technology - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.pdf

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10/29/13, 1:echnology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 1ttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology

Technology

By the mid 20th century, humans had

achieved a mastery of technology sufficie

to leave the atmosphere of the Earth for tfirst time and explore space.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Technology (from Greek , techne, "art, skill, cunning of hand"; and -,

logia[1]) is the making, modification, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines,echniques, crafts, systems, and methods of organization, in order to solve aproblem, improve a pre-existing solution to a problem, achieve a goal, handle anapplied input/output relation or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the

ollection of such tools, including machinery, modifications, arrangements andprocedures. Technologies significantly affect human as well as other animalpecies' ability to control and adapt to their natural environments. The term can

either be applied generally or to specific areas: examples include constructionechnology, medical technology, and information technology.

The human species' use of technology began with the conversion of naturalesources into simple tools. The prehistorical discovery of the ability to control firencreased the available sources of food and the invention of the wheel helpedumans in travelling in and controlling their environment. Recent technologicalevelopments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet, have

essened physical barriers to communication and allowed humans to interactreely on a global scale. However, not all technology has been used for peaceful

purposes; the development of weapons of ever-increasing destructive power hasprogressed throughout history, from clubs to nuclear weapons.

Technology has affected society and its surroundings in a number of ways. Inmany societies, technology has helped develop more advanced economies (including today's global economy) and hasallowed the rise of a leisure class. Many technological processes produce unwanted by-products, known as pollution, and

eplete natural resources, to the detriment of Earth's environment. Various implementations of technology influence thealues of a society and new technology often raises new ethical questions. Examples include the rise of the notion of

efficiency in terms of human productivity, a term originally applied only to machines, and the challenge of traditional norm

Philosophical debates have arisen over the present and future use of technology in society, with disagreements over wheechnology improves the human condition or worsens it. Neo-Luddism, anarcho-primitivism, and similar movements critiche pervasiveness of technology in the modern world, opining that it harms the environment and alienates people;

proponents of ideologies such as transhumanism and techno-progressivism view continued technological progress asbeneficial to society and the human condition. Indeed, until recently, it was believed that the development of technology westricted only to human beings, but recent scientific studies indicate that other primates and certain dolphin communitiesave developed simple tools and learned to pass their knowledge to other generations.

Contents

1 Definition and usage

2 Science, engineering and technology

3 History

3.1 Paleolithic (2.5 million 10,000 BC)3.1.1 Stone tools

3.1.2 Fire

3.1.3 Clothing and shelter

3.2 Neolithic through classical antiquity (10,000BC 300AD)

3.2.1 Metal tools

3.2.2 Energy and transport

3.3 Medieval and modern history (300 AD )
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The invention of the printing press

made it possible for scientists and

politicians to communicate their

ideas with ease, leading to the

Age of Enlightenment; an

example of technology as a

cultural force.

4 Technology and philosophy

4.1 Technicism

4.2 Optimism

4.3 Skepticism and critics of technology

4.4 Appropriate technology

5 Technology and competitiveness

6 Other animal species

7 Future technology

8 See also

9 References

10 Further reading

Definition and usage

The use of the term technologyhas changed significantly over the last 200 years. Befothe 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, and usually referred to the

description or study of the useful arts.[2] The term was often connected to technical

education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (chartered in 1861).[3]"Technology" rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the SecondIndustrial Revolution. The meanings of technology changed in the early 20th century wAmerican social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from theGerman concept of Technik into "technology." In German and other European languagedistinction exists between Technikand Technologiethat is absent in English, as both teare usually translated as "technology." By the 1930s, "technology" referred not to the st

of the industrial arts, but to the industrial arts themselves.[4] In 1937, the Americansociologist Read Bain wrote that "technology includes all tools, machines, utensils,weapons, instruments, housing, clothing, communicating and transporting devices and

skills by which we produce and use them."[5] Bain's definition remains common amongscholars today, especially social scientists. But equally prominent is the definition of

technology as applied science, especially among scientists and engineers, although mosocial scientists who study technology reject this definition.[6] More recently, scholars hborrowed from European philosophers of "technique" to extend the meaning of technolto various forms of instrumental reason, as in Foucault's work on technologies of the se("techniques de soi").

Dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. The Merriam-Websterdictionary offers a definition of the term: "the practical application of knowledge especia

in a particular area" and "a capability given by the practical application of knowledge".[7

Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 "Real World of Technology" lecture, gave another definition

the concept; it is "practice, the way we do things around here".[8] The term is often usedmply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics, rather than technology as a

whole.[9] Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time, 1, defines technology in two ways: as "the pursuit of life by means other

han life", and as "organized inorganic matter."[10]

Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mentaand physical effort in order to achieve some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be useo solve real-world problems. It is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material; virtua

echnology, such as computer software and business methods, fall under this definition of technology.[11]

The word "technology" can also be used to refer to a collection of techniques. In this context, it is the current state ofumanity's knowledge of how to combine resources to produce desired products, to solve problems, fulfill needs, or satisf
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The invention of integrated circuits and th

microprocessor (here, an Intel 4004 chip

from 1971) led to the modern computer

revolution.

Antoine Lavoisier conducting an experim

related combustion generated by amplifie

sun light.

wants; it includes technical methods, skills, processes, techniques, tools and raw materials. When combined with anothererm, such as "medical technology" or "space technology", it refers to the state of the respective field's knowledge and tooState-of-the-art technology" refers to the high technology available to humanity in any field.

Technology can be viewed as an activity that forms or changes culture.[12]

Additionally, technology is the application of math, science, and the arts for thebenefit of life as it is known. A modern example is the rise of communicationechnology, which has lessened barriers to human interaction and, as a result, haselped spawn new subcultures; the rise of cyberculture has, at its basis, the

evelopment of the Internet and the computer.[13] Not all technology enhancesulture in a creative way; technology can also help facilitate political oppression

and war via tools such as guns. As a cultural activity, technology predates bothcience and engineering, each of which formalize some aspects of technological

endeavor.

Science, engineering and technology

The distinction between science, engineering and technology is not always clear.Science is the reasoned investigation or study of phenomena, aimed at

iscovering enduring principles among elements of the phenomenal world by

employing formal techniques such as the scientific method.[14] Technologies areot usually exclusively products of science, because they have to satisfyequirements such as utility, usability and safety.

Engineering is the goal-oriented process of designing and making tools andystems to exploit natural phenomena for practical human means, often (but not

always) using results and techniques from science. The development ofechnology may draw upon many fields of knowledge, including scientific,engineering, mathematical, linguistic, and historical knowledge, to achieve somepractical result.

Technology is often a consequence of science and engineering althoughechnology as a human activity precedes the two fields. For example, science

might study the flow of electrons in electrical conductors, by using already-existing tools and knowledge. This new-foundnowledge may then be used by engineers to create new tools and machines, such as semiconductors, computers, and

other forms of advanced technology. In this sense, scientists and engineers may both be considered technologists; the th

elds are often considered as one for the purposes of research and reference.[15]

The exact relations between science and technology in particular have been debated by scientists, historians, andpolicymakers in the late 20th century, in part because the debate can inform the funding of basic and applied science. In tmmediate wake of World War II, for example, in the United States it was widely considered that technology was simplyapplied science" and that to fund basic science was to reap technological results in due time. An articulation of this

philosophy could be found explicitly in Vannevar Bush's treatise on postwar science policy, ScienceThe Endless FrontieNew products, new industries, and more jobs require continuous additions to knowledge of the laws of nature ... This

essential new knowledge can be obtained only through basic scientific research." In the late-1960s, however, this view cander direct attack, leading towards initiatives to fund science for specific tasks (initiatives resisted by the scientific

ommunity). The issue remains contentiousthough most analysts resist the model that technology simply is a result ofcientific research.[16][17]

History

Main articles: History of technology and Timeline of historic inventions

Paleolithic (2.5 million 10,000 BC)
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A primitive chopper

Hand axes from the Acheulian

period

A Clovis point, made via press

flaking

Further information: Outline of prehistoric technology

The use of tools by early humans was partly a process of discovery and ofevolution. Early humans evolved from a species of foraging hominids which were

already bipedal,[18] with a brain mass approximately one third of modern

umans.[19] Tool use remained relatively unchanged for most of early humanistory. Approximately 50,000 years ago, the use of tools and complex set of

behaviors emerged, believed by many archaeologists to be connected to the

emergence of fully modern language.[20]

Stone tools

Human ancestors have been using stone and other tools since long before the emergence

of Homo sapiensapproximately 200,000 years ago.[21] The earliest methods of stone tool

making, known as the Oldowan "industry", date back to at least 2.3 million years ago,[22]

with the earliest direct evidence of tool usage found in Ethiopia within the Great Rift Valley,

ating back to 2.5 million years ago.[23] This era of stone tool use is called the Paleolithic,or "Old stone age", and spans all of human history up to the development of agricultureapproximately 12,000 years ago.

To make a stone tool, a "core" of hard stone with specific flaking properties (such as flint)was struck with a hammerstone. This flaking produced a sharp edge on the core stone aswell as on the flakes, either of which could be used as tools, primarily in the form of

hoppers or scrapers.[24] These tools greatly aided the early humans in their hunter-atherer lifestyle to perform a variety of tasks including butchering carcasses (and

breaking bones to get at the marrow); chopping wood; cracking open nuts; skinning ananimal for its hide; and even forming other tools out of softer materials such as bone and

wood.[25]

The earliest stone tools were crude, being little more than a fractured rock. In theAcheulian era, beginning approximately 1.65 million years ago, methods of working thesetone into specific shapes, such as hand axes emerged. The Middle Paleolithic,

approximately 300,000 years ago, saw the introduction of the prepared-core technique,

where multiple blades could be rapidly formed from a single core stone.[24] The UpperPaleolithic, beginning approximately 40,000 years ago, saw the introduction of pressure

aking, where a wood, bone, or antler punch could be used to shape a stone very finely.[26]

Fire

Main article: Control of fire by early humans

The discovery and utilization of fire, a simple energy source with many profound uses, was

a turning point in the technological evolution of humankind.[27] The exact date of itsiscovery is not known; evidence of burnt animal bones at the Cradle of Humankind

uggests that the domestication of fire occurred before 1,000,000 BC;[28] scholarlyonsensus indicates that Homo erectus had controlled fire by between 500,000 BC and

400,000 BC.[29][30] Fire, fueled with wood and charcoal, allowed early humans to cookheir food to increase its digestibility, improving its nutrient value and broadening the

umber of foods that could be eaten.[31]

Clothing and shelter
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An array of Neolithic artifacts, including

bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polish

tools.

The wheel was invented circa

4000 BC.

Other technological advances made during the Paleolithic era were clothing and shelter; the adoption of both technologieannot be dated exactly, but they were a key to humanity's progress. As the Paleolithic era progressed, dwellings became

more sophisticated and more elaborate; as early as 380,000 BC, humans were constructing temporary wood huts.[32][33]

Clothing, adapted from the fur and hides of hunted animals, helped humanity expand into colder regions; humans began t

migrate out of Africa by 200,000 BC and into other continents, such as Eurasia.[34]

Neolithic through classical antiquity (10,000BC 300AD)

Man's technological ascent began in earnest in what is known as the Neolithicperiod ("New stone age"). The invention of polished stone axes was a majoradvance because it allowed forest clearance on a large scale to create farms. The

iscovery of agriculture allowed for the feeding of larger populations, and theransition to a sedentist lifestyle increased the number of children that could beimultaneously raised, as young children no longer needed to be carried, as washe case with the nomadic lifestyle. Additionally, children could contribute labor tohe raising of crops more readily than they could to the hunter-gatherer

festyle.[35][36]

With this increase in population and availability of labor came an increase in labor

pecialization.[37] What triggered the progression from early Neolithic villages tohe first cities, such as Uruk, and the first civilizations, such as Sumer, is not

pecifically known; however, the emergence of increasingly hierarchical socialtructures, the specialization of labor, trade and war amongst adjacent cultures,

and the need for collective action to overcome environmental challenges, such as the building of dikes and reservoirs, are

hought to have played a role.[38]

Metal tools

Continuing improvements led to the furnace and bellows and provided the ability to smelt and forge native metals (natura

occurring in relatively pure form).[39] Gold, copper, silver, and lead, were such early metals. The advantages of copper tooover stone, bone, and wooden tools were quickly apparent to early humans, and native copper was probably used from n

he beginning of Neolithic times (about 8000 BC).[40] Native copper does not naturally occur in large amounts, but copperores are quite common and some of them produce metal easily when burned in wood or charcoal fires. Eventually, the

working of metals led to the discovery of alloys such as bronze and brass (about 4000 BC). The first uses of iron alloys suas steel dates to around 1400 BC.

Energy and transport

Meanwhile, humans were learning to harness other forms of energy. The earliest know

use of wind power is the sailboat.[41] The earliest record of a ship under sail is shown o

an Egyptian pot dating back to 3200 BC.[42] From prehistoric times, Egyptians probablyused the power of the Nile annual floods to irrigate their lands, gradually learning toregulate much of it through purposely built irrigation channels and 'catch' basins. Similathe early peoples of Mesopotamia, the Sumerians, learned to use the Tigris and Euphrarivers for much the same purposes. But more extensive use of wind and water (and evehuman) power required another invention.

According to archaeologists, the wheel was invented around 4000 B.C. probablyindependently and nearly-simultaneously in Mesopotamia (in present-day Iraq), theNorthern Caucasus (Maykop culture) and Central Europe. Estimates on when this mayhave occurred range from 5500 to 3000 B.C., with most experts putting it closer to 400B.C. The oldest artifacts with drawings that depict wheeled carts date from about 3000B.C.; however, the wheel may have been in use for millennia before these drawings wemade. There is also evidence from the same period of time that wheels were used for tproduction of pottery. (Note that the original potter's wheel was probably not a wheel, b
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potter%27s_wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maykop_culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronzehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smeltinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellowshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furnacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dike_(construction)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urukhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedentismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_axehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_migrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clothinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wheel_Iran.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:N%C3%A9olithique_0001.jpg


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The automobile revolutionized

personal transportation.

F-15 and F-16 flying over a burning oil fie

in Kuwait in 1991.

ather an irregularly shaped slab of flat wood with a small hollowed or pierced area near the center and mounted on a pegriven into the earth. It would have been rotated by repeated tugs by the potter or his assistant.) More recently, the oldest

nown wooden wheel in the world was found in the Ljubljana marshes of Slovenia.[43]

The invention of the wheel revolutionized activities as disparate as transportation, war, and the production of pottery (forwhich it may have been first used). It did not take long to discover that wheeled wagons could be used to carry heavy loadand fast (rotary) potters' wheels enabled early mass production of pottery. But it was the use of the wheel as a transformeenergy (through water wheels, windmills, and even treadmills) that revolutionized the application of nonhuman powerources.

Medieval and modern history (300 AD )

Main articles: Medieval technology, Renaissance technology, Industrial Revolution, Second Industrial Revolution,

Productivity improving technologies (historical), and Information Technology

nnovations continued through the Middle Ages with innovations such as silk, the horse collar and horseshoes in the first fundred years after the fall of the Roman Empire. Medieval technology saw the use of simple machines (such as the leve

he screw, and the pulley) being combined to form more complicated tools, such as the wheelbarrow, windmills and clockThe Renaissance brought forth many of these innovations, including the printing press (which facilitated the greaterommunication of knowledge), and technology became increasingly associated with science, beginning a cycle of mutual

advancement. The advancements in technology in this era allowed a more steady supply of food, followed by the wider

availability of consumer goods.

Starting in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution was a peof great technological discovery, particularly in the areas of agriculture, manufacturingmining, metallurgy and transport, driven by the discovery of steam power. Technologylater took another step with the harnessing of electricity to create such innovations aselectric motor, light bulb and countless others. Scientific advancement and the discovof new concepts later allowed for powered flight, and advancements in medicine,chemistry, physics and engineering. The rise in technology has led to the constructioskyscrapers and large cities whose inhabitants rely on automobiles or other poweredtransit for transportation. Communication was also greatly improved with the inventionthe telegraph, telephone, radio and television. The late 19th and early 20th centuries a revolution in transportation with the invention of the steam-powered ship, train,

airplane, and automobile.

The 20th century brought a host ofinnovations. In physics, the discovery ofnuclear fission has led to both nuclear

weapons and nuclear power. Computers were also invented and laterminiaturized utilizing transistors and integrated circuits. The technology behind gotalled information technology, and these advancements subsequently led to thereation of the Internet, which ushered in the current Information Age. Humansave also been able to explore space with satellites (later used for

elecommunication) and in manned missions going all the way to the moon. Inmedicine, this era brought innovations such as open-heart surgery and later stemell therapy along with new medications and treatments. Complex manufacturing

and construction techniques and organizations are needed to construct andmaintain these new technologies, and entire industries have arisen to support and

evelop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex tools. Modernechnology increasingly relies on training and education their designers, builders, maintainers, and users often requireophisticated general and specific training. Moreover, these technologies have become so complex that entire fields have

been created to support them, including engineering, medicine, and computer science, and other fields have been mademore complex, such as construction, transportation and architecture.

Technology and philosophy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drughttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem_cell_treatmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_surgeryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_explorationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miniaturizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weaponshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam-powered_shiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraphhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyscraperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_bulbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_presshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelbarrowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screwhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horseshoehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse_collarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Productivity_improving_technologies_(historical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:USAF_F-16A_F-15C_F-15E_Desert_Storm_edit2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Late_model_Ford_Model_T.jpg


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Luddites smashing a power loom in 1812

Technicism

Generally, technicism is a reliance or confidence in technology as a benefactor of society. Taken to extreme, technicism isbelief that humanity will ultimately be able to control the entirety of existence using technology. In other words, human beiwill someday be able to master all problems and possibly even control the future using technology. Some, such as Stephe

V. Monsma,[44] connect these ideas to the abdication of religion as a higher moral authority.

Optimism

See also: Extropianism

Optimistic assumptions are made by proponents of ideologies such as transhumanism and singularitarianism, which viewechnological development as generally having beneficial effects for the society and the human condition. In these ideologechnological development is morally good. Some critics see these ideologies as examples of scientism and techno-topianism and fear the notion of human enhancement and technological singularity which they support. Some have

escribed Karl Marx as a techno-optimist.[45]

Skepticism and critics of technology

See also: Luddite, Neo-luddism, Anarcho-primitivism, and Bioconservatism

On the somewhat skeptical side are certain philosophers like Herbert Marcuseand John Zerzan, who believe that technological societies are inherently flawed.They suggest that the inevitable result of such a society is to become evermoreechnological at the cost of freedom and psychological health.

Many, such as the Luddites and prominent philosopher Martin Heidegger, holderious, although not entirely deterministic reservations, about technology (see

The Question Concerning Technology[46])". According to Heidegger scholarsHubert Dreyfus and Charles Spinosa, "Heidegger does not oppose technology. He

opes to reveal the essence of technology in a way that 'in no way confines us toa stultified compulsion to push on blindly with technology or, what comes to theame thing, to rebel helplessly against it.' Indeed, he promises that 'when we once

open ourselves expressly to the essence of technology, we find ourselvesnexpectedly taken into a freeing claim.'[47]" What this entails is a more complexelationship to technology than either techno-optimists or techno-pessimists tend

o allow.[48]

Some of the most poignant criticisms of technology are found in what are now considered to be dystopian literary classicsexample Aldous Huxley's Brave New Worldand other writings, Anthony Burgess's A Clockwork Orange, and George OrwNineteen Eighty-Four. And, in Faustby Goethe, Faust's selling his soul to the devil in return for power over the physicalworld, is also often interpreted as a metaphor for the adoption of industrial technology. More recently, modern works ofcience fiction, such as those by Philip K. Dick and William Gibson, and films (e.g. Blade Runner, Ghost in the Shell) projighly ambivalent or cautionary attitudes toward technology's impact on human society and identity.

The late cultural critic Neil Postman distinguished tool-using societies from technological societies and, finally, what he ca

technopolies," that is, societies that are dominated by the ideology of technological and scientific progress, to the exclusior harm of other cultural practices, values and world-views.[49]

Darin Barney has written about technology's impact on practices of citizenship and democratic culture, suggesting thatechnology can be construed as (1) an object of political debate, (2) a means or medium of discussion, and (3) a setting foemocratic deliberation and citizenship. As a setting for democratic culture, Barney suggests that technology tends to ma

ethical questions, including the question of what a good life consists in, nearly impossible, because they already give an

answer to the question: a good life is one that includes the use of more and more technology.[50]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Postmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_in_the_Shellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blade_Runnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Gibsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_K._Dickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fausthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineteen_Eighty-Fourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Orwellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Clockwork_Orangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Burgesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brave_New_Worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldous_Huxleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert_Dreyfushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-Heidegger_1977-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Question_Concerning_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heideggerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Zerzanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Marcusehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioconservatismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarcho-primitivismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-luddismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludditehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-Hughes_2002-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_singularityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_enhancementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techno-utopianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singularitarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extropianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-Monsma_1986-44http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stephen_V._Monsma&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technicismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FrameBreaking-1812.jpg


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Boeing 747-8 wing-fuselage sections during fin

assembly.

Nikolas Kompridis has also written (http://www.parrhesiajournal.org/parrhesia08/parrhesia08_kompridis.pdf) about theangers of new technology, such as genetic engineering, nanotechnology, synthetic biology and robotics. He warns that

hese technologies introduce unprecedented new challenges to human beings, including the possibility of the permanentalteration of our biological nature. These concerns are shared by other philosophers, scientists and public intellectuals wh

ave written about similar issues (e.g. Francis Fukuyama, Jrgen Habermas, William Joy, and Michael Sandel).[51]

Another prominent critic of technology is Hubert Dreyfus, who has published books On the Internetand What Computers Can't Do.

Another, more infamous anti-technological treatise is Industrial Society and Its Future, written by Theodore Kaczynski (akThe Unabomber) and printed in several major newspapers (and later books) as part of an effort to end his bombing campof the techno-industrial infrastructure.

Appropriate technology

See also: Technocriticism and Technorealism

The notion of appropriate technology, however, was developed in the 20th century (e.g., see the work of Jacques Ellul) toescribe situations where it was not desirable to use very new technologies or those that required access to someentralized infrastructure or parts or skills imported from elsewhere. The eco-village movement emerged in part due to thioncern.

Technology and competitiveness

n 1983 a classified program was initiated in the US intelligence communityo reverse the US declining economic and military competitiveness. Theprogram, Project Socrates, used all source intelligence to reviewompetitiveness worldwide for all forms of competition to determine theource of the US decline. What Project Socrates determined was thatechnology exploitation is the foundation of all competitive advantage andhat the source of the US declining competitiveness was the fact thatecision-making through the US both in the private and public sectors hadwitched from decision making that was based on technology exploitation.e., technology-based planning) to decision making that was based on

money exploitation (i.e., economic-based planning) at the end of World War.

Technology is properly defined as any application of science to accomplish aunction. The science can be leading edge or well established and theunction can have high visibility or be significantly more mundane but it is allechnology, and its exploitation is the foundation of all competitive advantage.

Technology-based planning is what was used to build the US industrial giants before WWII (e.g., Dow, DuPont, GM) and what was used to transform the US into a superpower. It was not economic-based planning.

Project Socrates determined that to rebuild US competitiveness, decision making throughout the US had to readoptechnology-based planning. Project Socrates also determined that countries like China and India had continued executing

echnology-based (while the US took its detour into economic-based) planning, and as a result had considerable advancehe process and were using it to build themselves into superpowers. To rebuild US competitiveness the US decision-makeeeded adopt a form of technology-based planning that was far more advanced than that used by China and India.

Project Socrates determined that technology-based planning makes an evolutionary leap forward every few hundred yearand the next evolutionary leap, the Automated Innovation Revolution, was poised to occur. In the Automated InnovationRevolution the process for determining how to acquire and utilize technology for a competitive advantage (which includesR&D) is automated so that it can be executed with unprecedented speed, efficiency and agility.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superpowerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DuPonthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dow_Chemical_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitive_advantagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Socrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_intelligence_communityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-villagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Ellulhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appropriate_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technorealismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocriticismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unabomberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Kaczynskihttp://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Industrial_Society_and_Its_Futurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert_Dreyfushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Sandelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Joyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Fukuyamahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roboticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineeringhttp://www.parrhesiajournal.org/parrhesia08/parrhesia08_kompridis.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolas_Kompridishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boeing_747-8_Test_Planes_in_Assembly.jpg


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This adult gorilla uses a branch as a walk

stick to gauge the water's depth; an

example of technology usage by non-

human primates.

Project Socrates developed the means for automated innovation so that the US could lead the Automated Innovation

Revolution in order to rebuild and maintain the country's economic competitiveness for many generations.[52][53][54]

Other animal species

See also: Tool use by animals, Structures built by animals, and Ecosystem engineer

The use of basic technology is also a feature of other animal species apart from

umans. These include primates such as chimpanzees, some dolphinommunities,[55][56] and crows.[57][58] Considering a more generic perspective ofechnology as ethology of active environmental conditioning and control, we canalso refer to animal examples such as beavers and their dams, or bees and their

oneycombs.

The ability to make and use tools was once considered a defining characteristic of

he genus Homo.[59] However, the discovery of tool construction amonghimpanzees and related primates has discarded the notion of the use ofechnology as unique to humans. For example, researchers have observed wildhimpanzees utilising tools for foraging: some of the tools used include leaf

ponges, termite fishing probes, pestles and levers.[60] West African chimpanzees

also use stone hammers and anvils for cracking nuts,[61] as do capuchin monkeys

of Boa Vista, Brazil.[62]

Future technology

Main article: Emerging technologies

Theories of technology often attempt to predict the future of technology based on the high technology and science of theme.

See also

Main article: Outline of technology

Critique of technology

Greatest Engineering Achievements of the 20th Century

History of science and technology

Knowledge economy

Law of the instrument - Golden hammer

Lewis Mumford

List of years in science

Niche construction

Science and technology in Argentina

Technological convergenceTechnology and society

Technology assessment

Technology tree

-logy

Technological superpowers

Theories and concepts in technology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superpower#Possible_factorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-logyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_treehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_assessmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_and_societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Argentinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niche_constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_years_in_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Mumfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_instrumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_economyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_Engineering_Achievements_of_the_20th_Centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critique_of_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerging_technologieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boa_Vista,_Roraimahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capuchin_monkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-61http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimpanzeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pestlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-59http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_(genus)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolphinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimpanzeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_engineerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structures_built_by_animalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tool_use_by_animalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_note-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walking_stickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorillahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gorilla_tool_use.png


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Appropriate technology

Diffusion of innovations

Instrumental conception of technology

Jacques Ellul

Paradigm

Philosophy of technology

Posthumanism

Precautionary principle

Science and technology

Strategy of Technology

Techno-progressivism

Technocentrism

Technocracy

Technocriticism

Technological determinism

Technological evolution

Technological nationalism

Technological revival

Technological singularity

Technology management

Technology readiness level

Technorealism

Transhumanism

Economics of technology

Energy accounting

Nanosocialism

Post-scarcity economy

Technocracy

Technocapitalism

Technological diffusion

Technology acceptance model

Technology lifecycle

Technology transfer

Technology journalism

Engadget

TechCrunch

The Verge (website)

Wired (magazine)

References

1. ^ Liddell, Henry George and Robert Scott (1980). A Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged Edition). United Kingdom: Oxford
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-910207-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Presshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Greek-English_Lexiconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_George_Liddellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology#cite_ref-Liddell_1980_1-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_(magazine)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Verge_(website)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TechCrunchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engadgethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_transferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_lifecyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_acceptance_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_(business)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocapitalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-scarcity_economyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanosocialismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_accountinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technorealismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_readiness_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_singularityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_revivalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_nationalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_determinismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocriticismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocentrismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techno-progressivismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precautionary_principlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posthumanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Ellulhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_conception_of_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appropriate_technology


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. - - - .

2. ^ For ex., George Crabb, Universal Technological Dictionary, or Familiar Explanation of the Terms Used in All Arts and

Sciences, Containing Definitions Drawn From the Original Writers

(http://www.archive.org/stream/universaltechno01crabgoog#page/n525), (London: Baldwin, Cradock and Joy, 1823), s.v.

"technology."

3. ^ Julius Adams Stratton and Loretta H. Mannix, Mind and Hand: The Birth of MIT (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005), 190-92. ISB

0262195240.

4. ^ Eric Schatzberg, "TechnikComes to America: Changing Meanings of TechnologyBefore 1930,"(http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/technology_and_culture/v047/47.3schatzberg.html) Technology and Culture47 (July 2006): 48

512.

5. ^ Read Bain, "Technology and State Government," (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2084365) American Sociological Review 2

(December 1937): 860.

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Further reading

Ambrose, Stanley H. (2001-03-02). "Paleolithic Technology and Human Evolution"

(http://www3.isrl.uiuc.edu/~junwang4/langev/localcopy/pdf/ambrose01science.pdf) (PDF). Science(Science) 291

(5509): 174853. Bibcode:2001Sci...291.1748A (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Sci...291.1748A).

doi:10.1126/science.1059487 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1059487). PMID 11249821

(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11249821). Retrieved 2007-03-10.

Huesemann, M.H., and J.A. Huesemann (2011). Technofix: Why Technology Wont Save Us or the Environment. NSociety Publishers, ISBN 0865717044.

Kremer, Michael (1993). "Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million B.C. to 1990". Quarterly Jour

of Economics(The MIT Press) 108 (3): 681716. doi:10.2307/2118405 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F2118405).

JSTOR 2118405 (//www.jstor.org/stable/2118405).

Kevin Kelly. What Technology Wants. New York, Viking Press, October 14, 2010, hardcover, 416 pages. ISBN 978

670-02215-1

Mumford, L. (2010). Technics and Civilization. University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226550273.

Rhodes, R. (2000). Visions of Technology: A Century of Vital Debate about Machines, Systems, and the Human

World. Simon and Schuster, ISBN 0684863111.

Teich, A.H. (2008). Technology and the Future. Wadsworth Publishing, 11th edition, ISBN 0495570524.Wright, R.T. (2008). Technology. Goodheart-Wilcox Company, 5th edition, ISBN 1590707184.

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