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Tectonicandclimaticcontrolonterraceformation:Couplinginsituproduced10Bedepthprofilesandluminescenceapproach,DanubeRiver,Hungary,CentralEurope

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Quaternary Science Reviews 131 (2016) 127e147

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Quaternary Science Reviews

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Tectonic and climatic control on terrace formation: Coupling in situproduced 10Be depth profiles and luminescence approach, DanubeRiver, Hungary, Central Europe

Zs�ofia Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger a, *, R�egis Braucher b, �Agnes Novothny c, G�abor Csillag d,L�aszl�o Fodor e, G�abor Moln�ar e, Bal�azs Madar�asz f, ASTER Teamb, 1

a Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA), Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences, Institute for Geological and Geochemical Research, Buda€orsi út45, 1112 Budapest, Hungaryb Aix-Marseille University, CEREGE, CNRS-IRD UM34, BP 80, 13545 Aix-en-Provence Cedex 4, Francec Department of Physical Geography, E€otv€os University, P�azm�any P. s�et�any 1/C, 1117, Budapest, Hungaryd Geological and Geophysical Institute of Hungary, Stef�ania út 14, 1143, Budapest, Hungarye MTA-ELTE Geological, Geophysical and Space Research Group of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences at E€otv€os University, P�azm�any P. s�et�any 1/C, 1117,Budapest, Hungaryf Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA), Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences, Geographical Institute, Buda€orsi út 45, 1112 Budapest, Hungary

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 10 July 2015Received in revised form28 October 2015Accepted 29 October 2015Available online xxx

Keywords:Cosmogenic 10Be exposure ageDepth profilesDenudation ratePost-IR IRSLRiver terraceIncision rateUplift rateQuaternary

* Corresponding author.E-mail addresses: rzsofi@geochem.hu (Z. Rusz

cerege.fr (R. Braucher), agnes.novothny@gmail.com (mfgi.hu (G. Csillag), lasz.fodor@yahoo.com (L.(G. Moln�ar), madaraszb@sparc.core.hu (B. Madar�asz).

1 Maurice Arnold (arnold@cerege.fr), Georges AuDidier Bourl�es (bourles@cerege.fr), Karim Keddadouc

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.10.0410277-3791/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

a b s t r a c t

The terrace sequence of the Hungarian part of the Danube valley preserves a record of varying tectonicuplift rates along the river course and throughout several climate stages. To establish the chronology offormation of these terraces, two different dating methods were used on alluvial terraces: exposure agedating using in situ produced cosmogenic 10Be and luminescence dating. Using Monte Carlo approach tomodel the denudation rate-corrected exposure ages, in situ produced cosmogenic 10Be samples origi-nated from vertical depth profiles enabled the determination of both the exposure time and the denu-dation rate. Post-IR IRSL measurements were carried out on K-feldspar samples to obtain the ages ofsedimentation.

The highest terrace horizon remnants of the study area provided a best estimate erosion-correctedminimum 10Be exposure age of >700 ka. We propose that the abandonment of the highest terrace ofthe Hungarian Danube valley was triggered by the combined effect of the beginning tectonic uplift andthe onset of major continental glaciations of Quaternary age (around MIS 22). For the lower terraces itwas possible to reveal close correlation with MIS stages using IRSL ages. The new chronology enabled thedistinction of tIIb (~90 ka; MIS 5bec) and tIIIa (~140 ka; MIS 6) in the study area. Surface denudationrates were well constrained by the cosmogenic 10Be depth profiles between 5.8 m/Ma and 10.0 m/Ma forall terraces. The calculated maximum incision rates of the Danube relevant for the above determined>700 ka time span were increasing from west (<0.06 mm/a) to east (<0.13 mm/a), toward the moreelevated Transdanubian Range. Late Pleistocene incision rates derived from the age of the low terraces(~0.13e0.15 mm/a) may suggest a slight acceleration of uplift towards present.

© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

kiczay-Rüdiger), braucher@�A. Novothny), csillag.gabor@Fodor), molnar@sas.elte.hu

maître (aumaitre@cerege.fr),he (keddadouche@cerege.fr).

1. Introduction

The age and position of a fluvial terrace with respect to areference level provides a good approximation of the river incisionrate. In certain occasions this is a valid time-averaged proxy for thesurface uplift rate. On the other hand, climatically induced changesin river style can also lead to terrace formation (Bridgland, 2000;Peters and Van Balen, 2007; Bridgland and Westaway, 2008;Gibbard and Lewin, 2002, 2009; Warner, 2012). Incision/uplift

Fig. 1. SRTM-based digital elevation model of the Western Pannonian Basin andschematic pattern of neotectonic deformation structures (after Fodor et al., 2005; Badaet al., 2007; Dombr�adi et al., 2010; Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al., 2007). DB: Danube Bend;GTT: Gy}or-Tata terrace region, W: location of 10Be exposure age dated, 1.56 ± 0.09 Maold wind polished landforms (Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al., 2011).

Z. Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 131 (2016) 127e147128

rates calculated on the basis of age determination of river terracesin Europe mostly suggest values up to ~1 mm/a for middle and latePleistocene times (Brocard et al., 2003; Peters and van Balen, 2007;Viveen et al., 2012; Necea et al., 2013; Rixhon et al., 2011, 2014) andexceptionally, in tectonically active regions, like the SE Carpathians(Necea et al., 2013) or for shorter periods (Ant�on et al., 2012) pre-sent higher rates. Burial age determination of cave sediments usingcosmogenic 10Be and 26Al in Schwitzerland suggested an incisionrate of 0.12 mm/a for the early Pleistocene, and a tenfold increasewas suggested for middle to late Pleistocene times H€auselmannet al. (2007a). Applying the same method Wagner et al. (2010)calculated rather low average bedrock incision rates of 0.1 mm/afor the last 4 Ma with a decreasing trend towards present (Table 1).However, the decrease towards younger times was attributed to therise of the base level due to sediment aggradationwithin the valley.

The uplift rate of 1.75 mm/a provided by geodetic measure-ments in the western and northern Alpine foreland (Ziegler andD�ezes, 2007) represents the higher end of the uplift rates basedon geochronological and geomorphological constraints (Table 1).

The combined application of cosmogenic 10Be exposure datingand luminescence dating allows a more robust age determinationthan using either method separately, as it was demonstrated bysome previous studies (Anders et al., 2005; Delong and Arnold,2007; Guralnik et al., 2011; Viveen et al., 2012). Main objective ofthe present study is to provide age constraints to fluvial terraces ofthe Danube River in order to determine its incision rate. Newconstraints on vertical neotectonic deformation of the westernPannonian Basin and on the role of climate change in terrace evo-lution are presented. Denudation rates provided by 10Be depthprofiles will contribute to a better understanding of the pace ofsurface processes in the region.

2. Geological and geomorphological setting

2.1. Quaternary tectonics and drainage pattern evolution

The Pannonian Basin (Fig. 1) represents a back-arc basin formedby Miocene crustal thinning and subsequent “post-rift” thermalsubsidence (Horv�ath and Royden,1981; Horv�ath et al., 2015), whichled to the formation of the several 100 m deep Lake Pannon. Thislake was filled up during the late Miocene due to large sedimentinput (Magyar et al., 2007, 2013). TheWestern Pannonian Basinwassubsequently occupied by a fluvio-lacustrine system, established inthe latest Miocene (Uhrin et al., 2011), with paleo-rivers drainedtowards the south (Sz�adeczky-Kardoss, 1938, 1941; P�ecsi, 1959;G�abris and N�ador, 2007). Neotectonic shortening and related

Table 1Some incision/uplift rates derived from terrace studies and geodetic data in Europe.

Incision/uplift rate (mm/a) Dated landform Method

Ant�on et al. (2012) 2.0e3.0 Strath terraces CosmogeBrocard et al. (2003) 0.8 Alluvial terraces CosmogeGiachetta et al. (2015) 0.25e0.55 e NumericH€auselmann et al. (2007a) ~0.12

~1.2Cave sediments Cosmoge

Necea et al. (2013) 0.1e2.2 Alluvial terraces IRSLPeters and van Balen (2007) 0.01e0.16 Alluvial terraces CorrelatRixhon et al. (2011, 2014) 0.08e0.14a Alluvial terraces CosmogeViveen et al. (2012) 0.07e0.08 Alluvial terraces CosmogeWagner et al. (2010) 0.1 Cave sediments CosmogeZiegler-D�ezes (2007) 1.75 e Geodeticthis studyb <0.06e0.13 (up to 0.33c) Alluvial terraces Cosmogethis study 0.13e0.15 Alluvial terraces post-IR I

a The incision/uplift rate was calculated by this study based on the data published byb The exposure ages are minimum ages therefore the incision/uplift rates are maximuc Incision/uplift rate inferred by data extrapolation along the valley.

uplift progressively shifted from SW (Slovenia) toward NE (Tari,1994; Fodor et al., 2005). The deflection of the Alpine and Carpa-thian rivers (including the paleo-Danube) from their southerly flowtowards the east, their current runoff direction, followed thepropagation of the neotectonic deformation. As a result, the for-mation of a large alluvial fan in the Danube Basin was proposedduring the early Pleistocene (Sz�adeczky-Kardoss, 1938, 1941)(Fig. 2), and the Danube was forced to find its way towards the eastacross the TR. The age of abandonment of the highest terrace of theDanube provides a good approximation of the age of the onset offold-related uplift in the northeast part of the TR.

Location Timespan (ka)

nic 10Be, 21Ne Duero Basin 100e0nic 10Be French Western Alps 190e0al modelling Iberian Chain 3000e0nic 10Be, 26Al Switzerland >800

800e0SE Carpathians 780e0

ion, relative chronology Upper Rhine Graben 800e0nic 10Be NE Ardennes 725e0nic 10Be, OSL, IRSL Mi~no River, Iberia 650e0nic 10Be, 26Al Eastern Alps 4000e0data Variscan Massifs in the Alpine foreland 2600e0nic 10Be Danube River >700e0RSL Danube River 140e0

Rixhon et al. (2011, 2014).m rates.

Fig. 2. A. Terraces at the marginal zones of the Danube Basin. Terraces in the western side of the DB were tentatively mapped using the Surface geological map of the DANREGproject (Cs�asz�ar et al., 2000). Rectangles show the locations of the multielectrode resistivity (MUEL) profiles of Fig. 10. Sample locations: Gy: Gy}or; B: Bana; �A: �Acs; M: Mocsa; Gr:Gr�ebics. VB: Vienna Basin, EA: Eastern Alps, TR: Transdanubian Range, G. Gerecse Hills. B. Simplified geological cross section of the central part of the Gy}or-Tata terraces (modifiedafter P�ecsi, 1959). Location appears on Fig. 2A. Black dots indicate sample sites (depth profiles at �Acs and Bana).

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Neotectonic structures developed due to changing boundaryconditions of the deformation: one of the major driving forces, theeastward pull (subduction rollback) beneath the Eastern Carpa-thians largely decreased while northward push of the Adriatic platecontinued (Horv�ath, 1995; Bada et al., 2006). In the new neo-tectonic regime transpression resulted in the reactivation of strikeslip faults and large-scale folding of the Pannonian lithospheremanifested by the coexistence of several uplifting regions and areasof subsidence (Horv�ath and Cloetingh, 1996; Bada et al., 2006;Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al., 2007; Dombr�adi et al., 2010). One ofthese uplifting areas is the SWeNE trending, 300e700 m above sealevel (asl) high Transdanubian Range (TR) emerging between theDanube Basin and the Great Hungarian Plain, two lowlands ofcontinuous sediment accumulation since middle Miocene times(Fig. 1).

The Danube River is the only one cutting through the upliftingbasement unit of the TR (Fig. 1). The differential uplift across the TR,i.e. gradually decreasing uplift rates from its axis towards theneighbouring lowlands, led terrace remnants in the Danube valleyto perform an upwarped pattern relative to themodern river profile(Fig. 2; P�ecsi, 1959; G�abris, 1994; Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al., 2005a;G�abris and N�ador, 2007; G�abris et al., 2012 and references therein).As a consequence, number and position of terraces alter along theDanube and geomorphic horizons of the same age may occur atdifferent elevations across the uplifting range. Moreover, thissetting enabled the simultaneous development of fill terraces in themargins, and of strath terraces in the central part of the TR; risingadditional difficulty in correlating terrace horizons along the river.

The uplift rates inferred from the published terrace

chronological data (Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al., 2005a) along theHungarian segment of the Danube valley varied between 0.05 and0.36mm/a at themargins and at the axis of the TR, respectively. 3Hesurface exposure dating of strath terraces at the Danube Bend(Fig. 1) suggested amaximum incision rate of 1.6 mm/a at the valleysection of most intensive uplift, at the NEeSW trending axis of theTransdanubian Range (TR) (Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al., 2005b).However, according to GPS velocity measurements the maximumuplift rate in the TR does not exceed 0.5 mm/a (Grenerczy et al.,2005 and pers. comm. 2014).

Our study area, the Gy}or-Tata terrace region (GTT) is located inthe south-eastern margin of the Danube Basin, in the transitionalzone of the subsiding area towards the uplifting TR (Figs. 1, 2A and3). Although the regional structural and geomorphological contextof the transitional zone between the Danube Basin and the TR isrelatively clear, the local structural setting of the GTT has not beenclearly documented. The axis of uplift of the TR is NEeSW (Fig. 1)which is oblique to the present (and postulated Quaternary) di-rection of compression derived from stress data (Horv�ath andCloetingh, 1996; Bada et al., 2006). This gentle folding would leadto westward tilt of the western TR foothills, including the studyarea. A pronounced Late Miocene fault is present at the westernmargin of the TR (Fodor et al., 2005; Bada et al., 2007; Dombr�adiet al., 2010 Figs. 1 and 2A), which could be reactivated in theQuaternary. The abundant travertine occurrences (P�ecsi, 1959;Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al., 2005a; Kele, 2009; Sierralta et al.,2009) along proposed fault may be connected to this reactivation.Our study area, the GTT is situated to the west from this possibleQuaternary fault (Figs. 1 and 2A).

Fig. 3. Longitudinal sketch of the terrace levels along the Danube from the DanubeBasin to the Great Hungarian Plain (modified after P�ecsi, 1959). Variations of theelevation of the horizons indicate Quaternary vertical deformation (orange arrow:uplift, yellow arrow: subsidence). The study area, the Gy}or-Tata terraces (GTT, light redshadow) is in the marginal zone of the uplifting Transdanubian Range. The DanubeBend (DB) is at the axial zone of the uplifting area characterised by most intensiveuplift. Dotted lines indicate subsurface horizons. Levels below tIIb do not appear in thefigure. For location see Fig. 1. Sample sites appear with capital letters as in Fig. 2A. (Forinterpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred tothe web version of this article.)

Z. Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 131 (2016) 127e147130

In the south-western part of the TR 10Be exposure age of wind-eroded landforms was determined up to 1.56 ± 0.09 Ma(Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al., 2011) (Fig. 1). This age provides a min-imum time constraint on the onset of the inversion-related uplift inthe southwest part of the TR.

At the same time, during the early Pleistocene, the Danube wasalready deflected from its southerly flowand formed a large alluvialfan in the subsiding Danube Basin (Fig. 2A; Sz�adeczky-Kardoss,1938, 1941). According to P�ecsi (1959), in the slightly uplifted TRat least 3 terraces (tVIetIV) were formed during this period of time(Fig. 3). In the traditional terrace chronology, the tVI horizon isconsidered to be the first terrace of Danubian origin in the centralTR. Recently, the origin of the horizons above tV has been ques-tioned: they might be remnants of surfaces pre-dating theappearance of the Danube River in the area (Szeber�enyi, 2014). Wesuggest that the number and age of the terraces might be differentalong the Danube valley because of the possibility of non-developed and/or completely eroded terrace remnants at diversevalley sections.

When the inversion-related vertical movements propagated to-wards the north and northeast, the Danube incised into the marginalareas of its alluvial fan and into the underlying late Miocene fluvialand lacustrine sediments, formation of a terrace staircase started atthe western and eastern side of the Danube Basin (Figs. 1 and 2A,B),while continuous aggradation occurred in the basin interior ofongoing subsidence (Fig. 3). The highest terraces at the western(Parndorf plateau) and eastern sides (GTT) of the Danube Basin (tIV;Figs. 2A and 3) are supposed to be remnants of this ancient alluvialfan (Sz�adeczky-Kardoss, 1938, 1941; P�ecsi, 1959).

Age determination of the Danube terraces at the south-easternmargin of the Danube Basin, the GTT will provide time con-straints on the propagation of fold-related uplift of the TR fromsouthwest towards the northeast.

2.2. Position and age of the terraces in the Gy}or-Tata terrace region(GTT)

The ages of Hungarian river terraces have traditionally beencorrelated to different Alpine glacial stages (Günz, Mindel, RissWürm; Penck and Brückner, 1909) and are numbered from theyoungest/lowest horizon (tI, high floodplain) to the higher/olderlevels (P�ecsi, 1959; Kretzoi and P�ecsi, 1982). These ages were basedmostly on geomorphological and sedimentological correlations ofterraces combined by scattered large mammal findings and rare

numerical ages. These “traditional” terrace ages were quantified byRuszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. (2005a), and ages have been furtherrefined by this study considering the studies of (Lisiecki and Raymo,2005; Gibbard and Van Kolfschoten, 2005; Nitychoruk et al., 2006;Ehlers and Gibbard, 2007) providing new age constraints on theMIS stages of the Alpine glacial terminology (Fig. 4).

Mean level of the Danube in the GTT is at 109-107 m asl, fromwest to east; based on EOV (Uniform National Projection ofHungary) 1:10 000 topographic maps. Relative terrace heights(current elevation of the surface of the fluvial material) werecalculated respectively (Table 2).

Terraces in the GTT occur only on the southern side of the river.To the north, the river is escorted by a wide alluvial plain extendingto the southern flanks of the Carpathians (Figs. 1 and 2A). Thefloodplain on the Southern riverside is narrow, flood-free terracesare close to the current river. According to the traditional terracesystem of the Danube in Hungary (P�ecsi, 1959; Kretzoi and P�ecsi,1982; G�abris, 1994; Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al., 2005a; G�abris andN�ador, 2007) five terraces occur in the GTT.

The lowest terrace above the floodplain is tIIa is ~9 m abovemean river level (amrl). In the neighbouring Gerecse Hills U/Thdated travertines provided an age of 10e40 ka (Kele, 2009) for thisterrace, which is the most continuous horizon along the Danube.There are some Th/U age data available on tIIb (increasing heightfrom 12 m to 22 m amrl. from west to east), clustering around100e130 ka (summary in Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al., 2005b, andKele, 2009, Table 1A), however it is still not clear whether thishorizon has been deposited by the end of the penultimate glacial orat the beginning of the last glacial phase. Above this level terracechronology is even more uncertain. The tIII horizon is apparentlymissing in the study area, its existence in this valley section has notbeen verified yet (Figs. 2A, B, 3, 4).

In the western part of the GTT elevation of the tIV horizon is at35e40m amrl, and it is an extended flat surface covered by 8e10mthick gravel. At the easternmost part of the region only smallremnants of this terrace horizon, covered by thinned terrace ma-terial (0e3 m), have remained at an elevation of 80e87 m amrl.According to the traditional terrace chronology (P�ecsi, 1959) theterrace level was formed during theMindel glaciation, which endedafter MIS 12 (Gibbard and Kolfschoten, 2005; Lisiecki and Raymo,2005), providing a minimum terrace age of 420 ka.

Krolopp (1995) described an early to middle Pleistocene mala-cofauna from the eastern and from the western parts of the tIV(Gy}or and Gr�ebics, respectively; Fig. 2A). The described fauna be-longs to the Viviparus boeckhi biozone and is indicative of fluvialenvironment under mild, evenwarm climate. According to Krolopp(1995) this biozone started around the beginning of the Quaternary(ca. 2.6 Ma) and ended with the Günz/Mindel interglacial, whichsuggests a minimum age of 540 ka for this terrace (Fig. 4).

G�abris (2008) and G�abris et al. (2012) made an attempt to find adirect link between terrace formation and global climate change andmade a compilation of terrace incision and marine oxygen isotopedata (MIS), assuming that each incision event could be linked to aMIS Termination. On this basis G�abris (2008) suggested younger agesto each terrace than it has been inferred from the revision of the atraditional terrace chronology based on the Alpine glaciations, anddivided the tIII terrace into tIIIa and tIIIb horizons (Fig. 4).

The malacofauna of similar age (Krolopp, 1995) and sedimen-tological investigations (heavy mineral composition, pebble li-thologies and roundedness P�ecsi, 1959) proposed that the differentsegments of the tIV terrace of gradually increasing elevation belongto a single terrace level and thus they share the same age (Figs. 2Aand 3). This is supported also by the DEM derived gentle slope ofthis horizon (<0.1�) between Gy}or and Gr�ebics, and is in agreementwith the tectonic setting of the GTT between the uplifting TR and

Fig. 4. Periods of terrace formation in the Hungarian Danube valley according to previous studies and results of this study plotted above the benthic d18O record and MIS stages(Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005).

Z. Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 131 (2016) 127e147 131

the subsiding Danube Basin (Figs. 1, 2A and 3).Another interesting feature of the highest terrace of the GTT (tIV)

is its appearance as isolated terrace remnants bordered by steepslopes on both sides (Figs. 1 and 2A,B). Towards the Danube, theterrace riser is facing a lower (tIIb) terrace horizon. However, to thesouth, similarly steep slope leads into a topographic depressionwithan elevation of 120e130 m carved into the late-Miocene fluvial-lacustrine sedimentary sequence. We suggest that the coarse alluvialsediments of the Danube have protected the surface of the tIV terracefrom denudation, while to the south of the former alluvial fan of theDanube the loose late Miocene sediments were exposed. After thelowering of the erosion base by the incision of the Danube theseuncovered areas were object of faster denudation, and thus theterrace remnants became topographically isolated.

Most important consequence of this topography for surfaceexposure dating is that the tIV level has been disconnected frompotential sediment sources, hence post abandonment sedimentaccumulation could be disclosed. On the other hand, considerableamount of denudation must have occurred, evidenced by the factthat the fine overbank deposits have been stripped from above thecoarse channel or point-bar facies (gravelly sand, sandy gravel)exposed on the present terrace surface.

3. Material and methods

3.1. Sampling strategy

Terrace deposits of the study area consist of cross bedded sandygravels, gravelly sands. No silt or clay lenses were observed. Lowterraces (tIIa and tIIb) were frequently covered by 1e1.5 m thickfine grained alluvial cover, aeolian sand or loess. The most frequentgravel material was quartzite, which was the main target for thesampling in gravel layers. In most cases, imbrication of the pebblesand bedding of the sand indicated original position of the sediment.Obscure bedding or evidences of sediment mixing are detailed inthe site descriptions. Large cobbles and boulders weremissing fromall terraces and terrace material was loose, not cemented.

The accumulation history the radioactive cosmogenic 10Be interrace sediments may be highly complex. Its accumulation prior todeposition (inheritance), surface denudation, post-depositionalsediment mixing and aeolian sediment cover are processes thathave to be considered (Brocard et al., 2003; Braucher et al., 2009;Ant�on et al., 2012; Rixhon et al., 2011).

Because of the high probability of surface denudation sinceterrace formation and unknown amount of inherited cosmogenic

nuclides, we use the cosmogenic 10Be depth profile-approachcoupled with luminescence dating. The 10Be depth profiles enablethe determination of both denudation rate and exposure age of theterraces by considering all particles, neutrons andmuons, involved inthe production of 10Be (Siame et al., 2004). In addition, the amount ofinherited 10Be and the bulk density can also be estimated (Andersonet al., 1996; Brocard et al., 2003; Siame et al., 2004; Braucher et al.,2003, 2009). An accurate age determination of depositional sur-faces can be achieved (Hedrick et al., 2013; Stange et al., 2013, 2014)as long as 10Be concentrations have not yet reached the steady state,with nuclide production and loss (decay þ denudation) in equilib-rium. If the profile has reached secular equilibrium, long-termdenudation rate and minimum exposure age (integration time) ofthe profile can be constrained (Lal, 1991; Matsushi et al., 2006). Incase of post-depositional sediment mixing no exponential decreaseof 10Be concentrations is observed with depth (Ward et al., 2005); inthat case, it is problematic to determine a terrace abandonment ageusing cosmogenic 10Be.

Post IR-IRSL dating is suitable to date the time of sediment burialand provides independent age control on the accumulation ofterrace material. It is less sensitive of surface processes than expo-sure age determination, but the useful time range is shorter and isnot applicable on gravels. Accordingly, the combinedmethodology issuitable for providing robust time constraints on terrace formation.

Elevations and positions of the samples were recorded on thefield using hand-held GPS (WGS 84 reference datum) and crossreferenced with 1:10 000 topographic maps (Table 2). For samplingalong depth profiles active or abandoned gravel pits with terracematerial exposed in at least 2 m depth in original position aresuitable, which prerequisites were fulfilled by only a limitednumber of locations. These were taken as sample locations of thisstudy (Fig. 5).

The highest, tIV terrace horizon was sampled at three locationsat increasing altitudes fromwest to east (147 m Gy}or; 153 m Bana;194mGr�ebics; Figs. 2A and 5, Table 2). The tIIb level was sampled attwo locations, with somewhat different altitudes (121 m e �Acs and127meMocsa). 20e40 pebbles of 1e5 cm sizewere collected fromeach sampled depth. From sand layers whole sand samples werecollected (Figs. 5 and 6). For site descriptions refer toSupplementary Section 3.1.

One sample was collected from the recent gravel of the Danubeat �Acs (Dan08-27). This sample consisted of quartzite pebbles,which were processed tomeasure 10Be concentration of the currentload of the river. At this location the terrace IIb lies next to theactual riverbed (Fig. 2A,B).

Table 2Samples sites and cosmogenic 10Be data. Samples were corrected for self-shielding. Topographic shielding factor is 1 for all sites. 10Be/9Be ratios of process blanks were(3.07 ± 0.7) � 10�15 (for samples Dan08-02 to-12); (1.23 ± 0.4) � 10�15 (samples Dan08-20 to�46), and (2.37 ± 0.7)� 10�15 (samples Dan13-07 to�18). Ages and denudationrates were not corrected for geomagnetic variations. Alt. asl/amrl: Altitude above sea level/above mean river level; s: sand sample, p: amalgamated pebbles; fs: fine-sand, ps:mixed sand and amalgamated pebbles.

Sample Location Latitude(DD)

Longitude(DD)

Alt. asl./amrl (m) Thick-ness(cm)

Depth(cm)a

Mass ofquartzdissolved(g)

[10Be]concentration(atoms/g)

Max.denudationrate (m/Ma)

Dan08-02s Gy}or 47.6582 17.7251 147 7 49 34.5131 369 537 ±11 710 5.8 ±0.2Dan08-03s Gy}or /38 7 79 35.4654 292 737 ±7891 5.3 ±0.1Dan08-04s Gy}or 7 109 33.0804 230 199 ±10 362 4.9 ±0.2Dan08-04p Gy}or 7 109 39.0470 199 552 ±5246 5.9 ±0.2Dan08-05s Gy}or 7 139 37.5003 200 303 ±5130 4.1 ±0.1Dan08-05p Gy}or 7 139 42.0290 158 609 ±5429 5.7 ±0.2Dan08-06s Gy}or 7 184 36.4694 118 567 ±5284 5.3 ±0.2Dan08-06p Gy}or 7 184 41.5389 110 608 ±6288 5.9 ±0.3Dan08-07s Gy}or 7 234 40.0643 133 263 ±3412 2.5 ±0.1Dan08-08s Gy}or 7 284 40.2015 88 745 ±4943 3.3 ±0.2Dan08-09s Gy}or 7 334 41.1239 87 704 ±2241 2.1 ±0.1Dan08-09p Gy}or 7 334 42.3270 73 809 ±2764 3.4 ±0.1Dan08-10p Gy}or 7 394 44.5935 71 048 ±1783 2.4 ±0.1Dan08-11s Gy}or 7 484 39.9080 36 908 ±1489 10.0 ±0.4Dan08-12s Gy}or 7 750 40.7842 16 058 ±554 30.7 ±1.1

Dan08-20p Bana 47.6749 17.88614 153 8 0 39.4791 430 686 ±14 233 8.9 ±0.3Dan08-21p Bana /45 8 22.5 40.5013 339 089 ±9589 8.8 ±0.3Dan08-22p Bana 8 67.5 43.9504 329 116 ±9450 5.3 ±0.2Dan08-23p Bana 8 142.5 46.0544 136 767 ±4210 6.7 ±0.2Dan08-24p Bana 8 255 44.0128 99 823 ±4752 3.4 ±0.2Dan08-25p Bana 8 375 44.6229 102 889 ±2986 0.7 ±0.0Dan08-26s Bana 8 425 40.8223 77 599 ±6185 1.3 ±0.1Dan08-27p �Acs

(actual)47.7447 18.00424 108/0 3 0 39.9286 81 254 ±2335 52.7 ±1.5

Dan08-31p Mocsa 47.6792 18.2133 127 6 135 41.0265 197 414 ±6086 5.3 ±0.2Dan08-32p Mocsa /20 6 185 44.1590 113 208 ±3299 6.6 ±0.2Dan08-33p Mocsa 6 245 41.3162 100 597 ±3196 4.4 ±0.1Dan08-34p Mocsa 6 305 46.2831 106 516 ±3276 2.1 ±0.1Dan08-35p Mocsa 6 405 41.9937 98 208 ±3928 0.7 ±0.0Dan08-40p Gr�ebics 47.6588 18.2580 194 8 5 41.9371 340 904 ±12 575 11.7 ±0.4Dan08-41p Gr�ebics /87 8 40 41.4907 472 052 ±16 606 5.1 ±0.2Dan08-40-41

avgbGr�ebics 8 22 - 406 478 ±16 606 7.5 ±0.3

Dan08-42p Gr�ebics 8 80 40.5622 223 208 ±8519 7.5 ±0.3Dan08-43p Gr�ebics 8 115 40.8454 176 707 ±6216 6.7 ±0.2Dan08-44p Gr�ebics 8 155 41.4021 157 497 ±6442 5.0 ±0.2Dan08-45p Gr�ebics 8 195 40.5254 107 100 ±3793 5.7 ±0.2Dan08-46p Gr�ebics 8 225 40.4120 103 398 ±5173 4.5 ±0.2

Dan13-07fs �Acs 47.7425 18.0064 121 6 10 24.6485 77 385 ±6704 55.9 ±4.8Dan13-08fs �Acs /12 6 33 22.4840 83 135 ±10 860 41.8 ±5.5Dan13-09fs �Acs 6 63 23.9188 93 930 ±7401 27.8 ±2.2Dan13-10fs �Acs 6 113 21.9429 83 537 ±6148 20.5 ±1.5Dan13-11s �Acs 8 135 15.3875 142 269 ±8877 8.8 ±0.6Dan13-12s �Acs 8 165 15.7705 137 354 ±4827 6.7 ±0.2Dan13-13ps �Acs 8 195 16.2782 132 721 ±5654 5.1 ±0.2Dan13-14s �Acs 8 235 15.7782 132 957 ±4804 3.2 ±0.1Dan13-15ps �Acs 8 275 14.8034 137 143 ±5768 1.9 ±0.1Dan13-16ps �Acs 8 325 16.0647 127 170 ±7210 1.1 ±0.1Dan13-17ps �Acs 8 360 15.2088 119 417 ±5157 0.8 ±0.0Dan13-18ps �Acs 8 400 15.6942 139 288 ±6217 0.1 ±0.0

a Mean depth of the sample.b Sample depth and 10Be concentration calculated as the arithmetic mean of the depths and 10Be concentrations of samples Dan08-40 and �41.

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3.2. Cosmogenic 10Be exposure age dating: theory and laboratoryanalyses

3.2.1. Theoretical considerationsDuring the last decade Terrestrial in situ produced Cosmogenic

Nuclides (TCN) became a widely used technique for datinggeomorphic surfaces and determining denudation rates (Bierman,1994; Cerling and Craig, 1994; Rixhon et al., 2011; Portenga andBierman, 2011). Terrestrial in situ produced cosmogenic 10Be isproduced within quartz mineral lattice near the Earth's surface (Lal,

1991). Quartz is a mineral abundant in most terraces and databletime span using in situ cosmogenic 10Be covers the entire Quater-nary (Lal, 1991; Gosse and Phillips, 2001, Dunai, 2010; Hancocket al., 1999.; Brocard et al., 2003; Wolkowinsky and Granger,2004; H€auselmann et al., 2007b).

Three main types of secondary particles are involved in the insitu production of cosmogenic nuclides: fast neutrons (Ln), stoppingmuons (slow or negative; Lmslow) and fast muons (Lmfast). Assumingthat the production and erosion rates remained constant throughtime, the in situ-production of 10Be is given by the following

Fig. 5. Field images of the sample sites. A: Gy}or; B: Bana, C: Gr�ebics, D/1: Mocsa gravel pit (TCN samples), D/2 Mocsa, sand pit (postIR-IRSL samples) E: �Acs. For sample codes refer toTable 2 and Fig. 6. The TCN samples of the Mocsa profile (D/1) were taken in a gravel pit 1 km away from the postIR-IRSL location in a sand pit of the same terrace horizon (D/2).BanaB3 and �Acs B3 postIR-IRSL samples were collected from the fine sand underlying the terrace material ~20 m away from the depth profiles. Hence these samples do not appearon the photos. Zero point of the scale-bar indicates the original surface.

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equation:

Nðx;ε;tÞ ¼Psp$exp

�� x

Ln

�ð1� expð � t

�ε

Lnþ l

�

ε

Lnþ l

þPmslow$exp

�� x

Lmslow

�ð1� expð � t

�ε

Lmslowþ l

�

ε

Lmslowþ l

þPmfast$exp

�� x

Lmfast

�ð1� expð � t

�ε

Lmfastþ l

�

ε

Lmfastþ l

þ N0$expð � l$tÞ (1)

where N(x,ε,t) is the nuclide concentration function of depth � (g/cm2), denudation rate ε (g/cm2/y) and exposure time t (y). Depths

were defined at the centre of the sample. Psp, Pmslow, Pmfast and Ln,Lmslow, Lmfast are the production rates and attenuation lengths ofneutrons, slow muons and fast muons, respectively. Ln, Lmslow, Lmfastvalues used in this paper are 160,1500 and 4320 g/cm2, respectively(Braucher et al., 2003). l is the radioactive decay constant and N0 isthe inherited nuclide concentration. Pmslow, Pmfast are based onBraucher et al. (2011). Being aware of the importance of materialdensity on the depth profile modelling results (Braucher et al.,2009; Rod�es et al., 2011), bulk densities were determined in thelaboratory byweighingmass of 100 cm3 terrace material inwet anddry state. Resulting values for sand, gravelly-sand and sandy-gravelvaried between 1.7 and 2.1 g/cm3. Measured density of the fineaeolian cover (�Acs) was 1.6 g/cm3. Evidently, it was not possible tofit gravelly material in the 100 cm3 cylinder perfectly and cobblescould not be represented. Hence, density was set at slightly highervalues as a free parameter, between 1.8 and 2.2 g/cm3, andconsidered as constant over depth (Guralnik et al., 2011; Rixhon

Fig. 6. The sampled terrace profiles with TCN and post-IR IRSL sample locations. Post-IR IRSL samples of the Mocsa profile were taken in a sand quarry of the same terrace horizon1 km away from the TCN location (Mocsa1 and -2 profiles). BanaB3 and �Acs B3 IRSL samples were collected from the underlying late Miocene fine sand ~20 m away from the depthprofiles from the underlying fine sand. These samples were not considered for the age determination of the terraces.

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et al., 2011; Stange et al., 2013).CosmoCalc add-in for Excel (Vermeesch, 2007) has been used to

calculate sample thickness scaling (with an attenuation coefficientof 160 g/cm2) and atmospheric pressures. Production rates werescaled following Stone (2000) with a sea level high latitude pro-duction rate of 4.02 ± 0.36 atoms/g SiO2/yr. This production rate isthe weighted mean of recently calibrated production rates in theNorthern Hemisphere (Balco et al., 2009; Fenton et al., 2011;Goehring et al., 2012; Briner et al., 2012).

For all samples the topographic shielding was negligible andtherefore not corrected for. Based on Dunai (2001), corrections forgeomagnetic variations accounted for less than 5% for the consid-ered time span. Ages and denudation were not corrected for thisvariation.

During glacials, periglacial semi-arid loess steppe climate pre-vailed in the study area (Van Vliet-Lano€e et al., 2004; Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger and Kern, 2015), with significant wind erosion (Sebeet al., 2011), thus no correction of production rates for snowcover was necessary.

According to Cerling and Craig (1994) the effect of an old-growth fir forest on the production rate of cosmogenic 3He is lessthan 4%. Plug et al. (2007) also concluded that the shielding effecton cosmic irradiation of an old-growth boreal forest is less than 3%.Differences in tree species and moisture content, and the lack offorest vegetation may result in an even smaller correction of thesite specific production rate, therefore 10Be production rates werenot corrected for the vegetation cover effect.

Concentrations of 10Be can be interpreted either as minimumexposure ages assuming negligible denudation, or as maximumdenudation rates. In these simplistic assumptions, inherited TCNconcentrations from pre-depositional exposure are neglected.When using depth profiles denudation rate, exposure time andinheritance can be quantified if the TCN concentration decreasedexponentially with depth (Siame et al., 2004; Braucher et al., 2009).

3.2.2. Laboratory analysisChemical treatments of most samples were carried out at the

CEREGE laboratory in Aix en Provence (France) except for the al-luvial samples from �Acs (Dan13-11 to �18). For these samplescrushing and quartz purification were performed in the new TCNSample Preparation Laboratory of the Institute for Geological and

Geochemical Research of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences atBudapest.

Amalgamated pebble samples were crushed and sieved.90e120 g of the 0.25e1 mm grain size fraction was chemicallyetched. Sand samples were only sieved (0.25e1 mm) and for finesand samples (Dan 13-07 to-10) the 125e250 mm fractionwas used.~40 g pure quartz was dissolved in HF in the presence of 9Be carrier(100 mg of 3.025 � 10�3 g/g 9Be in-house solution). After substi-tution of HF by nitric-then hydrochloric acids, ion exchange col-umns (Dowex 1x8 and 50Wx8) were used to extract 10Be (Mercheland Herpers, 1999). Targets of purified BeO were prepared for AMS(Accelerator Mass Spectrometry) measurement of the 10Be/9Be ra-tios on ASTER, the French national facility, CEREGE, Aix en Provence(Arnold et al., 2010). These measurements were calibrated againstthe NIST SRM4325 standard, using an assigned value of(2.79 ± 0.3) � 10�11 for the 10Be/9Be ratio. Analytical uncertainties(reported as 1s) include uncertainties on AMS counting statistics,uncertainty on the NIST standard 10Be/9Be ratio, an external AMSerror of 0.5% (Arnold et al., 2010) and chemical blankmeasurement.A 10Be half-life of (1.387 ± 0.01)� 106 years (Korschinek et al., 2010;Chmeleff et al., 2010) was used.

3.3. Luminescence dating

3.3.1. Theoretical considerationsLuminescence is a radiometric dating method which provides

the burial time of the sediment as its most frequent components equartz and feldspars e are acting as natural radiation dosimeters(Lian and Roberts, 2006; Wintle, 2008). The previous luminescencesignal of the minerals can be completely or partially bleached bysunlight during transportation. The rate of bleaching depends onthe type of transportation and transport distance. During aeoliantransportation it is very likely that the minerals are completelybleached by sunlight, however fluvial, glacial and marine transportmay result in partial bleaching.

The luminescence age of the sample is calculated from theequivalent dose (De: the natural absorbed radiation dose [Gy] of thesample) divided by the annual natural ionising radiation dose (doserate [Gy/ka]) of the sample. Quartz is stimulated by blue lightduring the measurements and generally known as Optically Stim-ulated Luminescence (OSL). Feldspars are usually stimulated by

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infrared radiation, which is termed Infrared Stimulated Lumines-cence (IRSL) to measure the equivalent dose of the samples (Lianand Roberts, 2006; Wintle, 2008).

3.3.2. Experimental setupThe OSL of quartz has a lower dating limit, therefore it can be

applied only on younger samples (<60e100 ka in Hungary).Therefore, in this study post-Infrared Infrared Stimulated Lumi-nescence (post-IR IRSL) measurements were carried out on K-feldspar samples, comparing the post-IR IRSL 290 and post-IR IRSL225 signals on the samples. The post-IR IRSL signal of feldspar(Thomsen et al., 2008, Buylaert et al., 2009, 2012; Thiel et al., 2011)usually has a dating limit up to 300 ka (Murray et al., 2014) and itshows negligible fading. The IRSL signal of feldspars suffers fromanomalous fadinge an unwanted, a thermal loss of signal, resultingin age underestimation (Wintle, 1973). However, the post-IR IRSLsignals are less affected by fading (Thomsen et al., 2008; Buylaertet al., 2009; Thiel et al., 2011), especially the post-IR IRSL-290signal (Thiel et al., 2011), which does not need fading correction,although a small fading rate (<1e1.5%/decade) has been measured(Thiel et al., 2011, 2014; Buylaert et al., 2012; Schatz et al., 2012). Theapplied post-IR IRSL-290 and -225 (pIRIR-290, pIRIR-225) mea-surement protocols (Table S1) are described in Thiel et al. (2011)and in Buylaert et al. (2009), respectively.

Luminescence samples were taken by pushing metal tubes intothe previously cleaned wall. The preparation of luminescencesamples was conducted under subdued red light. The coarse-grained fraction of 100e150 mm, or 150e200 mm, or200e250 mm, or 250e300 mm was extracted from the samples. Allsamples were treated using 0.1 N hydrochloric acid, 0.01 N sodium-oxalate and 30% hydrogen peroxide to remove carbonate, claycoatings and organic matter from the samples, respectively. Feld-spar and quartz grains were extracted by heavy liquid separationusing sodium polytungstate.

Luminescence measurements were performed using an auto-mated Risø TL/OSL-DA-20 reader at the Department of PhysicalGeography in the E€otv€os Lor�and University, Institute of Geographyand Geology. The reader is equipped with a bialkali EMI 9235QBphotomultiplier tube, IR diodes (€e ¼ 875 nm) and a 90Sr/90Ya-source. Schott BG-39 and BG-3 filters were placed in front of thephotomultiplier, transmitting wavelengths between 350 and420 nm.

Dose rates were obtained from the potassium, uranium andthorium content (Table S2), as measured by gamma spectrometryfitted with a HPGe (High-Purity Germanium) N-type coaxial de-tector in the laboratory at the Leibniz Institute for AppliedGeophysics, in Hannover. Polypropylene Marinelli beakers werefilled with 700 g of the sediment and stored for a minimum periodof 4 weeks to allow the 226Rne222Ra equilibrium to be re-

Table 3Monte Carlo simulation parameters used for the depth profile simulator of Hidy et al. (2010pebble samples; Gy}or (sand): sand samples.

Threshods Gy}or

pebble sand

c2 cutoff 2 15Min erosion rate (cm/ka) 0.2 0.2Max erosion rate (cm/ka) 1.2 1.0Total erosion min. (cm) 500 500Total erosion max. (cm) 1500Min. age (ka) 150Max. age (ka) 2600Site specific spallogenic production rate (at/g/a) 4.6185

a Only the buried exposure time of the alluvial sediments could be simulated. See detb 2s confidence level.

established. A potassium content of 12.5 ± 1% (Huntley and Baril,1997) was applied to the K-rich feldspar fraction to account forthe internal dose rate. An average a-value of 0.08 ± 0.02 (Rees-Jones, 1995) was used for the feldspar IRSL age calculation. Thecosmic radiation was corrected for altitude and sediment thickness(Prescott and Hutton, 1994), assuming a water content of 10 ± 5%for all samples. Dose rate conversion is based upon the factors ofAdamiec and Aitken (1998).

3.4. Multielectrode resistivity profiles

Ten 2D multielectrode resistivity profiles (MUEL) weremeasured on the tIV terrace surface aiming at an insight on thethickness of coarse-grained alluvial material deposited by thepaleo-Danube (Geomega, 2004). MUEL profiles enable thedistinction among the sediments of different textures down todepths of 40e60 m. The profiles were inverted using RES2DINVsoftware. Topographical data were incorporated to the measureddata before inversion and elevation changes were accounted forduring the inversion process. The inverted profiles were plottedusing a horizontal scale of 1:2000, and vertical scale of 1:1000, thusa vertical exaggeration of 2 was applied. The colour scale has beenspecifically chosen to help discriminating the coarse grainedterrace sediments and the underlying finer grained late Miocenestrata. Red and purple colours (ie. resistivities above 160 Ohmm)indicate coarse grain sediments. When these sediments are locatednear the surface of the tIV terrace, they most probably correspondto the deposits of the ancient Danube.

4. Results

4.1. The cosmogenic 10Be depth profile approach

The time needed to reach the steady state concentrationconsidering muon particles at depth is much longer than at surface,where neutrons are the predominant particles in the total produc-tion of cosmogenic nuclides (Braucher et al., 2003). Thus, as a firststep, to determine whether a depth profile has reached the secularequilibrium or not, one may assume an infinite exposure age for allsamples along the depth profile, then calculate the correlatedmaximumdenudation rates using Eq (1) (Table 2). If the denudationrates are increasing from the top to the bottom, then the steady statehas not been reached, and an exposure age can be determined. If thedenudation rates remain constant implies that steady state has beenreached, which allows the determination of a minimum age ofterrace abandonment only. When denudation rates are constantuntil a certain depth and increase below that depth, then the upperpart of the profilewillfix the denudation rate and the exposure timecan be assessed using the bottom part of the profile.

).100 000 solutions were obtained for each simulation. Gy}or (pebble): amalgamated

Bana Gr�ebics Mocsa �Acsa

6.5 5 31 <2.5b

0.5 0.2 0.1 0.01.5 1.4 1.2 1.0500 600 1 01500 1600 500 500150 150 14 02600 2600 360 1004.6415 4.8394 4.5398 4.5124

ails in text.

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Constant or slightly decreasing maximum denudation rates forthe Danube profiles (save the �Acs profile) at the upper 1.5e2 msuggests steady state conditions at the top (Table 2). The 10Beconcentrations, however, become lower for the deepest samples,which may indicate a difference of inherited 10Be inventories.However, this shift of the 10Be concentrations is not reflected by avisible change of the sedimentary succession, as it could be ex-pected in case of a major change in source area, or at a larger timegap within the terrace deposit. At Gr�ebics, maximum denudationrates are constant with depth within uncertainties suggestingsteady state for all samples of the profile.

The calculation of the integration time (Lal, 1991), a most con-servative minimum age estimate of terraces is described inSupplementary Section 4.1.1.

Aiming at an age estimate of the studied terraces, c2 minimi-zations were performed using a modified version of the 10Be profilesimulator 1.2 of Hidy et al. (2010) for profiles where the 10Be con-centrations showed the expected exponential decrease with depth.After preliminary quick tests, user defined c2 cut-off values weredefined for each dataset to provide 100 000 model solutions foreach simulation, and fulfil the Bayesian statistics. The appliedMonte Carlo simulation parameters are presented in Table 3 and aredescribed in the Supplementary Section 4.1.2.

Results presented in this paper are based on Bayesian proba-bility density functions (PDF) of the depth profile simulator. The

Table 4Best constrained model solutions of the 10Be depth profile simulator (Hidy et al.,2010). For simulation settings refer to Table 3. Complete data tables appear inTable S1). Bayesian 1s and 2s upper and lower values represent the 68 and 95%uncertainties of the Bayesian most probable values.

Age (ka) Inheritance(103 at/g)

Denudationrate(m/Ma)

Gy}or e pebbleBayesian most probable 1561 70 6.5Bayesian 2s upper 2450 97 9.3Bayesian 2s lower 693 59 5.1Bayesian 1s upper 2064 84 8.0Bayesian 1s lower 993 65 5.8Gy}or e sandBayesian most probable 1783 95 7.0Bayesian 2s upper 2448 149 8.3Bayesian 2s lower 708 72 5.2Bayesian 1s upper 2098 122 7.5Bayesian 1s lower 1024 83 5.8BanaBayesian most probable 1242 106 10.0Bayesian 2s upper 1541 140 12.2Bayesian 2s lower 477 92 8.7Bayesian 1s upper 1332 127 11.1Bayesian 1s lower 640 100 9.4Gr�ebicsBayesian most probable 1482 85 8.7Bayesian 2s upper 2003 133 11.0Bayesian 2s lower 659 53 7.1Bayesian 1s upper 1696 109 9.8Bayesian 1s lower 883 70 7.8MocsaBayesian most probable 149 91 5.8Bayesian 2s upper 352 99 10.4Bayesian 2s lower 99 83 1.3Bayesian 1s upper 309 95 7.9Bayesian 1s lower 136 87 3.1�Acs (buried exposure)Bayesian most probable 12 127 9.9Bayesian 2s upper 65 138 9.8Bayesian 2s lower 0 114 0.2Bayesian 1s upper 38 132 8.6Bayesian 1s lower 6 120 1.7

Bayesian 1s and 2s upper and lower values (Table 4) represent theuncertainty of the simulation results, thus were used to calculatethe relevant error bars. Bayesian 2s lower ages are taken as mini-mum ages when 10Be concentrations are in secular equilibrium.This approach leaves only 2.5% probability of a lower age estimate.This was the case for Gr�ebics, Bana and Gy}or locations. For theMocsa site, where 10Be concentrations have not reached a secularequilibrium yet, the reported uncertainties are Bayesian 1s lowerand upper values. For denudation rate and inheritance the Bayesianmost probable values with a 1s confidence level are discussed.

At the �Acs site the alluvial sediments had a cover of aeolianorigin with no exponential decrease of the TCN concentrations.Here a different approach has been applied, which is describedlater.

Complete data tables of the simulator results and statistics arefound in Table S4.

4.2. Exposure age e denudation rate determination of the terrace IV

Three sample sites, Gy}or, Bana and Gr�ebics belong to this hori-zon. According to field evidences, considerable thickness of fluvialmaterial has been eroded from the tIV terrace. Fine overbank de-posits, which are usually deposited on top of glacial terraces(Bridgland, 2000) are usually missing from the terrace surface.Borehole data from both the actual floodplain and from terraces inthe neighbouring Gerecse Hills, where freshwater limestone locallyprotected the complete alluvial sequence, suggest that severalmeters of overbank sediments on top of the coarse material wastypical along the Danube. Based on these evidences, a minimumtotal denudation of 5 m for the lower, more extended terraceremnants (Gy}or, Bana, Figs. 2A and 3) and 6 m for the highest, mosteroded location (Gr�ebics, Figs. 2A and 3) was constrained duringthe simulations to get the most probable minimum ages. The upperthreshold of total denudation was set as high as 15 m and 16 m,respectively. The upper and lower age limits for the simulationswere determined using stratigraphical and paleonthological evi-dences (described in Section 2.2) (Fig 4, Table 3).

The Gy}or profile (Dan08-02 to �12, Table 2) is the only onewhere sand and amalgamated pebble sub-samples could be sepa-rated by sieving and were processed separately, as there wasenough material from both grain sizes to have a sample set of atleast five samples, the minimum sample number for depth profilemodelling (Hidy et al., 2010).

The 10Be concentrations resulted to be consistently slightlyhigher in sand than in pebble sub-samples, with both showing anexponential decrease towards depth (Table 2, Fig. 7A). The variableinherited TCN concentrations of individual pebble samples wasdescribed by several authors (e.g. Schmidt et al., 2011; Codileanet al., 2014), however this effect can be overcome by samplingalong depth profiles and using amalgamated pebble and/or sandsamples (Anderson et al., 1996); the approach followed by thisstudy. Aguilar et al. (2014) suggested that different denudationprocesses on the catchment and the effect of size reduction oflarger boulders may be responsible for the smaller 10Be concen-trations in alluvial gravel than sand in a semi-arid catchment of thecentral Andes. On the other hand, several authors described apositive correlation between grain size and 10Be concentrations(Schmidt et al., 2011), while others reported variable or similar TCNconcentrations in different grain sizes (Schaller et al., 2001; for arevision refer to Carretier et al., 2015). The discussion of catchment-scale denudation processes of the Danube River is out of the scopeof this study due to the size and complexity of the drainage area.

The observed exponential decrease of 10Be concentrations withdepth for both pebble and sand suggest that the inherited 10Beinventory is constant along the profile, although at different

Z. Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 131 (2016) 127e147 137

concentrations for pebble and sand samples. Therefore, the post-depositional exposure history can be modelled using TCN concen-trations of each grain size fraction (Hidy et al., 2010). Both modelsare expected to provide similar exposure age e denudation ratepairs, but with a different amount inherited 10Be concentration.

Profile simulations (depth profile simulator of Hidy et al., 2010)were performed separately for the sand and for the pebble profiles.Simulation settings were similar (Table 3) as they share the samepost-depositional exposure history. A wide user defined range ofinheritance was chosen to cover the expected values for both thesand and the pebble profiles. The user defined c2 cut-off value wasmuch lower for the pebble profile than for the sand (2 and 15,respectively), suggesting a better model fit of the pebble profile(n ¼ 5) then for the sand profile (n ¼ 8).

Considering all sand samples the simulator was not able to finda solution because of the distinctly low 10Be concentration of thebottom samples (Dan08-11 and-12; Table 2, Fig. 7A). These samplesrepresent a cross-bedded sand layer underlying the coarser, gradedchannel deposits of the upper 4.3 m of the profile and showedsharply different maximum denudation rate values (Figs. 5A and6A, Table 2). The measured 10Be concentrations suggest that thissand unit originates from a previous sedimentation phase. There-fore, samples #11 and #12 were excluded from further simulations.

The simulation results approved that the 10Be concentrationshave reached secular equilibrium (Figs. S1A, S2A, Table S4).Bayesian 2s lower 10Be exposure age of the Gy}or profile is >693 kafor the pebble and >708 ka for the sand profile, suggesting aminimum exposure age of the terrace around >700 ka (Table 4) forthis site.

Probability density functions (PDF) are similar for pebble andsand (Fig. S1A). They show well determined peaks for denudationrate (6:5þ1:6

�0:7 m/Ma and 7:0þ0:5�1:2 m/Ma for pebble and sand) with

values in agreement within error with each other and with thepreviously calculated maximum denudation rate (Table 4). Theinherited 10Be component resulted to be lower for the pebbles than

Fig. 7. Measured 10Be concentrations plotted against sample depth. Black square of the subsemeans amalgamated pebble sample. Error bars of 1s analytical uncertainty remain invisibl

for the sand (70þ14�5 kat/g and 95þ27

�12 kat/g, respectively), as it wasexpected (Table 4, Fig. 7A).

From the sample set at Bana (Dan08-20 to-26) the Dan 08e22sample had considerably higher 10Be concentration than suggestedby its subsurface depth (Table 2, Fig 7B), therefore it was excludedfrom depth profile modelling as an outlier. The previously sug-gested steady state 10Be concentrations were confirmed by thedepth profile modelling (Figs. S1B, S2B, Table S4). Monte Carlosimulations yielded a Bayesian 2s lower exposure age of >477 kawith a well constrained most probable denudation rate of 10:0þ0:2

�0:1m/Ma and inheritance of 106þ35

�14 kat/g (Table 4).The 10Be concentrations of the top samples of the Gr�ebics profile

(Dan08-40 and -41) suggested that the upper 50 cm could bemixedduring quarrying (Table 2, Figs. 5C and 6C). Accordingly, thearithmetic mean of the 10Be concentrations of the two uppersamples was placed in their average depth, in order to provide arough estimate of 10Be concentration relevant for the uppermostpart of the profile (Fig. 7C). This Dan08-40-41avg sample wasconsidered during the depth profile simulations.

The simulation results suggested also secular equilibrium of 10Beconcentrations (Figs. S1C, S2C, Table S4). The Bayesian 2s lowerexposure age of the Gr�ebics profile resulted to be >659 ka; with awell determined denudation rate of 8:7þ1:2

�0:8 m/Ma and an inheri-tance of 85þ24

�16 kat/g (Table 4).

4.3. Exposure age e denudation rate determination of the terraceIIb

At Mocsa (Dan08-31 to �35) the sandy gravel channel facies ofthe terrace was covered by fine overbank sediments in 1.3 mthickness. Therefore, 10Be samples were taken from the 1.3e4 mdepth range (Figs. 5D/1, 6D/1, 7).

For the depth profile modelling, user defined lower and upperage thresholds were determined as 14 and 360 ka, respectively(Table 3), on the basis of geological, stratigraphical and

t C (Gr�ebics) shows the average 10Be concentration of the mixed upper horizon. Pebblese where they are within the size of the symbols.

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paleontological data integrated by the revision of the terracechronology (Fig. 4). Total amount of eroded material was maxi-mised at 500 cm, due to the presence of the overbank fine sedi-ments and low position of the terrace.

Simulation results are presented by Figs S1D, S2D, Table S4. TheBayesian most probable age of the terrace at Mocsawas 149þ160

�13 ka,with an associated denudation rate of 5:8þ2:1

�2:6 m/Ma and aninherited 10Be concentration of 91þ4

�4 kat/g (Table 4). As a result ofthe lack of uppermost part of the depth profile, the exposure agecould be constrained only with large uncertainty towards olderages.

At �Acs the measured 10Be concentrations were significantlyhigher in the sandy gravel of fluvial origin than in the aeolian coversediments. The measured 10Be concentrations did not display theexpected exponential decrease with depth (Table 2, Fig. 7E). Themean 10Be concentration of the cover (84 ± 8 kat/g) is similar(within error) to that of the actual Danube gravel (Dan08-27;Table 2) and to the mean inheritance signal of the other profiles.

The lack of exponential decrease in the cover may suggest (1)vertical sediment mixing in the upper 130 cm, (2) dominance of theinherited component due to the very young age of the sediment or(3) recent truncation of the upper part of the profile (at least 3 mmaterial stripped off).

The possibility of mixing (1) could not be excluded due to theproximity of the present day soil, and the presence of recent bio-galleries (Fig. 5E). The recent deposition of the loess with a constantinherited 10Be concentration (2) is improbable as the youngestpublished OSL age of fineesandy loess was 14 ± 2 ka (Tham�o-Bozs�oet al., 2010) and in the Pannonian Basin all data suggest that loessformation ceased during the Holocene. The likelihood of recenttruncation of several meters of material (3) from the top of theterrace surface seems to be limited due to the low position and flattopography of the terrace and also due to the conservative denu-dation rates calculated for all terraces, including those at higherpositions (Table 4). The surface of this terrace segment is hum-mocky, with variable depth of wind-blown material. Therefore,wind erosion and formation of deflation hollows may haveoccurred.

In the lower, fluvial part of the profile, 10Be concentrations areroughly constant near 130 kat/g. A slight decreasing trend withdepth can be observed only in the upper 60 cm (samples Dan13-11e 13; Table 2). Field observations (Supplementary Section 3.1.5 andFigs. 5E and 6E) suggest that considerable cryoturbation affectedthe fluvial sediment at this site. The lack of exponential decreaseand the high 10Be concentrations (significantly above the inheri-tance of the other terraces and the actual Danube gravel; Tables 2and 6) suggest that periglacial mixing might have affected theentire profile.

To simulate this profile, two models can be proposed:

1) In a simplistic two-step approach in step one, the lower part ofthe profile is deposited with an important inheritance signa-ture; after short exposition, this deposit was covered by finematerial. This scenario yields to an age of ~4ka for the fluvialterrace abandonment with an inherited concentration of124 kat/g and a present fine deposition event with inherited10Be concentrations of ~83 kat/g. This scenario can be excludeddue to the position of the terrace 12 m above the river, to thetime needed for the development of the reddish paleosoil on topof the terrace material and also due the cryoturbation and loessformation on top of the terrace material, both requiring peri-glacial and/or arid climate conditions (in contrast with thepresent day temperate climate of the area).

2) After sedimentation, the alluvial material was exposed and areddish paleosoil developed on its top. Soil formation was

stopped by climate deterioration, and the sequence was mixedunder periglacial conditions. This event erased the formerexponential decrease of 10Be concentrations with depth. Cry-oturbation was followed by loess deposition.

Accepting this latter scenario, it was possible to assess theduration of buried exposure time of the alluvium using the slightexponential decrease of 10Be concentrations in the upper part of thefluvial sediments. Simulation settings appear in Table 3, results arepresented in Table 4, Fig. S1E, S2E. The user defined denudation ratewas between 0 and 10 m/Ma, based on denudation rate data ob-tained from the other sample locations (Table 4). Our tentative ageestimate for the age of loess deposition (buried exposure of theterrace) is 12þ26

�6 ka.

4.4. Luminescence characteristics of the samples, post-IR IRSL ages

4.4.1. Dose-recovery, residuals, fadingThe De values for the pIRIR signals are obtained by integrating

the first 2.5 s of the IRSL decay curve and the final 100 s of thestimulation is subtracted in order to remove the background. Doseresponse curves were fitted using single or double exponentialfunction (Fig. 8A,B). For all experiments only aliquots with a recy-cling ratio consistent with unity ±10% and with a recuperation<10% were accepted.

Prior to the equivalent dose measurements dose-recovery testswere carried out on one sample from each profile to test the reli-ability of the applied measurement protocol. The aliquots werebleached in a H€onle solar simulator for three hours. Dose-recoveryratios range between 0.94 ± 0.04 and 1.15 ± 0.05. These values e

except the sample from Mocsa, which has the highest dose-recovery ratio (1.15 ± 0.05) e are surprisingly low. Other authorsreported higher dose-recovery values (often >1.1) (Stevens et al.,2011; Thiel et al., 2011, 2014; Schatz et al., 2012). Murray et al.(2014) compared the dose-recovery values after bleaching in so-lar simulator or window (sunlight bleaching) and concluded, thatthe bleaching in solar simulator results in better dose-recoveryratios. In our case the reason for the unexpectedly good dose-recovery ratios is probably the same.

Residual signals were also measured after sunlight bleaching inwindow and a small residual signal (<2 Gy) was only observed forthe samples. This residual dose was not subtracted either from therecovered dose, or from the natural dose estimates because this canbe considered negligible.

Fading tests were carried out on six samples (4e8 aliquots), onefrom each profile at Bana and Mocsa and on all samples from theprofile at �Acs. The fading rates (g-values) are shown in Table S5.Large inter- and intra-sample variation was observed. The fadingmeasurements resulted in very large scatter in g-values andsometimes negative g-values, probably as laboratory measurementartefacts. However, our observation is not unique, many authorshave reported about negative or even anomalously high g-values insome cases (Murray et al., 2014; Trauerstein et al., 2014; Lowicket al., 2012). Our results range between �4.35 ± 2.54 and4.56 ± 2.36%/decade (Table S5), and some of them are much higherthan those reported in other studies (<1e1.5%/decade) (Thiel et al.,2011, 2014; Murray et al., 2014; Schatz et al., 2012). This differencemight be explained by mineral and grain-size differences (poly-mineral fine grained versus coarse-grained K-feldspar samples).The detected large scatter of the fading rates indicates that themeasured values are probably unreliable for our samples. (How-ever, averaging our measured fading rates resulted in g-value of1.5 ± 1.2%/decade (Table S5), which can be acceptable for the pIRIR-290 signal.) Nevertheless, it has already been demonstrated byprevious studies (Thiel et al., 2011; Buylaert et al., 2012) that the

Fig. 8. Representative examples for not saturated doseeresponse curves: samples �Acs-A1 (A) and Mocsa-1 (B). Sample Bana-B3 (C) has reached saturation level.

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pIRIR-290 signal is stable, not influenced by anomalous fading(Wintle, 1973) (e.g.: natural pIRIR-290 signal is consistent withsaturation), therefore we did not correct the ages for fading at all.

4.4.2. Equivalent dose, incomplete bleaching, saturation, ageestimates

De values range from 46.2 ± 3.2 Gy to 386.8 ± 9.5 Gy (Table 5).The pIRIR-290 signal has not reached the saturation level for fivesamples (Mocsa-1, -2, �Acs-A1, -A2, -A4) (Figs. 5D,E, 8A,B). These Devalues correspond to age estimates from 15.2 ± 1.3 ka to146 ± 10 ka. Representative shine-down and doseeresponse curvesfrom Mocsa-2 and �Acs-A2 are shown in Fig. 8A,B.

Considering the fluvial origin of the samples, we can expectpartially bleached minerals, which would result in age over-estimation (Rodnight et al., 2006). Therefore, we applied small al-iquots (10e30 grains/aliquot) for the measurements, which aremore or less able to mimic the single grain measurements. Wefound that all of our samples (which were not in saturation)resulted in De distributions almost within ±2 sigma (except thesample �Acs-4; probably due to its weaker luminescence propertieslike dimmer signal and/or less luminescence sensitivity). Radialplots of the small aliquots (Fig. 9) do not show wide De distribu-tions therefore severe incomplete bleaching can be excluded for thesamples. Although, as Reimann et al. (2012) and Trauerstein et al.(2014) reported, signal averaging can still be detected in case ofsmall aliquots compared to single grain dating, but this might bemore emphatic for young samples. In this study the fading cor-rected results of the pIRIR-225 protocol (Table S6) show goodagreement with the pIRIR-290 ages (Table 5), which indicates thatour samples are not influenced by severe incomplete bleaching asthe pIRIR-225 signal is easier bleachable than the pIRIR-290 signal.The results of the pIRIR-225measurement protocol are described in

the Supplementary Section 4.4.3. Nevertheless, in case we failed todetect the effect of incomplete bleaching, the residual dosemeasured on a modern fluvial sample (Trauerstein et al., 2014)would correspond to a potential pIRIR-290 age overestimation ofabout 13.5 ka, which is about 10% of the age of our fluvial samples.The residual signal would be significant for younger samples whenthe magnitude of the residual dose is similar to the natural dose.Therefore the mean age was calculated to estimate the pIRIR ages.

The pIRIR-290 signal was observed in saturation for four sam-ples out of nine (Bana-A1, -A2, -B3, �Acs-B3) (Fig. 8C). The ratio of thesensitivity-corrected natural signal to the laboratory saturationlevel was calculated for these samples and they ranged from 0.87 to0.95 (Table 5). Therefore only minimum equivalent doses and ageestimates were calculated for these samples (Wintle and Murray,2006; Murray et al., 2014) (a single exponential growth curve wasfitted to the data points and the 2*D0 value was calculated to assessminimum age estimates). These minimum dose estimates scatteraround 1000 Gy, range from 904 Gy to 1120 Gy similarly as it isreported by Murray et al. (2014). They suggest that finite dose es-timates cannot be used beyond ~1000 Gy, which results in ageestimate around 300 ka considering a dose-rate of 3e4 Gy/ka forfine-grained sediment. In this study the total dose rates are lower,ranging from 2.26 ± 0.21 Gy/ka to 3.51 ± 0.17 Gy/ka (Table 5)therefore age estimates up to 400 ka are possible.

All three samples from the Bana profile (tIV, Figs. 5B and 6B)were beyond the datable time range because the pIRIR-290 signalswere already in saturation (Fig. 8C). Therefore only minimum ageswere estimated from this profile, >410 ka for sample Bana-A1,>386 ka for sample Bana-A2 and >320 ka for sample Bana- B3(from the underlying late Miocene sand) (Table 5). As the upper-most sample yielded the oldest minimum age, the entire profile canbe considered as >410 ka, which is in accordance the 10Be exposure

Table 5Sample characteristics for coarse-grained K-feldspar post-IR IRSL-290 dating. Sample depth, grain size, dose rate, equivalent dose and corresponding age. *Saturation levelswere measured on one aliquot/sample for Bana-A1 and A2, and on 3 aliquots/sample for Bana-B3 and �Acs-B3. The data table for the pIRIR-225 protocol is Table S6.

Sample name Depth Grain size Dose rate Equivalent dose [Gy] Age [ka] Saturation*

[m] [mm] [Gy/ka] pIRIR- 290 pIRIR- 290

Bana-A1 4.1 150e250 2.26 ± 0.21 >924.6 >410 0.87Bana-A2 4.6 200e250 2.56 ± 0.15 >988.8 >386 0.88Bana-B3 10.4 150e200 3.40 ± 0.19 >1119.1 >320 0.95 ± 0.01Mocsa-1 1.0 100e150 2.72 ± 0.17 380.0 ± 10.0 139 ± 9Mocsa-2 1.6 250e300 2.65 ± 0.17 386.8 ± 9.5 146 ± 10�Acs-A1 1.0 150e200 3.03 ± 0.16 46.2 ± 3.2 15.2 ± 1.3�Acs-A2 1.7 200e250 2.68 ± 0.15 253.1 ± 4.7 95 ± 6�Acs-B3 8.4 150e200 3.51 ± 0.17 >903.6 >258 0.93 ± 0.02�Acs-A4 3.9 150e200 2.78 ± 0.15 238.0 ± 12.1 86 ± 6

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age estimate of this terrace (Table 6).Two sand samples from the tIIb terrace at Mocsa (Figs. 5D/2, 6D/

2) provided age estimates of 139 ± 9 and 146 ± 10 ka for thesediment burial (Table 5), which are in agreement with our 10Beexposure age estimate (Table 6).

Four samples were collected from the terrace profile at �Acs(Figs. 5E and 6E). The sample �Acs-B3 was taken from the materialunderlying the terrace and it approaches saturation, therefore aminimum age of >258 ka was determined for this sample (Table 5).The fluvial terrace material, samples �Acs-A2 and �Acs-A4 providedage estimates of 95±6ka and 86 ± 6 ka, respectively. Accumulationof the aeolian cover of the terrace was dated to 15 ± 1 ka, which issimilar to the buried exposure time estimated for the fluvial sedi-ments (Table 4).

5. Discussion

Both post-IR IRSL and TCN dating methods were successfullyapplied to determine the age of deposition of Danube terraces. Forthe older terraces only minimum ages could be assessed by both

Fig. 9. Small aliquot De distributions determined with the pIRIR-290

methods. For the higher terrace remnants (tIV) the depth profilemodelling of 10Be data using the 10Be depth profile simulator (Hidyet al., 2010) allowed determining older minimum terrace agescompared to luminescence dating at one location (Bana; Table 6).Consequently, no further post-IR IRSL samples were processed fromthis horizon. On the other hand, for the lower/younger horizons thepost-IR IRSL method provided better constrained terrace ages. Thecombination of the two methods enabled a more robust age deter-mination than using either method separately (Guralnik et al., 2011).

5.1. Early Pleistocene age of the terrace IV of the study area

Accurate dating of the tIV terraces was difficult due to secularequilibrium of 10Be concentrations and saturation of the lumines-cence signal. Nevertheless, 10Be minimum ages from >477 to>708 ka and a post-IR IRSL minimum age of >410 ka could bedetermined for this horizon (Table 6). 10Be depth profile modellingenabled the determination of the oldest minimum terrace age atGy}or due to the lowest denudation rate at this location (Tables 4and 6). Accordingly, we consider the >700 ka 10Be exposure age

protocol for sub-samples of Mocsa-1, Mocsa-2, �Acs-A2 and �Acs-4.

Fig. 10. MUEL profiles on terrace tIVeVI horizon. For locations refer to Fig. 2A. Coarse grained sediments, gravel and sandy gravel layers appear with high resistivity values(>100 Um). Small resistivity values are indicative of fine sediments like fine sand and silt (<40 Um). MUEL measurements were calibrated by shallow boreholes and outcropevidences. MUEL survey was done by the Geomega Ltd. in 2004.

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as the best estimate for the entire tIV terrace range, which isconcordant with the other minimum ages younger than >700 ka.This age is considerably older than the ~420 ka age of terraceabandonment suggested by the revised traditional terrace chro-nology (Fig. 4) and is well in agreement with the 540e2600 ka agerange provided by malacological investigations of Krolopp (1995).The >700 kaminimum age of the highest terrace flight of the GTT iscomparable with the estimated age of the tV or tVI horizon of theTR (Figs. 3 and 4). As the tVI horizon is considered to be the firstDanubian terrace in the TR marking the beginning of river incisionin the Hungarian Danube valley, we propose that the highestterrace of our study area (tIV) may share the same age as tVI in theTR. Consequently, in the following part of this study we use thename tIVeVI for this terrace.

On the other hand, our results do not support the proposed linkbetween terrace formation and MIS terminations (G�abris, 2008;G�abris et al., 2012, Fig. 4) during the middle Pleistocene. Interest-ingly, we did not find any evidence on the existence of terracehorizons between 143 ± 10 ka and >700 ka in the study area.Middle and late Pleistocene times are usually represented by atleast 4e5 terraces in Europe (Gibbard and Lewin, 2009 and refer-ences therein) and in the TR (P�ecsi, 1959; Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al.,2005a; G�abris and N�ador, 2007; G�abris et al., 2012), with well-expressed horizons usually linked to the Mindel glacial (MIS 12).We propose that these horizons may have also developed in thestudy area, but were most probably destroyed by the subsequentlateral erosion of the Danube. The uplifting barrier of the TRcomposed of more resistant lithology could lead to an increasedsinuosity (and thus severe lateral erosion) of the Danube in thestudy area (Schumm et al., 2002), situated just upstream of the TR(Figs. 1 and 3)

5.2. Separation of the late Riss/Saale (tIIIa) and early Würm/Weichsel (tIIb) terraces

It was in question whether all the terrace remnants consideredformerly as tIIb (with elevations 12e16 m and 17e22 m above theDanube) belonged to the same level sharing the same age, as sug-gested by P�ecsi (1959). Mapping of the base of the Quaternarysediments (using shallow borehole data; Kaiser, 2005) revealed a6e8 m high riser between the base of the lower and higher parts ofthis terrace, suggesting the existence of two separate terrace

horizons, whose surface scarp was usually masked by erosionalprocesses.

Post-IR IRSL dating provided well constrained burial ages of139 ± 9 and 146 ± 10 ka (averaging at 143 ± 10) for the Mocsa site(20m amrl; Tables 5 and 6). Cosmogenic in situ 10Be dating pro-vided 149þ160

�13 ka exposure age, coinciding within error with IRSLresults both suggesting terrace deposition during MIS 6(130e190 ka; Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005). The luminescence age of95 ± 6 ka and 86 ± 6 ka (averaging at 91 ± 6) of the terrace at �Acs(12m amrl) proposes an early Würmian (MIS 5b-c) age of thisterrace.

Considering the elevation and the age differences of the Mocsaand �Acs locations (Table 6), we propose the separation of theseterraces. We suggest that a higher level has developed during thelate Riss glacial (MIS 6; Mocsa), which we index as tIIIa (after G�abrisand N�ador, 2007) and that the lower, tIIb level has formed duringthe early Würm glaciation (MIS 4e5; �Acs) (Fig. 4).

5.3. Climate control on the onset of terrace formation

Our new chronological data suggests that MIS based terracechronology proposed by G�abris (2008) is reasonable for the lowterraces up to tIIIa, but it is not applicable for the higher terraces(Fig. 4). Apparently, during the middle Pleistocene not all theclimate fluctuations led to terrace formation or these terraces weredestroyed later by the river.

The first major worldwide Pleistocene glacial events with sub-stantial ice volumes in continental areas outside the polar regionsoccurred around 0.8e0.9 Ma (MIS 22) (Ehlers and Gibbard, 2007;Clark et al., 2006; Gibbard and Lewin, 2009). After the “mid-Pleis-tocene climate transition” (Clark et al., 2006; ca. 1.2e0.7 Ma)dominantly cold climate conditions with short episodes of glacia-tions and brief interglacials prevailed. The >700 kaminimum age ofthe uppermost, tIVeVI horizon in our study area is reconciliablewith a river style change triggered by the “mid-Pleistocene climate-transition” when mechanism of larger rivers in Western Europeshifted fromvalley widening to incision (Gibbard and Lewin, 2009).Burial age determination of cave sediments in the northern SwissAlps revealed an abrupt increase of valley incision rates (from0.12 mm/a to 1.2 mm/a) at 0.8e1.0 Ma (H€auselmann et al., 2007a),in good agreement with the time of the mid-Pleistocene climatetransition.

Fig. 11. Uplift rates along the Danube using different proxies. [1] this study; [2] P�ecsi (1959), Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. (2005a) and this study, for terraces up to tIV (420 ka), and thesubsidence rate in the Danube Basin was calculated using 400 m thickness of Quaternary strata (R�onai, 1974); [3] Kele, 2009, Sierralta et al. (2009); [4] Szanyi et al. (2012); [5]Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. (2005b); [6] Grenerczy et al. (2005). Note the break in the vertical axis above 0.6 mm/a. The 10Be dating-based trend of incision rates was based on the>700 ka age of the onset of valley incision suggested by the 10Be exposure age of the highest terrace level (tIVeVI) of the study area (yellow shading), which was tentativelyextrapolated to the entire TR section of the Danube valley (dotted line). See details in the text. Uplift rate data are presented in Table S7. (For interpretation of the references tocolour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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Hence, we suggest that abandonment of the former wide valleyand onset of incision may have started in connection with thisclimate event as a complex response of the river to the propagationof the compression related vertical movements from the SW to-wards the basin interior and of climate change. Accordingly, theminimum age of >700 ka of the highest terraces may be valid forthe Hungarian Danube valley as the onset valley incision, instead ofthe Plio-Pleistocene boundary, suggested by P�ecsi (1959).

Resolution of our data does not enable the distinction betweenclimatically or tectonically triggered terrace formation. Fold relateduplift of the TR and subsidence of the neighbouring lowlands(Figs. 1 and 3) necessarily led to river incision in and around theuplifting TR, where terraces were formed as a consequence of theinterplay (positive and negative feedbacks) between the ongoinguplift and climate change.

5.4. Denudation of the terrace surfaces

Multielectrode resistivity profiles (MUEL; Fig. 10) and field ex-periences demonstrate that the tIVeVI horizon is represented by asheet of coarse-grained material in up to 8e10 m thickness, whichis underlain by fine sand (of late Miocene age; Magyar et al., 2007,2013). It is also well visible, that the base of the terrace remnant atBana is around 150 m asl. (Fig. 10A,B) and goes as high as ~185 m inthe eastern termination of the GTT (Fig. 10D,C). Decreasing thick-ness of the gravel sheet towards themargins of the terrace remnanthills is indicative of more intensive denudation towards the terracescarps. It is also visible that coarse terrace material is thinner at theeastern, higher section of the GTT, where their maximum apparentthickness is 3e5 m (Geomega, 2004).

Cosmogenic 10Be depth profiles provided well constraineddenudation rates of the terrace surfaces (Table 6). The highestdenudation rates were calculated at Bana (10:0þ1:1

�0:6 m/Ma) and atGr�ebics (8:7þ1:2

�0:8 m/Ma), at the edge of the terrace remnant and onthe small, isolated terrace hill at the most elevated part of theterrace region, respectively. Lower denudation ratewas detected on

larger flat surfaces: 6:5þ1:6�0:7 m/Ma and 7:0þ0:5

�1:2 at Gy}or and 5:8þ2:1�2:6 m/

Ma at Mocsa. Considering the minimum exposure ages of the ter-races these rates suggest 5e8m of material eroded from the tIVeVIterraces and ~1.0 m denudation from the tIIb-tIIIa at Mocsa.

The raw calculations of maximum denudation rate (Table 2)provided slightly lower values than denudation rates provided bythe depth profile simulator (Hidy et al., 2010). This is because duringdepth profile simulations the inherited amount of 10Be is consid-ered and density is a free parameter between 1.8 and 2.2 g/cm3. Onthe other hand, when maximum denudation rate is calculated foreach sample (Table 2), it is not possible to account for the inheri-tance and density is a fixed value (at 2 g/cm3).

Portenga and Bierman (2011) reported that basin-averaged 10Bedenudation rates are usually faster than outcrop erosion. In theirstudy mean and median basin-averaged denudation rates in thetemperate climate zone were 277 m/Ma and 84 m/Ma, while foroutcrops these were 25 m/Ma and 16 m/Ma, respectively. The dif-ference between the 30e80 m/Ma typical basin-averaged 10Bedenudation rates of middle European rivers (Schaller et al., 2002)and low (up to 10 m/Ma) rates of terrace denudation in the GTT ofthis study suggest increasing relief of the study area, as it is ex-pected by the river incision and terrace formation described in thearea. Coarse grained fluvial material have protected the high ter-races from surface denudation, which led to surface inversion: theformer riverbed has now the highest topography of the area. Due totheir slow denudation, these terraces serve as appropriate tools toreconstruct former stages of valley evolution and thus to quantifyvalley incision and tectonic uplift (see in section 5.6).

5.5. Cryoturbation features

The periglacial involutions in the outcrop at �Acs were observeddown to a depth of 1e1.5 m from the top of the alluvial material,with no signs of mixing in the aeolian cover (Figs. 5E and 6E).Periglacial sedimentary features were frequently observed in thewestern Pannonian Basin (P�ecsi, 1961, 1997; Van Vliet-Lano€e et al.,

Table 6Exposure time, denudation rate, inheritance and post IR IRSL age of the studied terraces. Bayesianmost probable values, with a 1s confidencewindow are presented. Minimumexposure ages are Bayesian 2s lower ages. Height above Danube refer to the present elevation of the surface of the alluvial material.

Gy}or-pebble Gy}or-sand Bana Gr�ebics Mocsa �Acs

Exposure age (ka) >693 >708 >477 >659< 149þ160�13 e

Denudation rate (m/Ma) 6:5þ1:6�0:7 7:0þ0:5

�1:2 10:0þ1:1�0:6 8:7þ1:2

�0:8 5:8þ2:1�2:6 e

Inheritance (103 at/g) 70þ14�5 95þ27

�12 106þ21�6 85þ24

�15 91þ4�4 e

Post-IRIRSL age

e e >410 e 143 ± 10a 91 ± 6a

Terrace level (traditional e this study) tIVetVI tIVetVI tIVetVI tIVetVI tIIbetIIIa tIIbheight above the Danube (m) 38 38 45 87 20 12

a Arithmetic mean of the measured ages in Table 5.

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2004). Their development was attributed to glacial periods of theWürm and/or Riss glaciations and possibly in earlier glacial phases,at locations where local climate and soil conditions were suitablefor cryoturbation (e.g. Matsuoka, 2011; Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger andKern, 2015).

Our sampling occurred outside these well visible signs of sedi-ment mixing (Figs. 5E and 6E). However, the lack of exponentialdecrease of the measured 10Be concentrations suggests that cry-oturbation affected the former terrace, even outside the involutionsand at least down to a depth of 3 m (Table 2, Fig. 7).

The post-IR IRSL age of the terrace sedimentation was 91 ± 6 kaand the age of loessy-fine-sand cover proved to be 15 ± 1 ka(Table 6). The latter age is similar to the youngest age of loess for-mation in the region (Tham�o-Bozs�o et al., 2010) during the latestPleistocene (end of MIS 2). The 10Be exposure age estimate (coveredexposure time of the alluvial sediments) of 12þ26

�6 ka of the cover, isin agreement with its post-IR IRSL age.

These ages are bracketing the development of a 30e40 cm thickreddish-brown paleosoil developed on top of the alluvial sedi-ments, which was subsequently deformed by the cryoturbationbefore the deposition of the aeolian cover. The post-IR IRSL datedloess-paleosoil sequence of the Sütt}o quarry in neighbouring Ger-ecse Hills showed that several paleosoil horizons were formedbetween ~85 and ~30 ka, with the most prominent one during theMIS 3 (Novothny et al., 2011). Accordingly, the formation of thepaleosoil on the alluvial sediments at �Acs during this period ishighly probable, which could be affected by cryoturbation underthe periglacial climate conditions of MIS 2 (Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger andKern, 2015).

5.6. Incision rates and tectonic uplift

Uplift of the TR was related to the neotectonic shortening andrelated large-scale folding of the Pannonian lithosphere (Horv�athand Royden, 1981; Horv�ath et al., 2015), which progressively shif-ted from SW (Slovenia) toward NE (Tari, 1994; Fodor et al., 1999,2005). The >700 ka minimum age of the highest terraces of thearea put forward that the onset of uplift in the northeastern part ofthe TR started before this time, but probably somewhat later thanin the southwest TR (Fig. 1), where theminimum age of the onset ofthe uplift was 1.56 ± 0.09 Ma, as determined by in situ 10Be expo-sure age of wind-abraded landforms (Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al.,2011).

The maximum incision/uplift rates relevant for the minimumage of the IVeVI terrace level (>700 ka) were calculated. Elevationof the terraces was corrected for thematerial thickness eroded fromtheir surface since their abandonment by the river (calculated using10Be denudation rates, Table 6, Section 5.4). The maximum incisionrates show a positive correlation with the elevation of the terraceremnants with values from <0.06 mm/a to <0.13 mm/a (Gy}or:<0.06 mm/a; Bana: <0.07 mm/a; Gr�ebics: <0.13 mm/a) (Fig. 11,

Table S7). The increase of incision rates fromwest to east along theDanube reflects well the trend towards higher uplift rates closer tothe uplifting TR (Figs. 1 and 3). These rates are half of the maximumrates calculated based on the revised traditional chronology(Fig. 11) and are in the same order of magnitude as incision/upliftrates revealed by former studies in Europe (Table 1).

For the young terraces, incision rates of 0.15 ± 0.01 mm/a(Mocsa) and 0.13 ± 0.01mm/a (�Acs) were computed using the post-IR IRSL data. Our results suggest somewhat faster uplift rates for theyoung terraces (Mocsa, �Acs) than for the tIVeVI terraces at thesame position along the river (Fig. 11). This might indicate slightacceleration of uplift towards present, which would be in accordwith the gradual built-up of compressional stress-field in thePannonian Basin resulting in an increasing trend of verticalmovements (Bada et al., 2006). However further data are necessaryto decide whether our data indicates a true acceleration of verticalmovements.

Proposing that the abandonment of the highest terrace level ofthe Hungarian Danube valley was triggered by the same tectonicand climatic processes, we tentatively extrapolated the >700 kaminimum age to the highest terraces of the valley across TR andcalculated the uplift rates for each valley segment (blue dotted lineon Fig. 11, Table S7). The comparison of the uplift rates along theDanube calculated using our minimum age estimate of >700 ka andthe uplift rates calculated on the basis of the quantification of thetraditional terrace chronological data (orange line of Fig. 11) it isvisible, that while in the GTT the traditional data suggest consid-erably higher values, within the TR the maximum uplift rates aresimilar, with <0.36 mm/a and <0.33 mm/a at the axis of the TR(Danube Bend; Fig. 11). By the >700 ka based uplift curve (blue lineand blue dotted line on Fig. 11) the anomalously high uplift ratessuggested by the traditional terrace chronology for the eastern partof the GTT were eliminated, and the curve has a smooth continu-ation towards the TR.

A slight break can be suggested in the extrapolated uplift ratecurve blue dotted line on Fig. 11, next to the locations of the trav-ertine occurrences. As we noted earlier, there is a fault at thewesternmargin of the Gerecse Hills, which was clearly active in theLate Miocene (Bartha et al., 2014). In case of Quaternary activityalong this fault, the uplift rate may have changed at this fault.However, the spatial resolution of our quantitative data set is notdense enough to support or reject unequivocally the break in thecurve (presence of active fault).

Uplift rates calculated using the time span determined by Th/Uages of travertines covering terrace surfaces (Kele, 2009; Kele et al.,2009, 2011; Sierralta et al., 2009) were 0.1e0.5 mm/a for the Ger-ecse and Buda Hills. The lower values of these estimates are inagreement with incision rates calculated in this study (Fig. 11,Table S7). We suggest that the higher incision rates were mostprobably derived from travertines deposited on the valley slope, i.e.not connected to the base level, thus providing excessively young

Z. Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 131 (2016) 127e147144

ages relative to the abandonment of the dated terrace. Accordingly,we propose that for the quantification of valley incision and upliftrates the oldest travertine ages of a certain height are to beconsidered.

Th/U series dating of cave sediments in the Buda Hills (Szanyiet al., 2012) issued 0.15e0.32 mm/a uplift rate at the easternmargin of the TR; this is equally in agreement with our projecteduplift rate values for the SE margin of the TR (Fig. 11, Table S7).

Themaximum uplift rate estimated by this study for the DanubeBend is in accordance with novel GPS velocity measurementssuggesting that uplift rates in the axial zone of the TR do not exceed0.5 mm/a (Grenerczy et al., 2005, and oral communication 2014).

On the other hand, Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. (2005b) measuredvery young 3He minimum exposure ages on the strath terraces ofthe Danube Bend and derived amaximum incision rate of 1.6mm/a.On the andesite strath surfaces terrace ages were estimated usingsurface samples only. We suggest that the sampled strath surfaceswere most probably affected by significant denudation, whichcould not be accounted for using surface samples only. We proposethat 3He concentrations of Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. (2005b) maybe better interpreted as denudation rates providing 3e5 m/Madenudation for the flat or gently dipping strath surfaces (0e5�) and16e17 m/Ma for the lowest horizonwith a slope of 10� towards theDanube, which values are reconcilable with denudation rates pro-vided by the depth profiles of this study.

6. Conclusions

The combined application of TCN and post-IR IRSL technique onalluvial terraces can lead to robust age determination. On old ter-races TCN depth profile modelling provided better age estimates(or minimum age) than luminescence, even if the site was affectedby considerable denudation. On the other hand, luminescence isnot sensitive of sediment mixing, high denudation rates oranthropogenic processes like stripping of the upper layers, as longas the sediment is not brought to surface after its burial. Therefore,on locations affected by any of these processes post-IR IRSL was abetter approach, as long as sediment burial occurred within itsapplicability range (300e400 ka).

Depth profile modelling of 10Be concentrations of pebble andsand samples at Gy}or provided similar exposure age e denudationrate pairs suggesting a terrace age of >700 ky and a denudation rateof ~6.7 mm/a (Table 6). Accordingly, we suggest that both amal-gamated pebble and sand samples are suitable for age determina-tion until the depth profile method is used, because it allowsconsidering their different amount of inherited 10Be. For the highestterrace flight of the study area (tIVeVI) this minimum age isconsidered as the best estimate due to the lowest denudation ratecalculated at this location. Besides, it is reconcilable with the lowerminimum ages of the other sample locations (Fig. 4).

The >700 ka minimum age of terrace abandonment is consid-ered as the lower time constraint of the onset of the valley incisionin the northern part of the Pannonian Basin. Nevertheless, weemphasize that terraces were formed due to the complex effect ofthe propagation of fold-related vertical movements towards thebasin interior and of climate change. The resolution of our data doesnot enable the differentiation between the effects of the two pro-cesses. However, we can safely conclude that the uplift of thenortheastern TR started before 700 ka, and that the shift from theformer wide valley to a narrower terraced valley may have beentriggered by the mid-Pleistocene climate transition (0.7e1.2 ka;Clark et al., 2006), as it was recognised at several European rivers(Gibbard and Lewin, 2009).

We propose that the evolution of the Hungarian Danube valleywas governed by the same tectonic and climatic processes, and that

the highest terrace of the study area (tIV) shares the same age as thehighest terrace horizon (tVI) of the TR. Accordingly, the >700 ka10Be minimum exposure age of the tIVeVI level of the GTT could beextrapolated to the subsequent valley sections. Maximum incision/uplift rates were calculated accordingly, and revealed<0.06e0.13 mm/a uplift rates increasing from west to east for thestudy area, and enabled an extrapolation suggesting the highestrate of <0.33 mm/a in the axial zone of the TR (Fig. 11, Table S7).These maximum rates show moderate tectonic deformation of theTR from the middle Pleistocene onwards. The rate of verticaldeformation is in the same order of magnitude as published inother parts of Europe (Table 1).

Post-IR IRSL data at two locations on the former tIIb terraceenabled the differentiation of a higher horizon (20 m amrl) with anestimated age of 143 ± 10 ka (Mocsa) and a lower horizon(12 m amrl) of 91 ± 6 ka (Table 6). These results are the firstgeochronological evidences on the definition of the tIIb level of theHungarian Danube valley as early Würm (MIS 5bec), and todistinguish the higher, late Riss (MIS 6) terrace level as tIIIa. Wecould not find evidence on the existence of terrace remnants be-tween <700 ka and ~143 ka in the GTT, therefore suggest that mostof the terraces of middle Pleistocene times were possibly destroyedby the enhanced lateral erosion of the Danube.

Acknowledgements

Our research was supported by: the OTKA PD83610, PD100315,K062478, K083150 and K106197, the Research Scholarship of theFrench Embassy of Hungary, the French-Hungarian Balaton-T�etProject (FR-32/2007; T�ET_11-2-2012-0005), the EGT/NorvegianFinancing Mechanism and MZFK (Zolt�an Magyary Public Founda-tion of Higher Education), the Bolyai J�anos Scholarship and the“Lendület” program (LP2012-27/2012) of the Hungarian Academyof Sciences.

The 10Be measurements performed at the ASTER AMS nationalfacility (CEREGE, Aix en Provence) were supported by the INSU/CNRS, the French Ministry of Research and Higher Education, IRDand CEA. The gamma-spectrometry measurements and part of thepreparation of the luminescence samples were carried out at theLeibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics, Hannover, Germany.Special thanks to Christine Thiel, Jan-Pieter Buylaert and AndrewMurray for the fruitful discussions on post-IR IRSL results. LaetitiaLeanni and Frederic Chauvet are acknowledged for their help dur-ing 10Be chemistry. We are grateful for G�abor Bada, Prof. FrankHorv�ath and Bence Solymosi for providing their unpublished MUELprofiles of the GTT for this study. We are indebted to SilkeMechernich and two Anonymous Reviewers for their commentsand suggestions, which helped a lot to improve our manuscript.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.10.041.

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