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CarbohydratesTehran University of Medical
Sciences (TUMS)
Mahdi Aminian, Ph.DDepartment of Biochemistry
Mehr 92
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1) Monosaccharides
- Simple
- Derivatives
2) Oligosaccharides
3) Polysaccharides
Saccharides
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•Disaccharides are formed by a condensation reaction between
two monosaccharides.
•The covalent linkage is called an O-glycosidic bond and
represents the formation of an acetal from a hemiacetal and an
alcohol.
Disaccharides
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•Glucose on the right:
Reducing end of the disaccharide molecule because it can participate
in a reduction reaction.
•Glucose on the left:
Nonreducing end because the C-1 carbon is part of the α1-4 linkage
and cannot form the open chain structure in a reduction reaction.
•Maltose contains one reducing end and called a reducing sugar.
•Disaccharide name:
listing the nonreducing monosaccharide on the left, followed by the
glycosidic linkage between the two monosaccharides, and then the
monosaccharide on the right.
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Reducing:
Maltose
Lactose
Non-reducing:
Trehalose
Sucrose
Disaccharides
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Maltose
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Lactose
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Sucrose
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Trehalose
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Disaccharides
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1-Monosaccharides
- Simple
- Derivatives
2-Oligosaccharides
-Reducing: Maltose, Lactose
-Non-reducing: Trehalose, Sucrose
3-Polysaccharides
Saccharides
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A) Pure Polysaccharides
a) Homo Polysaccharides
Structural & Storage (Cellulose, Chitin & Glycogen, Inulin)
Or
Linear & Branched (Amylose, Inulin & Glycogen, Amylopectin)
b) Hetero Polysaccharides
Hyaluronic acid, Chondroitin sulfate, Heparin
B) Complex Polysaccharides
Classifications of Polysaccharides
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•The chief constituent of the framework of plants.
•Insoluble.
•Important source of “bulk” in the diet.
•β-D-glucopyranose.
•Linked by β(1 → 4) bonds.
•Cannot be digested by mammals (absence of β linkage hydrolyzing
enzyme).
•Microorganisms can hydrolyze the β linkage.
Cellulose
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•Structural polysaccharide in the exoskeleton of crustaceans and
insects.
•Consists of N-acetylglucosamine units joined by β(1 →4)-
glycosidic linkages.
•Chitinase of microorganisms.
Chitin
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Chitin
Similar to cellulose, but C2s are N-acetyl
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•Storage polysaccharide in plants.
•Homopolymer of glucose (glucosan or glucan)
•α-glucosidic chain
•The two main constituents:
Amylose (20%)
Amylopectin (80)
Starch
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Amylose, a linear polysaccharide containing about ~100
glucose units linked by α(1-4) glycosidic bonds.
Amylopectin, a branched polysaccharide containing ~100,000
glucose units connected by α1-4 and α1-6 glycosidic bonds.
Amylose can form stable left-handed helical structures as a result
of intramolecular hydrogen bonding.
α-amylase:
Cleaves α(1-4) glycosidic bonds.
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Amylose
Amylopectin
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•Storage polysaccharide in animals.
•Up to 106 glucose units per granule.
•α-D-glucopyranose
α(1 → 4)-glucosidic linkage
α(1 → 6)-glucosidic bonds
•Amylopectin:
a branch point about once every 25 glucose units.
•Glycogen:
a branch point every 10 glucose units.
•More branch points there are, the more ends that are available for
glucose retrieval and storage.
Glycogen
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Glycogen
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Inulin:
-A polysaccharide of fructose (fructosan) found in roots of some
plants.
-It is readily soluble in water and is used to determine the
glomerular filtration rate.
Dextrins:
Intermediates in the hydrolysis of starch.
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Heteropolysacharides
Glycosaminoglycans
(mucopolysaccharides)
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An important class of polysaccharides in connective tissue and
the extracellular matrix.
Hyaluronic acid, Chondroitin sulfate, Heparin
These unbranched polysaccharide chains consists of repeating
disaccharide units made up of modified monosaccharides.
Amino sugars & Uronic acids
Proteoglycan:
-Attachment of these chains to a protein molecule.
Glycosaminoglycans
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Hyaluronic acid is highly hydrated & lubricant in joints
Hyaluronic Acid
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Chondroitin Sulfate
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Heparin
15-90
Heparin
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Heparin is an example of highly sulfated glycosaminoglycan that
is present in granules of special cells in the circulatory system
called mast cells.
Release of heparin from mast cells prevents blood clotting by the
binding of the negatively-charged heparin to proteins that initiate
the clotting cascade.
Purified heparin is used as an anti-coagulant in clinical laboratories
that need to store and process blood products.
Heparin
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A) Pure Polysaccharides
a) Homo Polysaccharides
Sturctural & Storage (Cellulose, Chitin & Glycogen, Inulin)
Or
Linear & Branched (Amylose, Inulin & Glycogen, Amylopectin)
b) Hetero Polysaccharides
Hyaluronic acid, Chondroitin sulfate, Heparin
B) Complex Polysaccharides
a) Polysaccharides + Proteins
b) Polysaccharides + Lipid
Classifications of Polysaccharides
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1- Polysaccharides + Proteins:
a) Proteoglycane (Extra cellular matrix) & Peptidoglycane(Bacterial cell wall)
b) Glycoprotein (ABO blood group, Serum Glycoproteins)
2- Polysaccharides + Lipids:
a) Lipopolysccharide (Gram negative bacterial cell wall)
b) Glycolipid (Receptors for bacterial toxins)
Complex Polysaccharides
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Proteoglycane
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Bacterial Peptidoglycans
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The sugars : yellow
The tetrapeptides: red
The pentaglycine : blue
Peptidoglycan
Transpeptidases are required
for peptidoglycan synthesis
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•Alexander Fleming discovered the antibiotic penicillin in 1929
•Penicillin inhibits bacterial enzymes called transpeptidases that are
required for peptidoglycan synthesis
•Some bacteria are resistant to penicillin because they produce an
enzyme called β-lactamase that hydrolyzes the β lactam ring in
penicillin to inactivate it.
•This type of penicillin-resistance has been overcome by developing
synthetic compounds such as methicillin that block transpeptidase
activity without being substrates for β-lactamase.
•A methicillin-resistant strain of S. aureus,called MRSA, has emerged
that expresses a variant form of the transpeptidase enzyme.
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Infection of methicillin-resistant S. aureus
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They are proteins containing branched or unbranched oligosaccharide
chains.
Oligosaccharide modification at endoplasmic reticulum.
Many types of membrane-bound proteins & most secreted proteins.
Serum Glycoproteins
Protein glycosylation :
Highly specific and requires of glycosyltransferases enzymes.
Immunological incompatibility:
Genetic differences in the expression and activity of Glycosyltransferases.
Glycoproteins (mucoproteins)
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Human CD2 protein(surface of T cells)
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Blood Groups
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Glycoproteins:O-linked oligosaccharides
N-linked oligosaccharides
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Glycolipids (Crebroside, Ganglioside)
Glycolipids & Lipopolysaccharides
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1-Monosaccharides
A) Simple B) Derivatives
2-Oligosaccharides
A) Reducing (Maltose, Lactose) B) Non-reducing (Trehalose, Sucrose)
3-Polysaccharides
A) Pure Polysaccharides:
a) Homo Polysaccharides
(Sturctural & Storage ) or (Linear & Branched)
b) Hetero Polysaccharides
(Hyaluronic acid, Chondroitin sulfate, Heparin)
B) Complex Polysaccharides:
a) Polysaccharides + Proteins
1) Proteoglycane (Extra cellular matrix) & Peptidoglycane (Bacterial cell wall)
2) Glycoprotein (ABO blood group, Serum Glycoproteins)
b) Polysaccharides + Lipid
1) Lipopolysccharide (Gram negative bacterial cell wall)
2) Glycolipid (Receptors for bacterial toxins)
Classification of Saccharides