techincal communication

BITS ZG659: Technical

Communication

BITS PilaniPilani Campus

Learning Objectives (Ref Chapter 1 &3)

1. Understanding the concept of communication2. The importance of communication 3. Grasping stages of the communication

process4. Characteristics of Communication

Communication :Defined and Explained

Communication is the transfer of informationand understanding from one person to anotherperson. It is a way of reaching others withfacts, ideas, thoughts and values.

Keith Davis Communication is a word of Latin origin

Communico or communicare, which meansto share.

Technical Communication Course No. BITS ZG659

Conti..

Transmission and interchange of facts, ideas ,feelings or course of action.

Most common medium of communication islanguage not only language we use codes andsymbols in order to communicate.


It is a process where by one may express ideasthrough the use of symbols and other audio- visualaids.

The transmission from one person to another ofnecessary information , feeling or ideas with a viewto eliciting a sensible reaction from the receiver orcommunicator.

For effective communication there should becooperation among sender and receivers

Without a common purpose , background and interestthere can be no effective communication.

Sender Message Receiver Response

Sent Received

Semantic gap

Channel

Feedback

Process of CommunicationShannon Weaver Model

Text Book: Sharma, R.C. and K Mohan. 2011 Business Correspondence and Report Writing. Fouth Ed. Tata McGraw Hill

Sent Message

Receiver Received Message

ResponseChannel

Feedback

Process of CommunicationShannon Weaver Model

Reference Book: Raman, Meenakshi and Sangeeta Sharma, 2011 Technical Communication: Principles and Practice, 2/e. New Delhi OUP.

Message Decoded

Message encodedSender


Elements of communication Process

Communication is the process involving the transmission and reception of symbols eliciting meaning in the minds of the participants by making common their life experiences.

Baird Jr. E John Sender- sender is the person who originates the

message and is therefore the information source ( or encoder )

Technical Communication Course No.BITS ZG659

Receiver

The receiver is the person to whom the message iscommunicated and who interprets or decodes themessage.

Receiver participate activity in the communicationprocess. He is the potential destination of themessage. The receivers active participation in thecommunicating process implies that he is also theturning point , since the feedback originates from thereceiver.


Message is the content or what is communicated. Channel is the carrier through which or by which the

message is transmitted to the receiver. The choice ofthe channel and the type of symbols is determined bythe situation. E.g. if a doctor talks to a doctor he willuse technical language , language particular to hisprofession but when talking to his child, he will usesimple everyday language and speaks in an informalmanner.

Choice of channel and the type of symbols isdetermined by the situation (doc-doc-child).


Feedback

Feedback the observation of the receivers response bythe sender is called feedback. After the receiver hasreceived and interpreted the communication hisanswer lies in feedback (which will consist ofadditional information). As with most form ofcommunication feedback can be verbal or non-verbaldepending upon the receivers preference. (feedback isan individuals reaction to your message that lets youknow how effectively you have communicated.)


Feedback may be either direct or delayed. Direct feedback occurs when you are in the

receivers presence or on the telephone forexample suppose you write an assignment andshow it to your teacher. He or she reads it inyour presence and then looks up and says, congratulations. you did a fine job. In thisinstance feed back was direct, verbal andpositive.


Semantic gap- semantic gap arises when themeaning that you want to convey is not theintended one. Instead of what you want toconvey something else is conveyed.

When the meaning that is communicated issomething different than the one that youwanted to communicate.

Sender converts the Idea

into words or gestures

Message travels

over channel

Receiver Responds

Ideation

Process of Communication

.

Sender has an Idea

Receiver decodes

the message

FeedbackDecodingTransmissionEncoding

Spot the Error in the diagram

Message Channel Feedback

Five elements of Communication

.

Sender Receiver

1 32 4 5

Dynamic Two Way Ubiquitous

Features of Communication

.

Process Arbitrary

1 32 4 5

Contextual

6

Cultural

7

Symbolic

8

Process

Two Way

Arbitrary

Cheval (French)

Uma (Japanese)

El Caballo (Spannish)

Pherd (German)

Elorshrit (Russian)

Ghora (Hindi)

Ubiquitous

Cultural

Symbolic


Communication Flow and Types

Learning Objectives (Ref Chapter 1 &3)1. Various Flows of Communicationa) Upward, b) Downward,c) Lateral2. Types of Communicationa) Interpersonal, b) Intrapersonal, c) Mass, d) organizational, e) extra personal

Typical features of communication

Two way process Continuous/Ongoing Functional Commulative process Irreversible Contextual Complex Inevitable

Types Communication

Oral

Verbal

Written

-Signs-Symbols-Body Language

Non verbal

ORAL Face to face

Telephonic

Group

Meeting

Seminar

Conference

Panel Discussion

Symposium

Presentation

Interview

ORAL COMMUNICATION

Advantages Adjustable Imm. Clarification Time Persuasion &

control informality Cost Convenient/reliable

for Groups

Limitations Future ref not

possible Not-effective if

poor speaker Not suitable for

lengthy details Distortion Poor retention

WRITTEN e mail

Fax

Memorandum

Notice

Circular

Press release

Letter

Report

Proposal

Research paper

Written CommunicationAdvantages

Most wanted Permanent Legal evidence Accurate Suitable for

lengthy & complicated

Limitations Limited only to

Literates Costly, time

consuming Formal Delayed feedback

Professional Communication

Use of effective language for conveying acommercial/ industrial message to achieve apredetermined purpose

Concerned with business activities-characterized by certain formal elements-impartial & objective-certain complex writing techniques

Characteristics contd..

Clear unambiguous

Concise direct, precise

Correct specific, accurate

Complete self contained

Courteous cordial, polite

Impartial and objective

Communication Flow Information flows in an organisation both

formally and informally. Information of variouskinds flowing through formal channels, suchas policy or procedural changes, order,instructions , etc. is classified as formalcommunication.

This types of communication can flow invarious directions downwards, upwards,lateral, or diagonal.

Downward Communication Downward communication flows from a

manager, down the chain of command. Whenmangers inform ,instruct, advise, or request theirsubordinates, the communication flows in adownward pattern.

Such communication increases awareness aboutthe organization among subordinates andemployees and enables managers to evaluate theperformance of their subordinates.

Upward Communication

When subordinates send reports to informtheir superior or to present their findings andrecommendations, the communication flowsupward.

This type of communication keeps mangersaware of how employees feel about their jobs,colleagues and the organization in general.

Impediments of Upward flow Less chance of open communication Fear Lack of adequate communication skills Differing frame of reference

Lateral or Horizontal communication

This form of communication takes placeamong peer groups or hierarchicallyequivalent employees.

Such communication is often necessary tofacilitate coordination, save time, and bridgethe communication gap among variousdepartments.

Horizontal Flow and Obstacles Poor Communication skills Prejudice Ego Avoiding Communication Diagonal or Cross-wise Communication Diagonal flows in all directions and cuts across

functions and levels in an organisation.

When a sales manger communicates directly with the Vice President(Production) , who is not only in a different division, but also at a higher level in the organization, they are engaged in diagonal communication.

LEVELS OFCOMMUNICATION

o EXTRAPERSONALo INTRAPERSONALo INTERPERSONALo ORGANIZATIONALo MASS

EXTRAPERSONAL

Communication between human beings and non-human entities.

Most examples include communication with pet dogs or parrots.

Requires perfect coordination and understanding between sender and receiver.

Predominantly sign language.

INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNACATION

Takes place within the individual This kind of communication pertains to thinking and

directly involves the functioning of the brain. This subconscious communication occurs everytime-

while communicating with others and processing information, while self motivating etcetera.

INTERPERSONAL

Most common form of communication-that between people.

There are few participants involved, the interact ants are in close physical proximity to each other, many sensory channels are used and the feedback is immediate.

It can be formal and informal

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

IT CAN BE OF THREE TYPES: Internal Operational- Communication for conducting

work within the organization. External Operational-Work related communication

done by organization with outside world. Personal-Communication within an organization

without purpose as far as business is concerned.

MASS COMMUNICATION

It basically comprises media such as television, journals, newspapers, books, internet, etc. It has the following three important characteristics:

Large Reach Impersonality Presence of a gatekeeper and regulator

LEVELS OFCOMMUNICATION

o EXTRAPERSONALo INTRAPERSONALo INTERPERSONALo ORGANIZATIONALo MASS

EXTRAPERSONAL

Communication between human beings and non-human entities.

Most examples include communication with pet dogs or parrots.

Requires perfect coordination and understanding between sender and receiver.

Predominantly sign language.

INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNACATION

Takes place within the individual This kind of communication pertains to thinking and

directly involves the functioning of the brain. This subconscious communication occurs everytime-

while communicating with others and processing information, while self motivating etcetera.

INTERPERSONAL

Most common form of communication-that between people.

There are few participants involved, the interact ants are in close physical proximity to each other, many sensory channels are used and the feedback is immediate.

It can be formal and informal

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

IT CAN BE OF THREE TYPES: Internal Operational- Communication for conducting

work within the organization. External Operational-Work related communication

done by organization with outside world. Personal-Communication within an organization

without purpose as far as business is concerned.

MASS COMMUNICATION

It basically comprises media such as television, journals, newspapers, books, internet, etc. It has the following three important characteristics:

Large Reach Impersonality Presence of a gatekeeper and regulator

Discussion of sample Questions

Q.1. Can We afford not to communicate?

Q.2. What do we mean by continuous and cumulative aspects of communication?

Q.3. Feedback in communication may be in various forms. Explain.

Q.4. Effective communication is the backbone of successful organizations. Comment.

Non verbal Communication

Exchange of information through nonlinguistic signs or symbols

All external stimuli other than spoken or written words and including body motion, characteristics of appearance, voice and use of space distancing.

No substitute for verbal Only supplements/reinforces Efficiency is non verbal makes up the

deficiency in verbal. More Impact 7% verbal 38% vocal 55% nonverbal

Non verbal Communication

Nonverbal Behavior Helps Establish Speaker Credibility

Nonverbal speech behavior affects speaker credibility- the audiences perception of the speakers competence, trustworthiness, and character.

BODY LANGUAGEKINESICS Branch of Learning

Aspects Personal

Appearance Facial Expression Posture Gesture Eye Contact Space, Distancing Touch

Non verbal cuesor

Visible codes

1. Personal Appearance

The Person The Attire The Accessories

+Veor

_Veimpact

Person :Highlights: hair, beard, colourof skin, grooming, age, cleanliness &

attractiveness,

Attire dress (clothing)

Speaks loudly about our general attitude, behavioural

preferences, confidence, occupation, personality, power,

status & values

Accessories - Appendages

- Other than garments.- Either enhance the p.a. or detract

from the p.a.- Spectacles, false eye lashes/nails,ties, rings,bangles tattoos, buttons,

cosmetics etc.

2. FACIAL EXPRESSIONS

Convey Emotions Betray feelings Should Exude

Confidence,Conviction and Calm Face: Index of Mind

FACIAL TYPES

Inhibited Uninhibited Unwitting Blank Substitute Frozen

3. POSTURE

The way one stands, sits or walks Movement of the body, position

of hands/legs & other parts Measure of personality, success

of communication Vary according to situations

Body Movement

Body Movement and Presentation Aids positioning your body

so that it is oriented toward the audience is critical, especially when using visual aids.

4. Gestures Any action that sends a visual signal

to an onlooker (An observed action) What signals are being received is

important Well- timed drive home your ideas Enhance impact, add a greater value

Gestures and Body Movementuse gestures to fill in

meaning gaps in the same manner as you would in everyday conversation.

5. Eye Contact

Leads to more effective commn Shows whether speaker is sincere &

listener is interested Enables to alter/adjust/reframe Establishes rapport Keep shifting

6. Space Distancing

Concept Important for nonverbal commn

Formal, Informal, Public Formal 4-12 feet

Public 12-30 feet

7. TouchBody contact

Intention,context,interpretation,relationship

Functional/professional,social,friendship, intimacy,sexual

Culture specific

The Voice in

Delivery

The Voice in Delivery

Volume Pitch Rate Pauses Pronunciation and Articulation

Volume

The relative loudness of a speakers voice while giving a speech.

Loudness depends on: size of room/number of

persons availability of a

microphone background noise

Pitch

The range of sounds from high to low. It powerfully affects the meaning associated

with spoken words. conveys mood reveals level of enthusiasm expresses concern for the audience signals your overall commitment to the occasion

Rate

the most effective way to hold an audiences attention and convey the meaning of your speech.

speaking rate- the speed with which a speaker talks.

Pronunciation and Articulation

pronunciation- the correct formation of word sounds.

articulation- saying words with clarity and forcefulness so they are individually audible and discernible.

Pauses

Pauses are important strategic elements of a speech that enhance meaning by providing: a type of punctuation emphasis of a point attention to a key point a moment for listeners to contemplate what is

being said*

Summing up

Visible code is as important as verbal codes

Training in the use of v.c.is as essential as ..

V.C. are culture specific

Non - Verbal

Kinesics ( Body Movement)Oculesics ( Eye Contact)Proxemics ( Personal Space)Haptics (Body Contact)Chronemics ( temporal)Paralingual ( vocal cues)

- Sign Language (Gestures)

- Action Language (Posture)

- Object Language (Material Things)

intentions, views, emotions, social

status, personalities revealed

Lecture 2: Communication Barriers



Objective of the Chapter

To explain the possible barriers that can distort communication

How these barriers can be overcome The tips which can contribute in our becoming

effective communicator


Introduction

A barrier to communication refers to any obstacle which comes in the way of smooth flow of information between the sender and the receiver.

Barriers are undesirable as they result in miscommunication, misunderstanding, confusion and even conflict.

Noise is another undesirable element in the communication process which interferes with the flow of information.


Conti..

Noise here does not mean cacophony, but a break in communication process.

Noise may be defined as the disruption or interference in the communication process anywhere along the way.

It can occur at any point along the communication process, i.e. it can occur when the message is flowing from the sender to the receiver or when the feedback is being transmitted from the receiver to the sender.


Classification of Barriers

we can classify the barriers of communication according to the processes of message formation and delivery, we get them at three levels.

organizational Intrapersonal Interpersonal


Organizational Barriers

Communication barriers are not only limited to an individual or two people but exist in entire organizations. The main organizational barriers are:

Too many Transfer stations Fear of Superiors/Hierarchical Barriers Negative Tendencies Use of Inappropriate Media Information Overload


Fear of Superiors/Hierarchical Barriers

In an organization, communication transmission must flow through certain channels which are established by the organizational hierarchy.

Usually, the subordinates do not find it easy to communicate their problems to their superiors.

For example, an employee may not be pleased with the way his boss works but is unable to put his point across because of losing his bosss good will.

As a superior, it is essential to create an environment which enables people to speak freely.


Too many Transfer Stations

The more links there are in a communication chain, the greater are the chances of miscommunication.

Suppose your professor asks you to convey amessage to John. You, because of someinconvenience or sheer laziness, ask your friend Samto do this job. Now, there are four people involved inthis communication channel.

In such situation the message gets distorted as aresult of the increase number of transfer stations.


Negative Tendencies

Many organizations create work groups. These groups may be formal or informal, and generally consist of people who share similar values, attitudes, opinions, beliefs, and behaviors.

On some occasions, it is possible to have a communication barrier due to confliction of ideas between members and non-members of a group.

For example, student member of the sports club of an educational institute may be annoyed with non- members who oppose the clubs demand for allocating more funds to purchase sports equipment.


Use of Inappropriate Media Some of the common media used in organizations are graphs

and charts, telephones, e- mail, telephones, films, slides, and video conferencing.

While choosing the medium we should consider the following factors.

Time Cost Type of message Intended audience The telephone , for instance, would not be an ideal medium

for conveying confidential information.


Information Overload Communication load is one of the major barriers to

communication. Through the astonishing variety of communication media, we are bombarded with messages from morning till night. This is known as information overload.

Very often, vital, relevant information gets mixed up with too many irrelevant details, and therefore goes ignored by the receiver.

Thus , the quality of the information is much more important than the quality.

Screening of information is mandatory to reduce information overload.

Messages should be directed only to those people who are likely to benefit from the information.


Intrapersonal Barriers

Intrapersonal barriers due to individual differences in terms of experience, education, value, and personality.

Each of us interpret the same information in different ways as our thinking varies.

Let us explore all the causes that lead to these intrapersonal barriers:


Conti..

Wrong Assumptions Varied perceptions Differing background Wrong inferences Impervious categories Categorical thinking


Wrong Assumptions

Wrong assumptions are generally made because the sender or the receiver does not have adequate knowledge about each others background or entertains certain false notions, which are fixed in their mind.

Accept complete responsibility both for understanding and for being understood.


Varied Perceptions

Different individuals perceive the same thing differently. Differences in perception arise because of individual differences , different job experiences, educational backgrounds, value systems and so on.

Francis Bacon has said , Man prefers to believe what he prefers to be true.

The individual experiences and their interpretations are never identical because their perceptions are different.


Cont..

For example, if two friends see a movie together, their interpretation, of the events and the characters in it will be certainly different.


Differing Background People vary in terms of their education, culture,

language, environment, age, sex, financial status, etc. Our background plays a significant role in how we

interpret the message. At times, something not experienced by you earlier will be difficult to interpret or appreciate.

Suppose a teacher talks about his rock climbing adventure. Those students who have had the experience of trekking may be able to appreciate the professors talk, while others who have never been trekking may not find it interesting at all.


Wrong Inferences

What we directly see, hear, feel, taste, smell or can immediately verify and confirm. But the statement that goes beyond the facts and the conclusions based on facts are called inferences.

When we travel in the state transport bus, we infer that we may reach safely at our destination, but this inference may not prove correct if the bus is caught in some accident.


In the business fields, it is also essential to make such inferences. Marketing specialist, advertisers, architects, engineers, designers, are all required to draw, inferences. But when non experts draw inferences without trying to verify facts, they get into communication trouble.

Let us suppose that the manger observes that a particular worker has been leaving the office one hour late every day for the last two weeks. What can be inferred from this observation? Is he extremely conscientious and does not mind even staying overtime? Is he inefficient and cannot finish his work in time?

Obviously not all of these inferences can be correct. A wrong inference can surly be a barrier to perfect communication.


Impervious Categories

People who are very rigid in their opinion may faceproblems in communicating effectively. For example,one of your fellow students may think that onlystudents of science are good in reasoning ; anothermight be of the opinion that young executives aremore efficient than older ones. Such people fall intoimpervious categories, because they may not be ableto accept deviation from their points of view.


Categorical Thinking

This type of thinking exists in people who feel thatthey know everything about a particular subject, andtherefore refuse to accept ant further information onthat topic.

For example, in a General Body meeting of yourorganization , you are to be briefed about the annualbudget. However, you do not pay attention becauseyou fell you have already been briefed about it byyour secretary the previous day.


Interpersonal Barriers Intrapersonal barriers stem from an individuals

attitudes or habits, whereas interpersonal barriersoccur due to the inappropriate transaction of wordsbetween two or more people. The two broadcategories into which this barrier can be classifiedare:

Inefficiency in communication skills Negative aspect nurturing in the climate Interpersonal barriers creep in as a result of the

limitations in the communication skills of encoder ordecoder, or both. In addition, they may also becauseof some disturbance in the channel.


Conti..

The most common reasons for interpersonal barriers are:

Limited vocabulary Incongruity of verbal and nonverbal messages Emotional outbursts Communication selectivity Cultural variations Poor listening skills Noise in the channel


Limited vocabulary

During your speech, if you are at a loss for words, your communication will be very ineffective, and you will leave a poor impression on the audience. On the other hand, if you have a varied and substantial vocabulary, you can create an indelible impression on your listeners.

Do remember that merely having a good vocabulary is of no use unless the communicator knows how to use it.


Incongruity of verbal and non-verbal messages

The stark difference between the verbal and non verbal aspects of a communicator leaves listeners feeling confused and puzzled.

Imagine a situation where your CEO introduces the newly recruited middle level manager to the other employees. In a small speech, he conveys the message that he is very delighted to have the new manager appointed in his office. However, the expression on his face shows the opposite of what he is saying.


Emotions Emotional states of mind play an important role in the act of

communication. If the sender is perplexed, worried, excited , afraid, nervous, his thinking will be blurred and he will not be able to organize his message properly. The state of his mind is sure to be reflected in his message.

In Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice, Mr. Darcy writes a lengthy letter of explanation to Elizabeth. Elizabeth already prejudices and angry, has almost decided to reject the explanation before she has stared reading it. But when she has cooled down and takes up the letter again, she finds that every statement made by Mr. Darcy is true.

A moderate level of emotional involvement intensifies the communication whereas too much emotional involvement can be an obstacle to communication.


Communication Selectivity

If we do not like the exposure to the message whichdoes not support our views and opinions, we preferto be inattentive or selective. We do this because weare interested in that part of the message which maybe of use to us.

But in face to face communication, it issomewhat difficult to be directly inattentive. When itcomes to a theater show or TV programmers it iseasier to walk out of the theatre or to turn off thetelevision set if we dislike the performance or theprogramme.


Cultural Variations

As business are increasing across nationalboundaries to compete on a global scale, theoutlook of global and domestic work force haschanged drastically.

The management and employees of suchcompanies need to closely observe the laws,customs, and business practices of their hostcountries, while dealing with theirmultinational work force.


Poor Listening Skills Bad listening is one of the major communication problems. Most people do not listen very well due to various

distractions, emotions, excitements, indifference,aggressiveness and wandering attention.

One of the major reasons for bad listening is an individualscontinual thinking about his own problems and worriers.

For example an employee may get engrossed in worryingabout the sickness of his daughter rather than listening to theinstructions given by his department manger.


Noise in the Channel Noise interferes with the transmission of the signals. Noise is

any unwanted signal which acts as a hindrance in the flow of communication.

This disturbance is usually in the form of sounds, but it need not be always the sounds. It can be in visual, audio-visual, written, physical or psychological form also.

Technical or physical noise refers to the din of machines, the blare of music from a stereo system etc.

Human noise can be experienced when, for instance, employees gather for a meeting and a member arrives late distracting everybody's attention.

Chapter 4: Active Listening


Technical Communication Course No:BITS ZG 659

Objective of the Chapter

Understanding the process of listening Learning to differentiate between hearing and

listening Understanding different types and traits of

listening Knowing how to differentiate between active

and passive listening


The Listening Process

The Listener hears

sounds anddoes focus on them

The Listener Decodes

or interprets the message

TheListener evaluates

the message

TheListener Responds

Sensing Encoding Evaluation Response


The Listening Process There is no such thing as a worthless conversation,

provided you know what to listen for. James Nathan Miller

Listening is a process of receiving and interpreting the spoken word.

The four stages of listening are sensing, message decoding or interpretation, evaluation, and response.

Sensing is the first step of the listening process. You hear sounds and concentrate on them in order to receive the message.


Decoding of the message Once you are able to recognize the sound patterns, you have

to decode and interpret the message. Decoding in listening refers to the process of changing the

coded message into information. Interpretation of a verbal message may be influenced by

social, cultural, educational, professional, and intellectual frames of reference.

Verbal message use a common language code. For example, if you do not understand French, you can not

decode a message encoded in French.


Evaluation

After the message has been decoded and interpreted, its significance is evaluated and appropriate conclusions are drawn from it.

In order to evaluate a verbal message correctly, facts have to be separated from opinions, relevant information from irrelevant information, examples from ideas, and explicit information from implicit information.


Response

Response is the action or reaction of the listener to the message. It is the last stage of listening.

If the message has been analyzed, interpreted, and evaluated correctly, the response will be appropriate.

The response helps the speaker to know whether the message has been understood or not.


Hearing and Listening Nature gave us one Tongue and two ears so we could hear

twice as much as we speak. Epictetus Hearing happens automatically as it is an involuntary physical

act. It does not require the conscious involvement of the listener.

For example, when you move on a railway platform, you hear several voices. You do not listen to them. Suddenly there is an announcement on the public speaker and we listen to it.

When we listen, we pay conscious attention to what is being said.


Difference between Listening and HearingListening Hearing

Voluntary Involuntary

Requires conscious efforts

Happens automatically

Active process Passive process

The listener plays a very active part

The listener plays a passive part

A two- way interactive process engaging the speaker and the listener

A one way process


Progress Check

Study the following statements about active listening and tick true or false against each of them.

a. Listening requires no special effort by the listener.b. Response is the action or reaction of the listener to

the message. c. Encoding in listening refers to the process of

changing the coded message into information.


Types of Listening To listen closely and reply well is the highest

perfection we are able to attain in the art of conversation. Francois De La

Appreciative Listening This is listening for deriving aesthetic pleasure, as we do when we listen to a comedian, musician, or entertainer.

Empathetic Listening When we listen to a distressed friend who wants to vent his feelings, we provide emotional and moral support in the form of empathic listening.


Conti..

Comprehensive ListeningThis type of listening is needed in the classroom when students have to listen to thelecturer to understand and comprehend themessage.

Critical listeningWhen the purpose is to accept or reject themessage or to evaluate it critically, onerequires this type of listening.


Traits of a Good Listener

Being Non- evaluativeYour behavior should convey the impression that you accept the person without ,making any judgment of right or wrong, good or bad, suitable or unsuitable.

ParaphrasingIf you wish to clarify a point, you can simply paraphrase what the speaker has said and enquire from the speaker whether you have heard it accurately.


Conti.. Reflecting Implications

To reflect this you have to go a bit beyond thecontents of the speaker indicating him yourappreciations for his ideas and where they areleading. It may take the speaker to the furtherextension of ideas.

Reflecting Hidden FeelingsSometimes, you have to go beyond the explicitfeeling and contents of what is being said to unravelthe underlying feeling, intentions, beliefs, or valuesthat may be influencing the speakers words.


Conti..

Inviting Further ContributionsIn a situation where you havent heard or understood enough yet to respond with empathy and understanding, prompt the speaker to give you more information. Phrases such as the following can be used:

Can you throw more light on.. How did you react when..?


Conti..

Responding Non- verballyYou can show that you are an active listenerby adopting certain postures and sending non-verbal signals which communicate yourinterest in what the speaker is saying.These include regular eye contact , bodyleaning slightly towards the speaker, headnods and a slightly titled head.


Active Versus Passive Listening Paying Attention

You can improve your skills in this area by listening tocommentaries on Television or radio. Concentrate onthe theme, supporting ideas, and also thedigressions, if any, in the speech.

Dealing with DistractionsAn attractive face in the room, sometimes even the fragrance of perfume, can be the reason for distraction. A sincere listener always puts in a conscious effort by listening with a positive attitude.


Implications of Effective Listening

Effective listening improve working conditions andnurture harmony and cohesion in the organization ifboth management and employees listen to eachothers messages patiently.

Listening patiently to employees enables themangers to feel the pulse of the organization.

On the other hand, lack of proper listening can leadto embarrassing situations because of a gap incoordination and understanding.

Chapter 11, 12 and 15 : Fundamentals of writing


Objectives

To understand various strategies of paragraph development

To discuss various steps to effective prcis writing.

Paragraph Development

Developing well structured paragraph is essential for effective technical communication.

Paragraph tell the reader where the topics begin and end, thus helping them assimilate the contents in an organized manner.

There is no fixed rule about the length of a paragraph.

A paragraph is a group of sentences that forms a unit. In other words, it is a group of related sentences which express a single idea.

Central Components of a Paragraph

The paragraph development process is not possible without the following components.

Topic Sentence Coherence Unity Adequate Development

Conti Topic Sentence A topic sentence is a sentence that express the main idea of a

paragraph. Coherence Coherence refers to the clear and logical linking of ideas in a

paragraph. Coherence can be achieved by following four basic mechanical consideration.

Pronoun Reference Repetition of Key words or phrase Use of transitional tags Use of parallel grammatical structure.

Conti..

Unity Unity refers to the extent to which all of the

ideas contained within a given paragraph hang together in a way that is easy for the reader to understand.

Adequate Development A paragraph is adequately developed when it

describes, explains, and supports the topic sentence.

Conti..

There are five steps involved in developing a paragraph.

Formulation of controlling idea Explanation of controlling idea Example Explanation Completion of paragraph's idea or transition

into next paragraph

Techniques for Paragraph Development

Illustration-providing examples to explain the main idea.

Comparison and contrast- Bringing out similarities and differences to develop the idea.

Cause and effect- explaining the reasons for the end result.

Classification- Breaking the main idea into specific categories.

Problem and solution- discussing the solutions to the problem posed.

Prcis :Defined and Explained

Condensed representation of a text. Prcis writing is an art to present the material

in a simplified and compressed manner without omitting essential information.

Qualities of a Good Prcis

CompletenessThe prcis must have the essential contents of the original passage without omitting any important fact or idea.

CompactnessAll the ideas reproduced from the original document should form a compact whole.

ConcisenessIt is achieved by the process of sifting essential from unessential information, by avoiding repetition, and by omitting ornamental phrases and the like.

Circumlocutions

The reason why the technicians were so upset was because their boss seemed so angry with them.

The technician were upset because the boss seemed so angry with them.

Unnecessary Repetition

At the present time we are conducting two clinics.

We are conducting two clinics.

We should plan in advance for the future. We should plan.

Surplus words

The machines that were damaged by the fire were repaired.

The machines damaged by the fire were repaired.

In addition to theses defects, numerous other defects mar the operating procedure.

Numerous other defects mar the operating procedure.

Choose the short over the long word

The decision was predicated on the assumption that an abundance of monetary funds was forthcoming.

The decision was based on the belief that there would be more money.

During the preceding year the company operated at a financial deficit.

Last year the company lost money.

ClarityThe prcis should have clarity of expression. It should be intelligible to even those readers who have not gone through the original document.

CoherenceAll sentences and ideas in a prcis should follow one after the other in an unbreakable chain. The prcis should not look like a collection of disjointed sentences, but a well-connected whole.

Steps to effective prcis writing

Identify the reader and purpose This determines how much details should be included and how formal the prcis needs to be.

Read the original documentskim- read the document to get an overview, then read it again slowly to identify the main theme and to distinguish the key ideas and concepts from the unimportant ones.

Underline the key ideas and conceptsEach paragraph should have one key topic, which the rest of the paragraph clarifies, supports, and develops.

Write down a titleThe title or heading is the prcis of a prcis and indicates what is to follow.

Write a note- form summary of each paragraphIt is better to sum up the passage in the form of points

Write the prcisParaphrase to express the summarized points. Use the third person and indirect speech while writing the prcis. Do not add your comments.

Review and editCompare your prcis with the original document and make sure that it emphasis the same points

Chapter 13 and 14 : Fundamentals of writing


Technical Communication BITS ZG659

Objectives

To understand elements of style To discuss guidelines for bringing effectiveness

in sentences construction


Introduction

The writer does the most, who gives the reader the most information and takes from him the least time. Charles C. Cotton

Effective writing requires constant practice. The best style is one that seem effortless rather than

laborious. Have something to say and say it as clearly as you

can . That is the only secret of style. Matthew Arnold


Use familiar words

An important element in the use of words is the selection of familiar words.

Examples- Antiquated Outdated Writer should keep in mind target audience. Examples- Antiquated machinery was utilized for

experimentation. Old machines were used for the test.


Use concert and specific words

Concert words are forceful and direct. While abstract words are vague and general.

Example The company suffered a tremendous loss in the

second quarter of last year. The company suffered a 70% loss in profit in the

second quarter of last year. Example In the near future By Friday noon


Use Abbreviation carefully

An abbreviation is formed by combining the first letter of each word in a phrase.

When addressing non-expert readers try to avoid using more than one abbreviation in a sentence.


Avoid Excessive use of jargons

Every profession has its own jargon. To sustain the interest of a large readership it

is necessary to minimize or avoid the use of jargons since the reader may not be a specialist in the subject.

Examples Maturity date final payment date Annual premium Annual payment


Avoid circumlocution

Circumlocution is the part of a message that can be eliminated without loss of much information.

Words are like leaves and where they most abound Much fruit of sense beneath is rarely found.

Alexander Pope Examples Basic fundamentals Return back True fact


Avoid discriminatory writing

Discriminatory writing is offensive and does not speak well of the authors open-mindedness.

Example A student in BITS does his homework well before coming to class .

By making a dual reference: A student in BITS does his or her homework well before coming to class.

Make the reference plural: Students in BITS do their homework well before coming to class.


Avoid cluttering phrases

Cluttering phrases increase the length of a sentence.

We can replace theses phrases with shorter wording without loss of meaning.

Example I take this opportunity to tell you that you are

an excellent leader. you are an excellent leader.


Prefer active to passive voice

Active voice produces more forceful and livelier writing. Since the emphasis is on action.

Passive constructions often result in vagueness. Example- My first visit to your organization will always be

remembered. I will always remember my first visit to your

organization.


Sentence Construction

Guidelines for effectiveness Prefer Short Sentences Short sentences convey meaning better then longer ones. Break Sentences Example: The tinder must be some soft, inflammable material.

This may be dry grass, leaves, or wood shavings. Revised: The tinder must be some soft, inflammable material,

such as dry grass, leaves, or wood shavings.


Conti.. Be Stringent with wordsTo be economical with words, try out the following substitutes Avoid Cluttering Phrase Example: I take this opportunity to tell you that you are an

excellent leader. You are an excellent leader. (Revised) Avoid Pleonasm or Redundant Phrases In the period between October and December, the business

did well. Between October and December, the business did well.

(Revised)


Conti

Avoid Roundabout Expressions Example: Persons other than the primary

beneficiary may not receive these dividends. Only the primary beneficiary may receive

these dividends. (Revised) Avoid Needless Repetition I was born in summer, the month of July. I was born in July.( Revised)


Conti..

Prefer Right Ordering and Proper Emphasis Example: We feel we are missing some

patients, and therefore losing revenue, by using this system. (less emphatic)

By using this system, we are missing some patients and therefore losing revenue.


Conti..

Prefer Active to Passive Voice My first visit to your organization will always be

remembered. (Passive) I will always remember my first visit to your

organization. (Active) Avoid Ambiguous Sentences Example: He noticed a large stain in the rug that was

right in the centre. (Ambiguous) He noticed a large stain in the centre of the rug.


Progress Check Remove the ambiguity in the following sentence. Early failure tended to discourage further investments in

robotics technology of time and money. Remove the redundant words from the following sentence. These evidences are adequate enough in order to terminate

their services. Identify the cluttering phrases in the following sentence This study is being conducted for the purpose of determining

the material durability and is expected to be completed in the near future.


References

Raman Meenakshi, S. Sharma, Communication Skills, Oxford university press, New Delhi,India.2009.

Kumar, Sanjay and Pushp Lata, Communication Skills, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2012

Flatley Lesikar, Basic Business Communication 9th ed. Mc Grew Hill, New Delhi, India. 2002.

Chapter 6 and 8: Effective Presentation Strategies


Objectives

Understanding the nature and importance of presentation skills

Identifying the important steps in preparing an effective presentation

Understanding the major elements in the introduction, body, and conclusion of an oral presentation.

Reviewing techniques for effective delivery

Fundamentals of Professional Presentations

Defining Purpose The purpose of your presentation not only

decides the content and style but also affects the amount of audience interaction. For instance, when your purpose is to provide information interaction will be less.

When your purpose is to persuade people the interaction would be more.

Analyzing Audience and Locale

The nature of your audience has a direct impact on the strategy you devise for your presentation.

It is necessary to have some prior knowledge of the audiences characteristics.

Organizing Content

Arrange the content of your presentation into three major arts namely, introduction, main body, and conclusions.

In other words, say what you want to say, say it; then say what you've already said.

Introduction

The introduction comprises the porch or the opening statement, the aim, and the layout.

The porch can be a question, a sincere greeting, or a starting statement.

After the porch's state clearly the purpose of your presentation.

A good introduction is a vehicle to lead the audience into the main body of the speech.

Main Body

The major point you highlighted in your opening will be expanded upon here.

Depending upon your topic, and your introduction, you can choose from any of the following patterns to organize the main body of your speech.

Chronological This method is useful for topics like the

profile of our institute,

Conti.. Categorical In this pattern the entire presentation can be divided into various topics

and sub-topics arranged on the basis of subordination and coordination. This can be used for topics like' the role of advertising, environment

protection. Cause and Effect Example impact of cinema on children Problem solution Here you divide the presentation into two parts. For example, population explosion Use transitional expression like therefore, because, in addition etc. Give Internal preview, internal summaries.

Conclusions

You can conclude your presentation by reviewing the main points.

Give a signal such as to sum up, to conclude, to review.

Remind the audience briefly the purpose of your presentation

Avoid the temptation to wrap up in haste or add something new in this part of your speech.

Preparing an Outline An outline is a mechanical framework in which are fitted the bits and

pieces of your presentation material. Suppose you are the project leader of a team, which has taken up a project on developing a new product for the company. You can prepare the outline in this manner with the help of words, phrases, or sentences.

Introduction Product Appearance Various parts Functioning Facilities Conclusions You may have to work out the sub- headings under each or some of these

main topics.

Visual Aids Spoken words are temporary; as soon as they come out of

our mouth they evaporate into the air. Because of this limitation, speeches often need strong visual

support-hangouts, chalk boards, flip chart, overheads etc. There is a list of visual aids which you may use commonly in

your presentation. Overhead Transparencies Power Point Presentations Blackboard or whiteboard Flip Charts

Nuances of Delivery

There are four modes of delivery which can be used for making presentation.

Extemporaneous Manuscript Impromptu memorization

Extemporaneous When speaking extempore you must prepare the notes

beforehand and rehearse your presentation. Advantages Enough time to prepare for the presentation Supporting material helps to present your points clearly. Your delivery sounds natural and spontaneous. It enables you to move freely. Disadvantages If preparation is inadequate, you can get lost and find your

self uncomfortable.

Manuscript In manuscript presentation , material is written out and you

are supposed to read it out aloud . Advantages Its a permanent record of whatever you have to say. The material is organized systematically. There is no chance of tampering with the facts and figures. Disadvantages You get less time for making proper eye contact. In the absence of effective reading skill, you fumble over

words.

Impromptu The impromptu mode, as the word suggests, is what you use when you

have to deliver an informal speech without preparation. For example, at a formal dinner party you may be invited to deliver a vote

of thanks. Dont panic instead, calmly state you topic. Advantages you should sound very natural because you do not get enough time to

make preparation. You are spontaneous as you say what you feel. Disadvantages The presentation lacks organized development of ideas. Frequent use of vocalized pauses. Chances of rambling are very high. There is no supplementary material ( no data, no statistics, no illustrations,

no figures) to support our speech.

Memorization This type of delivery stands somewhere between extemporaneous and manuscript presentation.

Speech is written out beforehand, then committed to memory, and finally delivered from memory.

Advantages Easy to maintain eye contact Speaker can make use of appropriate non verbal communication Disadvantages Memorization requires too much of time. No flexibility or adoption is possible during the speech. The speaker gets flusters if he forgets a word or sentence. Extemporaneous is the best because of its flexible nature and its

effectiveness.

Organisation of speech

Patterns Introduction Main Body Conclusion

Patterns Chronological (Temporal)Spatial (Directional)Causal Problem solution Topical (categorical)Psychological

Chronological Follows a set time pattern Series of events in the sequence in which they

occurred or appeared Informative

Process Description History, growth/stages of development

Spatial Directional / Locational Main points proceed from L to R, F to B, I to O,

E to W etc. Informative

Functioning of a Dept. Structure of a building

Causal Cause and Effect relationship Persuasive / Informative

DeforestationAccidents IT Recession

Problem solution

Existence and seriousness of a problem

Workable solution

Persuasive IT Recession

Legal inefficiency

Topical

Most commonly used Applicable to every speech Topics and sub topics Informative

Advertising Effective speaking

Psychological

Sequence according to the way in which audience is likely to react

Persuasive Modernization

Boosting the Morale Any sensitive Issue

Introduction Purpose

to create curiosity

to intrigue the audience

to motivate

Attention Getters

Thesis statement

Audience Adaptation

Credibility

Preview

Transition

Attention Getters

Story Rhetorical Question Quotation Unusual Statement Humor Shocking Statistics

Thesis Statement

Reveal

---Topic

---Purpose

Audience Adaptation

Reference to occasion

Reference to previous speaker

Reference to location

Extending a compliment

Credibility

Competence extensive researchlife long interestpersonal experience

Goodwill desire to help the audience

Preview

Whats to be explained under each main topic

Transition

From Introduction

To Main body

TIPS Keep it relatively brief 10 to 20%

As and when you prepare the body, look out for relevant information

Be creative

Prepare introduction after organizing main body

Practice word by word till smooth

Choose the best method for attention

Developing Main Body Definition

Examples

Analogy

Statistics

Testimony

Definition Explain in simple terms

Use unambiguous words

Photosynthesis

Vocationalisation

Examples To Clarify, Reinforce

Brief (specific)

Extended (more detailed)

Hypothetical

Analogy

Comparison / contrast

Similar / dissimilar

Qualities / characteristics

Statistics To clarify and support

Must be representative

Reliable

Use visual Aid

Explain

Indian sports scenario

Testimony Words of others to support ideas

Expert

Peer

Prestige

Paraphrase

Quote

Conclusion Closing Remarks

Your last chance

As much care as introduction

Signal the end

Reinforce the central idea

Signal Let your audience know dont stop abruptly

Phrases : One last thought, let me conclude by saying

To sum up

In the end

Manner : Change in voice, pacing etc.

Reinforce Summarize

End with a quotation

Make a dramatic statement

Refer to the introduction

(combination also)

Tips Keep an eye for possible concl. material

Conclude with a bang not with a whimper

Dont be long winded

Work out everything

Connective Devices

Create a Transitionsclear flow Internal Previews

Tie the speech Internal Summariestogether Sign Posts

Transitions brief statements indicating shift in gearInternal Previews to preview parts of main points Internal Summaries reverse of I.PSign Posts brief statements to show where you are

Style Passages:1. After a period of rapid expansion and record saleswhich gave so much pleasure to share holders in thepast, I have the difficult and unenviable task of settingbefore you a considerable setback in the companysfortunes for the year under review. In the last annualstatement I issued, I indicated that sales had leveled offand at the time of the interim dividend announcement Ialso predicted that, much as I regretted having to makethe forecast, profits for the year were likely to be lowerthan could reasonably be expected. Unhappily, as itturns out from the figures before me this prediction isnot only true but something of an understatement inthat there has been a sharper decline in profitabilityduring the last six months than anyone could haveforeseen at the time when I have my announcement ofthe interim dividend.

Revised I have the difficult task of putting before

you the fact that after a long period ofmaking record profits, the company hassuffered great losses especially during thelast six months of the year under review.Both the announcements I had made forthe annual statement and interim dividendhad predicted this sharp fall in profitability.

Passage-2 Unfortunately, students seek inappropriate

rewards for their endeavours in the pursuitof academic knowledge. They desire highgrades because these are indicative ofscholastic success. However, they areunaware that they have attained thepinnacle of success if they have acquired askill. They are unaware that the reward isthe knowledge itself and not the academicevaluation.

Revised

Unfortunately, students feel that only high grades indicate their success in the academic performances. They should bear in mind (or they forget) that the actual reward for their efforts is nothing but acquiring knowledge and skills.

Passage-3Due to the fact that the production of reports involves considerable cost to our organization, it can easily be seen that the reduction of the time spent in writing and reading them, a shortening of the reports themselves, would represent an appreciable gain in reducing our general operating expenses, although the matter of the length of the report should naturally be considered in relation to the complexity of the material and its adequate coverage keeping in mind the requirements of the specific situation.

Revised

The production of reports involves a largesum to sour organization. If we shorten thereports keeping in mind the context,complexity and adequate coverage, we canreduce the time spent on reading andwriting them. By doing so, we can reducethe operating expenses.

Passage-4

It is the official function of the deputy factory-planning engineer to assist in all possible ways the implementation of the instructions and reports and requests of the factory-planning engineer; and also to advise him in all matters relevant to the efficient operation of his department.

Revised

The deputy factory-planning engineer issupposed to assist, follow and advise thefactory-planning engineer in relevant mattersfor the efficient operation of his department.

Passage-5

Regardless of their seniority or unionaffiliation, all employees who hope to bepromoted are expected to continue theireducation either by enrolling in the specialcourse to be offered by the company, whichare scheduled to be given after working hoursbeginning next Wednesday, or by takingapproved online courses selected from a list,which may be seen on the company internet.

Revised

Regardless of their seniority or union affiliation,all employees who hope to be promoted areexpected to continue their education in eitherof two ways. 1. They may enroll in specialcourses to be given by the company. 2. Theymay take approved on-line courses selectedfrom the list in the company intranet.


Technical Report: Chapter 18

02/24/111

WRITING TECHNICAL REPORT

02/24/112

A report is a formal communicationwritten for a specific purpose; itincludes a description of proceduresfollowed for collection and analysisof data, their significance, theconclusions drawn from them andrecommendations, if required.

Differences

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3

Literary Writing Report Writing

Subjective ObjectiveDriven by feelings by factsVague objectives specific purposeImaginary world real worldUrged by inner feelings by circumstancesNo criterion data basedStyle(abstract) objective, plainNo structure specific structure

Why reports?

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4

To monitor/ control operations To help implement policies & procedures To comply with legal/ regulatory requirements To document the work performed To guide decisions

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Reports

Oral Written(informal)

Formal

Informational InterpretiveRoutine

ProgressLaboratory Inventory

Inspection Annual

02/24/116

How to Write Reports Steps involved Define your problem & purpose

Determine your audience

Collect the material

Organize the material

Make an outline

Compose the first draft

Revise, proofread, and evaluate

02/24/117

Define your purpose with the help of Terms of Reference. It gives you clear instructions

Recognize the problem

Spend time in working out the scope of your report

In case instructions are not clear, seek clarification before making a start

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Determine your audience Superior officers

Colleagues / counterparts

Subordinate employees

Other Organizations

Share holders

Customers and Members of public

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9

Methods Personal observation Telephone Interview Personal Interview Mail Questionnaire

Sources Library Internal Records

Data Collection

Personal observation

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10

Observing with a purpose. Chief source of 1st hand information. Recognizing & Recording information. Forming Mental Impression -Controlled /

Uncontrolled (create an environment or view things as they are).

Memory, sensory perception. Expensive, slow, cant be used for all.

Telephone Interview

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11

Information is of routine nature Only brief answer is required Small no. of people/ subjects Saves time on traveling Some feed back possible (not effective) Information may not be representative Misinformation hard to defect

Personal Interview

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12

Conversation with a purpose

To obtain qualitative data

To supplement the information collected through other methods

To get exact details

To have a feel of the answers so as to draw better inferences

Personal Interview

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13

Large no. of people cant be contacted

Time consuming

Analysis difficult

Can control the situation Can simplify and interpret

the question Can get most accurate

reply Proper observation of

NVC

Personal Interview Preparation

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14

Be clear with purpose Get an appointment Pen, tape etc. Get prior permission for recording Prepare a list of questions (open end) Last question Dress appropriately

Reach on time

Conducting Personal Interview

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Briefly explain the purpose Be alert & listen Be accurate in recording Dont enter into an argument Assume a subordinate position Avoid too many interruptions Avoid embarrassing questions Keep the interaction on track

Conducting Personal Interview

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16

Be tactful Be flexible Dont get unnerved Finish in time Assure confidentiality Thank Keep the lines of communication open

02/24/1117

Questionnaires

To survey large number of people, to cover large geographical area

Mail a questionnaire to all members

Saves time

Seeking clarifications- tough

02/24/1118

Advantages Convenient for the respondent

Chance to deliberate and look up information

Bias of interviewer is eliminated

Reach a specific segment of population.

Respondent need not be identified

Questions can be standardized.

02/24/1119

Disadvantages

Difficulty in securing replies in the nature of questions.

In case the response is small, data may not give a true picture.

Uncertainty in getting the filled in questionnaire

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Disadvantages

Inadequate answer

Answers of some questions meaningless or some left unanswered.

Complex and confidential information not readily given

Cost per mailing and per return quite high-but cost effective

Framing Questions

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21

Positive framing One aspect of an issue at one time No leading question Ask follow up questions Easily remembered data Sequencing- easy to follow Not many open ended questions No nice to know questions- ask necessary ones Avoid ambiguous questions

Sampling Methods

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22

Random- each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

Systematic: every nth member of the sampling population

Stratified: first identify the relevant strata (subsets) and their actual representation in the population. Then random sample.

Convenience: sample is selected because it is convenient

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23

Judgment: very much like convenience sampling; eg. deciding one representative city/ campus

Snowball sampling: Relies on referrals from initial subjects- a special non-probability method when the desired characteristic is rare

02/24/11PEHR ZC 313 Technical Report Writing

24Question type

Open-ended How would you describe the flavor of this ice cream?

Either-or Do you think this ice cream is too rich?

----Yes-----No


25Cont

Multiple choice Which description best fits the taste of this ice

cream? (choose only one)a) Deliciousb) Too fruity c) Too sweetd) Too intensely flavorede) Stale


26Cont

Scale Please mark an X on the scale to indicate how you

perceive the texture of this ice cream.

Too light light too creamy creamy


27Cont

Checklist Which flavours of ice cream have you had in the past

12 months?-----Vanilla-----chocolate------Strawberry------Chocolate chip------Juicy


28Cont

Ranking Rank these flavours in order of your preference from

1(most preferred )to 5(most preferred (leastpreferred).-----Vanilla-----chocolate------Strawberry------Chocolate chip------Juicy


29Cont

Short-answer In the past two months how many times did you buy

ice cream in the supermarket?________________________

In the past two months how many times did you buy ice cream in the ice cream shops?________________________

Organize your materials

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Principles of organization Logical ordering Coordinating Subordinating Numbering Phrasing

Structure and Layout of Report

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31

Elements of reports divided in three parts:

1. Front Matter

2. Main Body

3. Back Matter

Front Matter

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32 Cover Frontispiece Title page Copyright Notice Letter of Authorization and Letter of Acceptance Letter of Transmittal Acknowledgements Table of contents List of illustrations Abstract or summary

Main Body1.Introduction

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33

Major components of Introduction Background Problem/Purpose Scope Authorization Source and methods Limitations Significance Report organization

Introduction

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34

1 Authorization: who, when & whom

2 Problem/Purpose: Reason?

3 Scope: what is what not to be covered, size & complexity

Contd.

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35

BackgroundHistorical factors

Development of the problemExisting conditions

Sources and MethodsSamples, Questionnaires

DefinitionsLimitations: factors beyond control

2. Discussion or Description

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36

Explanations of a problem or opportunity Facts, statistical evidences and trends Results of studies or investigations Discussion and analyses of potential courses of

action Advantages , disadvantages, costs and benefits of

a particular course of action

Continued

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37

Procedures and steps for a process Methods and approaches Criteria for evaluating alternatives and options Contains all illustrations

3. Conclusions

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38

This important section tells what the finding mean, particularly in terms of solving the original problem.

Logical inference from the analysis All conclusions must be supported by your

past arguments

Tips for Writing Conclusions

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39

1. Interpret and summarize the findings; tell what they mean.

2. Relate the conclusions to the report problem.3. Limit the conclusions to the data presented;

do not introduce new material.

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40

4. To improve comprehension you may present the conclusions in a numbered or bulleted list.

5. Be objective; avoid exaggerating or manipulating the data.

6. Use consistent criteria in evaluating options.

4. Recommendations

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41

In short reports, conclusions andrecommendations are treated same

Recommendations are most helpful when theyare practical and reasonable

Never recommend until you are asked Put recommendations in descending order Recommendations require an appropriate

introductory sentence, such as The findingsand conclusions support thefollowing recommendations

Tips for Writing Recommendations

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42

Make specific suggestions for actions to solve the report problem.

Prepare practical recommendations that will be agreeable to the audience.

Avoid conditional word such as maybe and perhaps.

Present each suggestion separately as a command beginning with a verb.

Continued

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43

Number the recommendations for improved readability.

If requested, describe how the recommendations may be implemented.

When possible, arrange the recommendations in an announced order, such as most important to least important.

Back Matter1. Appendixes

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44

Incidental or supporting materials aredocumented in appendixes. It is relevant tosome readers but not to all

It documents material that sustains the themeof report

It ensures no interruption in readers thought It includes questionnaire, statistical data,

samples, formulas, tables of data, financialstatements; a glossary may be put in anappendix or may stand as a separatesupplementary part.

2.List of References

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45

You have an ethical and a legal obligation to give other people credit for their work.

Your report documentation determines how this section is developed.

A Bibliography is a list secondary sources consulted when preparing the report.

Regardless of the format, you must include the author, title, publication, date of publication, page number, and other significant information for all ideas or quotations used in your report.

Sample Bibliographical Entries

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46

1. Book with one authorPalmer, Frank. Grammar. Second Edition. Middlesex,

England: Penguin Books Limited. 1972.2. A book with two or three authors

Tibbets, Charlene, and A.M. Tibbets.Strategies: A Rhetoric and Reader. Glenview: Scott,Foresman and Company, 1988.

02/24/11

473. A book with four or more authors

Nadell, Judith, et al. The Macmillan Writer.Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1997.

4. A book with a corporate authorshipCorporate Credit Union Network. A Review of the

Credit Union Financial System: HistoryStructure, and Status and Financial Trends.Kansas City: U.S. Central, 1986.

02/24/11

485 An entry in a collection or anthologyIrving,Washington. Rip Van Winkle. Once Upon

A Time: The Fairy Tale World of ArthurRackham. Ed. Margery Darrel. New York;Viking, 1972. 13-36.6 A translation

Homer. The odyssey. Trans. Robert Fagles. NewYork: Viking , 1996.

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7. An article in a newspaperHoffman, Donald. Bank Consigned to Vault of

Gloom. The Kansas City Star 24 Oct. 1988.8. An article in a magazine

Mehta, Pratap Bhanu. Exploding Myths. New Republic 6. June 1988: 17-19.

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9 An InterviewGordimer, Nadine. Interview. New York Times 10

Oct.1991, late ed. :C25.10 Internet Source

Berst, Jesse. Berst Alert. ZDNet 30 Jan. 1998.

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A report must explain:

What we did?Why we did it?What was discovered?What is the significance of your report/findings?How you did it?

Must clearly establish/identify what is new about your work.And how it is related to prior work/knowledge.

Use of Illustrations

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52

PURPOSE: Can present a large number of details in less

space Will help in giving an integrated picture of the

results arrived at through data analysis Catches the readers attention

PRACTICAL HINTS

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53 Refer to all illustrations in the text Place them after the first citation in the text Keep the design simple Number them consecutively and classify them

into two categories-tables and figures Each illustration must be complete in itself Give each illustration a title and write it against

or below the number Center the title and ensure that it is not longer

than the width of the table

TYPES OF GRAPHICS

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Tables : Tables permit systematic presentation of large amounts of data in small spaces.

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55

Bar charts: It enables the readers to compare related items, see changes over time, and understand how parts relate to a whole.

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Line Charts : The major advantage of line charts is that they show changes over time, thus indicating trends.

Pie Charts : It is most useful in showing the proportion of parts to a whole.

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57

Flow Charts : Procedures are simplified and clarified by diagramming them in a flow chart.

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Photographs, Maps, and Illustrations :

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591. Pictures add authenticity and provide a visual record.

2. Maps enable the report writers to depict activities or concentrations geographically, such as dots indicating sales reps in states across the country.

3. Illustrations and diagrams are useful in indicating how an object looks or operates.

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Simple bar graphs

Multiple bar graphs

Segmented bar graph

Pie graphs

Comparison over time/ geographic areas

To show 2 or more kinds of quantities

To compare differences in the division of the whole

How wholes are divided

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61

Line graphs

Statistical map

pictograph

Changes over time

Quantitative difference by geographic areas

Quantitative difference in pictorial form

Chapter 17: Letter Writing



Objectives

Knowing the significance and Purpose of letter writing

Understanding the form and structure of letters.

Understanding the principles of letter writing


Significance of Business Letters

Though there are many modern communication methods available these days, the traditional business letters still retain their importance in the business world for the following reasons.

Help you in keeping personal relational ship Serve as permanent records of information Help in reaching a large and geographically diverse

audience.


Purpose The ultimate purpose of writing any business letter is to

sustain the existing business relationship or to create and establish a new business relationship.

Purpose To inform To enquire To order To make an adjustment To sell a product To complain To collect dues


Structure

Business letters are different from personal letters as they have a distinct structure and layout.

Standard Elements Heading Date Inside address Salutation Message Complementary Close Signature Block


Additional Elements

Addressee notation Attention line Subject line Reference initials Enclosure notation Copy notation Mailing notation Postscript


Standard Elements

HeadingThis element is also known as the letterhead, which shows the organizations name , full address, and also telephone numbers. If the letterhead is not used, the heading includes the senders address.

Date This refers to the date the letter was written. It

includes the date, the month, and the year. You can represent this in either of the following two ways.

3 June2003 or June 3, 2003


Conti..

Inside Address This part of the letter identifies the recipient of the

letter and is separated from the date by at least one blank line.

A courtesy title should precede the recipient's name. It is always best to address your letter to a specific person. If you do not know the name of a specific person , it is acceptable to address the letter to the department or to a job title.


Conti

Salutation Always try to address your letter to a person

by name rather than title. If you can not find a specific name, you may choose a salutation such as:

Dear students Dear colleagues


Conti.. Message This part of your letter will usually occupy the

greatest amount of space. It should be single spaced, with a blank line separating it from the preceding and the following parts of your letter.

Complimentary close This element is a single word or phrase, separated

from the message by a blank line. Example-sincerely Truly Faithfully respectfully


Conti..

Signature Block The complimentary closing line is followed by

the signature block, which includes your signature, name and title.

Place the signature block four lines below the complimentary close. Include your name and the title.


Additional Elements The following elements may be used in any combination ,

depending upon the requirements of the particular letter, but generally in the order shown below.

Addressee notation Attention line Subject line Reference initials Enclosure notation Copy notation Mailing notation Postscript


Additional Elements Addressee notation This sort of notation generally appears a double space above

the inside address, in all capital letters. Personal, confidential, or please forward are examples of such notations.

Attention Line An attention line can be used to draw the attention of a

particular person or a particular department in an organization.

Place the attention line two spaces below the inside address. the line is included in the following manner.

Attention : Dr. Satish Yadav


Cont.. Subject Line This element lets the recipient know at a glance what the

letter is about. It usually appears below the salutation. But sometimes it is

placed above the salutation and below the attention line. Reference Initials Often, one person may dictate or write the letter and

another may produce it. On such occasions, reference initials are included to show who helped prepare the letter.

The first set of initials is the writer's and the second set is the helpers.


Conti..

Enclosure Notation This appears at the bottom of the latter, one

or two lines below the reference initials. Some common forms are:

Enclosure: Draft of proposal Copy Notation This indicates who is receiving a courtesy copy

(CC). Recipients are listed in the order of rank.


Conti..

Mailing Notation This is placed either at the bottom of the

let

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