedduringeachpracticesession.StudentswillrepeatthecyclesuntiltheCM-imageis

transferredfromthevirtualworld(students’minds)tothephysicalworld(performance).

Receivingfeedbackwillalsobecriticalanditwillbeprovidedinmultipleways:fromthe

instructorineachlesson,viasourcesofthatallowcomparisonswiththestudents’

performancesuchaslisteningguidesandvideosamples,orbywatchingandobserving

moreexperiencedplayers.Additionally,studentscanrecordthemselvespracticing,and

laterwatchandevaluatetheirperformancesbasedontheknowledgeacquiredduringthe

VLS.Moreover,theycancomparetheiractualperformanceswiththeCM-imagepreviously

developed.Therefore,thedevelopmentoftheseCM-imagesisalsovaluableforenabling

thoroughself-evaluationsoftheirownperformances.

Whiledevelopingnewmotorskills,twostructuresofthebrainbecomeparticularly

important:theprimarymotorcortexandthecerebellum.Whenapersonlearnsnewmotor

skills,synapsesinthesetwoareaschange.“Thesynapsesthatrelaytheinformationon

howtoplaysomethingcorrectlygetstrengthened,whilethosethatsenderroneousor

irrelevantmessagesgetweakened”(Gebrian,2015,p.29).Also,ifthestudentsarenotwell

awareofwhattheyaresupposedtoachieveduringapracticesession,theirpracticemay

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resultinanundesirablestrengtheningofwrongmessagesandsynapses.Tofixthepassage

“onegroupofsynapseswouldhavetobestrengthenedwhilealsoweakeninganother,

ratherthansimplystrengtheningthemessage”(Gebrian,2015,p.30).Withtheuseofthe

practicecycles,studentswillcometofullyunderstandeverymusicalandmotoraspect

presentineachsinglepatternaswellaseachgrooveresultingfromthecombinationof

patterns.Withthatinmind,thelearningcyclesshouldbeusedtodevelopeachpatternand

eventuallythegroovesresultingfromdifferentcombinations.Thedevelopmentofdifferent

levelsofCM-imagesresultinanadditiveapproachintermsofmotorregionsinthebrain

regardlessoftheinstrumentthestudentplays;therefore,whenorganizingthecontentthat

willbepracticedineachsession,studentsshouldstartbypracticingCM-imagesLevel1

and,astheyachievethedesiredresults,theycanmoveuptoLevel2,then3,andlastly4.

Theroleofsleep.Accordingtoresearch,sleepplaysaveryimportantroleinthe

consolidationofmotorskills.Duringpracticesessions,performersarestrengtheningand

weakeningsynapsesintheirbrains.AsGebrian(2015)reports,thisistrueduringsleep,as

well:

Duringasleepspindle,thereisahugeburstofelectricalactivityinapopulationof

neuronsthatcausesmassiveamountsofcalciumtoenterthosecells.Calciumis

whatcausesallthechangesdiscussedearlier,fromstrengtheningandweakening

synapses,tomakingnewsynapses,tosynchronizingthefiringofneuronal

ensembles.(p.31)

AseriesofstudiesbyWalkeretal.in2002,2003,and2005(ascitedinGebrian,2015)

providesanexampleoftheuniqueandperhapssurprisingimpactofsleeponthe

consolidationofbasicmotorskills:

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Theirbasicexperimentalsetupinvolvesthreegroupsofpeople.Thefirstgroup

getstaughtafinger-tappingtaskat10AM,whichtheythenpracticeandaretested

onmultipletimesthroughouttheday.Thesecondgroupgetstaughtandpractices

thesametaskat10AM,buttheydon’tgettestedonitagainuntil10PM.Then,they

aresenthometosleepandtestedthenextmorningat10AM.Thefinalgroupis

trainedonthetaskonce(eitherat10AMor10PM;thetimingdoesnotmatter)and

hastheirfirstandonlyretestat10AMthenextmorning.

Whattheyfoundisastonishing.Thefirstgroupimprovesgraduallythroughoutthe

dayatapredictablelinearrate.Thesecondgroupshowsthesamelinearincrease

duringtheday,butwhentestedthenextmorning,thereisahugejumpintheir

performance(measuredbyfastersequenceexecutionwithoutlossofaccuracy).The

sameresultisseeninthegroupthatwasonlytrainedonceandthenwasretested

forthefirsttimethenextday.Bothgroupsgetbetterovernight,eventhoughallthey

doissleep.(p.30)

Tan,Pfordrescher,andHarré(2010)alsoreportthat“Itappearsthatthememorytracefor

motorlearningcontinuestobereprocessedevenduringperiodswithoutintervening

training,andthatsleepplaysacriticalrole”(p.186).Additionally,researchsupportsthe

importanceofnappingduringthedevelopmentofmotorskills.AccordingtoEricsson,

Krampe,andTesch-Römer,1993(citedinTan,Pfordrescher,&Harré,2010),resultsfrom

thecomparisonofthreegroupsofviolinistsshowedthat“thetoptwogroupsofviolinists

alsonappedmoreoftenthanthelessaccomplishedthirdgroup”(p.186).Therefore,

nappingalsohelpsoptimizethetimespentonthedevelopmentofmotorskills.In

combinationwithdistributedpractice,sleepingcancontributetoafasterandmore

105

effectivedevelopmentofmotorskills.Bothnappingbetweenpracticesessionsandgetting

agoodnight’ssleepwillenhancethedevelopmentandconsolidationofmotorskills.

Summaryofpracticestrategies.Basedonthesethreeguidelines–durationof

practicesessions,accuratepractice,andsleep–instructorsandstudentswillcreatespecific

objectivestobeachievedduringeachsinglepracticesessionaswellascreateaschedule

allowingthestudenttospreadseveralpracticesessionsthroughouttheday.Forexample,a

percussionstudentlearningbaiãostylewouldneedtolearnaseriesofpatternstobe

performedondifferentinstrumentssuchasthezabumba,triangle,woodblock,agogobells,

anddrumset.AftercompletingtheVLSstepstobecomefamiliarwiththebasicsofthestyle

anddevelopingCM-images,thestudentwouldstartpracticinganddevelopingphysical

motorskills.Basedontheresearchaboutdistributedpracticebeingmoreeffectiveforthe

developmentofmanytypesofmotorskillsandtheroleofbreaksduringthepractice

sessions,Iwouldrecommendfourpracticesessionsperdaylastingaminimumof90

minutespersession.Duringeachsessionthestudentshouldhaveaclearobjectiveto

achieveduringthattimeandshouldtakea5-10minutebreakafter50minutes.Thelength

ofeachpracticesessionandthebreaksmayvarydependingonthestudent’sschedule.

Itiswellknownthatmotorskillsimprovewithpractice;therefore,themorethe

studentspracticeeffectively,themoretheywillimprove.Withthatinmind,astudent

learningbaiãostylewouldlearntoplaythezabumba.Shewouldstartbypracticingseveral

Level1CM-imagestodevelopthebasicvocabulary.Figure4.48showsaseriesofpatterns

forthelowtoneofthezabumba.

106

Figure4.48:Zabumbalowtonepatterns.

EachpatternwouldbedevelopedthroughthecycleinFigure4.37.Ina90-minutesession,

theobjectivewouldbetodevelopallfivepatterns.Byspreadingfourpracticesessionswith

thesameobjectivethroughoutasingleday,however,studentsarelikelytoachievethis

objectivefairlyquickly.Becausethemotorskillsarebeingconsistentlyreinforced,

continuedgrowthwillbecomeeasierandlesstime-consumingastheprocessisrepeated.

Anadditionalrecommendationistoworkonallfivepatternsusingthecycleduringthe

first50minutesofthesession–inthiscase,10minutesofpracticeperpattern.Aftertaking

ashortbreak,playthepatternsalongwithsongsfromthelisteningguide.Thisplay-along

portionwillhelpsolidifynotonlythemotorskillbutalsotheauthenticityofthepatternsin

context.Again,eachstudentwillprogressatadifferentrateanditwillbeuptothestudent

andtheinstructortoevaluatetheprogress,communicate,andmakeadjustmentsinlength

andobjectivesforeachpracticesession.Inadditiontodefiningclearobjectivesand

107

spreadingthesessionthroughouttheday,studentscantakenapsbetweensessionsand/or

haveapracticesessionatnightbeforegoingtosleep.

Conclusion

TheMLSisdesignedtocreatestrategiesthatgraduallydevelopmotorskills.By

organizingtherhythmicpatternsofeachstyleaccordingtothemetricalhierarchyand

psychomotorfactors,studentsandinstructorswillbeabletocreateaneffectivesequence

formotorskilldevelopment.Moreover,byconsideringthemotorskillrequirementsof

eachinstrument,definingclearobjectivesforthepracticesessions,andspreadingseveral

practicesessionsthroughouttheday,studentsbecomeablenotonlytodevelopmotor

skillstoperformBrazilianpopularmusicstylesbutalsotoreinforceandsolidifythe

knowledgeandauthenticityacquiredduringtheVLS.Thedevelopmentofeachnewpattern

andgroovewillusecyclesthatinterweavebothVirtualandMotorlearningsequences.

Throughthesecycles,studentswilldevelopasenseofcontextualizationofthepatterns

withineachstylestudied,clearimageriesofhowtoplaythepatternsandthegrooves

resultingfromthecombinations,strongmotorskills,andoverallauthenticity.Throughthis

pedagogicalapproach,non-nativeBrazilianstudentscandevelopauthenticperformances

ofBrazilianpopularmusicstyleswithhighlevelsofmotorskills,becomingwell-rounded,

independentmusicianswhoareabletoplanandmodifytheirownpracticestrategiesas

wellasmonitorandimprovetheleveloftheirownperformance.Byacquiringtheseskills,

studentswillbeabletocomparedifferentperformancesandevaluatethelevelof

authenticityandmotorskillsofotherplayersandassesswhetherornotsuchperformances

areauthentic,representativeofadeterminedstyle,andreliablesourcesforfuturestudies.

CHAPTER5

SUMMARYANDRECOMMENDATIONS

Brazilianpopularmusicstylesarenotablygrowinginpopularityaroundtheworld

and,althoughmanyofthesestylesarebeingwidelytaughtoutsideBrazil,non-native

Brazilianmusiciansoftenstruggletolearnandperformtheminanauthenticmanner.

Despitethewidevarietyofresourcesandmethodbooksavailable,theculturalcontextand

thesubtletiesofstylesareeitherunknown,ignored,ornotapproachedwithenoughdepth

fornon-natives.Therefore,non-nativemusiciansarenotdevelopingthenecessary

understandingabouthowthesalientpatternsandmusicalelementssynthesizetobecome

astyle.Thepurposeofthisprojectwastodevelopandpresentapedagogicalapproachto

teachingtheauthenticperformanceofBrazilianpopularmusicstylestonon-native

musicians,teachingthemculturalbackgroundandcontextaswellaspatternvocabulary

andtechnicalskillsviatheinterweavingoftwolearningsequences.Thistwo-stage,

research-basedapproachwasdesignedbasedonthefoundationsofmusicperception,

musiccognition,andpsychomotorlearningtheoriestodevelopbothauthenticityand

motorskills.TheVirtualLearningSequence(VLS)servesasstage1andisprimarily

designedtodevelopauthenticity.Throughlistening,audiating,andvocalizing,students

developthevocabularyofeachstyle.Next,throughobserving,motor-mimesis,cognitive

motor-imaging,andmentalpractice,theycreatecognitiveassociationsbetweenthe

vocabularyandthemotorskillsrequiredtoperformit.Instage2,theMotorLearning

Sequence(MLS)guidesmusicianstocreateandapplyagradualsequencetodevelopthe

physicalmotorskillsnecessarytoachieveanauthenticperformance.Additionally,theMLS

109

providespracticestrategiesforapproachingmotorskillsdevelopmentobjectivelyandwith

cleargoals.

InitialEffectivenessandOtherApplicationsoftheApproach

EachBrazilianpopularmusicstylerepresentsthecultureofitsregionor

community.Agreatvarietyofstylesexistthatareunknowntothemajorpopulationofthe

countryitselfand,ofcourse,totheworld.Althoughthispedagogicalapproachfocuseson

teachingsamba,bossanova,choro,baião,andmaracatutonon-nativeBrazilians,Ialso

experimentedusingtheapproachwithnativeBrazilians.Whiledevelopingthispedagogical

approachoverthepasttwoyears,Iuseditselementsinavarietyofeducationalsettings.As

apercussionanddrumsetinstructor,Istartedthisprojecttoteachstudentsofthose

instruments.AtthesametimeIwasalsodirectingBrazilianpopularmusicensembles,and

Istartedexpandingtheapproachtootherinstrumentalistsinthatsetting.Whiledirecting

studentensemblesatBallStateUniversityandIndianaWesleyanUniversity,Iwasfocusing

onresearch,thecreationofthispedagogy,andthenexperimentationwithseveralofits

steps.AlthoughthevocalizationportionwasnotyetfinalizedandtheCMIdidnotexistat

thatpoint,Iwasstillabletoapplyasimilarteachingapproach,makerecordingsattheend

ofthesemester,andobtainanecdotalevidenceofitseffectivenessintermsofauthenticity.

InabriefquestionnairesenttoafewBrazilianpopularmusicexperts,thesample

recordingsofensemblespreparedusingthepedagogicalapproachwereinterposedwith

recordingsofnativeensemblesandnon-nativeensemblesthatwerenotexposedtothis

approach.Therespondentswereaskedtoratethetechnicalskillsandperceived

authenticityofthevariousperformances.Ofmostsignificancetothisproject,the

questionnairepresentedthestatement,“Thelevelofauthenticityisveryhigh,”and

solicitedresponsesonaLikert-typescalefrom“StronglyDisagree”to“StronglyAgree.”In

110

retrospect,itprobablywouldhavebeenbettertoasktherespondentstoratethelevelof

authenticityfrom“NotatallAuthentic”to“VeryAuthentic,”forexample,toobtainresults

thatresultedinmoreexplicitinterpretation.Nevertheless,thedatasuggeststhatthefocus

itemwasdiscriminatinggiventhatthefourexpertrespondentscollectivelyidentifiedthe

recordingsofthetwonativeensemblesasthemostauthenticbasedonAuthenticityscores

calculatedbyassigningpointstoSD,D,U,A,andSA(1,2,3,4,and5,respectively).Thetwo

nativeperformancesearnedscoresof18and16.ThelowestAuthenticityscore(10)was

earnedbytherecordingofanon-nativebutprofessionalensemble.Mostsignificanttothis

project,therecordingsofthethreestudentensemblespreparedusingthepedagogical

approachallearnedAuthenticityscoresthesameasorhigherthanthenon-native

professionalensemble(13,12,and10),withthestudentensemblethatwaspreparedusing

thepedagogicalapproachmostconsistentlyandthoroughlyreceivingthehighestofthese

scores.Theonlynon-nativeensembletoearnahigherAuthenticityscore(15)wasthe

well-knownandprofessionalStanGetzband.So,evenwiththequalifierof“veryhigh”in

thetargetstatement,thestudentensemblespreparedusingthepedagogicalapproachwere

perceivedasrelativelyauthenticascomparedtoprofessionalnon-nativeensembles.This

appearstoprovidesomeinitialvalidationoftheapproach,albeitbasedonaverylimited

sample(seeAppendixDforasummaryofthesurveyquestionnairedata).

Whileexperimentingwithseveralstepsofbothlearningsequencesinavarietyof

situations,Icametorealizethat,inaverybroadview,mostmusicstylescouldbe

structuredsimilarlyandapproachedasalanguagethatincludesawidevocabularyof

musicalpatterns.Certainly,somestylesaremuchmorecomplexthanothers,butitis

possibletodeterminethemaincharacterizingpatternswithineachdifferentstyle.Based

onthispremise,IexperimentedwiththestepsoftheVLStodevelopauthenticitywhen

111

teachingFunk,Rock,Jazz,andLatinstyles.Ialsoexperimentedwithclassicalrepertoireon

avarietyofpercussioninstrumentslikemarimba,vibraphone,timpani,andsnaredrum.In

orchestralmusic,Iusedthelisteningportiontofamiliarizestudentswiththeactual

excerptstheywereplaying,encouragingthemtoaudiatenotonlytheirpartsbutalsothe

entireorchestrationtohelpcontextualizetheirparts.

Afterfinalizingthepedagogicalapproachandusingitinamorecompleteway,the

vocalizationstepbecameoneofitsmostimportantelements.Whenteachingdrumset,I

askstudentstovocalizeonomatopoeicsyllablesthatdepictthesoundofthedrums.After

effectivelyvocalizingthepart,theyareoftenabletoperformitintheirfirstattempt.Minor

technicalissuesoccur,ofcourse,andIencouragethemtousemotor-mimesis,CMI,and

slowertempi,aswellasthecombinationcyclesfromtheMLSwhenappropriate.The

vocalizationstepisextremelyeffective,andtheentireVLSfacilitatesthedevelopmentof

generalunderstandingaboutthestyle.Althoughthestepsinthispedagogicalapproach

appeartobeaneffectiveandefficientstrategyfordevelopingunderstandingandinitial

motorskilldevelopment,thestudentsmustapplythepracticestrategiesandspendmany

hoursperfectingtheirskillstobecomeproficientmusicians.

RecommendationsforFurtherResearch

AsIwasdevelopingthispedagogicalapproachandexperimentingwithits

applicationtoseveraldifferentmusicstyles,Imademyownobservationsaboutits

effectivenessandsolicitedsomeinitialinsightsfromafewBrazilianpopularmusicexperts.

Moresubstantialindicatorsofitseffectivenesscouldbeobtainedthroughexperimentalor

quasi-experimentalstudieswithlargerpopulations.Suchstudieswouldprovidevalidand

reliableresultswithoutanybiasesratherthantheanecdotalresultsobtainedbygathering

datafromabriefandlimitedsurveybasedonaudiosamplesrecordedpriortothefull

112

developmentofthepedagogicalapproach.Furtherresearchwouldprovidemoredetailed

informationaboutitsbenefits.

Furtherresearchcanalsofocusonhowthispedagogicalapproachcouldworkwhen

appliedtodifferentculturalmusicstyles.Althoughthisprojectwasoriginallydevelopedto

teachauthenticityandmotorskillsofBrazilianpopularmusicstyles,itisgroundedinthe

applicationsofmusicperception,musiccognition,andpsychomotorlearningtheories.

Therefore,musicteachersspecializingindifferentstylesofculturalmusiccouldstudyit,

makeadaptations,andapplythestepsofthetwolearningsequencesindifferentcontexts.

Forexample,thispedagogicalapproachcouldpotentiallybeusedtoteachWestAfrican

traditionalfolkmusicsuchasYorubaandEwe,whichlikeBrazilianstylesarerootedin

salientrhythmicpatternsandpercussioninstruments.Additionally,itcouldbeappliedtoa

varietyofSouthAmericanstylessuchascumbiafromColombia,joropofromVenezuela,

andtangofromArgentina.Whatevertheinstructor’sexpertise,theentiresequenceor

specificelementsoftheapproachcouldbeusedandadaptedtoeachsituation.The

instructorwouldcreatealistofmusicalpatternstobuildthevocabularyofthestyleand

alsoalisteningguideforthelisteningportion,helpingstudentsdevelopauthenticity.

Finally,researchcouldrevealmoreinformationabouttheeffectivenessofthe

proposedpracticestrategiesandtheresultingbenefitsfordifferentmotorskill

development.Basedonmypersonalexperienceasamusician,Iwasabletodevelopmy

performanceskillsmoreefficientlyandconsistentlyonceIstartedapplyingthesestrategies

tomyownpractice.ThefactthatIspentmostofmylifeworkingonthoseskillscannotbe

ignored,however,sincethisprovidedastrongbackgroundpriortousingthesestrategies.

Aformalresearchstudycouldbedesignedtoinvestigatetheeffectivenessoftheapproach

113

withmusicstudentsofvaryingbackgroundsanddifferentlevelsofmotorskill

development.

Conclusion

Giventhevastworldofdifferentmusicalcultures,performingandteachingmusic

differentfromone’sownculturewithauthenticityisoneofthemostchallengingtasksfora

musician.Asbothartistandpedagogue,Iteachmusictonon-nativeBraziliansandseekto

transmittomystudentsandcolleagueseventhesmallestculturaldetailsthatmakeeach

styleunique.ThedesiretosharemyskillsandknowledgeaboutBrazilianmusicwithmy

students,fellowperformers,andotherteachersmotivatedmetoexploremusicpsychology

researchtofindthenecessaryresourcesandhelpothersperformsuchstyleswiththe

highestlevelofauthenticity.

Theabilityofmusicteacherstotransfertheknowledgeofeachculture’smusicisnot

onlyanefforttoimprovestudents’musicalknowledgeandskillsbutalsoadisplayof

respectforaparticularcultureanditspeople.Asaresultofmyendeavorsasatouring

performer,arranger,composer,andensembledirector,IexperiencedwhatIconsiderthe

proverbial“tipoftheiceberg”ofmanycultures.Ihavebeenblessedtomeetpeoplefromall

ofNorthandSouthAmericaaswellasAfrica,theMiddleEast,andAsiancountries,andto

exchangewiththemmusicalandculturalknowledge.Thedifficultiesofunderstandingand

learningaboutsomanydifferentculturesandtheirmusicwerealsomotivatingfactorsthat

ledmetopursuethisproject.NotonlyamIattemptingtotransmitandhelpotherslearn

aboutBrazilianpopularmusicstyles,butalsotohelpothermusiciansbecomeadeptat

teachingtheauthenticperformanceoftheirownmusicalcultureoranymusicthey

specializein.Iamhopingthat,throughmusic,wecanlearnabout,understand,andrespect

thedifferentculturalbackgroundsofpeoplearoundtheworld.

114

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UniversityofNebraska-Lincoln. Aquino,T.F.(2014).Drumset,rhythm,samba(Doctoraldissertation).RetrievedfromSão

PauloUniversity. Bandura,A.(1970).Sociallearningtheory.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ.Prentice-Hall.Barsalini,L.(2009).AsSíntesisdeEdisonMachado:Umestudosobreodesenvolvimentode padrõesdesambanabateria[TheSynthesisofEdisonMachado:Astudyaboutthe developmentofsambapatternsonthedrumset].RetrievedfromUnicamp.Bolão,O.(2010).Batuqueéumprivilégio:ApercussãonamúsicadoRiodeJaneiropara músicos,arranjadoresecompositores[Batuqueisaprivilege:Percussioninthemusic ofRiodeJaneiroformusicians,arrangersandcomposers].SãoPaulo,SP.Irmãos VitaleS/AIndústriaeComércio.Brunet,C.S.(2012).Carnaval,sambaschoolsandthenegotiationofgenderedidentitiesin

SãoPaulo,Brazil(Doctoraldissertation).RetrievedfromUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley.

Criss,E.(2008).Thenaturallearningprocess.MusicEducatorsJournal,Vol.95(2),42-44. doi:10.1177/0027432108325071Ester,D.(2010).Soundconnections:Acomprehensiveapproachtoteachingmusic literacy.Fishers,IN:EducationalExclusives.Gebrian,M.(2015).Brainresearchandpracticing.FluteTalkMagazine.Vol.35(2)29-33.Gonçalves,G.,Costa,M.O.(2012).Obatuquecarioca–2aedição:Asbateriasdasescolasde sambadoRiodeJaneiro-Aprendendoatocar[TheCariocagroove–2ndedition:The RiodeJaneiro’ssambaschoolsdrumsections–learningtoplay].RiodeJaneiro,RJ. Grooveproduçõeseedições.Godøy,R.I.(2003).Motor-mimeticmusiccognition.Leonardo,Vol.36(4),pp.317-319. doi:10.1162/002409403322258781Gomes,Sergio.(2004).Novoscaminhosdabateriabrasileira[NewwaysofBrazilian drumming].SãoPaulo,SP.SérgioGomes.Gordon,E.(2012).Learningsequencesinmusic,Chicago,IL.GIAPublicationsInc.Gagné,R.M.(1985).Theconditionsoflearningandtheoryofinstruction.NewYork,NY. Holt,RinehartandWinston,Inc.Knapp,D.H.(2012).Theeffectsofmulticulturalmusicinstructionontheperceptionof authenticityandpreferenceforteachingmulticulturalmusic(doctoraldissertation). RetrievedfromFloridaStateUniversity.Kohut,D.L.(1985).Musicalperformance:Learningtheoryandpedagogy.EnglewoodCliffs, NJ.Prentice-Hall.Lopes,R.(2013).OEnsinoda“guitarrabrasileira”:Umaconstrução[Theteachingof “Brazilianguitar”:Aconstruction].(Master’sthesis).RetrievedfromUFRJ.Luckner,J.L.(1990).Informationprocessing:Implicationsforeducators.TheClearing House:AJournalofEducationalStrategies,IssuesandIdeas,Vol.64(2),99-102. doi:10.1080/00098655.1990.9955819Monteiro,D.(2015).Thesambaschool:Acomprehensivemethodforlearning,playing,and teachingsambapercussion.SãoPaulo,SP.Contemporânea.

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116

APPENDIXA

LISTENINGGUIDE

Samba

• Album–SambasdeEnredodasEscolasdeSamba2017

o Sócomaajudadosanto(radioedit)

o Adivinacomédiadocarnival(radioedit)

o Iracema,avirgemdoslábiosdemel(radioedit)

o Osomdacor(radioedit)

• Album–Chico50anos-OMalandrobyChicoBuarque

o Quemteviu,quemtevê

o Homenagemaomalandro

o Dozeanos

o Quandoocarnavalchegar

• Album–BraseirobyRobertasá

o Eusambomesmo

o Nobraseiro

o Avizinhadolado

o Cicatrizez

• Album–NumcorposóbyMariaRita

o Ohomemfalou

o Cria

o Trajetória

o Corpitcho

117

BossaNova

• Album–Elis&TombyTomJobimandElisRegina

o Aguásdemarco

o Corcovado

o Triste

o Portodaminhavida

• Album–TomJobimcantaViníciusbyTomJobim

o Insenatez

o Eunãoexistosemvoçê

o Euseiquevouteamar

o GarotadeIpanema

• Album–SambalançobyCarlosLyra

o Lobobobo/Saudadefezumsamba/Seétardemeperdoa

o Minhanamorada

o Vocêeeu/Coisamaislinda

o Podeir

• Album–ChegadesaudadebyJoãoGilberto

o Chegadesaudade

o Saudadefezumsamba

o Desafinado

o Manhãdecarnaval

118

Choro

• Album–ParasemprebyPixinguinha

o 1X0

o Urubatan

o Falabaixinho

o Elizetenochorinho

• Album–Cartola(1976)byCartola

o Nãopossoviversemvoçê

o Aconteceu

o Asrosasnãofalam

o Meudrama(senhoratentação)

• Album–Mandolinmasterofbraziloriginalclassicrecordingsvol.1byJacobdo

Bandolin

o Assanhado

o Andrédesapatonovo

o Naqueletempo

o Benzinho

• Album–BeneditoLacerdaePixinguinhabyBeneditoLacerdaePixinguinha

o Atraente

o SAindamerecordo

o Vouvivendo

o Sofresporquequeres

119

Baião

• Album–Semlimite-CD1andCD2byDominguinhos

o Doidinho,doidinho

o Eusóqueroumxodó

o Asabranca

o Nãoprendeminhasasas

• Album–VoltapracurtirbyLuizGonzaga

o Horadoadeus

o Paudearara

o Derramaroogai

o AfeiradeCaruaru

• Album–50anosdesucessosnoforróbyTrionordestino

o Chorandoporalguém

o Forrópagão

o Morrendodeamor

o Saudadedabahia

• Album–CadaumbeliscaumpoucobyDominguinhos,Sivuca&Oswaldinho

o Feirademangaio

o Baião

o Cadaumbeliscaumpouco

o Roseiradonorte

120

Maracatu

Therearenotmanypublishedrecordingsofmaracatu,althoughrepresentative

materialcanbefoundinthelinksbelow.

• Album–MaracatuEstrelaBrilhantedoRecifebyNaçãoEstrelaBrilhante(canbe

foundonYoutube:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rGA4rKh7Ixo&t=63s

accessed10/15/2017).

• Maracatumaraberto–(canbefoundonYoutube:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DqZX8m2T-e0accessed10/15/2017).

121

APPENDIXB

BASICVOCABULARY

Sambabasicvocabulary-listentoaudioexamples62to76at

https://soundcloud.com/bruno-cabrera-40190673/sets/doctoral-dissertation-audio-examples

ã 42 œ Œ œ Œã 42 Œ œ Œ œ

ã 42 .œ œ .œ œ .œ œ .œ œ

ã 42 Œ .œ œ Œ œ œ œ

ã 42 Œ œ œ Œ .œ œ Œ œ œ ‰ jœ ≈ œ œ

ã 42 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

ã 42 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

ã 42 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

ã 42 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

ã 42 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

ã 42 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

ã 42 ≈ œ œ ≈ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

ã 42 œ œ œ œ œ ≈ œ œ ≈ œ œ

ã 42 .1 1 1 1 1 1 .1 1

ã 42 ≈ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2nd Surdo

1st Surdo

3rd Surdo

Chocalho

Caixa

Repinique

Telecoteco

InvertedTelecoteco

Agogo bells

Tu Tu

Tum Tum

Tu - Tu-Tum - Tum Tu - Tu-Tum - Tum

Tum - Tu Tum-Tum - Tu

Tum-Tum Tum - Tu Tum - Tum Tum - Tum - Tu

T-K-Ts-K-T-K-Ts-K T-K-Ts-K-T-K-Ts-K

Ts-K-T-K-Ts-K-T-K Ts-K-T-K-Ts-K-T-K

T-K-T-Pa- T-K-T-Pa T-K-T-Pa- T-K-T-Pa

Pa-K-T-Pa-Pa-K-T-Pa Pa-K-T-Pa-Pa-K-T-Pa

Pa-K-T-Pa-K-T-Pa-K Pa-K-T-Pa-K-Bzz-K

Pa-K-T-Pa-K-T-Pa-K Pa-K-Pa-K-T-Bzz-K

> > > > > > > >

> > > > >

> > > > >

(co)TecoTe co Te Le co TecoTecoTeLecoTe

TecoTecoTeLecoTe co TecoTe co Te Le co

Basic vocabulary for samba

Keh - Koh-Koh-Keh Keh -Koh -Koh - Keh

Keh-Keh-Keh-Keh Koh-Koh-Koh-Koh-Koh

122

Bossanovabasicvocabulary-listentoaudioexamples77to85at

https://soundcloud.com/bruno-cabrera-40190673/sets/doctoral-dissertation-audio-examples

ã 42 œ Œ œ Œã 42 Œ œ Œ œ

ã 42 .œ œ .œ œ .œ œ .œ œ

ã 42 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

ã 42 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

ã 42 .œ œ ‰ Jœ ‰ Jœ ≈ .Jœ

ã 42 ≈ œ œ ‰ Jœ œ œ ≈ .Jœ

ã 42 ≈ œ œ ‰ Jœ ‰ Jœ ≈ œ œ

ã 42 œ œ ≈ œ œ ≈ .Jœ ‰ Jœ

2nd Surdo

1st Surdo

3rd Surdo

Chocalho

Bossa novapattern

Variations ofTelecoteco

Basic vocabulary for bossa nova

Tu Tu

Tum Tum

Tu - Tu-Tum - Tum Tu - Tu-Tum - Tum

T- K-Ts-K- T- K- Ts-K T-K-Ts-K - T-K-Ts-K

Ts-K-T-K - Ts-K-T -K Ts-K-T-K - Ts-K-T-K

Pa - Pa - Pa Pa - Pa

Teco-Teco - Teco Teco-Teco - Teco

Teco-Teco - Teco Teco - Teco-Teco

Teco-Teco - Teco-Teco Teco - Teco

123

Chorobasicvocabulary-listentoaudio86to91at

https://soundcloud.com/bruno-cabrera-40190673/sets/doctoral-dissertation-audio-examples

ã œ Œ œ Œ

ã Œ œ Œ œ

ã .œ œ .œ œ .œ œ .œ œ

ã x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

ã x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

ã x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

Basic vocabulary for choro

Tu Tu

Tum Tum

Tu - Tu-Tum - Tum Tu - Tu -Tum - Tum

K-Ts-K-Ts - K-Ts-K-Ts K-Ts-K-Ts -K-Ts-K-Ts

T-Ts-Ts-K - T-Ts-Ts-K T-Ts-Ts-K - T-Ts-Ts-K

T-Ts-Ts-Ts - T-Ts-Ts-Ts T-Ts-Ts-Ts -T-Ts-Ts-Ts

2nd Surdo

1st Surdo

3rd Surdo

Chocalho

124

Baiãobasicvocabulary-listentoaudioexamples92to102at

https://soundcloud.com/bruno-cabrera-40190673/sets/doctoral-dissertation-audio-examples

ã x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

ã x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

ã .œ œ Œ .œ œ Œ

ã .œ œ ‰ jœ .œ œ ‰ jœ

ã .œ œ œ œ .œ œ œ œ

ã .œ œ ≈ œ œ .œ œ ≈ œ œ

ã .œ œ œ œ œ .œ œ œ œ œ

ã ‰ Jœ œ œ ‰ Jœ œ œ

ã ≈ .Jœ œ œ ≈ .Jœ œ œ

ã ≈ .Jœ .œ œ ≈ .Jœ .œ œ

ã ≈ œ œ ≈ œ œ œ ≈ œ œ ≈ œ œ œ

Basic vocabulary for baião

T - K-Tin-Gy- T - K-Tin-Gy T - K-Tin-Gy - T - K -Tin-Gy

K -Tin-Gy- T - K- Tin-Gy -T K-Tin-Gy-T - K-Tin-Gy-T

Tu - Tum Tu - Tum

Tu - Tu - Tum Tu - Tu - Tum

Tu - Tu-Tum - Tum Tu - Tu -Tum - Tum

Tu - Tu - Tum - Tum Tu - Tu - Tum - Tum

Tu - Tu -Tum-Tum - Tum Tu - Tu -Tum-Tum - Tum

Pa - Pa - Pa Pa - Pa - Pa

Pa - Pa - Pa Pa - Pa - Pa

Pa - Pa - Pa Pa - Pa - Pa

Pa-Pa - Pa-Pa - Pa Pa-Pa - Pa-Pa - Pa

Triangle

Zabumba(low)

Zabumba (high)

125

Maracatubasicvocabulary-listentoaudioexamples103to111at

https://soundcloud.com/bruno-cabrera-40190673/sets/doctoral-dissertation-audio-examples

ã 44 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

ã œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

ã .œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

ã .œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

ã œ œ œ œ .œ œ .œ œ œ œ œ .œ œ .œ

ã œ œ .œ œ .œ œ .œ œ œ .œ œ .œ œ .œ

ã œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

ã ≈ .J1 1 1 ≈ .J1 1 1 ≈ .J1 1 1 ≈ .J1 1 1

ã 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Ts - T - K - Ts - T - K - Ts - T - K - Ts - T - K Ts - T - K - Ts - T - K - Ts - T - K - Ts - T - K

Pa-Bzz-T-K - T-Bzz-T -K - T-Bzz -T- K T-Bzz -T- K Pa-Bzz-T-K - T-Bzz-T -K - T-Bzz -T- K T-Bzz -T- K

Bzz - T - K-Bzz-T -K - T-Bzz-T- K - T-Bzz -T- K Bzz - T - K-Bzz-T -K - T-Bzz -T- K - T-Bzz -T- K

Bzz - T - Pa- K- Pa-K - T-Bzz-T- K - T-Bzz -T- K Bzz - T - Pa- K- Pa-K - T-Bzz-T - K - T-Bzz -T- K

Tum - Tum - Tum - Tu-Tum - Tu-Tum Tum - Tum - Tum - Tu-Tum - Tu-Tum

Tum - Tu-Tum - Tu-Tum - Tu-Tum Tum - Tu-Tum - Tu-Tum - Tu-Tum

Tum - Tu-Tum - Tu - Tu -Tum - Tu -Tu-Tum - Tu Tum - Tu-Tum - Tu - Tu -Tum - Tu -Tu-Tum - Tu

Ke - Ke - Ke - Ke - Ke - Ke Ke - Ke - Ke - Ke - Ke - Ke

Koh-Keh - Koh -Keh - Koh-Keh-Keh-Koh-Keh Koh - Keh - Koh -Keh - Koh-Keh-Keh-Koh-Keh

Basic vocabulary for maracatu

Shequere

Tarol

Alfaia

Gongue

Agogo bells

126

APPENDIXCQUESTIONNAIRE

Samplerecording1:MarkyouranswerswithanX.

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree

Undecided

Agree

Strongly

Agree

1-Thetechnicalskillsareveryhigh.

2-Thelevelofauthenticityisveryhigh

3-ThisensembleisnativeBrazilian

Samplerecording2:MarkyouranswerswithanX.

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree

Undecided

Agree

Strongly

Agree

1-Thetechnicalskillsareveryhigh.

2-Thelevelofauthenticityisveryhigh

3-ThisensembleisnativeBrazilian

Samplerecording3:MarkyouranswerswithanX.

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree

Undecided

Agree

Strongly

Agree

1-Thetechnicalskillsareveryhigh.

2-Thelevelofauthenticityisveryhigh

3-ThisensembleisnativeBrazilian

127

Samplerecording4:MarkyouranswerswithanX.

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree

Undecided

Agree

Strongly

Agree

1-Thetechnicalskillsareveryhigh.

2-Thelevelofauthenticityisveryhigh

3-ThisensembleisnativeBrazilian

Samplerecording5:MarkyouranswerswithanX.

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree

Undecided

Agree

Strongly

Agree

1-Thetechnicalskillsareveryhigh.

2-Thelevelofauthenticityisveryhigh

3-ThisensembleisnativeBrazilian

Samplerecording6:MarkyouranswerswithanX.

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree

Undecided

Agree

Strongly

Agree

1-Thetechnicalskillsareveryhigh.

2-Thelevelofauthenticityisveryhigh

3-ThisensembleisnativeBrazilian

128

Samplerecording7:MarkyouranswerswithanX.

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree

Undecided

Agree

Strongly

Agree

1-Thetechnicalskillsareveryhigh.

2-Thelevelofauthenticityisveryhigh

3-ThisensembleisnativeBrazilian

129

APPENDIXD

SUMMARYOFQUESTIONNAIREDATA