textbook of physic
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physics text for science and engineeringTRANSCRIPT
190 DYNAMICS CHAP.
This result agrees with that which would have been obtained by
application of the principle of moments.
In Fig. 215 (b) is shown the same lever with the addition of circular
sectors for receiving the cords. It is evident that the arms AC andBC are of constant length in this lever. If the lever is turned througha small angle a radians, W will be lowered through a height h andP will be raised through a height H, and we have
* _ _ H
AC BC'
.'. ^=AC . a, and H =BC . a.
Assuming no friction,
Work done by W = work done on P,
or WxACxa = PxBCxa;
.'. WxAC = PxBC,a result which again agrees with the principle of moments.
In Fig. 216 the sectors are of the same radius and are extendedto form a complete wheel. It is evident that Pand W will be equal if there be no friction.
Such wheels are called pulleys, and are muchused for changing the direction of a rope or
chain under pull, and arc found often in tackle
used for raising loads.
FIG. 216. Use of apulley.
Hoisting tackle. The fact that the mechani-
cal advantage of a machine, neglecting friction,
is equal to the velocity ratio (p. 186) enables
the latter to be calculated easily in the followingcases of hoisting tackle.
Simple pulley arrangements. In the pulley-block arrangementshown in Fig. 217, let n be the number of ropes leading from the
lower to the upper block. Neglecting friction, each rope supports
\N[n ;this will also be the value of P. Hence
Wnv-J W
In the arrangement shown in Fig. 218 (seldom used in practice)each rope A and B sustains JW ;
the pull in B is balanced by the
pulls in C and D, therefore C and D have pulls each equal to JW ;
XIV HOISTING TACKLE 191
hence E and F have pulls equal to JW, and the pull in G is also |Wand is equal to P. Thus w w
V= = = 8p iw
8
In the arrangement shown in Fig. 218 there are three inverted
pulleys. Had there been n inverted pulleys, the value of P would
have beenpW
and V=W_ 2.
FIG. 217. A common pulley-block arrangement.
WFIG. 218. Another pulley
arrangement.FIG. 219. Another ar-
rangement of pulleys.
In the system shown in Fig. 219 (also seldom employed) the pulls
in A and B will be each equal to P;
hence the pull in C is 2P
(neglecting the weight of the' pulley), and equals the pull in D.
The pull in E is thus 4P and equals the pull in F. Hence' W =
pull in B + pull in D + pull in F
It is evident that P, 2P and 4P are terms in a geometrical pro-
gression having a common ratio 2. Hence, if there be n pulleys,we may write W = P + 2P + 22P + 23P + ... + 2W
~1P
= P2-1
TT?- ^<.
A TEXT BOOK OF PHYSICS
A
TEXT BOOK OF PHYSICSFOR THE USE OF STUDENTS OF
SCIENCE <5^ ENGINEERING
BY
J. DUNCAN, WH. Ex., M.I.MECH.E.
AND
S. G. STARLING, B.Sc., A.R.C.Sc.
Ex. Crown 8vo.
COMPLETE IN ONE VOL. - - - - i$/-
Also issued in Parts
DYNAMICS 5/-
HEAT, LIGHT, AND SOUND - -6/-
MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY - 4/-
HEAT ....3/5
LIGHT AND SOUND - - - 3/6
LONDON : MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
A TEXT BOOK OF
PHYSICSFOR THE USE OF STUDENTS OF SCIENCE
AND ENGINEERING
BY
J. DUNCAN, WH.EX., M.I.MEcn.E.HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OK CIVIL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING AT THE
MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL INSTITUTE, WEST HAMAUTHOR OF 'APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS,' 'STEAM AND OTHER ENGINES'
'APPLIED MECHANICS FOR BEGINNERS,' ETC.
AND
S. G. STARLING, B.Sc., A.R.C.Sc.HEAD OK THE PHYSICAL DEPARTMENT AT THE MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL
INSTITUTE, WEST HAMAUTHOR OF 'ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM FOR ADVANCED STUDENTS'
' PRELIMINARY PRACTICAL MATHEMATICS,' ETC.
PART I
DYNAMICS
MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON
1920
PHYSICS DEI
COPTRIGHT.
First Edition 1918.
Reprinted 1920.
GLASGOW : PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO. LTD.
PREFACE
THE preparation of this volume was undertaken to meet a demand
that has been growing for some years past for a text-book of
Physical Science which should connect more intimately than has
hitherto been usual the scientific aspects of Physics with its modern
practical applications. The reader must be left to judge how far
the authors have succeeded in thus combining the outlooks of the
man of science and the engineer.
The contents have been selected to meet the requirements of
various classes of students : those preparing for Intermediate and
other examinations of London and other Universities;and those
entering for appointments in the Army, Navy, and Civil Service,
or offering themselves for examination in Electrical Engineering
(Grade I.) by the City and Guilds of London Institute.
The book has been arranged in parts, in accordance with the
divisions of the subject found convenient in most schools and
colleges. Part I., Dynamics, comprises the sections of Mechanics
and Applied Mathematics usually studied, and includes sections
on motion, statics, and the properties of fluids. Part II., Heat;Part III., Light; Part IV., Sound; and Part V., Magnetism and
Electricity ;deal respectively with the principles of these subjects
and their applications.
Complete courses of laboratory work have been provided in
each Part. Many physical laboratories are equipped with apparatus
differing in some respects from the instruments here described,
nevertheless the guidance given will enable intelligent use to be
made of other forms of apparatus designed for the same or similar
purposes.
Attention is directed to the experimental treatment of dynamical
principles, because its neglect, which is unfortunately common,
456159
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XPAfJK
Couples ; systems of uniplanar forces - 125
CHAPTER XI
Graphical methods of solution of problems of uniplanar forces ;
link polygon ; rigid frames 140
CHAPTER XII
Stress ; strain ; elasticity ; Hooke's law ; elastic moduli ; torsion ;
bending - 153
CHAPTER XIII
Work ; energy ; power ; friction 167
CHAPTER XIV
Simple machines ; velocity ratio ; mechanical advantage ; efficiency;
principle of work - - 184
CHAPTER XVMotion of rotation ; moments of inertia ; angular momentum ;
kinetic energy of rotation ; flywheels- 198
CHAPTER XVI
Centrifugal force ; simple harmonic motion ; pendulums ; centrifugal
governor- 217
CHAPTER XVII
Impact ; laws of collision ; energy wasted in impact ; conservation
of momentum - - - - 233
CHAPTER XVIII
Hydrostatics ; pressure in liquids ; centre of pressure 244
CHAPTER XIX
Pressure of the atmosphere ; hydraulic machines ; pressure energyof a liquid ; hydraulic transmission of energy ; pumps
CHAPTER XXFloating bodies ; principle of Archimedes ; specific gravity ; hydro-
meters 274
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXIPAGE
Liquids in motion ; total energy of a liquid ; Bernoulli's theorem ;
the siphon ; discharge through an orifice ; water wheels andturbines ; centrifugal pump - - 286
CHAPTER XXII
Surface tension ; capillary elevation ; diffusion ; osmosis - - 298
LOGARITHMIC TABLES 310
ANSWERS 315
INDEX - ... .... 328
TABLESPAGE
Average Densities of Common Materials...... 5
Moduli of Elasticity (Average values)- 156
Coefficients of Friction (Average values] 174
COURSE OF LABORATORY WORK
PART I. DYNAMICSPAOK
1. Scales 13
2. Use of scales and calipers 13
3. To measure an angle - - - - - - - 15
4. Use of vernier calipers and micrometers 17
5. Thickness of an object by use of the spherometer - - - 18
6. Use of the spherometer in determining the radius of curvature
of a spherical surface - 19
7. Micrometer microscope r - 20
8. Use of a balance - .... 21
9. Measurement of areas - - - - - - - - 21
10. Use of the planimeter 23
11. Measurement of volumes by the displacement of water - - 23
12. Use of Attwood's machine - - - - 71
13. Parallelogram of forces 86
14. Pendulum 87
15. Polygon of forces .....----8816. Derrick crane 89
17. Balance of two equal opposing moments ----- 96
18. Principle of moments - - - 97
19. Equilibrant of two parallel forces 100
20. Reactions of a beam 102
21. Centre of gravity of sheets 119
22. Centre of gravity of a body 119
23. Equilibrium of two equal opposing coupler.... 128
24. Link polygon - 148
25. Loaded cord - - 149
26. Elastic stretching of wires 157
27. Torsion of a wire ....... 159
28. Deflection of a beam 163
29. Determination of the kinetic coefficient of friction - - - 174
30. Determination of ^ from the angle of sliding friction - - 175
xii COURSE OF LABORATORY WORK
PAGE
31. Friction of a cord coiled round a post 179
32. Efficiency, etc., of a machine for raising loads. Test anymachines available, such as a crab, pulley blocks, wheel and
differential axle, etc. 186
33. The screw-jack - 194
34. Kinetic energy of a flywheel 210
35. A wheel rolling down an incline - - - - - - 212
36. Determination of the value of g by means of a simple pendulum 229
37. Longitudinal vibrations of a helical spring 229
/38. Coefficient of restitution 239
39. Ballistic pendulum - 240
40. Pressure on a horizontal surface at different depths - - 249
41. Pressure of the atmosphere - 259
42. Determination of the specific gravity of a liquid by weighing
equal volumes of the liquid and of water - - 278
43. Specific gravity of a solid by weighing in air and in water - - 278
44. Specific gravity of a liquid by weighing a solid in it - - - 279
45. Use of variable immersion hydrometers ... - - 280
46. Specific gravity of a solid by use of Nicholson's hydrometer - 280
47. Relative specific gravities of liquids which do not mix - - 281
48. Relative specific gravities of liquids which mix ... 281
49. Relative specific gravities of two liquids which mix, by inverted
U-tube - 281
50. An illustration of Bernoulli's theorem - - - 288
51. Use of a siphon 289
52. Surface tension of water ----- - 298
53. Measurement of the surface tension of water by the capillary
tube method 300
54. Diffusion of gases- 303
55. Osmosis - 304
56. Diffusion of a gas through a porous plug----- 307
PART 1
DYNAMICS
D.S.P.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
Preliminary definitions. Dynamics is that branch of physicalscience which investigates the behaviour of matter under the action
of force.
It must suffice here to explain what is meant by matter by reference
to some of its properties, of which the most obvious are, (i) it always
occupies space, (ii) it always possesses weight when in the neighbour-hood of the earth. A body is any definite portion of matter.
Force is push or pull exerted on a body ;and may alter the state
of motion by causing the speed of the body to increase or decrease
continuously, or by producing a continuous change in the direction
of motion. Our earliest appreciation of force comes usually byreason of the muscular effort which has to be exerted in sustainingthe weight of a body.
statics is that branch of the subject dealing with cases in which
the forces do not produce any change in the motion of the body to
which they are applied. Kinetics includes all problems in which
change of motion occurs as a consequence of the application of force
to the body. Another subdivision called Kinematics deals with the
mere geometry of motion without reference to the applied force.
In another nomenclature in common use, the name mechanics is
given to the entire subject, and dynamics to that branch in which
the applied forces produce changes in the motion of the body ;in
this nomenclature statics and kinematics have the signification defined
above.
Fundamental units. The fundamental units to which are referred
all measurements in any scientific system are those of length, mass
and time.
The metric unit of length is the metre, and may be defined as the
distance, under certain conditions, between the ends of a standard
DYNAMICS CHAP.
bar preserved in Paris. Other practical units are the centimetre
(0-01 metre, written one cm.), the millimetre (0-001 metre, written
one mm.) and the kilometre (1000 metres).
The British unit of length is the foot, which is one-third of the
standard yard. The latter may be denned as the distance between
two marks on a standard bar preserved in London. The inch (one-
twelfth of a foot) and the mile (5280 feet) are other practical units.
One inch equals 2-539 cm., and one metre equals 39-37 inches. For
convenience in showing dimensions in drawings, lengths such as 3 feet
5 inches are written 3 '-5".
Units used in measuring areas are produced by taking squares
having sides equal to any of the units of length mentioned above,
and are described as the square centimetre, the square inch, etc.
In measuring volumes, units are obtained by taking cubes having
edges equal to any of the units of length, and are described as the
cubic centimetre (written one c.c.), the cubic inch, etc. Other units
of volume are the litre (1000 c.c., equal to 1-762 pint), the gallon
(0-1605 cubic foot, or 8 pints, or 4-541 litres) and the pint.
Mass means quantity of matter. The metric unit of mass was
intended to be the quantity of matter contained in a cubic centimetre
of pure water at a temperature of 4 degrees Centigrade, but is actually
one-thousandth of the mass of a piece of platinum preserved in
Paris ;this unit is called one gram. The kilogram (1000 grams) is
another unit in common use. The British unit of mass is called the
pound avoirdupois, and is the quantity of matter contained in a
standard piece of platinum preserved in London. The ton (2240
pounds) is also used often. One gallon of fresh water has a mass of
10 pounds. One pound equals 453-6 grams.The unit of time employed in all scientific systems is the second,
which is derived from the mean solar day, i.e. the average time
elapsing between two successive passages of the sun across the
meridian of any one place on the surface of the earth.
It will be noted that the units of length, mass and time, on beingonce stated for any system of scientific measurement, remain
invariable. Owing to the three metric units in common use beingthe centimetre, the gram, and the second, the name C.G.S. system
is used more frequently than the term metric system.
Density. The density of a given material means the mass con-
tained in unit volume of the material. In the C.G.S. system it is
DENSITY
customary to measure density in grams per cubic centimetre;
in
the British system densities are stated usually in pounds per cubic
foot or per cubic inch.
Let V = the volume of a body,d= the density of the material,
m the mass of the body.
Then m = Vd,
or
AVERAGE DENSITIES OF COMMON MATERIALS.*
MATERIAL.
6 DYNAMICS CHAP.
The numerical result is 4*5. To obtain the dimensions, cancel corre-
sponding bracketed quantities in the numerator and denominator, giving :
grams x cm.
sec. x sec.
7-It will be seen later that this result indicates a force.
Gravitation. There is a universal tendency of every body to movetowards every other body ; every particle of matter attracts everyother particle towards itself with a force in the direction of the line
joining the particles. The forces of attraction between bodies of
small or moderate size are very small, but, when one or both bodies
is large, the forces become evident without the necessity for employ-
ing delicate means for their detection. What we call the weight of a
body is really the attractive force which the earth exerts on the
body, tending to cause the body to approach the earth's centre.
The term gravitation is applied to this universal attraction.
Gravitational effect takes place over immense distances;thus the
force of attraction which the sun exerts on the earth causes the earth
to describe an orbit round the sun. The force of attraction between
two small bodies is proportional to the product of their masses, and
is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Expressed algebraically : m mFx~w-'
where F is the force, ml and m2 are the masses of the bodies and d
is the distance between them. We may also write
-,m1w2= 1c
~~dT'
in which k is a numerical constant called the constant of gravitation.
The value of k is about 6-65xlO~8, expressed in C.G.s. units,*
hence, expressed in dynes (pp. 8, 67),
F = 6-65x10-8 -i 2dynes.
Weight. The weight of any given body varies somewhat, depend-
ing on the latitude of the place where the observation is made, and
*C. V. Boys, Proc. R. Koc., London, 1894. The mean density of the earthhas been determined and is given by Boys to be 5 '527, or approximately5 times that of water.
UNITS OF FORCE
VWA
A BFIG. 1. A common balance.
on the distance of the body above or below the surface of the earth.
Weight is always directed vertically downwards.
Equal masses situated at the same place possess equal weights. It
follows from this fact that a common balance (Fig. 1) may be used
for obtaining a body having a mass
equal to any standard mass. Astandard mass may be placed in the
scale pan A, and material may be
added to, or taken away from, the
scale pan B until the weights acting
on A and B are equal, as will be
evidenced by the balance beam CD
becoming horizontal, or vibrating so
that it describes small equal angles above and below the horizontal.
The mass in A will then be equal to that in B. The use of such a
balance is facilitated by a vertical pointer fixed to the beam and
vibrating over a graduated scale. Assuming that the balance is
properly adjusted, the weights are equal when the pointer swings
through equal angles on each side of the middle division.
Standard masses ranging from 1 kilogram to 0*01 gram, and from
^. 1 pound to 0-001 pound are provided in most labora-
\J tories. These are generally called sets of weights ;the
operation involved in using them is described as weighing.
Units of force. For many practical purposes the
weight of the unit of mass is employed as a unit of
force. As has been explained, this weight is variable,
hence the unit is not strictly scientific. The name
gravitational unit of force is given to any force unit based
on weight. The C.G.S. and British gravitational force
units are respectively the weight of one gram mass.
written one gram weight, and the weight of the poundmass, written one ib. weight. The kilogram weight and
the ton weight are other convenient gravitational units
of force.
A common balance cannot be used for showing the
Fio. 2. Spring variation in weight of a body. Spring balances (Fig. 2),1ce *
if of sufficiently delicate construction, might be em-
ployed for this purpose. It is known that a helical spring extends
by amounts proportional to the pull applied, and in spring balances
DYNAMICS CHAP.
advantage is taken of this property. The body to be weighed is
hung from the spring, and the extension is indicated by a pointer
moving over a scale. For convenience, the scale is graduated in
gram-weight or Ib.-weight units, so as to enable the weight to be
read direct. Such a balance will give correct readings of weightat the place where the scale was graduated, but, if used in a
different latitude, will give a different reading when the same bodyis suspended from the balance.* It may be noted that the variation
in weight all over the earth is very small.
Absolute units of force are based on the fundamental units of
length, mass and time, and are therefore invariable. The absolute
unit of force in any system is the force which, if applied duringone second to a body of unit mass, initially at rest, will give to
the body a velocity of one unit of length per second. The c.G.S.
absolute force unit is called the dyne ;one dyne applied to one gram
mass during one second will produce a velocity of one centimetre
per second. The British absolute force unit is the poundal, and, if
applied to a one pound mass during one second, will produce a
velocity of one foot per second. These units will be referred to
later and explained more fully.
Mathematical formulae. The following mathematical notes are
given for reference. It is assumed that the student has studied the
principles involved, or that he is doing so conjointly with his course
in physics.MENSURATION.
Determination of areas.
Square, side s;area = s2 .
Rectangle, adjacent sides a and b; area = a&.
Triangle, base b, perpendicular height h;area = %bh.
Triangle, sides a, b and c. s = (a + b + c)/2.
Area = Vs(s -a)(s
-b)(s
-c).
Parallelogram ;area = one side x perpendicular distance from that
side to the opposite one.
Any irregular figure bounded by straight lines ; split it up into
triangles, find the area of each separ-
ately and take the sum.
Trapezoid ;area = half the sum of
the end ordinates x the base.
A trapezoidal figure having equal FIG. 3. Trapezoidal figure.
intervals (Fig. 3); ^ h
' '
area = a (
* + h2 + h3 + h }
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE
Simpson's rule for the area bounded by a curve (Fig. 4) ; take anodd number (say 7) of equidistant ordinates
; then
area =
H
Fia. 4. Illustration of Simpson's rule.
Circle, radius r, diameter d;area= ?rr
2=-j
(Circumference = 2?rr = TT^.)
Parabola, vertex at O (Fig. 5) ;area OBC = %ab.
Cylinder, diameter d, length I;area of curved
surface = irdl.
Sphere, diameter d, radius r;
area of curved
surface = nd2 = 4~r2 .
Cone;area of curved surface = circumference of
base x J slant height.
BL
FIG. 5. Area under aparabola.
Determination of volumes.
Cube, edge s;volume = s3 .
Cylinder or prism, having its ends perpendicularto its axis
;volume = area of one end x length of cylinder or prism.
Sphere, radius r;volume ='-j7rr
8.
Cone or pyramid ;volume = area of base x
|~ perpendicular height.Frustum of a cone
;volume = 0-2618H (D
2 + d2 + Dd), where D, d are
the diameters of the ends and H is the perpendicular height.
TRIGONOMETRY.
A degree is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc
of uJ^th of the circumference. A minute is one-sixtieth of a degree,and a second is one-sixtieth of a minute. An angle of 42 degrees,35 minutes, 12 seconds is written 42 35' 12".
A. radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc
equal to the radius of the circle.
There are 2?r radians in a complete circle, hence
2;r radians = 360 degrees.
7T =180
10 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Let I be the length of arc subtended by an angle, and let r be the
radius of the circle, both in the same units;then angle Ijr radians.
Trigonometrical ratios. In Fig. 6 let OB revolve anti-clockwise
about O, and let it stop successivelyin positions OP15
OP2 ,OP3 , OP4 ;
the
angles described by OB are said to
be as follows :
PjOB, in the first quadrant COB.P2OB, in the second quadrant COA.PoOB (greater than 180), in the
third quadrant AOD.P4OB (greater than 270), in the
fourth quadrant BOD.
Drop perpendiculars such as P^jfrom each position of P on to AB.
OP is always regarded as positive ;
OM is positive if on the right andFIG. 6. Trigonometrical ratios. . ; * . f
negative if on the left of O ;PM
is positive if above and negative if below AB.
Name of ratio.
I MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE 11
sin A cos Atan A = ----
;cot A =- -
; cos2A + sm2A = 1.cos A sin A
sin A = cos (90 -A) ; sin A = sin (180 -A).
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B.
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B.
sin (A-B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B.
cos (A-B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B.
_x
tan A + tan Btan (A + B) = =
1 - tan A tan B
,.x
tan A- tan Btan (A
-B) = -~
1+tanA tanB
If the angles of a triangle are A, B and C, and the sides oppositethese angles are a, b and c respectively, the following relations hold :
sin A sin B sin C
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER I.
1. Given that 1 metre =39 -37 inches, obtain a factor for convertingmiles to kilometres ; use the factor to convert 3 miles 15 chains to kilo-
metres. (80 chains = 1 mile.)
2. Convert 2-94 metres to feet and inches.
3. Draw a triangle having sides 4-|, 3, and 5g inches respectively.Measure its perpendicular height, and calculate the area from this and the
length of the base. Check the result by use of the formula
-a)(s-b)(s-c).
4. A thin circular sheet of iron has a diameter of 14 cm. Find its
area, taking 7r=^2-. If the material weighs 0-1 kilogram per square
metre, find the weight of the sheet.
5. Calculate the volume of a ball 9 inches in diameter. Find the massin pounds if the material has a density of 450 pounds per cubic foot.
6. A masonry wall is trapezoidal in section, one face of the wall beingvertical. Height of wall, 20 feet ; thickness at top, 4 feet 4 thickness at
base, 9 feet. The masonry weighs 150 Ib. per cubic foot. Find the weightof a portion of the wall 1 foot in length.
7. A trapezoidal figure, having equal intervals of 10 cm. each, has
ordinates in cm. as follows : 0, 100, 140, 120, 80, 0. Find the total areain sq. cm.
12 DYNAMICS
8. Draw a parabolic curve on a base a= 60 feet ; the height y feet of
2*2
the curve at any distance x from one end of the base is given by y-= 2x - ~r.
Find the area by application of Simpson's rule ; check the result by use
of the rule : area= a&, whers 6 is the maximum height of the curve.
9. Find the weight of a solid pyramid of lead, having a square base of
4 inches edge and a vertical height of 8 inches. Lead weighs 41 Ib. percubic inch.
10. A hollow conical vessel has an internal diameter of 6 inches at the
top and is 9 inches deep inside. Calculate the weight of water which it
can contain. Water weighs 0-036 Ib. per cubic inch.
11. Calculate the diameter of a solid ball of cast iron so that the weight
may be 90 Ib. The material weighs 0-26 Ib. per cubic inch.
12. Three small bodies, A, B and C, of masses 2, 3 and 4 grams respec-
tively, are arranged at the corners of a triangle having sides AB 8 cm.,
BC = 12 cm., CA= 10 cm. Compare the gravitational efforts which A exerts
on B, A exerts on C, C exerts on B.
13. If the distance from the earth to the moon is 240,000 miles, andfrom the sun to the moon is ninety million miles, determine the ratio of
the gravitational forces of the sun and earth upon the moon, having giventhat the mass of the sun is 330,000 times that of the earth.
Adelaide University.
14. Distinguish between mass and weight. How are the mass and
weight of a body affected by (a) variations of latitude, (b) variations of
altitude ?
If a very delicate balance is required for a laboratory near the top of a
high mountain, would you advise having the weights specially adjustedfor that altitude ? Give careful reasons for your answer.
Adelaide University.
15. What is meant by weight ? Explain why a very delicate springbalance would show slight differences in the weight of a body at different
places on the earth, though a common balance would give no indication
of any differences. L.U.
CHAPTER II
SIMPLE MEASUREMENTS AND MEASURING APPLIANCES
Introductory experiments. The experiments described in this
chapter are intended to render the student familiar with the use of
simple measuring appliances.
EXPT. 1. Scales. Laboratory scales have generally one edge graduatedin centimetres subdivided to millimetres, and the other edge graduatedin inches subdivided to tenths. Reproduce a portion of one of these
scales in the following manner: Take a strip of cardboard of suitable
width and rule lines lengthwise on it, agreeing with those on the scale.
Arrange the scale and the cardboard end to end on the bench, and fasten
them to prevent slipping. Set a beam compass to a radius of about 40 cm.
The compass should have a hard pencil with a sharp chisel point, or a
drawing pen charged with Indian ink. Stand the needle leg of the compass
successively on the marks of the scale, and mark the cardboard with corre-
sponding lines, prolonging slightly every fifth line. Insert the numbers on
the cardboard scale.
EXPT. 2. Use of scales and calipers. Several bodies of different shapesand materials are supplied. Make clear sketches of each. By means of
a scale applied to the body, or by first fitting outside calipers A (Fig. 7),
*J39-6 mm.**- }* 70-8 mm.
FIG. 7. Use of calipers. FIG. 8. A hollow cylinder.
or inside calipers B, and then applying the calipers to the scale, measure
all the dimensions of the body and insert them in the sketches. Fig. 8
shows suitable dimensioned sketches of a hollow cylinder.
14 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Calculate the volume of each body by application of the rules of mensura-
tion, making use of the dimensions measured.
The student should practise the estimation by eye to one-tenth of a
scale division.
Verniers. Scales do not usually have divisions smaller than half
a millimetre. Finer subdivision may be obtained by means of a
vernier, an appliance which enables greater accuracy to be obtained
than is possible by mere eye estimation.
In Fig. 9, A is a scale and B is a vernier;B may slide along the
edge of A. The divisions on the vernier from to 10 have a total
IflM.l'.M.H,
I I II
|
' ' ' '
I
'! ' '
I
A i-o
FIG. 9. FIG. 10.Forward reading verniers.
length of 9 scale divisions ; hence each vernier division is 0*9 of a
scale division. If B is moved so that the mark 1 on the vernier is
in the same straight line as the 0-1 mark on A, then the distance
separating on the vernier from on the scale will be one-tenth of
a scale division. If the mark 2 on the vernier is in line witfy the
0-2 mark on A, the distance separating the zero marks will be two-tenths of a scale division, and so on. The vernier thus enables
readings to be taken to one-tenth of a scale division by simplynoting which division on the vernier is in line with any particularmark on A. Fig. 10 shows a vernier and scale reading 0-36 scale
divisions;0-3 is read from the scale, and the 6 from the vernier.
The appliance described above is an example of a forward-reading
vernier;in Fig. 11 is shown a corresponding backward-reading vernier.
In this case the 10 vernier divisions
g1 have a total length equal to 11 scale
, , j
5, | , I .J divisions, and the graduation figures on
i i
|
l i i i
II i i i 1
1the vernier run in the contrary direction
A i-o I to those on the scale. The reading of
FIG. ll.-A backward readingthe SCale
<?ken at
,th/
T. ? ,
the
vernier. vernier, and the second decimal is takenfrom the vernier as before.
The following rule is useful in the construction and reading of
verniers : Let the total length of a forward-reading vernier be
(N -1) scale divisions, or (N + 1) in a backward-reading vernier, andlet there be N divisions on the vernier, then the vernier reads to
1/N scale division.
VERNIERS 15
It may be verified by the student that, if the vernier has a lengthof (2N + 1) scale divisions (
- for forward and + for backward-
reading), and if there are N divisions on the vernier, then the reading
may be taken to 1/N scale division.
Measurement of angles. In Fig. 12 is shown a protractor by meansof which angles may be measured to one minute. A semicircular
piece of brass A is fitted withan arm BCD capable of rotat-
ing about a centre at D. Asemicircular scale divided
into half-degrees is engravedon A and the arm has a
vernier. The centre of the
semicircular scale lies at
the intersection of two cross
lines ruled on a piece of
glass at D. The edge BC,on being produced, passes
through the zero arrow onthe vernier and also throughthe point of intersection of FIG 12._vernier protractor,the cross lines at D.
The vernier is central-reading, and is shown enlarged on a straightscale in Fig. 13. The total length of the vernier is 29 scale divisions.
,151
20 |25 |0 5110,
15,I I I I I I I I I I I I I i I v I I I I I I I I I I I i i i I /
I
' '
I
'
I
'
I
'
I
' '
I
'
\ 30 20
FIG. 13. Protractor scale and vernier.
and it has 30 divisions ; hence it reads to one-thirtieth of a scale
division, i.e. to one minute. The object of taking zero at the centre
mark of the vernier is to remove any doubt which might arise as to
which end of the vernier is to be read. Needles project at E and F
on the under side of the instrument
and prevent slipping.
EXPT. 3. To measure an angle, (a) Drawtwo lines AO and BOC intersecting at O(Fig. 14). Set the protractor so that the
intersection of the cross lines coincides
and 180 fall on BOC. Set the arm so that its
Note the reading as the magnitude
B
FIG. 14.
with O and the marks
edge BC (Fig. 12) coincides with OA.
of the angle AOB. A small lens will be found useful in reading the vernier.
if) DYNAMICS CHAP.
From any point A on OA draw AB perpendicular to OB.
BA and OA and evaluate the trigonometrical ratios :
Measure OB,
Consult trigonometrical tables, and write down the values of the angle
AOB corresponding with the calculated values of the sine, cosine and
tangent. Take the mean of these values and compare it with the value
found by means of the protractor.
(6) Draw any triangle. Measure its three angles by means of the
protractor. Verify the proposition that the sum of the three angles of any
triangle is equal to 180.
Vernier calipers. The vernier calipers (Fig. 15) consist of a steel
bar having a scale engraved on it. Another piece may slide along
the bar and carries a vernier;
there is a clamp and slow-motion
FIG. 15. Vernier calipers.
screw by means of which the sliding piece may be moved slowly
along the bar. The article to be measured is placed between the
jaws of the calipers, and the sliding piece is brought into contact
with it so as to nip it gently.
In metric calipers the scale shows centimetres, with half-milli-
metre subdivisions. The vernier has a length of 24 scale divisions
(i.e. 12 mm.) and has 25 divisions;hence the instrument reads to
-^xi=0-02 mm. In British instruments the scale of inches is
subdivided into fortieths of an inch. The vernier has a length of
24 scale divisions and has 25 divisions. Readings may be taken
to ^1-g-x T
1^ = 0-001 inch. In reading either scale, a small lens is
desirable.
Micrometer or screw-gauge. This instrument (Fig. 16) somewhat
resembles calipers having a screw fitted to one leg. The object to
be measured is inserted between the point of the screw and the fixed
abutment on the other leg, and the screw is rotated until the object
MICROMETER 17
is nipped gently. A scale is engraved along the barrel containingthe screw, and another scale is engraved round the thimble of the
screw. In Fig. 17 is shown an enlargedview of these scales. The screw has
two threads per millimetre;hence one
revolution will produce an axial move-
ment of 0-5 mm. The barrel scale A
shows millimetres;
a supplementaryscale immediately below A shows half-
millimetres. The thimble scale B has
50 divisions;
as one complete turn of
the thimble is equivalent to 0-5 mm.,one scale division movement of B pastthe axial line of the scale A is equivalentto
g'g-x 0-5 =0-01 mm. Hence readings
may be taken to one hundredth of a
millimetre. In Fig. 17 the scales are
shown set at 7-47 mm.In micrometers graduated in the
British system the screw has usually
40 threads per inch; the barrel scale A
shows inches divided into fortieths;
the thimble scale has 25 divisions.
Hence the instrument reads to
_i_ xJ^ 0-001 inch.
If the point of the screw is in con-
tact with the abutment, the scales
should read zero;
if this is not so, the reading should be noted, and
applied as a correction to subsequent measurements.
EXPT. 4. Use of vernier calipers and micrometers. Take again the
bodies used in Expt. 2. Remeasure them, using the vernier calipers and
the micrometer. Calculate the volumes from
these dimensions, and compare the results with
those obtained by the methods employed in
Expt. 2.
The student is here reminded that the
results of calculations should not contain a
number of significant figures greater than is warranted by the
accuracy of the measurements. Thus it would be absurd to state
D.S.P. B
FIG. 16. Micrometer.
!
18 DYNAMICS CHAP.
a result of 321-46934: cubic millimetres when the instrument employedreads to 0-01 mm. only. Four significant figures are sufficient for
most results;the usual plan is to state one significant figure in excess
of those of which the accuracy is undoubted;for example, 321 -46
may be taken to mean that 3214 is of guaranteed accuracy, butthat there is doubt regarding the last significant figure 6.
Spherometer. An ordinary type of spherometer is shown in Fig.18. A small stool A has three pointed legs B, C and D arranged at
the corners of an equilateral triangle. Amicrometer screw E is fitted at the
centre of the circumscribed circle of
the triangle, and is pointed at its lower
end. F is a graduated circular platefixed to the screw
; there is a milled
head at G for convenience in rotatingthe screw. A scale H is fixed to A, and
has divisions cut on it at intervals equalto the pitch of the screw. The instru-
ment rests on a glass plate K, the uppersurface of which is as nearly plane as
possible. L is an object the thickness
of which is to be determined.
In the instrument illustrated the
screw has two threads per millimetre,
and the circular scale on F has 50 divi-
sions, each subdivided into 10;
the
instrument therefore reads to
= 0-001 mm.FIG. ] 8. Spherometer. i
Too
EXPT. 5. Thickness of an object by use of the spherometer. Place
the spherometer on the plane glass plate. Rotate the screw until all four
points bear equally on the glass ;this condition may be tested by pushing
one of the legs in a direction nearly horizontal. If the instrument rotates,
the screw point is bearing too strongly and must be raised. Should simple
sliding occur, then the screw point is not bearing sufficiently. Note the
readings of the scales. Unscrew E sufficiently to enable the object to
be placed under the screw point, and make the adjustments as before.
Read the scales again ;the difference of the two readings will give the
thickness ^required.Measure the thickness of the small objects supplied at three or four
spots and state the average thickness of each object,
SPHEROMETER 19
EXPT. 6. Use of the spherometer in determining the radius of curvature
of a spherical surface. Measure the radius of curvature of the spherical
surface supplied by use of the spherometer in
the following manner : Place the instrument on
the plane glass plate and obtain the readings of the
scales ;these may be denoted the zero readings.
Place the spherometer on the spherical surface
(Fig. 19) ; adjust it and again note the scale
readings. The difference between these readings
will be equal to AB in Fig. 19.
Let AB = A millimetres,
R = the radius of curvature in millimetres.
Then, from the geometry of Fig. 19, we have
CBxBA= BD2,
or, (2R -//)/*= BD2;
FIG. 19. Spherometer ona spherical surface.
-2A "2
'
To obtain BD, place the spherometer on a piece
of tinfoil and press gently so as to mark the
positions of the three legs D, E, F (Fig. 19).
Measure DE, EF and FD, and take the mean ; let this dimension be a mm.The angle EDG is 30 and BD is two-thirds of DG, hence
3
2 V3
Substitution in (1) gives :
(2)
_<*_h
~6/i 2'.(3)
In the case of a very flat spherical surface, h will be very small ; the
first term in (3) will then be very large when compared with the second
term, and we may write :
The method of measurement and reduction is the same for both convex
and concave surfaces.
Measure each of the given surfaces at two or three places ; calculate
the radius of curvature for each reading, and state the mean radius.
20 DYNAMICS CHAP.
FIG. 20. Micrometer microscope.
EXPT. 7. Micrometer microscope. In this instrument, the object to
be measured is placed opposite B and is observed through a microscope A
(Fig. 20). The microscope has a scale finely engraved on glass in the
eyepiece at C, and is focussed so as to obtain sharp images of both
scale and object when viewed through
ap-|frrj|- frs-if-!
the eyepiece. The microscope may be
_|_J[_|j| | ^-^ [HLJP^ traversed horizontally by means of a
thumb-screw D, and may be raised or
Jowered in the supporting pillar by use
of another thumb-screw E. The micro-
scope carries a scale F divided in milli-
metres and a vernier G reading to O'l mm.is attached to the pillar.*
First obtain the value of an eyepiecescale division as follows : Focus sharplythe object and scale
;move the eye
slightly up and down and observe whether
the object and scale as seen through the
eyepiece suffer any displacement relatively
to one another. If so, adjust the focussing
arrangements until this movement disappears. Use E to bring zero on
the eyepiece scale into coincidence with one edge or other fine mark on
the object ; read and note the pillar scale and vernier. Use E to bring
another mark on the eyepiece scale, say the fiftieth, into coincidence
with the same mark on the object ; again read and note the pillar scale
and vernier. The difference of these readings gives the value in millimetres
of 50 eyepiece scale divisions ; hence calculate the value of one eyepiecescale division. Repeat the operation, using the eyepiece scale marks
20 and 70, 35 and 85, and 50 and 100. Compare the values and state the
average value of an eyepiece scale division.
Measure the thickness of the objects supplied by noting the eyepiecescale marks at the top and bottom, estimating by eye to one-tenth of a
scale division. Take the difference and convert into millimetres.
Measure also the bores of the glass tubes supplied.
Weighing. The choice of a balance to be used in weighing a
given body depends upon the weight of the body and also upon the
accuracy required. In using balances capable of dealing with heavybodies up to 10 kilograms say no special precautions need be
observed other than that of placing gently both body and weightsin the scale pans.
Delicate, balances are fitted inside glass cases, and have arrange-
*For the optical theory of this instrument, the student is referred to the
Part of the volume devoted to Light.
WEIGHING 21
merits by means of which the motions of the various parts may bearrested and all knife edges relieved of pressure when the balance is
not in use. These arrangements are operated by a handle or lever
outside the case ; the handle should be moved very gently, and no
weights should be placed on, or removed from either scale panwithout first using the handle to arrest the motion. The sets of
weights used with delicate balances are kept in partitioned boxes,and should not be fingered ; forceps are provided for lifting the
weights.
EXPT. 8. Use of a balance. Weigh each of the bodies used in Expt. 4,
thus determining its mass. Find the density of each material, makinguse of the equation given on p. 5, and of the volumes calculated in per-
forming Expt. 4.
Balances are subject to errors, most of which are eliminated in the
following method of weighing. Place in one of the scale pans any con-
venient body of weight somewhat in excess of that of the body to be
weighed ; add weights to the other scale pan until balance is secured ; let
the total weight be Wj. Remove the weights, and place in the emptyscale pan the body to be weighed. Add weights (W 2 say) until balance
is again restored. It is obvious that the weight of the body is equal to
the difference (W x-W 2 ).
EXPT, 9. Measurement of areas. Draw any triangle on a piece of
rectangular cardboard. Calculate the area of the triangle by use of the
(i) Area= base x half the perpendicular height.
(ii) Area=V( -a)(s -&)(s -c), (p. 8).
Copy the triangle on a piece of squared paper and find its area by
counting the number of included squares. The copying of the figure maybe obviated by use of a piece of squared tracing paper, covering the original
figure.
Calculate the area of the whole card by taking the product of its length
and breadth. Weigh the card, and calculate the weight per square centi-
metre by dividing the weight by the area. Carefully cut out the triangle
and weigh it separately. Find the area of the triangle from :
Weight of triangle= area in sq. cm. x weight per sq. cm.
Compare the results of these methods.
Draw another figure by erecting equidistant ordinates of varying heights
as shown in Fig. 3 (p. 8). Evaluate its area by use of the trapezoidal rule :
Area = a + A24-^+A4 , (p. 8).
Verify the result by use of squared paper and also by weighing.
22 DYNAMICS CHAP,
The planimeter. Areas may be measured by means of a planimeter(Fig. 21). This instrument consists of a bar A to which another
bar B is jointed at C, so that the
bars may have relative movementin a plane.* B may rotate abouta needle point pushed into the
paper at D, and is loaded with a
weight at E. A rests on a wheel F,
which may roll on the paper, andhas a tracing needle at G which
may be carried round the boun-
dary of the area to be measured..
It may be shown that the area is
proportional to the product of the
distance between C and G and thedistance through which the circumference of the wheel F rolls whenG is carried completely round the boundary of the area.
The instrument is shown in greater detail in Fig. 22. It will benoted that the wheel has a scale engraved round its circumference ;
there are 100 divisions on this scale, and a vernier enables the scale
to be read to one-tenth of a scale division. A small indicator wheel
H, driven from F, registers the number of complete revolutions of F.
FIG. 21. Planimeter in use.
FIG. 22. Planimeter.
F, H and the joint C are carried on a bracket K, which may be clampedin any position on the bar A
;a slow-motion screw L enables the
distance CG to be adjusted finely. Pointers M and N are fixed to thebar A and the bracket K, and are so placed as to indicate the distanceCG. Marks are placed on A to facilitate the adjusting of the positionsof K suitable for measuring the area in square centimetres or squareinches.
The instrument should l)e used on a sheet of drawing papersufficiently large to enable the whole movements of the wheel F to be
completed without coming off the paper. The surface of the papershould not be highly polished, which might lead to slipping and
consequent lost motion of the wheel, nor should the surface be too
rough. It is best to arrange the initial position so that the armsA and B are at right angles approximately. The tracing point Gshould be carried clockwise round the boundary.
PLANIMETER 23
EXPT. 10. Use of the planimeter. Draw a circle 10 cm. in diameter
on the paper. Set the planimeter to the scale of square centimetres ;
place it on the paper with G at a mark on the circumference of the circle.
Set the wheel F at zero. Carefully carry the pointer G round the boundaryand stop at the mark. Read and note the scale and vernier. Carry the
pointer round a second and third time, reading the scale and vernier each
time the mark is reached. Take the differences, giving three results for
the area ; these results should be in fair agreement.Calculate the area of the circle from :
Area= TIT2square cm.,
where r is the radius of the circle in cm. Compare the calculated area
with the mean area obtained by the planimeter.
Draw a figure on the drawing paper resembling Fig. 4 (p. 9). Divide
it vertically by an odd number of equidistant ordinates. Estimate its
area by use of Simpson's rule, viz. :
Area = (At + 4h.2+ 2/< 3 + 4/<4+ 2A5+ 4/*6+ h,\ (p. 9).
Check the result by use of the planimeter.
EXPT. 11. Measurement of volumes by tlie displacement of water. In
Fig. 23, A is a jar containing water and fitted with a hook gauge B. The
hook gauge is simply a sharp pointed piece of wire bent to the proper
shape and clamped to the side of the vessel ; it is
used for adjusting accurately the surface level of the
water. C is the body the volume of which has to
be determined. D is a graduated measuring jar
having a scale of cubic centimetres engraved on its
side. First adjust the water level so that the point
of the hook gauge is just breaking the surface of the
water. By means of a fine thread, lower carefully
the body into the iar. Use a pipette to remove*.. t ,, FIG. 23. Volume by
water until the level is restored as shown by the displacement.
hook gauge. Discharge all the water removed by the
pipette into the measuring jar. Read and note the volume of this water
as shown by the scale ; it is evident that this reading will give the volume
of the body.Use this method to check the volumes of some of the larger bodies
calculated in Expt. 4. The method cannot be applied with sufficient
accuracy to bodies of very small dimensions, as the change in level of the
water in the jar would then be inappreciable.
24 DYNAMICS
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER II.
1. A scale is divided into twentieths of an inch and has to be read to
one twenty-fifth of a scale division by means of a vernier. Show bysketches how to construct a suitable forward-reading vernier ; also a
backward-reading vernier.
2. The circle of an instrument used for measuring angles is divided
to show degrees, and each degree is divided into six equal parts. Showhow to construct a forward-Heading vernier which will enable angles to
be read to the nearest third of a minute. Give sketches.
3. A micrometer, or screw gauge, has a screw having fifty threads to
an inch ; the barrel scale has graduations showing fiftieths of an inch.
The instrument can read to the nearest thousandth of an inch. How manydivisions has the thimble scale ? Show, by sketches, the scales when the
instrument is reading 0-437 inch.
4. A spheremeter has a screw with 40 threads to an inch. How manydivisions should the graduated circle have if the instrument reads to
0-0001 inch ?
5. The fixed legs of a spherometer are at the comers of an equilateral
triangle of 4 cm. side. When placed on a certain spherical surface the
instrument reads 5-637 mm. Find the radius of curvature of the surface.
The instrument has no zero error.
6. The same spherometer is used on another spherical surface and reads
0-329 mm. Find the radius of curvature of the surface.
7. In calibrating the eyepiece scale of a micrometer microscope the
following readings were taken :
Eyepiece scale - -
EXERCISES 25
11. The micrometer screw of a spherometer, instead of having twothreads per millimetre, actually has 20-01 threads per centimetre. Thecircular scale has 500 divisions. When placed on the plane glass plateand adjusted, the scales read 0-005 mm. An object is then measured,and the reading of the scales gives 2-642 mm. What is the actual thick-
ness of the object ?
12. A micrometer reads to 0-01 mm. When screwed home, the readingis 0-05 mm. The instrument was then applied to a steel ball, and the
following diameters were obtained in three directions mutually perpen-dicular : 24-52 mm., 24-50 mm., 24-53 mm. State the mean diameter of
the ball and calculate its volume.
CHAPTER III
FIG. 24.- Rectilinearmotion.
DISPLACEMENT. VELOCITY. ACCELERATION
Motion of a point. The motion of any body and its position at
any instant may be specified by reference to chosen lines assumed
to be fixed in space. In general, the motion of a body is complex ;
all points in it do not possess motions precisely alike in all respects.
Hence it is convenient to commence the study of motion by the
consideration of the motion of a point, or of a
particle, i.e. a body so small that any differences
in the motions of its parts may be disregarded.
In rectilinear motion, or motion in a straight line,
it is sufficient to consider as fixed in space the
line in which the point is moving. The positionat any instant of a point P moving along the
straight line OA (Fig. 24) may be specified by
stating the distance OP from a fixed point O in the line;O may be
called the origin.
In uniplanar motion the point has freedom to move in a given
plane which may be taken as fixed in space. The position andmotion of the point at any instant may be
referred conveniently to any two fixed lines,
mutually perpendicular, and lying in the
plane of the motion; such lines are called
coordinate axes. Thus in Fig. 25 a point P is
describing a curve in the plane of the paper,
supposed to be fixed in space. Its precise
position at any instant may be defined bystating the perpendicular distances y and x
from the two coordinate axes OX and OY. It will be noted that OXand OY divide the space surrounding the origin O into four com-
partments. Useful conventions are to describe x as positive or
FIG. 25. Motion in a plane.
UNIPLANAR MOTION 27
negative according as P is situated on the right or left of OY. Simi-
larly, y is positive or negative according as P is above or below OX.More complex states of motion arise when the moving point is
not confined to one plane ; for example, a person ascending a spiralstaircase. Most of these cases are beyond the scope of this book. .
Illustration of rectilinear and uniplanar motion. The mechanismshown in Fig. 26 consists of acrank CB capable of revolving ,
about an axis at C perpendi-'
cular to the plane of the paper. /
A connecting rod AB is jointed ',
to the crank at B by means of \ t
FIG. 26. Slider-crank mechanism.
a pin and also to a block Dcapable of sliding in a slot in
the frame E. If the crank is
revolving, the block D has rectilinear motion to and fro in the slot,
and B has circular motion in the plane of the paper.
Locus of a moving point. The determination of the position at
any instant of a point in the above-mentioned and similar mechanisms
may be made the subject of mathematical calculation. A moreuseful method employed in practice is to draw the locus, or path of
the moving point ; such a path will show the positions of the point
throughout the whole range of possible movement of the mechanism.
An illustration of the method is given in Fig. 27, which shows the locus
of a point D on the connecting rod of a mechanism similar to that given in
Fig. 26. Outline drawings of the crank CB and connecting rod BA are
FIG. 27. Locus of a point in a connecting rod.
constructed for successive positions of the crank, differing by 30 throughoutthe entire revolution. (For the sake of clearness, the positions above CAalone are shown in Fig. 27.) The position of D along AB is marked carefully
on each drawing ; a fair curve drawn through these points will give the
required locus.
28 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Displacement. Suppose that a point occupies a position A at a
certain instant (Fig. 28), and that at some other instant its position
is B. Draw the straight line AB;AB is called the displacement of
the point. In making this definition the precise path by which the
point travelled from A to B is immaterial. For example, the point
might have first a displacement from A to C, and then from C to B,
with exactly the same change in position as would occur by travelling
directly along the straight Jjne AB. Hence we may say that the
displacement AB is equivalent to the displacements AC and CB.
AB is called the resultant displacement, and AC and CB are component
displacements.
CAC F
FIG. 28. Triangle of displacements. FIG. 29. Polygon of displacements.
It is evident that the number of component displacements may be
unlimited. Thus, in Fig. 29, the components AC, CD, DE, EF. FG
and GB, successively applied to the point, are equivalent to the
resultant displacement AB.
Specification of a displacement. In stating a displacement it is
necessary to specify (a) the initial position, (6) the direction of the
line in which the point moves, (c) the sense of the motion, i.e. from
A towards B or vice-versa (Fig. 28), (d) the magnitude of the dis-
placement.The sense may be indicated by the order of the letters defining
the initial and final positions in a displacement, AB or BA, or by
placing an arrow point on the line.
Vector and scalar quantities. Any physical quantity which re-
quires a direction to be stated in order to give a complete specification
is called a vector quantity ;other quantities are called scalar quan-
tities. Displacement and force are examples of vector quantities ;
mass, density and volume are scalar quantities. Any vector quan-
tity may be represented by drawing a straight line in the proper
direction and sense.
in VELOCITY 29
The operations performed in Figs. 28 and 29 are examples of
the addition of vectors. The operation consists in constructing a
figure in which a straight line is drawn from the initial position to
represent the first vector, making the line of a length to representto scale the magnitude of the quantity, and drawing it in the properdirection and sense. .From the end of this line remote from the
initial position, another line is drawn in a similar manner to representthe second vector, and so on until all the components have beendealt with. The resultant vector will be represented by the line
which must be drawn from the initial position in order that the
completed figure may be a closed polygon.
Fig. 28, in which there are two component vectors only, may be
called the triangle of displacements ;the name polygon of displacements
may be given to Fig. 29.
Velocity.- The velocity of a moving point may be defined as the
rate of change of position in a given direction;
the time taken, the
distance travelled, and the direction of motion are all taken into
account in stating a velocity. Velocity is a vector quantity. In
cases where the direction of motion does not require to be con-
sidered, the term speed is employed to express the rate of travelling.
Velocity may be uniform, in which case the point describes equaldistances in equal intervals of time
;the velocity is said to be variable
if this condition be not complied with.
The velocity at any instant of a point having uniform velocity
may be measured by stating the distance travelled in unit time.
Thus, if a total distance s be described in t seconds, then the magni-tude of the velocity v at any instant is given by
(1)
This will be in cm. per sec., or feet per second, according as s is
in cm. or feet. The specification of the velocity given by (1) is
completed by stating also the direction of the line in which motion
takes place and the sense of the motion along this line.
In the case of a variable velocity, the result given by use of equation
(1) is the average value of the velocity during the interval of time t.
Thus the average velocity of a train which travels a total distance
of 400 miles in 8 hours (including stops) is 400 -r 8, or 50 miles per
hour.
The dimensions of velocity arel/t.
30 DYNAMICS CHAP.
If a point moves with variable velocity, the velocity at any instant
may be stated as the distance which the point would travel duringthe succeeding second if the velocity possessed at the instant under
consideration remained constant.
Acceleration. Acceleration means rate of change of velocity, andinvolves both change of velocity and the time interval in which the
change has been effected. Acceleration is measured by stating the
change of velocity which tafcfes place in unit time. Unit acceleration
is possessed by a particle when unit change in velocity occurs in unit
time.
EXAMPLE. At a certain instant, a particle having rectilinear motionhas a velocity of 25 cm. per sec. The velocity is found to increase uni-
formly during the succeeding 5 seconds to 60 cm. per sec. Find the
acceleration.
Increase in vel. in 5 sees. = 60 -25= 35 cm. per sec.
1 sec. = & = 7 cm. per sec.
Hence the acceleration is 7 cm. per second in every second, or, as is
usually stated, 7 cm. per sec. per sec., or 7 cm./sec2.
It will be noted that time enters twice into the statement of a
given acceleration, once in expressing the change in velocity, and
again in expressing the time interval in which the change was effected.
Acceleration may be uniform, in which case equal changes in
velocity occur in equal intervals of time. Otherwise the acceleration
is variable. In the case of uniform acceleration, the acceleration at
any instant is calculated by dividing the total change in velocity bythe time in which the change takes place. A similar calculation
made for the case of variable acceleration gives the average accelera-
tion during the time interval considered.
Since acceleration involves velocity, it is a vector quantity. To
specify completely a given acceleration, the magnitude, the line of
direction and the sense of the acceleration along the line of direction
must be stated.
The dimensions of acceleration are obtained by dividing the dimen-
sions of velocity by time, giving l/t + t = l/t2
.
Displacement, velocity and acceleration graphs. A convenient
method of studying questions involving displacement, velocity and
acceleration is to construct graphs in which the magnitudes of these
quantities are plotted as ordinates and the time intervals as
abscissae.
in GRAPHS FOR RECTILINEAR MOTION 31
EXAMPLE 1. A point P, travelling in a straight line OA, passes throughtne origin O at a certain instant, and has a uniform velocity of 40 cm. persec. Plot displacement-time and velocity-time graphs.
Since the velocity v is uniform, the displacement in any interval of
time t seconds is given by s=vl.
Time t sees., reckoned from O,
32 DYNAMICS CHAP.
The acceleration-time graph is shown in Fig. 33. Since the acceleration
is uniform, it follows that the graph FG is parallel to the time axis.
cms./sec.
cms./sec?
20-
10
O 1 2 3 A- SeC5> O 1 2 3 4 S6CS.
FIG. 32. FIG. 33.
Graphs for constant acceleration, starting from rest.
The displacement during any interval of time is given by the productof the average velocity during the interval and the interval of time. Thus,
if vn be the average velocity in cm. per sec. during a time t seconds, then
the displacement s in cm. is equal to the product vat.
For example, when the point is at the origin the velocity is zero, and at
the end of the first three seconds the velocity is 60 cm. per second (Fig. 32) ;
hence the average velocity during the first three seconds is given by
And
va = - = 30 cm. per sec.Z
5=30x3=90 cm. in the first three seconds.
Time interval in sees., reckoned from O,
TJI RECTILINEAR MOTION 33
Equations for rectilinear motion. The following equations arefor simple cases which occur frequently, and are deduced from the
velocity-time graphs.
Case 1. Uniform velocity. This case has been dealt with onp. 29, and the following equation was deduced :
s=vt(1)
Case 2. Uniform acceleration, starting from rest. Let the accelera-tion be a. The velocity at the end of the first second will be ecjualto a, and a velocity equal to a will be added during each subsequentsecond (Fig. 35). Hence, at the end of t seconds, we have
v = at(2)
The average velocity during the first t seconds is
Va =^ =2at (3)
Therefore the displacement during the first t seconds is
s = <y = -i vt, (4)
= \atxt =&# (5)
(2),
Substitution in (5) gives s \a 2=~
,
or.(6)
Time
FiG. 35. Uniform acceleration,starting from rest.
Time
FiG. 36. Uniform acceleration,initial velocity u.
Case 3. Uniform acceleration, and starting from the initial position
with a velocity u. The velocity-time graph is given in Fig. 36.
Since the initial velocity is ?^, and a velocity equal to a is added
during each second, the velocity at the end of t seconds is
v = u + at,
or v-u = at (7)D.S.P. C
34 DYNAMICS CHAP.
In Fig. 36, BD represents v and CO represents u;the average
velocity during the first t seconds is
u + v u + u + at
*-rr ~2~.'. va = u + iat (8)
The displacement during the first t seconds is given by
_tt2
(9)
It will be noted that the first term in (9) gives the displacement
which would have occurred had the velocity u been preserved
uniform throughout ; the second term gives the displacement which
would have taken place had the point started from rest with a
uniform acceleration a.
From (7),
Substitute in (9), giving
s= u_?/\2v u\ -i (v u
I "T~ o"tv o""
n I -* rtLa a
uv u2 v2 + u2 - 2uv
~~cT "2aT~- 2uv
2a
v2 - u2
or v2 -u2 = 2as ...................................................... (10)
In applying any of the above equations, either c.o.s. or British
units may be employed :
v in cm. per sec., or feet per sec.
a in cm. per sec. per. sec., or feet per sec. per sec.
s in cm., or feet.
in seconds.
Bodies falling freely. Experiment shows that any body falling
freely under the action of gravitation has uniform acceleration.
The term freely is used to indicate that the resistance of the atmo-
sphere has been removed, or has been neglected. The symbol g is
used to denote the acceleration of a body falling freely. All the
equations obtained in Cases 2 and 3 above may be employed by
m FALLING BODIES 35
substitution of g for a, and the height h for 5! Thus equations (6)
and (10) will read respectively :
v2 = 2gh (a)
vz -u2 = 2gh (b)
(a) applies to a body falling freely from rest, and may be used in
calculating the velocity at the end of a fall from a height h. (b)
applies to a similar case in which the body is projected downwardswith an initial velocity u ;
the terminal velocity v may be calculated
from (6).f)
Variations in the value of g. The value of g varies somewhat at
different parts of the earth;
in Britain, 981 cm. per sec. per sec.,
or 32-2 feet per sec. per sec. may be used in most calculations. Thevalue of g at any given place depends upon the distance betweenthat place and the centre of the earth. The value of g at sea-level
in latitude 45 is sometimes chosen as a standard of reference ; the
value at other places depends upon the height above sea-level andalso upon the latitude. Latitude is a factor on account of (1) the
shape of the earth, which, being flattened somewhat towards the poles,causes sea-level at the poles to be nearer to the centre of the earth
than sea-level at the equator ; (2) the variation of centrifugal action
with distance from the equator.
Let<7= the value of g at sea-level in latitude 45, cm. per
sec. per sec.
g = the value of g at an elevation H metres in latitude A,
cm. per sec. per sec.
Then g=g ti (I -0-0026 cos 2A -0-0000002 H).
Conventions regarding signs. In considering a point P moving in
a straight line AB, it is convenient to choose one sense, say from
A towards B, and to call velocities and accelerations having this
sense positive ;velocities and accelerations having the contrary
sense will then be called negative. This convention enables graphs
to be drawn in representation of such cases as that of a body pro-
jected upwards, coming gradually to rest, and then descending.
In Fig. 37 is given a velocity-time diagram illustrating this case.
The body was projected upwards with a (positive) velocity u, repre-sented by OA drawn above the time axis. Velocity is abstracted at
a uniform rate g, and the body comes to rest, as indicated at B, at
the end of a time interval represented by OB. Thereafter its velocity
is downwards (negative) and increases numerically until it reaches
36 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Vel
m EXERCISES 37
Again, the average velocity during the interval M1M 2 is
i(P1M 1 + P2M 2)=
J(t;1 +<;2).
Since the time interval is M 1M 2= f2 -^1 ,
it follows that the dis-
placement during the interval M 1M 2 is
i(v1 + v2)(^-f1 )= |(P1M 1 + P2M 2)IV! 1M 2
= the area P^M^very nearly. The closeness of the approximation becomes more
perfect if the interval MjM 2 be made smaller and smaller, and is
absolutely perfect if the interval be made indefinitely small. It is
evident that the area of any similar strip of the graph will representthe displacement in the time interval represented by the base of
the strip. Hence, for the total time OB, the total displacement is
represented by the total area of the graph, and may be found byapplying the rules of mensuration. Thus, find the area of the
graph, using a planimeter. say. Divide this area by the length OBso as to find the average height of the graph. Multiply the average
height by the scale of velocity, thus obtaining the average velocityfor the whole graph. Multiply the average velocity by OB, expressedin seconds. The result gives the total displacement.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER III.
1. A flat board has two grooves cut in it, running right across the boardand intersecting at right angles at the centre of the board. A rod AB2-5 inches long moves in the plane of the board,A being constrained to move in one groove andB in the other. Draw the locus (a) of a pointat the centre of AB, (6) of a point in the rod
75 inch from B.
2. In Fig. 39, AB is a rod 2 inches long andcan revolve about a fixed centre at A. CBD is
another rod, jointed to AB at B, and having the FIG. 39.
end C constrained to remain in a groove, the
direction of which passes through A ; CB is 2 inches long. Draw the locus
of D (a) if BD is 2 inches long, (&) if BD is 3 inches long.
3. A point is given two component displacements, one of 24 cm.
towards the north-east, and another of 30 cm. towards the north. Find
the resultant displacement.
4. Draw a horizontal line OX as a reference axis. Starting from O,
a point has the following component displacements, impressed successively :
2 inches at 30 to OX ; 3 inches at 45 to OX ; 5 inches at 240 to OX ;
4 inches at 90 to OX. Find the resultant displacement.
5. What is the average speed in feet per second of a horse which travels
a distance of 1 1 miles in 1 -25 hours ?
6. An observer notes that the peal of thunder is heard 3-5 seconds after
seeing the flash of lightning. If sound travels at a speed of 1100 feet per
second, find the distance in miles between the flash and the observer.
38 DYNAMICS CHAP.
7. Two runners, A and B, start from the same place. A starts 30 seconds
before B and runs at a constant speed of 8 miles per hour. B travels alongthe same road with a constant speed of 10 miles per hour. At what distance
from the starting point will B overtake A ?
8. Two trains, A and B, travelling in opposite directions, pass throughtwo stations 1-5 miles apart at the same instant. If A has a constant
speed of 40 miles per hour, find the constant speed of B so that the trains
shall pass each other at a distance of 0-9 mile from the station which A
passed through.
9. A train travelling at urflform speed passes two points 480 feet apartin 10 seconds. Find the speed in miles per hour.
10. A train starts from rest and gains a speed of 10 miles per hour in
15 seconds. Find the acceleration in foot and second units. Sketch a
velocity-time graph.
11. A ship travelling at 22 kilometres per hour has its speed changed to
18 kilometres per hour in 40 seconds. Find the acceleration in metre andsecond units. Sketch a velocity-time graph.
12. A body travelling at 800 feet per minute is brought to rest in-Jsecond.
Assume the acceleration to be uniform, and find it. Sketch a velocity-time
graph.
13. Express an acceleration of 60 miles per hour per minute, in metres
per second per second.
14. A train starts from rest with an acceleration of 1-1 feet per sec. persec. Find its speed in miles per hour at the end of 25 seconds. Whatdistance does it travel in this time ? Sketch a velocity-time graph.
15. A train changes speed from 60 to 50 miles per hour in 15 seconds.
Find the distance travelled in this interval. Sketch a velocity-time graph.
16. A train starts from rest with an acceleration of 09 foot per sec.
per sec. and maintains this for 30 seconds. Constant speed is then main-
tained until a certain instant when steam is shut off and the brakes are
applied, producing a negative acceleration of 1 -5 feet per sec. per sec.
until the train comes to rest. If the total distance travelled is 2 miles, find
the time during which the speed was uniform and the total time for the
whole journey. Sketch a velocity-time graph.
17. What acceleration must be given to a train travelling at 30 miles
per hour in order to bring it to rest in a distance of 200 yards ? Sketch a
velocity-time graph.
18. A body falls freely from a height of 50 metres. Find the velocity
just before touching the ground and the time taken. Sketch velocity-timeand distance-time graphs. Take g = 981 cm. per sec. per sec.
19. A stone is projected vertically upwards. Find the initial velocityin order that it may reach a height of 150 feet. If the stone falls to the
original level, find the total time of flight. Sketch a velocity-time graph.Take </
= 32-2 feet per sec. per sec.
20. A stone is dropped down a well and is observed to strike the water
in 2-5 seconds. Find the depth of the well to the surface of the water.
Take g = 32 -2 feet per sec. per sec.
V -
m EXERCISES 39
21. Suppose in Question 20 that the sound of the splash is heard 2-6
seconds after dropping the stone ; find the depth to the surface of thewater. Assume that sound travels at 1100 feet per second, and that
(7= 32-2 feet per sec. per sec.
22. A stone is thrown vertically downwards with a velocity of 20 feet
per sec. Find the velocity at the end of the third second. What distancedoes it travel up to this instant ?
23. A stone is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 160 feet
per second. Two seconds later a second stone is projected vertically fromthe same point. Find to what height the first will rise, and the velocitywith which the second must be projected for it to strike the first as thefirst is just about to descend. L.U.
24. A stone is dropped from a height of 64 feet, while at the same instant
a second stone is projected from the earth immediately below with sufficient
velocity to enable it to ascend 64 feet. Find when and where the stones
will meet. L.U.
25. Eight bodies are dropped in succession from a height at intervals
of half a second. Taking gr=32 ft. per sec. per sec., calculate and showon a diagram the positions of the bodies at the instant at which the last
is dropped. What is the relative velocity of any one of the bodies to thenext succeeding one ? L.U.
26. A body moves along a straight line with varying velocity, and acurve is constructed in which the ordinate represents the velocity at atime represented by the abscissa. Prove that the distance travelled bythe body in any interval is measured by the area between the two corre-
sponding ordinates. The body is observed to cover distances of 12, 30and 63 yards in three successive intervals of 4, 5 and 7 seconds. Can it
be moving with uniform acceleration ? L.U.
27. From the top of a tower, 75 feet high, a stone is projected vertically
upwards with a velocity of 64 feet per second. Calculate its greatest
elevation, its velocity at the moment it strikes the ground, and the timeit takes to reach the ground, (g =32.)
28.. Establish the formula s=ut + ft2
.
From an elevated point A a stone is projected vertically upwards. Whenthe stone reaches a distance h below A its velocity is double what it wasat a height h above A. Show that the greatest height attained by the
stone above A is p. Adelaide University.
29. Two trains, A and B, leave the same station on parallel lines of
way. The train A starts with uniform acceleration of | foot per second
per second, and attains a maximum speed of 15 miles per hour, whensteam is reduced so as to keep the speed constant. B leaves 40 seconds
after A with uniform acceleration of 1 foot per second per second, andattains a maximum speed Of 30 m les per hour. At what distance from
the station will B overtake A ?
30. Plot a velocity-time graph from the following particulars : Drawa horizontal line OX, 5 inches in length, and divide it into 10 equal parts ;
each part represents 0-2 second. Draw OY perpendicular to OX, and on
40 DYNAMICS
it construct a scale of velocities in which 0-5 inch represents 10 feet persecond. The velocities in feet per second at the beginning of the timeintervals shown on OX are as follows : 0, 16, 30, 42, 49, 49, 47, 40, 28, 14, 0.
(a) Find the change in velocity and the average acceleration duringeach interval of time ; draw an acceleration-time graph by plotting the
average accelerations at the centres of the time intervals. Scale for
accelerations, one inch represents 20 feet per second per second.
(b) Find the average velocity during each time interval, and calculate
the displacement during each interval ; hence calculate the total dis-
placement during the 2 second represented by OX.
CHAPTER IV''">
COMPOSITION AND RESOLUTION OF VELOCITIESAND ACCELERATIONS
Composition and resolution of velocities. Velocity being a vector
quantity may be represented by a straight line in the same manneras displacement. A given velocity may be regarded as made up of
two or more component velocities, which may be compounded to
obtain the resultant velocity by the methods of vector addition
employed in Figs. 28 and 29 (p. 28). Thus,
if a point has a velocity represented in
magnitude, direction and sense by AB
(Fig. 4.0), and if its initial position be A,
then it will travel from A to B in one
second. Suppose on arrival at B that the
initial velocitv of the point is suppressed,FIG. 40. Triangle of velocities.
and that another velocity is imparted to
it, represented by BC. The point will now travel from B to C in
one second. Had both velocities been imparted simultaneously to
the point when at A, the point would travel along the line AC and
would arrive at C in one second. Hence AC represents the resultant
velocity of which AB and BC represent the components. Similar
reasoning may be applied to a number of component velocities.
The triangle ABC in Fig. 40 may be called the triangle of velocities.
Composition of velocities is the process of finding the resultant
velocity from given components ;resolution of velocities is the
inverse process.
Parallelogram of velocities. Instead of a triangle of velocities
ABC (Fig. 40), a construction called the parallelogram of velocities maybe employed. In Fig. 41, a point A has component velocities vl
and v.z
represented by AB and AC respectively. Complete the parallelogram
ABDC, when the diagonal AD will represent completely the resultant
42 DYNAMICS CHAP.
velocity v. It is evident that the triangle ABD, which is one-half of
the parallelogram, is a triangle of velocities corresponding with the
triangle ABC in Fig. 40. The component velocities must be arranged,
prior to constructing the parallelogram of velocities, so that the
A >t
B
FIG. 41. Parallelogram of velocities. FIO. 42.
senses are either both away from A or both towards A. This process
is illustrated in Fig. 42, in which AB and CA represent the given
velocities % and % AC' is drawn to represent vz ,and v and v2 have
now senses both away from A. The parallelogram is constructed as
before, giving the resultant velocity v represented by AD.
Rectangular components of a velocity. -It is often convenient in
the solution of problems to use components of a given velocity taken
along two rectangular axes which intersect
at a point on the line of the given velocityand lie in the same plane. In Fig. 43, OA
represents the given velocity v;OX and OY
are rectangular axes complying with the
above conditions. The component velocities
vx and v,f are found by drawing AB and AC per-
pendicular to OX and OY respectively, whenOB and OC represent vx and vu respectively.
FIG. 43. Rectangular com-ponents of v.
Let the angle XOA be a, then :
OB6/r )sa
>or =cosa;
v
vx = v cos a (1)
Also,OC = sma, or
Further,
m
m
m v,f= v sin a
OA2 -OB2 + BA2 =OB2 +OC2,
(2)
or
.(3)
IV RELATIVE VELOCITY 43
Relative velocity. A person standing on the earth and watchinga moving body does not perceive the absolute motion of the body ;
what he does observe may be described as the motion of the bodyrelative to the earth. In such cases it is convenient to regard the
earth, and hence the observer, as fixed in space. The velocity of
one body relative to another may be defined as that velocity which
an observer, situated on and moving with the second body, would perceive
in the first.
EXAMPLE. Suppose two trains to be moving on parallel lines of railwayand to have equal velocities of like sense. A passenger in either train
would perceive no velocity whatever in the other train, which would appearto him to be at rest. The velocity of either train relative to the other train
is zero in this case. If one train A has a velocity of 40 miles per hour
towards the north and the other B, a velocity of 30 miles per hour also
towards the north, an observer in B will see A passing him at 10 miles per
hour, and would describe the velocity of A relative to B as 10 miles perhour towards the north. An observer in A would see B falling behind at
10 miles per hour and would describe the velocity of B relative to A as 10
miles per hour towards the south.
These statements may be generalised by saying that the velocity of
one body A, relative to another body B, is equal and opposite to the velocity
of B relative to A.
Determination of relative velocity. In Pig. 44 a point A has a
velocity VA relative to the paper and represented by AC. Another
V'B
FIG. 44. Velocity of B relative to A. FIG. 45. Velocity of A relative to B.
point B has a velocity VB also relative to the paper and represented
by BD. To obtain the velocity of B relative to A, stop A by imparting
to it a velocity -VA , represented by AE, and equal and opposite to
VA ; to preserve unaltered the relative conditions, give B also a
44 DYNAMICS CttAf.
velocity -t?A , represented by BF. A being now at rest relative to
the paper, and B having component velocities VB and -VA ,the
velocity of B relative to A will be the resultant v, obtained by drawingthe parallelogram of velocities BDGF.
The velocity of A relative to B may be obtained by a similar process
(Fig. 45). B is stopped by imparting to it a velocity -VB . and an
equal and like velocity is given to A, represented by AF. A has now
components VA and -VB ,which when compounded give a resultant
velocity v as the velocity of A relative to B. It will be noted that v
in Fig. 44 is equal and opposite to v in Fig. 45.
Composition and resolution of accelerations. Acceleration being a
vector quantity, we may say at once that its representation by a
straight line, the composition of two or
more accelerations in order to find the
resultant acceleration, and the resolution
of a given acceleration into components
along any pair of axes may be carried out
in the same manner as for velocity. Fora*
example, if a point has an acceleration aFlG
nen^so?an;
aSaWonlpo " rePresented in magnitude, direction and
sense by OA (Fig. 46), the componentsalong two rectangular axes OX and OY will be given by
ax = a cos a (1)
ay= a sin a (2)
Also, a = VaJ+af : (3)
Velocity changed in direction. In Fig. 47 (a) a point has an
initial velocity vv represented by AB, and a final velocity V2 , repre-
O
-
K .
A fa) 6^ (b)FIG. 47. Velocity changed from vj to 2 -
sented by BC. To determine what has been the change in velocity
during the interval of time we may proceed as follows : Stop the
point when it arrives at B by impressing on it a velocity -vl
iv MOTION IN A CIRCULAR PATH 45
represented by DB. As the point is at rest now, we may send it off
in any direction with any speed. Give it the desired final velocityv2 represented by EB. The resultant change in velocity vc has
components -vt and vz ,
and may be found by constructing the
parallelogram BDFE, when FB will represent vc .
As will be understood later, it is impossible to have the changein velocity take place instantaneously at B
;the direction of motion
of any particle or body travelling in the line AB can be changed to
another direction BC only by the body travelling along some curvesuch as that shown dotted at GHK. In this case the total change in
velocity during the interval of time in which the particle travels
from G to K, may be found by the same method and is representedby FB.
A simple alternative construction is shown in Fig. 47 (b). Apoint O is chosen and OA and OC are drawn from it to represent
completely v}and v2 respectively. The total change in velocity vc
is represented by AC, and has a sense indicated by AC, i.e. from the
end of the initial velocity towards the end of the final velocity. It
will be noted that the triangle OAC in Fig. 47 (b) is similar and
equal to the triangle EFB in Fig. 47 (a) ;hence the truth of the
alternative construction is established.
Since the motion along the path GHK has involved a resultant
change in velocity vc ,it may be asserted that there has been a
resultant acceleration having the same direction and sense as vc .
This acceleration may be calculated provided the interval of time t
is known in which the particle travelled from G to K. Thus :
Resultant acceleration = -
If
Motion in a circular path. The case of a point travelling with
uniform velocity in the circumference of a circle provides an im-
portant application of the above methods. In Fig. 48 (a) a point P
is travelling in the circumference of a circle of radius r cm., and has
a velocity of uniform magnitude v cm. per sec. When the point is
at Pl3 the direction of its velocity will be along the tangent at
P!, and is shown by vv Similarly, when the point is at P2 , the
velocity has a direction as shown by v2 ;both v1 and vz are equal
numerically to v.
vl and v2 will meet, if produced, at D
;the total change in velocity
occurring while the point travels from Px to P2 may be found by
46 DYNAMICS CHAP.
applying the method explained on p. 45. Draw OA to representvl (Fig. 48, 6), also draw OB to represent v2 ;
the total change in
velocity will be represented by AB, equal to vc . Apply vc at D, whenit will be evident, from the geometry of the figure, that vc passes
through the centre C of the circle;
this fact is independent of the
length of the arc P1P2 ,
and leads us to assert that the resultant accelera-
tion of the point is directed constantly towards the centre of the circle.
In applying this constructi<fn there is no limit (other than draughts-
manship) to the smallness of the arc PtP2
. Suppose that this arc
is taken very small, then the construction for obtaining the change
A_5 A
E F
(a) (b) (c)FIG. 48. Motion in a circle.
in velocity becomes OAB (Fig. 48, c), in which OA and OB are each
made equal to v and AB represents the change in velocity. Repe-tition of the construction for successive small arcs taken completelyround the circle in Fig. 48 (a) will give a polygon having a very
large number of sides, and this polygon becomes a circle having a
radius v when the arcs are taken of indefinite smallness. Thus
the total change of velocity while P describes one complete revolu-
tion in Fig. 48 (a) is given by the circumference of the circle in
Fig. 48 (c), viz. 1-nv cm. per sec. The interval of time in which this
change in velocity takes place is equal to the time taken by P to
execute one complete revolution, i.e. the time in which P travels a
distance of 2?rr along the circumference of the circle in Fig. 48 (a).
Let t be this time in seconds, then
s = vt, (p. 33)
or2-n-r
t = sees.v
(1)
IV MOTION IN A JET 47
Also,--
time int
a =
= cm. per sec. per sec. .(2)
The conclusions are that a point travelling with uniform velocityin the circumference of a circle has a constant acceleration directed
towards the centre of the circle and given numerically by the above
result.
It should be noted that the appropriate British units are v in feet
per sec., r in feet and a in feet per sec. per sec. The student mayverify this by inserting the dimensions in equation (2).
Motion in a jet discharged horizontally. A jet of water discharged
horizontally from a small orifice at O (Fig. 49) provides an inter-
esting example of change in direction
of velocity. But for the downwardacceleration g, which every particle of
the water possesses, the jet wouldcontinue to travel in the horizontal line
OX. Actually it travels in a curved
path OPA, and the velocity v of anyparticle passing through a fixed pointP may be taken as compounded of two
velocities, viz. vx ,which may be assumed
to be equal to the initial velocity u, and vv ,which follows the
ordinary laws of falling bodies. These assumptions involve the
neglect'of effects due to the .resistance of the atmospheric air.
Let t be the time taken by a particle in travelling from O to P,
and let x and y be the coordinates of P, then
x = ut; :. t = --
Hence, since g and u are constants, y is proportional to x2,and the
curve of the jet is a parabola.* Again,
vx= u, and vy =gt=g- ',
*See A School Geometry, chap, xxiv., hy H. S. Hall. Macmillan.
48 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Also,, n Vx M
cot 3 =~ = = .
vy gt gx(3)
For any given value of the initial velocity u, the curve of the jet
may be plotted from (1) ;the direction of the tangent to the jet at
any time t, or at any horizontal distance x from the orifice may bedetermined from (3), and the velocity at any point in the jet maybe found from (2).
Motion of a particle projected at an angle to the horizontal.
Referring to Fig. 50, a particle is discharged at O with a velocity
o;U-. M IB x
FIG. 50. Motion of a projectile.
u in a line OA inclined at an angle a to the horizontal. The hori-
zontal and vertical components of u are u cos a and u sin a respec-
tively. It may be assumed, neglecting air resistance arid anyvariations in the value of g, that u cos a is the horizontal componentof the velocity of the particle at any point in its flight, and that
wsin a is affected by the ordinary laws of falling bodies.
Let P be any point on the curved path, or trajectory, of the particle ; let
x and y be the coordinates of P, and let t be the time taken to travel from
O to P. But for the downward acceleration g, the particle, after travelling
for t seconds, would be found at a point N on OA, vertically over P.
Hence, ON =ut,
x = ON cos a=ut cos a ....................................... .(1)
Also,
From (1),
Substitute in (2),
(2)
u cos a
ux sin a
u cos a
=ztan a -
2 cos2 a
"-. . .(3)
iv MOTION OF A PROJECTILE 49
The form of this relation of y and x indicates that the trajectory is a
parabola.The horizontal range is OB (Fig. 50). At B, y is zero ; hence we may
obtain the value of OB = xt by equating y in (3) to zero :
_9
u2 sin 2a
tan a cos2 a 2u2 sin a cos a
The range will be a maximum when sin 2a is a maximum, i.e. whensin2a= 1 ; 2a will then be 90 and a will be 45. Hence maximum hori-
zontal range will be secured by projection at 45 to the horizontal.
In Fig. 50, C is the highest point in the trajectory, and evidently bisects
the curve between O and B. The maximum height attained is CD. Let
<! be the total time of flight, then the time taken to reach C from O will be
Uv NOW X1 =UGOB(lXtl9
2u 2 sin a cos aor, .sa uti cos a
;
. _ 2u sin a' l ~~g~
And time in which C is reached ='
.............................................. ....(5')t/
At C, the vertical component of the initial velocity, viz. u sin a, has
disappeared ; hence, from equation (a), p. 35,
CD = ................................................. (6)
At P, the velocity v of the particle is inclined at an angle /? to the hori-
zontal (Fig. 50). Writing vx and vy for the horizontal and vertical com-
ponents of v, we have
vx = v cos (3.= u cos a,
vy v sin ft- u sin a -
gt,
v =Vvxz + vy
z =Vuz cos2a + (u sin a -gt)*
=\/u2(cos
2 a +sin 2a) -2ugt sin a + g
zt2
sin a ~+g*P.'
............................................. (7)
Also, tan = = ......................................................... (8)vx u cos a
D.S.P. D
50 DYNAMICS CHAP.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER IV.
1. A point has two component velocities, each equal to 10 cm. per sec.
Find, by careful drawing, the resultant velocities when the lines of direction
meet at angles of 60, 120, 180, 270.
2. A boat is rowed up a straight reach on a river in a direction making22 with the bank. If the velocity is 6 feet per second, calculate the
component velocities parallel^and perpendicular to the bank. In whattime will the boat travel a distance of 100 yards, measured parallel to the
bank?
3. A projectile has component velocities of 1600 feet per second hori-
zontally and 200 feet per second vertically at a certain instant. Calculate
the resultant velocity.
4. A ship is sailing towards the north-east at 12' miles per hour. Aperson walks across the deck from port to starboard at 4 feet per second.
What is his resultant velocity ?
5. A piece of coal falls vertically from rest from a height of 9 feet above
the floor of a truck travelling at 2 miles per hour. Find the velocity of the
coal relative to the truck just before the coal reaches the floor.
6. A train has a speed of 30 miles per hour. A drop of rain falls in a
vertical plane parallel to the direction of motion of the train. Show in
diagrams the direction of motion of the raindrop as seen by an observer
in the train, (a) if the raindrop falls vertically with a velocity of 20 feet persecond ; (b) if the raindrop has, in addition to the velocity given in (a),
a component velocity of 5 feet per second in the direction of motion of the
train ; (c) if the drop has a component of the same magnitude as givenin (b) but in a direction opposite to that of the train.
7. A person runs after a tramcar travelling at 6 miles per hour. If
his velocity is 8 miles per hour in a direction making 30 with the rails,
find his velocity relative to the car.
8. A railway coach having ordinary cross-seats is travelling at 8 feet
per second. A person about to enter a compartment runs at 10 feet persecond. Show in a diagram the direction in which he must run on the
platform if his velocity on entering the compartment is to be parallel to
the seats ; find the magnitude of the latter velocity.
9. A person in a motor car travelling at 15 miles per hpur towards the
north observes a piece of paper borne by the wind and travelling towards
the car apparently from the east with a velocity of 4 feet per second. Find
the velocity of the wind.
10. State the parallelogram of velocities. A ship, A, is travelling from
south to north with a speed of 20 miles per hour ;another ship, B, appears
to an observer on A to be travelling from west to east with a velocity of
15 miles per hour. Find the magnitude and direction of B's velocity relative
to the earth. L.U.
11. A steamer is travelling northward at the rate of 8 miles an hour in
a current flowing westward at the rate of 3 miles an hour. Indicate in
EXERCISES 51
a diagram the direction in which the steamer is heading, and find the rateat which it is steaming. If the wind is blowing at the rate of 3 miles anhour from the east, indicate in your diagram the direction in which a small
flag at the masthead is pointing. L.U.
12. An aeroplane is travelling towards the north-west relative to theearth at 90 miles per hour, and the wind is blowing at 20 miles per hourtowards the north. Suppose the wind were to. cease suddenly, find
the velocity of the aeroplane in magnitude and direction relative to theearth.
13. Two railway tracks Ox and Oy enclose an angle of 60. A train
moves along Ox with uniform velocity of 60 miles an hour, while a secondtrain moves along O.y with equal speed, passing through O two minutesafter the first. , Find the velocity of the second train relatively to the first,
and indicate in a diagram the shortest distance between the trains. L.U.
14. A cyclist rides at 10 miles an hour due north, and the wind (whichis blowing at 6 miles an hour from a point between N. and E.) appearsto the cyclist to come from a point 15 to the east of north ; find graphicallyor by calculation the true direction of the wind, and the direction in whichthe wind will appear to meet him on his return, if he rides at the same
speed. Sen. Cam. Loc.
15. Two ships are steaming along straight courses with such constantvelocities that they will collide unless their velocities are altered. Showthat to an observer on either ship the other appears to be always movingdirectly towards him. L.U.
16. Explain what is meant by the velocity of one moving particle relative
to another moving particle, and show how to determine it. To a ship
sailing E. at 15 knots another ship whose speed is 12 knots appears to be
sailing N.W. Show that there are two directions in which the latter maybe moving. Find these directions, graphically or otherwise, and find the
relative velocity in each case. L.U.
17. A railway coach at a certain instant has a velocity of 10 metres persecond towards the north. Twenty seconds afterwards the velocity is found
to be 15 metres per second towards the north-west. Find the changein velocity and the average value of the acceleration.
18. A piece of tube is bent near the middle so that the straight portionsinclude an angle of 30. If water flows through the tube with uniform
velocity of 4 feet per second, find the total change in velocity in passinground the bend.
19. A billiard ball travelling at 3 feet per second strikes the cushion and
moves thereafter in a line making 60 with the original direction of motion
and with a velocity of 2^ feet per second. Find the change in velocity.
20. A point travels in the circumference of a circle 40 cm. in diameter
with a uniform velocity of 120 cm. per second. Find the acceleration
towards the centre of the circle.
21. A railway coach has a speed of 60 miles per hour and travels round
a curve having" a radius of 1200 feet. Find the acceleration towards the
centre of the curve.
52 DYNAMICS
22. A jet of water issues from a small hole in the vertical side of a tankwith a horizontal velocity of 8 feet per second. Find the resultant velocityof a particle in the jet 2 seconds after it has issued from the orifice.
23. In Question 22, find the position of a particle in the jet at intervals
of 0-1, 0-2, 0-3, 0-4 and 0-5 second after issue. From the information so
obtained plot a graph showing the shape of the jet. Take g = 32 ft. persec. per sec.
24. A bullet is projected with a velocity of 1200 feet per sec. horizontallyfrom a gun which is 25 feet abov^ the ground. Find the horizontal distancefrom the gun at which the bullet strikes the ground, and also the angleits direction of motion then makes with the horizontal. Sen. Cam. Loc.
25. A projectile is fired with a velocity of 2200 fet-t per second. Find thehorizontal range, time of flight and greatest height attained when the anglesof elevation are respectively 30, 40, 45, 50 and 60. Neglect atmo-
spheric effects. Take g = 32 ft. per sec. per sec.
26. A gun capable of firing a projectile with a velocity of 2000 feet persecond is placed at a horizontal distance of 400 feet from the foot of avertical cliff 200 feet high. Find the angle of elevation of the gun in orderthat the projectile may just clear the edge of the cliff. Neglect atmosphericeffects.
27. A ball is projected from a point 7 feet high with a velocity of 50 feet
per second. At what angle to the horizontal must it be projected in order
just to clear the top of a net 3-5 feet high at a horizontal distance of 30 feet
from the point of projection ? Neglect atmospheric effects.
28. A heavy particle is projected with a velocity v in a direction makingan angle 6 with the horizon. Form the equations determining its positionand velocity at any subsequent instant of time. Drops of water arethrown tangentially off the horizontal rim of a rotating umbrella. Therim is 3 feet in diameter, and is held 4 feet above the ground, and makes14 revolutions in 33 seconds. Show that the drops of water will meet the
ground on a circle 5 feet in diameter. Madras Univ.
CHAPTER V
ANGULAR VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
Angular velocity. Let one point in a straight line be fixed, andlet the line revolve about this point in a fixed plane, say that of the
paper. The rate of describing angles is termed the angular velocity
of the line. Angular velocity may be measured in revolutions perminute or per second
;for many purposes it is more convenient to
measure angular velocity in radians per second. The symbol w is
used to denote the latter.
Since there are 2?r radians in a complete revolution, the connection
between w and the revolutions per minute, N, is
N TTNw = 27r = radians per second.
In uniform angular velocity, equal angles are descri-bed in equalintervals of time
;should this condition not be complied with the
angular velocity varies, and the revolving line is said to have
angular acceleration.
Angular velocity may be described as being clockwise or anticlockwise,
according as the line appears to the observer to rotate in the same,
or in the opposite direction to that of
the hands of a clock. The student
will note that, if there are two
observers, one on each side of the planeof rotation, the angular velocity will
appear to be clockwise to one observer
and anticlockwise to the other.
A given angular velocity may be FlG - 51--Eeprv?Sy!
on f angul&r
represented by drawing a line per-
pendicular to the plane in which the body is revolving. The lengthof the line represents the angular velocity to a chosen scale, and
the line is drawn on one or the other side of the plane of revolution
depending on the sense of rotation. Thus, in Fig. 51 (a), a person
54 DYNAMICS % CHAP.
situated on the right-hand side of the revolving disc observes that
the angular velocity is clockwise and draws OX perpendicular to
the plane of the disc and on his side of the disc. In Fig. 51 (6),
the angular velocity appears to the person to be anticlockwise, andOX is drawn on the opposite side of the disc. The student should
verify by trial that two persons on opposite sides of a revolving disc
will agree in placing OX on the same side of the disc.
Relation of linear and angular velocity. Let OA (Fig. 52) revolve
about O with uniform angular velocity. At any instant the pointA has a linear velocity v in the direction at right angles to OA. Let
r be the radius of the circle which A describes. The length of the
FiQ. 52. Relation of angular and FiQ. 53. All radial lines have thelinear velocities. same angular velocity.
arc described by A in one second is v, and the angle subtended at the
centre of the circle by this arc will be v/r radians, the same unit of
length being used in stating both v and r. Hence OA turns through
v/r radians in one second, and the angular velocity is
w = - radians per second (1)
In Fig. 53 a wheel rotates in the plane of the paper about an
axis at O perpendicular to this plane. It is evident that the radii
drawn to any fixed points, OA, OB, OC, etc.,- all possess the same
angular velocity. Hence the angular velocity of a rotating body
may be calculated by dividing the linear velocity of any point in
the body by the radius drawn from that point to the axis of
rotation.
Angular acceleration. Angular acceleration is defined as the rate
of change of angular velocity, and may be calculated by dividing
the change in angular velocity by the time taken. Thus, if a
revolving line changes its angular velocity from (u1 to w
2 radians per
ANGULAR MOTION 55
second in t seconds, and if the change has been effected at a
uniform rate, then
Angular acceleration = < = - *radians per sec. per sec ..... (2)
In Fig. 54 a line rotates about O in the plane* of the paper with
varying angular velocity. When passing through OA its angularvelocity is w,, and the angular velocity increases at a uniform rate
and is o>2 when passing through OB. Let the time taken to travel
from OA to OB be t seconds, then
Angular acceleration = < = ----
Let the linear velocities of A and B be v1and v2
respectively, and let r be the radius of the circle,
then v vWj=
-*=, ana w2=
;
. , _ V2 V} FIG. 54. Angular. . 9 ~
rtacceleration.
Now (Vv-vJ/t is the tangential acceleration a of the point A in
travelling from A to B, hence
It will be noted that this rule corresponds with that for deriving
angular velocity from linear velocity.
All radii of a revolving body possess the same angular acceleration,
hence the angular acceleration may be calculated by dividing the
tangential acceleration of any point in the body by the radius draAvn
to the point from the axis of rotation.
Equations of angular motion. Equations for angular motion maybe deiived in the manner adopted in Chapter III. in finding equationsfor rectilinear motion.
Let a line revolve with uniform angular velocity w radians per
second, and let a be the angle described in t seconds. Then
a = t radians ........................ ............. (1)
Let a line start to revolve from rest with 1 an angular acceleration
< radians per second per second, the angular velocity w at the end
of t seconds is given by
=<J>t radians per second ............................. (2)
56 DYNAMICS CHAP.
The average angular velocity is
w = ^ w _i
and a= wa = .J.t radians (3)
Substituting for cu from (2) gives
a=^(f>t
x =-i<J>t
2 radians (4)
Again, from (2), t =; .'.
2 = ~- .
Substituting this value in (4), we have
(5)
The analogy of these equations with those for rectilinear motion
is apparent. Equations for a line having an initial angular velocity
Wj and an angular acceleration</> may be obtained in a similar manner.
The equations are as follows :
"2~ w
i=
4>* radians per sec (6)
a= /S + At radians (7)
\ <- /
a^wjt + icfrt2 radians (8)
f-i* = 24* (9)
EXAMPLE 1. A wheel starts from rest and acquires a speed of 300
revolutions per minute in 40 seconds. Find the angular acceleration.
How many revolutions did the wheel describe during the 40 seconds ?
300w =^7^ 2?r = WTT =31 41 radians per sec.
Ow
= = =0 -785 radian per sec. per sec.
300Average angular velocity = -^~
150 revs per min.
150=,, =2-5 revs, per sec.
.'. Revolutions described =2-5 x 40=100.
EXAMPLE 2. The driving wheel of a locomotive is 6 feet in diameter.
Assuming that there is no slipping between the wheel and the rail, what
DRIVING BY BELTS 57
is the angular velocity of the wheel when the engine is running at 60 miles
per hour ?
5280 x 60Velocity of locomotive =' r =88 ft. per sec.
60x60
As the distance travelled in one second is 88 feet, we may find the revolu-
tions of the wheel per second by imagining 88 feet of rail to be wrappedround the circumference of the wheel.
Number of turns of rail = -==-Trd QTT
88 x 7.*. Revolutions per second = ~o
= 4-67;*
= 29-33 radians per sec.
Transmission of motion of rotation. In workshops many machines
are driven by means of belts. A pulley is fixed to each shaft, and a
belt is stretched round the pulleys as shown in Fig. 55. If it is
intended that both shafts should rotate in the same direction, the
FIG. 55. Open belt. FIG. 56. Crossed belt.
belt is open as in Fig. 55. Crossing the belt as shown in Fig. 56
enables one shaft to drive the other in the contrary direction.
Neglecting any slipping between the belt and the pulleys, it is
evident that the linear velocities of points on the circumferences of
both pulleys are equal to the linear velocity of the belt. Let V be
this velocity, and let RA and R B be the radii of the pulleys, then
VAngular velocity of A
Angular velocity of B = <>B=
Thus the angular velocities of the pulleys are inversely propor-
tional to the radii, or the diameters of the pulleys.
The arrangement shown in Fig. 57 enables a larger angular
velocity ratio to be obtained. A drives B, and another pulley C, fixed
58 DYNAMICS CHAP.
to the same shaft as B, drives D; similarly, E drives F. Taking the
pulleys in pairs,- we have
Also
Hence
RA % RC Vw = u)r ,
and W = to
WA x o>c x a>
ER B x R D x RF
or
RA X RC X R E
RB x R D x RF
'
FlO. 57. A belt pulley arrangement.
Hence the rule : the angular velocity ratio of the first and last
pulleys is given by the product of the radii, or diameters, of the
driven pulleys divided by the product of the radii, or diameters, of
the driving pulleys.
Toothed wheels (Fig. 58) are used in cases where there must be
no slipping. The teeth maybe imagined to be formed ontwo cylinders shown dotted.
It is clear that the linear
velocities of points on the
circumferences of the cylindersare equal, and therefore wehave the same rule as for a
pair of belt pulleys, viz.
FIG. 58. Toothed wheels in gear.
TOOTHED WHEELS 59
Further, the numbers of teeth, WA and nB , are proportional to thecircumferences and therefore to the radii of the cylinders. Hence
The wheels shown in Fig. 58 revolve in opposite directions. If
angular velocities of the same sense be required, an idle wheel C is
interposed (Fig. 59). The linear
velocities of the circumferences
of all three cylinders are still
equal ; hence, as before,
FIG- 59,-Use of an idle wheel.A train of wheels, such as
is used in clocks and other
devices, is shown in Fig. 60. Taking the wheels in pairs, we
Also,
Hence
"A
to,, = to.
'D "c
and
top
= to.
toA x toc x o>E _toA _nB x nD x nf
It will be noticed that this result is similar to that obtained for
the train of belts shown in Fig. 57.
Cham drives are sometimes usedinstead of belts in order to avoid
slipping. An ordinary bicycle pro-vides an example. The circumferencesof the toothed chain wheels, taken at
the centres of the links of the chain,have the same linear velocity as the
chain, hence we have the same rule as
in the case of two belt pulleys, viz.
PLANFIG. GO. Train of wheels. Further, the numbers of teeth on
the wheels are proportional to the
circumferences, and therefore to the radii of the wheels;hence
In early bicycles the driving was accomplished by means of cranksfixed to the axle of the front wheel
; thus one revolution of the
60 DYNAMICS CHAP.
crank gave one revolution to the wheel, and moved the bicycle
through a distance equal to the circumference of the wheel. Whenthe statement is made that the gear of a modern bicycle is so much,say 70, it is meant that for one revolution of the cranks the bicyclewill travel a distance equal to that which would be covered by anold-fashioned machine having a driving wheel 70 inches in diameter.
Let d be the diameter of the back wheel of the safety bicycle, andlet nA and nB be the numbers of teeth on the crank chain wheel andthe small chain wheel respectively, then
Geai=D = -*-d.^B
EXAMPLE. Varying angular velocity. In Fig. 61 a point travels with
uniform velocity v in. the straight line XPj. The angular velocity of the
radius vector OPX drawn from any fixed point Oto the moving point at any instant may be deter-
mined thus : Consider two successive positions
of the point, P1 and P 2 ,and let these be close
together. Join OP^ OP 2 , and draw PXK perpen-dicular to OP 2 . Let the angle PjOX be a, and
let the angle P^OPz be called <Sa. If St is the
time in which the point travels from P! to P 2 , the
radius vector describes the angle 8a in the same
time, and the angular velocity is given bya
5a
FIG. 61. Varying angularvelocity.
In the similar triangles PiOX, PjKP 2 , the angle
Now 8a 3=P
= PlP 2 ' cos a = p i p2-cosa.sina,
Also PjP 2 =v.8t',v . bt . cos a . sin a
<5a v
PX X.
. sin a . cos a(1)
This expression gives the angular velocity of the radius vector in terms
of the distance of the point from X. If PjX be zero, the point is passing
through X, and a is zero. The expression for (o then takes the form 0/0. Todetermine the value, let the point be taken very close to X, when
Inserting these values givessin a =^~ and cos a = 1.
Urj
OXa result which complies with equation (I), p. 54.
(2)
RELATIVE ANGULAR VELOCITY
FIG. 62. Relative angular velocity.
Relative angular velocity. In Fig. 62 a point A at a certain
instant has a velocity VA and another point B has a velocity VB at
the same instant. Stop A byimpressing on it a velocity VAand impress the same velocity-VA on B. Find the resultant
velocity of B by means of the
parallelogram Bacb;
this will bev. Instead of the given conditions
of motion we now have the
following equivalent conditions :
A point A is at rest, and another
point B is travelling along a
straight line Be with uniform
velocity v and has reached B at
a certain instant. Draw AX perpendicular to Be, producing the
latter if necessary. Let the angle BAX be called a, then, from
equation (1) (p. 60), we have
.,.,, v . sin a . cos aKelative angular velocity or B with respect to A = RY
With the velocities as given in Fig. 62, this relative angular
velocity is counterclockwise. The angular velocity of A relative to
B may be found in a similar manner, stopping B by applying -VB to
B. The student should draw the diagram for this case for himself,
and should verify that the angular velocity of A relative to B is equalto that of B relative to A, and has the same sense of rotation.
Velocity of any point in a rotating
. ln JPig. 63 is shown a body
rotating with uniform angular velocity
<o about an axis at C which is perpen-
dicular to the plane of the paper.
At any instant the direction of the
velocity of any point, such as A or B, is
perpendicular to the radius. Suppose
that the velocity of A is given, equal
to Vt say, the velocity V2
of B may be
calculated as follows :
FIG. 63. Velocities of points in arotating body.
VLAC
,-Jll
BC
V1=AC~'
a result which shows that the velocity of any point is proportional
to its distance from the axis of rotation.
62 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Instantaneous centre of rotation. Let a rod AB (Fig. 61) be
moving in such a manner that at a given instant A has a velocity
VA and B has a velocity VB in the directions shown. The
, direction of VA will not be altered if we
imagine that A is rotating for an instant
about any centre in a line A I drawn per-
pej^dicular to VA . Similarly, VB will not
be altered in direction if we imagine B to
be rotating for an instant about any centre
in BI which is perpendicular to VB . These
perpendiculars intersect at I, and we mayconsider that both A and B are rotating for
an instant about I without thereby changing the directions of their
velocities. I is called the instantaneous centre of rotation. It is evident
that, if two points in the rod rotate for an instant about I, every
point in the rod is rotating about I at the same instant.
If VA is known, we may calculate VB from the relation given on
p. 61, viz. YA_ IA*
FIG. 64. Instantaneous centre.
L\
EXAMPLE. In Fig. 65 is shown a slider-crank mechanism (p. 27) in
which the crank BC rotates with uniform angular velocity in the planeof the paper about an axis at C.
The rod AB is jointed to BC at
B, and its end A is constrained
to move in the line AC. Know-
ing the velocity VB of B at anyinstant, the velocity of A may be
found by application of tho
instantaneous centre method.
Draw A I perpendicular to AC ;
then A may be imagined for an
instant to be rotating about anycentre in AI. Draw BI perpendi-
cular to VB , i.e. produce CB ; B may be imagined to rotate for an instant
about any centre in BI. Hence I is the instantaneous centre for the rod
AB, and we have VA IA
V8 "~IB
In some positions of the mechanism, I will fall at a large distance from
AC ; when BC is at 90 to AC, I lies at infinity. A simple modification brings
the whole construction required within the boundary of a piece of drawing
paper of moderate size.
FIG. 65. Instantaneous centre of AB .
A ROLLING WHEEL. 63
Draw NCS through C at 90 to AC ; produce AB (if necessary) to cut
NCS in Z. It is evident that the triangles IAB and CZB are similar ; hence
IA =CZ .
IB~CB'
- VA _CZ_I"VB-CB-R''
where R is the length of the rod BC. Since R and VB are both constants,
it follows that VA is proportional to CZ.
A rolling wheel. In Fig. 66 (a] is shown a wheel rolling along a
road without slipping. It is evident that the velocity of the centre
of the wheel, O, is equal to the velocity v of the vehicle to which
FIG. t>6(a). Angular velocity of arolling wheel.
FIG. 66(6). Velocities of points in
a rolling wheel.
the wheel is attached. Further, if there is no slipping, then the
point A in the wheel rim, being in contact with the ground for an
instant, is at rest, and is therefore the instantaneous centre of the
wheel. Hence the angular velocity of the wheel is v/OA, a result
agreeing witn that found on pp. 56 and 57 by another method.'
Every point in the wheel is rotating for an instant about A;hence
the velocity of any point may be found. Thus the velocity of C
(Fig. 66 (&)) is at 90 to AC and is given by
!^ = 2 .
v AO
.*. vc= 2v.
The velocities of B and D (situated on the horizontal line passing
through O) are perpendicular respectively to AB and AD, and are
givenby %_*?.,/.v AO y '
Similarly,
64 DYNAMICS CHAP.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER V.
1. A wheel revolves 90 times per minute. Find its angular velocityin radians per second.
2. What is the angular velocity in radians per second of the second handof a watch ?
3. Find the revolutions per minute described by a wheel which has an
angular velocity of 30 radians per second.
4. A revolving wheel changes speed from 50 to 49 radians per second.
State the change in revolution^per minute.
5. A point on the rim of a wheel 8 feet in diameter has a linear velocityof 48 feet per second. Find the angular velocity of the wheel.
6. A wheel starts from rest and acquires a speed of 200 revolutions perminute in 24 seconds. Find the angular acceleration.
7. Find the angular acceleration of a wheel which undergoes a changein angular velocity from 50 to 48 radians per second in 0-5 second.
8. A point on the rim of a revolving wheel 8 feet in diameter has a
velocity in the direction of the tangent of 80 feet per second. Five seconds
afterwards the same point has a tangential velocity of 60 feet per second.
Find the angular acceleration of the wheel.
9. A wheel starts from rest with an angular acceleration of 0-2 radian
per second per second. In what time will it acquire a speed of 150 revolu-
tions per minute ? How many revolutions will it make during this interval
of time ?
10. Find the angle turned through by a wheel which starts from rest and
acquires an angular velocity of 30 radians per second with a uniformacceleration of 0-6 radian per second per second.
11. A wheel changes speed from 140 to 150 revolutions per minute anddescribes 40 revolutions while doing so. Find the angular acceleration.
12. Find the angular velocity of a bicycle wheel 28 inches diameterwhen the bicycle is travelling at 12 miles per hour. How many revolutions
will the wheel describe in travelling a distance of one mile ?
13. A shaft A drives another shaft B by means of pulleys and a belt. If
the pulley on A is 24 inches in diameter and runs at 200 revolutions perminute, find the diameter of the pulley on B in order that it may have a
speed of 150 revolutions per minute.
14. A small motor has a, pulley 2 inches in diameter and runs at 1200revolutions per minute. A shaft having a pulley 12 inches in diameter is
driven by a belt passing round the motor pulley. On the same shaft is
another pulley 3 inches in diameter connected by a belt to a pulley 10 inches
in diameter and fixed to the shaft of an experimental model. Find the.
speed in revolutions per minute of the model shaft.
15. The driving wheel of a bicycle is 28 inches in diameter, and has a
sprocket wheel having 18 teeth. The chain wheel on the crank axle has
46 teeth. What is the"gear
"of the bicycle ? How many revolutions
must each crank make in travelling a distance of one mile ?
V EXERCISES 65
16. A wheel A having 20 teeth drives another wheel B having 54 teeth.If A runs at 110 revolutions per minute, find the speed of revolution of B.Show how A and B could be run at the same speeds as before, but both inthe same direction of rotation.
17. In winding a watch 3' 5 complete turns are given to the spring case ;
this serves to keep the watch going for 28 hours. What is the ratio of the
angular velocities of the spring case and the minute hand during the
ordinary working of the watch ?
18. The minute hand of a watch is connected to the hour hand by atrain of wheels. A wheel A on the minute hand spindle has 12 teeth anddrives a wheel having 48 teeth
; on the same spindle as the latter wheel is
another having 8 teeth, and this wheel drives a wheel having N teeth onthe hour-hand spindle. Find N.
19. Explain how angular velocity is measured. A point P moves withuniform velocity v along a straight line. ON is drawn perpendicular tothis line, O being a fixed point. Express the angular velocity of P about Oin terms of the distance OP. L.U.
20. If two particles describe the circle of radius a, in the same senseand with the same speed u, show that the relative angular velocity of eachwith respect to the other is u/a. L.U.
21. A rod OA is pivoted to a fixed point at O, and is freely jointed at Ato a second rod AB ; the end B is constrained to move in a straight groovepassing through O. If the rod OA rotates about O with uniform angularvelocity o>, show that the velocity of B at any instant is
OA(sin 6 +cos tan </>)w,
where B and</>
are the acute angles made by OB with OA and AB at theinstant. L.U.
22. Find the velocity at any point on the rim of a wheel rolling withuniform velocity v along a horizontal plane without sliding. Show thateach point of the wheel moves as though it were revolving about the pointof contact of the wheel and the ground at the instant.
Adelaide University.
D.S.P.
CHAPTER VI-
INERTIA
Newton's first law of motion. The whole science of dynamics is
based on three fundamental laws formulated by Newton. The first
law is as follows :
Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a
straight line except in so far as it is compelled by forces to change that
state.
The term inertia is given to the tendency of a body to preserveits state of rest, or of constant rectilinear velocity. The first law
expresses the results of experience. A train at rest on a level track
will not move until the locomotive applies a tractive force. If the
train is travelling with constant speed, the engine exerts a pull
sufficient merely to overcome the frictional resistances, and must
exert a considerably greater pull while the speed is being increased.
If steam be shut off, the frictional resistances gradually reduce the
speed, and if the brakes be applied, the increased frictional forces
bring the train to rest quickly. Thus a force having the same sense
and direction as the velocity must be applied in order to obtain an
increase in velocity, and a force having the opposite sense if the
velocity has to be diminished.
A person standing on the top of a tramcar may experience the
effects of inertia in his body ;should the driver apply the brakes
suddenly, the passenger will be shot forward. If the driver starts
rapidly, the passenger will be left behind as it were. Should the
car reach a curve on the track it will follow the track, and the
passenger's body will endeavour to proceed rectili nearly, and will
incline towards the outside of the curve.
To cause any body to travel in a curved path requires the applica-tion of a force in a direction transverse to that of the path.We now proceed to discuss some principles leading to Newton's
second law of motion.
ABSOLUTE UNITS OF FORCE 67
Relation of force, mass and acceleration. AU bodies at the same placefall freely with equal accelerations. This statement may be confirmed
by experiment. Two stones released simultaneously from the same
height will reach the ground at the same instant. If a piece of
paper be substituted for one of the stones, the paper will take a
longer time to fall;
this effect is owing to the resistance of the air,
and may be got rid of partially by crumpling the paper into a ball,
when it will be found that both stone and paper fall together.Since the weights of two bodies are proportional to the masses,
and since both bodies fall freely with equal accelerations, it follows
that the forces required are proportional to the masses if equal accelera-
tions are to be imparted to a number of bodies.
A laboratory experiment (p. 71) may be devised to illustrate
another law, viz. the force which must be applied to a body of given
mass is proportional to the acceleration required.
Combining these statements leads to the general law : The force
required is proportional jointly to the mass and the acceleration, and is
therefore measured by the product of mass and acceleration. Theacceleration takes place in the same direction and sense as the
applied force.
Let F = the force applied to the body by the external agent.m -= the mass of the body.a = the acceleration.
Then F = ma.
Absolute units of force. Convenient absolute units of force (p. 8)
may be derived from the above result. Take m to be the unit of
mass and a to be the unit of acceleration in any given system ;then
F becomes unity and may be accepted as the absolute unit of force
for the system. The o.<;.s. and British absolute units of force
have been defined on p. 8, and are restated here in a slightly
different form :
A force of one dyne applied to a gram mass produces an accelera-
tion of one centimetre per second per second.
A force of one poundal applied to a pound mass produces an
acceleration of one foot per second per second.
The dimensions of force may be deduced from the above equation
by substitution.
Thus : F = ma=m - .
68 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Relation of absolute and gravitational units of force. Since a bodyof mass w falls freely under the influence of its weight W and has
an acceleration g, it follows that the weight of a body, expressed in
absolute units of force, is given by :
W =tng.
A force of one Ib. weight, acting on a mass of one pound falling
freely, produces an acceleration of: g feet per second per second. Aforce of g poundals would produce the same acceleration
;hence
one Ib. weight is equivalent to g poundals. Similarly, one gram
weight is equivalent to g dynes. In interpreting these statements
it will be understood that g must be in feet, or centimetres, per second
per second according to the system employed.To convert from gravitational to absolute force units, multiply by g.
Newton's second law of motion. Suppose a body of mass m to
be at rest in the initial position A
> l~ --^--j j >v (Fig. 67). If a force F be applied, a
FA
"
B constant acceleration a will occur; let
FIG. 67. Relation of force and this continue during a time interval tmomentum generated.
seconds, and let the body travel ironi
A to B during this interval, the velocity being v on reaching B. Wehave: F = ma.
fj
Also, v= at (p. 33), or a =
:,F-ff (i)L *
The momentum of a body may be explained as the quantity of
motion, and is measured by the product of the mass and velocity.
Thus the momentum of the body in Fig. 67 is zero at A (where the
velocity is zero) and is mv at B. The momentum acquired in the
interval t seconds is mv; hence the momentum generated per
second is mv/t. We may state therefore that the applied force is
equal numerically, to the rate of change of momentum, or to the momentum
generated per second.
The momentum generated, the acceleration, and the force appliedhave all the same direction and sense. These results are generalised
in Newton's second law of motion :
Kate of change of momentum is proportional to the applied force, and
takes place in the direction in which the force acts.
The dimensions of momentum are ml/t.
Vi LAWS OF MOTION
Newton's third law Of motion. To every action there is always an
equal and contrary reaction ; or, the mutual actions of any two bodies are
always equally and oppositely directed.
This law is the result of experience, of which a few instances maybe noted. The hand of a person sustaining a load is subjected to a
downward force the weight of the body and the hand applies an
equal upward force to the load. Similarly, a person applying a
pull to a rope experiences an equal and opposite pull which the
rope exerts on his hands. Equal and opposite forces applied in
the same straight line to a body balance one another; under such
conditions the body, if at rest, remains at rest, or, if in motion, will
experience no change of motion.
A force applied to a body by means of some external agency, suchas a pull along a string attached to the body, or a push from a rodin contact with the body, produces acceleration
in accordance with the law F = ma. In this case
the body, by virtue of its inertia, supplies aj!"
reaction equal and opposite to the force appliedto it by the external agency. In Fig. 68, F is FIG. 68. Resistance due
the external force applied to the body ;each
particle of the body contributes to the equal opposite reaction byvirtue of its inertia, and the total or resultant reaction is represented
by the product ma. In fact, the equation F =ma should be under-
stood to represent the equality of two opposing forces, one, F,
being the resultant external force applied to the body, and
the other, ma, being an internal force produced by virtue
of the inertia of the body.Should two external opposing forces T and W (Fig. 69)
be applied to a body, unequal but in the same straight line,
it is clear that a single external force (W -
T) would producethe same effect in changing the motion. (W -
T) may be
called the resultant external force, and should be used as the value
of F in the equation F = ma.
EXAMPLE 1. What pull must be applied by a locomotive to give a train
of 150 tons mass an acceleration of 1 -5 feet per second per second if frictional
resistances be neglected ?
F=ma= 150 x 2240 x 1 -5 =504ftOO poundals.
^504000 = ]56501b. weight.
32*2! "~^^~~
70 DYNAMICS CHAP.
EXAMPLE 2. Answer the same question if there are frictional resistances
opposing the motion and amounting to 10 Ib. weight per ton of train.
Total frictional resistance =Q = 150 x 10 = 1500 Ib. weight.
Let the pull of the locomotive be P Ib. weight, then the resultant force
producing the acceleration will be (P -Q) Ib. weight. Hence
F=P-Q= =150x2240x1-5^32-2
= 15 (650;
.'. P =15(650 + 1500
= 17J50 Ib. weight.
EXAMPLE 3. Two bodies A and B (Fig. 70) are attached to the ends
of a light cord passed over a pulley C. The cord may be assumed to be
so fine that its mass may be neglected, arid so flexible
s\T\ that the forces required in order to bend it round the
U i pulley may be disregarded. It is assumed also that
the pulley is so light that its mass may be neglected,
and that its bearings are free from frictional resistance,
.fl Under these assumptions, the pulls in all parts of the
,cord will be equal, the pulley serving merely to change
1 I i |A ,T the direction of the cord. Take the masses of A and B
to be m^ and m 2 respectively, and discuss the motion.
Consider A ; two external forces are applied to it,
viz. the weight m^g and the upward pull T exerted bythe cord. If these forces are equal, no motion will
occur, or if there be motion, the velocity will be uniform.
Suppose T to be larger than m^f then an upward acceler-
ation a will occur, and we may write :
T ml g = nil a, (1)
Now consider B ; this body is subjected to a downward force m zg and
an upward force T, and has a downward acceleration also equal to a from
the arrangement of the apparatus. Hence m 2g is greater than T, and we
may write : m 2g -T =m 2a (2)
Solving (1) and (2) in order to determine a and T, we have, by addition :
m 2g -m 1g = (m1 +m 2)a,
FIG. 70. Motionunder the action of
gravity.
or,
Dividing (1) by (2) gives :
T - n^g _m1 <
m zg -T~ra 2
'
.'. m 2T -mim 2g=m1m 2g-
~T(mi +m 2 ) -2m lm 2 g,
(4)
vi ATTWOOD'S MACHINE 71
It will be evident that, if r% and ra a are equal, both bodies will have either
no motion, or constant velocity ; and the pull in the cord will be equal to
the weight of one of the bodies.
This problem may be examined from another point of view. There are
two bodies A and B, having a total mass (m1 +m z ) (Fig. 70) ; a resultant
force acts, equal to the difference in their weights, viz. (m 2g -m^g] ; hence :
or, ~
which is the same result as that given in (3) above.
Attwood's machine. In this machine an attempt is made to realise
the conditions mentioned in Example 3 above by using a very light
silk cord and a light aluminium pulley mounted on ball bearings,or bearings designed to eliminate friction so far
as is possible. The machine is used in the
following manner :
EXPT. 12. Use of Attwood's machine. Equalloads A and B are hung from the ends of the
cord (Fig. 71). A small additional load B' is added
and is adjusted so as to be just sufficient to over-
come friction and to cause B to have uniform
downward velocity when given a slight start ; A,
of course, will have uniform upward velocity. Anyadditional weight D placed on B will produceacceleration in the whole of the moving parts.
Denoting the masses of the loads by suffixes, we
have, neglecting the masses of the pulleys and cord :
Total mass in motion m +mB +m
AdLi.
FIG. 71. Attwood'smachine.
Force producing acceleration =mD g ;
or, +mr
(1)
To check this result we may employ the following method: A fixed
ring is arranged at E, and has an internal diameter sufficiently large to
permit of B and B' passing through the ring, but will not so permit D.
On arrival at E, D is arrested and the remaining moving parts will thereafter
proceed with uniform velocity until they are brought to rest by B arriving
at the fixed stop F. Measure Ji-^and h 2 ; allow the motion to start unaided
by any push, or otherwise, and start a stop watch simultaneously (a split-
72 DYNAMICS CHAP.
second stop watch is useful). Note the time at which D is arrested andalso that at which B reaches F. Repeat several times, and take the meantime intervals. Let the mean time interval from the start to the instant
at which D was arrested be ^ and let the mean time interval in which Btravels from E to F be t z ; also let the uniform velocity of B between Eand F be v, and let the acceleration from the start until D is arrested be a.
Then h 2 =vt 2 , orv=^-
Also, 9 = atu (p. 33) ;
*'
Or we may say : ftx= \at^ ;
'.=^ (
3)
Either of these expressions (2) or (3) may be used for the calculation of
the acceleration, and the results should show fair agreement with that
calculated from (1). It will be noted that this apparatus provides an
experimental illustration of the truth of the law F =ma.
Impulsive forces. Considering again the equation
F =~V, (p. 68), (1)
it will be noted that the principle involved is not affected by the
magnitude of the interval of time. If this interval be very small,
the conception of an impulse is obtained, i.e. a force acting duringa very short time. Generally it is impossible to state the magnitudeof such a force at any particular instant during the action, and the
calculation of F from equation (1) gives the mean value of the force,
and may be called the average force of the blow.
The equation may be written
Ft = mv (2)
This form suggests plotting corresponding values of the force and
time, should these be known, giving a diagram resembling that
Forceshown at OABC in Fig. 72. The average heightof this diagram gives the average value of F.
Owing to this method of deducing F from a
diagram having a time base, the force F is
-Time sometimes called the time average of the force.
O C This term is synonymous with the termno. 72. Time average of average force of the blow.
Since the average force F is represented bythe mean height of the diagram in Fig. 72, and the base OC representst, it follows that the area of the diagram represents Ft. Ft may be
Vl EXERCISES 73
called the impulse of the force, and is equal to the total change in
momentum of the body.
EXAMPLE. A bullet has a mass of 50 grams and a velocity of 400
metres per second. If it is brought to rest in 0-01 second, find the impulseand the average force of the blow.
Impulse =mv = 50 x 400 x 100
=2x 10 gram cm. /sec. units.
mv 2 x 106 ~ , _ e
Average force of the blow = =- =2 x 108dynes
t O'(JL
=20-4 x 104gram weight.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER VI.
1. Find the force required to give a mass of 15 pounds an acceleration
of 45 feet per second per second.
2. A force of 9540 dynes acts on a mass of 2-5 kilograms. Find the
acceleration
3. Find factors for converting (a) dynes to poundals, (6) poundals to
dynes.
4. A cycle and rider together have a mass of 190 pounds. Whentravelling at 10 miles per hour on a level road the cyclist ceases to pedaland observes that he comes to rest in a distance of 200 yards. Find the
average resistance to motion.
5. A train has a mass of 200 tons. Starting from rest, a distance of
400 yards is covered in the first minute. Assuming that the acceleration
was uniform, find the pull required to overcome the inertia of the train.
6. The cage of a lift has a mass of 1000 pounds. Find the pull in the
rope to which the cage is attached (a) when the lift is descending at uniform
speed, (6) when the lift is descending with an acceleration of 2 feet persecond per second, (c) when the lift is ascending with the same acceleration.
7. A train has a mass of 250 tons. If the engine exerts a pull of 10 tons
weight in producing an acceleration of 1 foot per second per second, find
the resistance due to causes other than inertia.
8. A man who weighs 160 Ib. slides down a rope, that hangs freely,
with a uniform speed of 4 feet per second. What pull does he exert uponthe rope, and what would happen if at a given instant he should reduce
his pull by one half ? L.U.
9. A mass of 10 pounds is placed upon a table and is connected by a
thread which passes over a smooth peg at the edge with a mass of one poundthat hangs freely. Assuming the table to be smooth, determine the
velocity acquired by the two masses in one second, and find the tension
in the thread. What would you infer if, in actual experiment, the masses
were observed to move with uniform velocity ;and what would be the
tension in the thread in that case ?
74 DYNAMICS
10. A fine cord passes over a pulley and has a mass of 0-5 kilogramhanging from one end and another mass of 0-9 kilogram hanging from, the
other end. Neglect friction and find the acceleration and the tensionin the cord.
11. In an Attwood machine, a mass of 2 pounds is attached to each endof the cord. It is then found that an additional mass of 2 pound onone side is sufficient to maintain steady motion. Another mass of 0-4 poundis then placed on the same side and is found to produce a velocity of 4-72 feet
per second at the end of a(Ascent
from rest of 4 feet. Is this result in
accordance with the theory ? Compare the actual acceleration with that
given by the theory. g=32-2 feet per second per second.
12. A train moving with uniform acceleration passes three points A, Band C at 20, 30 and 45 miles an hour respectively. The distance AB is
2 miles. Find the distance BC. If steam is shut off at C and the brakes
applied, find the total resistance in Ib. weight per ton mass of the train
in order that it may be brought to rest at a distance of one mile from C.
L.U.
13. Find the momentum of a railway coach, mass 12 tons, travellingat 15 miles per hour. If the speed is changed to 12 miles per hour in
4 seconds, find the average resistance to the motion.
14. Find the impulse of a shot having a mass of 1 200 pounds and travel-
ling at 1500 feet per second. If the shot is brought to rest in 0-01 second,find the average force of the blow.
15. Define the terms"acceleration,"
"force,"
"momentum," and state
their precise relation to each other.
What is incorrect in the following expression :
(i) The force with which a body moves ;
(ii) An acceleration of 10 feet per second ? Adelaide University.
16. A mass of 2 pounds on a smooth table is connected by a string, passingover a light frictionless pulley at the edge of the table, with a suspendedmass of 1 ounce. Find (a) the velocities of the masses after they havemoved for 1 second from rest, and (6) the total momentum of the systemat the same time. L.U.
17. Define the impulse of a force and an impulsive force. Find the
direction and magnitude of a blow that will turn the direction of motionof a cricket ball weighing 5| oz., moving at 30 ft. per sec., through a right
angle, and double its velocity. State in what units your answer is given.
18. A particle A of mass 10 oz. lies on a smooth table and is connected
by a slack string which' passes through a hole in the table with a particleB of mass 6 oz. lying on the ground directly beneath the hole in the table.
A is projected along the table with a velocity of 8 feet per second. Findthe impulsive tension when the string becomes taut and the commonvelocity of the particles immediately afterwards. Find also the height to
which B will rise. L.U.
19. Explain what is meant by relative velocity. A ball of mass 8 ounces
after falling vertically for 40 feet, is caught by a man in a motor-car travel-
VI EXERCISES 75
ling horizontally at 30 miles an hour. Find the inclination to the vertical
at which it will appear to him to be moving, and the magnitude of the
impulse on the ball when it is caught. L.U.
20. Two masses of oz. and 7| oz., connected by an inextensible string5 ft. long, lie on a smooth table 2 ft. high. The string being straight and
perpendicular to the edge of the table, the lighter mass is drawn gentlyjust over the edge and released. Find (a) the time that elapses before
the first mass strikes the floor, and (b) the time that elapses before thesecond mass reaches the edge of the table. L.U.
21. State Newton's laws of motion, and show how from the first weobtain a definition of force, and from the second a measure of force.
A motor car, running at the rate of 15 miles per hour, can be stopped byits brakes in 10 yards. Prove that the total resistance to the car's motionwhen the brakes are on is approximately one-quarter of the weight of
the car. L.U.
22. A particle is projected up the steepest line of a smooth inclined plane,and is observed to pass downwards through a point 18 feet distant from the
place of projection 4 seconds after passing upwards through the point.
Further, there is an interval of 3 seconds between its transits through a
point distant 32 feet from the place of projection. Find the velocity of
projection and the slope of the plane. L.U.
CHAPTER VII
STATIC FORCES ACTING AT A POINT
Specification of a force. In specifying a force the following par-
ticulars must be stated : (a) the point at which the force is applied ;
(b) the line of direction in which the force acts; (c) the sense along
the line of direction; (d) the magnitude of the force.
Force is a vector quantity ;this statement is confirmed by the
fact that mass and acceleration are involved in the measurement
of a force;mass is a scalar quantity, and acceleration is a vector
quantity, hence force is also a vector quantity. It follows that two
or more forces acting at a point and in the same plane may be
compounded so as to give the resultant force, i.e. a force which has
the same effect as the given forces, and the methods of vector
addition explained in Chapter III. may be employed.
It is convenient to speak of a"force acting at a point," but this
statement should not be taken literally. No material is so hard
that it would not be penetrated if even a
small force be applied to it at a mathemati-cal point. What is meant is that the force
may be imagined to be concentrated at the
point in question without thereby affectingthe condition of the body as a whole.
FIG. 73,-Action and reaction.y^her, in speaking of a force applied at a
point, it must not be forgotten that the mere existence of a force
implies matter to which it is applied. In Fig. 73, a body A appliesan action PA to another body B, and is itself subjected to a
simultaneous and equal reaction PB applied by B.
Transmission of force along the line of action. In Fig. 74 a pushP is applied to a body at a point A in a line BA. The general effect
of P in producing changes of motion, or in maintaining the state
of rest, will be unaltered if P be applied at any point O in the
body and on the line of BA produced. There will, however, be
TRANSMISSIBILITY OF FORCE 77
alterations in the mutual actions between the particles of the body ;
it is clear that these will not be identical whether P is applied at
A or O.
The mutual actions of the particles may be ignored in consideringthe state of rest or motion of the body as a whole. For example,a body A is subjected to pushes PB ,
Pc and PD applied by other threebodies B, C and D at points b, c and d (Fig. 75). The three forces
intersect at O and are in the plane of the paper. Disregarding theeffects of the forces in producing actions between the particles of
the body A, we may say that the effect on the body as a whole wouldbe unaltered if the three forces were applied at O instead of at the
DFIG. 74. Transmission of a force. FIG. 75. Three forces applied to a body.
given points b, c and d. In making this statement it is assumedthat the body is rigid, i.e. its particles are assumed to adhere togetherso strongly as to prevent entirely any change in their relative
positions. Otherwise relative motion of the parts of the body wouldoccur independently of the motion of the body as a whole, and it is
assumed that no such relative motion takes place.
Stress. The term stress is given to the mutual actions which take
place between one body and another, or between two parts of a
body subjected to a system of forces. The term involves both of
the dual aspects involved in force, and has therefore no sense. It
thus becomes necessary to describe the action as tensile stress if the
bodies, or the parts of the body, tend to separate ; compression
stress if they are forced together ;and shearing stress if they tend to
slide on one another. Stresses are discussed in more detail in
Chapter XII.
Parallelogram and triangle of forces. The parallelogram of forces
is a construction similar to the parallelogram of velocities described
on p. 41. Consider two forces, P and Q, acting at O and both in the
78 DYNAMICS CHAP.
B
) P AFIG. 76. Parallelogram of
forces.
plane of the paper (Fig. 76) ;to find the resultant, choose a suitable
scale, and measure OA and OB to represent the magnitudes of P and Qrespectively. Complete the parallelogram OACB, when the diagonal
OC will represent the resultant R. In
applying this construction, care must be
taken that P and Q are arranged so that
they act either both towards or both
away from O. It will be remembered
(p* 12) that the same arrangementmust be made in the parallelogram of
velocities.
The triangle of forces may be employed, and is similar to the
triangle of velocities (p. 41). Given P and Q, acting at O (Fig. 77) ;
to find the resultant, draw AB to represent P, and BC to represent Q ;
then the resultant is repre-
sented by AC. Note that R
does not act along AC (which
may be anywhere on the
paper), but at O, and is so
shown in Fig. 77 by a line
parallel to AC.
Forces acting in the same
straight line. A body is said to be in equilibrium if the forces
applied to it balance one another, i.e. produce no change in the
state of rest or motion. Thus, if two equal and opposite forces P,
P (Fig. 78), be applied at a point O in a body, both
in the same straight line, they will balance one
another, and the body is in equilibrium.If several forces in the same straight line act at
a point in a body, the body will be in equilibriumif the sum of the forces of one sense is equal to the
FIG. 78. TWO equal sum of those of opposite sense. Calling forces ofopposite forces. .
,. , .
one sens,e positive, and those or opposite sense
negative, the condition may be expressed by stating that the
algebraic sum of the given forces must be zero. Thus the forces
P A
FIG. 77. Triangle of forces.
pi>
P P3>
etc - 79)> will balance, provided
or (I)
TRIANGLE OF FORCES 79
The symbol 2 (sigma) means "the algebraic sum of
";P placed
after the symbol is taken to mean one only of a number of forces;of which P is given as a type. Equation (1) stated in words wouldread : The algebraic sum of all the forces of which P is a type is
equal to zero
B
FIG. 79. Forces in the same straight line. FIG. 80.
Should equation (1) give a numerical result which is not zero, it
may be inferred that the given forces do not balance, but have a
resultant with a magnitude equal to the calculated result. Equi-librium could be obtained by applying a force equal and oppositeto the resultant
;this force is called the equilibrant of the system.
Let R and E denote the resultant and equilibrant respectively, then
R-E.
The sense of R is positive or negative, depending upon whetherthe sum of the given positive forces is greater or less than that of
the given negative forces. Thus, in Fig. 80, forces of sense fromA towards B being called positive, we have
2 + 3 + 5-8-1=+!.Hence the given forces may be replaced by a single force of 1 Ib.
weight having the sense from A towards B. This result may be
expressed by the equation i;p = R. (2)
Three intersecting forces. Two forces whose lines of action inter-
sect at a point may be balanced byfirst finding the resultant by means
of the parallelogram, or triangle of
forces;
the resultant so found maybe applied at the point instead of the
given forces without altering the effect.
The resultant so applied may then be
balanced by applying an equilibrant
equal and opposite to the resultant.
Fig. 81 illustrates the method. Forces, , ^ r FIG. 81. Triangle of forces applied
P and Q are given acting at O. In to a push and a pull.
DYNAMICS CHAP.
FIG. 8-2.
the triangle of forces ab represents P and be represents Q, ; ac repre-
sents R, therefore ca represents the equilibrant E, which is now
applied at O in a line parallel to ca and of sense given by the
order of the letters ca.
The conditions of balance of three intersecting forces may be
formulated now : (a) They must all act in one plane ; (b) they must all
act at one point ; (c) they must be capable of representation by the sides of
a closed triangle taken in order.
The meaning of condition (c) may be understood by reference to
the triangle of forces abc in Fig. 81. Here P, Q, and E are repre-sented respectively by ab, be and ca
;the order of
these letters indicates the sense of each force;the
figure is a closed triangle, and the perimeter has been
traversed from a and back to a without it being
necessary to reverse the direction in order to indicate
the sense of any of the forces. Should the triangleof forces for three given forces fail to close, i.e. if a
gap occurs between a and a' in Fig. 82, in which ab,
be and ca' represent the given forces, then we infer that the givenforces do not equilibrate.
EXAMPLE. Three given forces are known to be in equilibrium (Fig. 83) ;
draw the triangle of forces.
This example is given to illustrate a convenient method of lettering the
forces called Bow's Notation. The method consists in giving letters to the
spaces instead of to the forces. In Fig. 83 (a),
call the space between the 4 lb. and the 2 Ib.
A, that between the 2 lb. and the 3 lb. B, andthe remaining space C. Starting in spaceA and passing into space B, a line AB-
(Fig. 83 (b) )is drawn parallel and propor-
tional to the force crossed, and the letters
are so placed that their order A to B
represents the sense of that force. Nowpass from space B into space C, and drawBC to represent completely the force crossed.
Finish the construction by crossing from
space C into space A, when CA in Fig. 83 (6)
will represent the third force completely.
Examining these diagrams, it will be observed that a complete rotation
round the point of application has been performed in Fig. 83 (a), and that
there has been no reversal of the direction of rotation. Also that, in
Fig. 83 (6), if the same order of rotation be followed, 'the sides represent
(b)
FIG. 83. Application of Bow'sNotation.
vn TRIANGLE OF FORCES 81
correctly the senses of the various forces. Either sense of rotation maybe used in proceeding round the point of application, clockwise or anti-
clockwise, but once started there must be no reversal.
Relation of forces and angles. In Fig. 81 (a) the three forces
P, Q, S are in equilibrium, and ABC (Fig. 84 (b)) is the triangle of
forces. We have P : Q : S =AB : BC : CA.
Now AB : BC : CA = sin y : sin a : sin /?,
or P : Q : S = sin y : sin a : sin /? (1)
The dotted lines in Fig. 84 (a) show that a, ft y are respectivelythe angles between the produced directions of S and P, P and Q,
FIG. 84. Relation of forces and angles.
Q, and S;
also the angles or spaces denoted by A, B, C in the same
figure are the supplements of these angles. Since the sine of an
angle is equal to the sine of its supplement, we have, in Fig. 84 (a),
P : Q : S = sinC : sin A : sin B (2)
Hence, if three intersecting forces are in equilibrium, each force
is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two forces.
Rectangular components of a force. In the solution of problemsit is often convenient to employ selected components of a force
instead of the force itself. Generally
these components are taken along
two lines meeting at right angles'
on the line of the force;
all three
lines must be in the same plane.
In Fig. 85, OC represents a given
force P, and components are
required along OA and OB which
intersect at 90 at O. Completethe parallelogram of forces OBCA,
, . f .,
. , , . Fio. 85. Rectangular components of a
which is a rectangle in this case, force.
82 DYNAMICS CHAP.
and let the angle COA be denoted by a, then the components S
and T are obtained as follows :
AC=OB=OCsin a;
.". S = Psina (1)
OA = OC cos a;
/. T-Pcosa. (2)
OC2 =AC2 + OA*= OB2 + OA2;
(3)
O PAXFIG. 86. Inclined components of a force.
Relation of the resultant and inclined components. In Fig. 86
components P and Q, are given, and the resultant R has been found
by means of the parallelogram of forces OACB. From trigonometry,we have OC2 = OA2 + AC2 - 2 . OA . AC . cos OAC.
Also, AC = OB, and. cos OAC = -cosCAX= -cosAOB;
.'. OC2 =OA2 + OB2 + 2 . OA . OB . cos AOB,
or R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ, cosAOB (1)
To find the angle a which R makes with OA, we have
Q, _ sin a sin a sin aR~
sin OAC~
sin CAX~~
sin AOB'
.'. sin a = sin AOB (2)R
EXAMPLE 1. A particle of weight W is kept at rest on a smooth planeinclined at an angle a to the horizontal, (a) by a force parallel to the plane,
(&) by a horizontal force. Find each of these forces.
The term smooth is used to indicate a surface incapable of exerting anyfrictional forces. Such a surface, if it could be realised, would be unable
to exert any action on a body in contact with it in any line other than the
normal to the surface at the point of contact.
VII PARTICLES ON INCLINES
(a) In Fig. 87 (<7), W is represented by ab ; the required force P, and the
normal reaction of the plane R, are represented respectively in the triangle
P a
FIG. 87.- Particles on smooth inclines.
of forces abc by be and ca. Since these lines are respectively parallel and
at right angles to the plane, bca is a right angle ; also the angle bac=o..
. P_be
" WP=W sin a.
=sm a
R may be found thus R ca^n = T =cos aW ab
/. R =W cos a.
(b) In this case the triangle of forces is the right-angled triangle abc
(Fig. 87(6)). JL^k^tW~a6~' P=Wtana.
AlsoR caiT7 i =sec aW ab
/. R=Wseca.
EXAMPLE 2. A particle of weight W is kept at rest on a smooth plane
inclined at an angle a to the horizontal by means of a force P inclined at
an angle ft to the plane (Fig. 88). Find P and
the reaction of the plane.
In Fig. 88, the angle between P and R is
(90 -ft); also the angle between W and R
is (180 -a). Hence (p. 81)
P _ sin (180 -a) _sinaW "
sinT(90~^y ~cos~ft'
/. P =W sin a/cos ft.
The angle between P andW is (90 +a +ft).
. R _sin (90 + a_+/3) _ col_" ' W ~
~~si"n~(90~jy)~ cos ft
_cos a cos ft -sitt_asin ft .
"cos/?".'. R=W(cos a -sin a tan ft).
FIG. 88.
84 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Systems of uniplanar concurrent forces. In Fig. 89, P1}
Pa ,P3 ,P4
are four typical forces, all in the same plane and intersecting at the
same point O. OX and OY are two axes in the same plane as the
forces and intersect at O at 90. The angles of direction of the
forces are stated with reference to OX, and are denoted by al5 a2 ,
a 3 ,a4 . In order to take advantage of the usual conventions regarding
the algebraic signs of sines and cosines, the given forces should be
arranged so as to be either all pulls or all pushes. Taking com-
ponents along OX and OY (Fig. 90)f we have :
Components along OX;
Plcos al5
P2 cos a2 ,P3 cos a 3?
P4 cos a4 .
Components along OY;
Plsin a l5
P2 sin a2 ,
P3 sin a3 ,P4 sin a4 .
P sin X,
P, sin rfj
FlO. 89. System of uniplanar forces
acting at a ]><>ii.t.
FIG. 90. First step in the reductionof the systrm.
Taking account of the algebraic signs, the components along OXtowards the right are positive and the others are negative. Si mi Jarly,
the components acting upwards along OY are positive and the others
are negative. The resultants R x and RY of the components in OXand OY respectively are given by :
P! cos at + P2 cos a2 -f P3 cos a3 + P4 cos a4= Rx ,
Pj sin a! + P2 sin 2 + P3 sin a3 + P4 sin a4=RY .
Or, using the abbreviated method of writing these,
j^Psin a=RY (2)
The given system has thus been reduced to two forces Rx , RY ,as
shown in Fig. 91. To find the resultant R, we have
(3)
(4)_CA_OB_R Ytana ~OA~OA Rx
VII POLYGON OF FORCES
The given system of forces will be in equilibrium if both Rx andThe algebraic conditions of equilibrium are obtained
from (1) and (2) :
3Pcosa= 0, (5)
2P sin a =.(6)
This pair of simultaneous equations
may be used for the solution of anyX problem regarding the equilibrium of
any system of uniplanar concurrent
forces.
FIG. 91. iimiitant of the system
Graphical solution by the polygon of forces. By application of the
principle of vector addition, the equilibrium of a number of uniplanarforces acting at a point may be tested. Four such forces are given
FIG. 92. Polygon of forces.
in Fig. 92 (a), and are described by Bow's notation (p. 80). Start-
ing in space A and going round O clockwise, lines are drawn in Fig.
92 (b) representing completely each force crossed. The productionof a closed polygon ABCD is sufficient evidence that the forces are
in equilibrium ;a gap would indicate that the forces have a resultant,
which would be represented by the line required to close the gap,
and the equilibrant of the system would be equal and opposite to
the resultant. Fig. 92 (6) is called the polygon of forces.
We may therefore state that a system of uniplanar forces acting
at a point will be in equilibrium, provided a closed polygon can be
drawn in which the sides taken in order represent completely the given
forces.
Concurrent forces not in the same plane. Most of the cases of
forces not in the same plane are beyond the scope of this book.
The following exercise indicates the manner in which simple cases
of such forces may be solved.
86 DYNAMICS CHAP.
EXAMPLE. In Fig. 93 is shown the plan and elevation of a wedge. The
top surface is smooth and makes an angle of 30 with the horizontal.
A particle A of weight W is kept at rest on
the wedge by means of two light cords ABarid AC, fastened at B and C, and making
angles of 45 and 30 respectively with the
line of greatest slope DE. Find the pulls
Tj and T 2 in AB and AC respectively.
*(X.B. The actual sizes of the angles of
45 and 30 cannot be seen in the plan in
Fig. 93.)
Resolve Tx arid T 2 into components along
DAE and along a horizontal axis AZ at 90
to DAE. The components along DAE are
T! cos 45 and T 2 cos 30, both of the same
sense ; those along AZ are Tj sin 45 and
T 2 sin 30, and are of opposite sense (Fig. 93,
plan).
For equilibrium in the direction of AZ wehave :
Tj sin 450 =
TI__
Plan
T, sin 45T, cos 45"
sill
T2 sin 30 -
FIG. 93.
T2 cos 30
or,
Let T =T! cos 45 +T 2 cos 30 93 > elevation).
Then T,W and the reaction of the plane R are in equilibrium, and abc
is the triangle of forces (Fig. 93, elevation). Hence
or,T, T,V3_V2 2
Substituting from (1), we have
W
(2)
.(3)
And from (1), T _V2Tl=-5- T 2- WV22(1 +V3)
-(4)
EXPT. 13. Parallelogram of forces. In Fig. 94 is shown a board
attached to a wall and having three pulleys A, B and C capable of being
clamped to any part of the edge of the board. These pulleys should run
VII PENDULUM 87
easily. Pin a sheet of drawing paper to the board. Clamp the pulleysA and B in any given positions. Tie two silk cords to a small ring, passa bradawl through the ring into the board at O, arid lead the cords over
the pulleys at A and B. The ends of the cords should have scale pansattached, in which weights may be placed. Thus, known forces P and Qare applied to the ring at O. Take care in noting these forces that the
weight of the scale pan is added to the weight you have placed in it. Mark
carefully the directions of P and Q, on the paper, and find their resultant R
by means of the parallelogram Oabc. Produce the line of R, and by meansof a third cord tied to the ring,
apply a force E equal to R? fol @\
bringing the cord exactly into
the line of R by using the b*^ /. \ ^^. In
pulley C clamped to the proper
position on the board. Note
that the proper weight to
place in the scale pan is E less
FIG. 94. Apparatus for demonstrating the parallelo-gram of forces.
the weight of the scale pan,so that weight and scale pan
together equal E. If the
method of construction is
correct, the bradawl may be
withdrawn without the ring
altering its position.
In general it will be found
that, after the bradawl is removed, the ring may be made to take up
positions some little distance from O. This is due to the friction of
the pulleys and to the stiffness of the cords bending round the pulleys,
giving forces which cannot easily be taken into account in the above
construction.
EXPT. 14. Pendulum. Fig. 95 (a) shows a pendulum consisting of
a heavy bob at A suspended by a cord attached at B and having a spring
balance at F. Another cord is attached to A and is led horizontally to E,
where it is fastened;a spring balance at D enables the pull to be read.
Find the pulls T and P of the spring balances F and D respectively when
A is at gradually increased distances x from the vertical BC. Check these
by calculation as shown below, and plot P and x.
Since P, W and T are respectively horizontal, vertical and along AB,
it follows that ABC is the triangle of forces for them. Hence
P
(1)
88 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Also, J = AB^ZW~BC~/&
T =* W=Wseca.h
FIG. 95. Experiment on a pendulum.
Measure I, also x and A, for each position of the bob, and calculate P and
T by inserting the required quantities in (1) and (2). Tabulate thus :
Weight of bob in kilograms =W =
Length of AB in cm. =1 =
x cm.
VII DERRICK CRANE 89
the polygon ABCDEA. On application of the equilibrant, the bradawl maybe withdrawn without the ring moving.
G-0
5-0
4-0
3-0
90 DYNAMICS CHAP.
C merely changes the direction of the cord without altering the force in
it ; hence P =W (Fig. 99 (a) ).The polygon of forces (Fig. 99 (6) )
is drawn
by making ab represent W, and be represent P ; lines are then drawn
from a parallel to T, and from c parallel to Q ; these intersect at d. Q, and
T may be scaled from cd and da respectively.
FIG. 99 Forces in a derrick crane.
The values of Q, and T so found will not agree very well with those shown
by the spring balances. This is owing to the weights of the parts of the
apparatus not having been taken into account. Approximate corrections
may be applied to the spring balance readings by removing W from the
scale pan and noting the readings of the spring balances ; these will givethe forces in the jib and tie produced by the weights of the parts, and
should be deducted from the former readings, when fair agreement will be
found with the results obtained from the polygon of forces.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER VII.
1. A nail is driven into a board and two strings are attached to it. If
the angle between the strings is 60, both strings being parallel to the
board, and if one string is pulled with a force equal ^o 4 Ib. weight and the
other witli a force of 8 Ib. weight, find by construction the resultant force
on the nail.
2. Answer Question 1 supposing a rod is substituted for the first stringand is pushed with a force equal to 4 Ib. weight.
3. One component of a force of 3 kilograms weight is equal to 2 kilogramsweight, and the angle between this component and the force is 40. Findthe other component by construction.
4. The components of a force of 10 Ib. weight are 5 Ib. weight and 7 Ib.
weight respectively. Find by construction the lines of action of the
components.
5. A pull of 6 Ib. weight and another force Q of unknown magnitudeact at a point, their lines of action being at 90 ; they are balanced by a
VII EXERCISES 91
force of 8 Ib. weight. Calculate the magnitude of Q and the angle betweenQ and the force of 8 Ib. weight.
6. Answer Question 5 if Q and the force of 6 Ib. weight intersect at 60.
7. Two pulls of 10 Ib. weight each act at a point. Find the equilibrantby calculation in the cases when the angle between the pulls is 165, 170,174, 178, 180. Plot a curve showing the relation of the magnitude ofthe equilibrant and the angle between the pulls.
8. A particle weighing 2 Ib. is kept at rest on a smooth plane inclinedat 40 to the horizontal by a force P. Calculate the magnitude of P when it
is (a) parallel to the plane, (6) horizontal, (c) pulling at 20 to the plane,(d) pushing at 30 to the plane. In each case find the reaction R of the
plane.
9. A particle of mass m pounds slides down a smooth plane inclined at25 to the horizontal. Find the resultant force producing acceleration ;
hence find the acceleration and the time taken to travel a distance of 8 feetfrom rest.
10. Two strings of lengths 3 feet and 3| feet are tied to a point of a
body whose weight is 8 Ib., and their free ends are then tied to two pointsin the same horizontal line 3| feet apart. Find the tension in each string.
L.U.
11. A kite having a mass of 2 pounds is flying at a vertical height of
100 feet at the end of a string 220 feet long. If the tension of the stringis equal to a weight of 1| Ib., find graphically the magnitude and direction
of the force of the wind on the kite. Tasmania Univ.
12. Three forces P, Q, E are in equilibrium. P=Q, and E = l-25 P.
Find the angle between the directions of P and Q. Answer the samequestion if P =Q =E.
13. A rope is fastened to two points A, B, and carries a weight of 50 Ib.
which can slide smoothly along the rope. The coordinates of B with respectto horizontal and vertical axes at A are 8 feet
and 1 -2 feet, and the length of the rope is
10 feet. Find graphically the position of equi-librium and the tension in the rope. L.U. ^
14. In Fig. 100 is shown a bent lever ABC,pivoted at C. The arms CA and CB are at 90and are 15 inches and 6 inches respectively. Aforce P of 35 Ib. weight is applied at A at 15to the horizontal, and another Q is applied atB at 20 to the vertical. Find the magnitudeof Q and the magnitude and direction of thereaction at C required to balance P and Q.
Neglect the weight of the lever. 3_7n B
FIG. 100.15. Two scaffold poles AB and AC stand onlevel ground in a vertical plane, their tops
being lashed together at A. AB is 20 feet, AC is 15 feet and BC is
15 feet. Find the push in each pole when a load of 1 ton weight is
hung from A.
92 DYNAMICS CHAP.
16. The jib of a derrick crane measures 19 feet, the tie is 17| feet and the
post is 9 feet long. A load of 2-5 tons weight is attached to a chain which
passes over a single pulley at the top of the jib arid then along the tie.
Find the push in the jib and the pull in the tie. Neglect friction andthe weights of the parts of the crane.
17. Answer Question 10 supposing the chain, after leaving the pulleyat the top of the jib, passes along the jib.
18. Four loaded bars meet at a joint as shown in Fig. 101. P and Q are
in the same horizontal line ; T fciid W are in the same vertical ; S makes45 with P. If P =15 tons weight, W = 12 tons weight, 8=6 tons weight,find Q, and T.
19. Lines are drawn from the centre O of a hexagon to each of the
corners A, B, C, D, E, F. Forces are applied in these lines as follows : FromO to A, 6 Ib. weight ; from B to O, 2 Ib. weight ; from C to O, 8 Ib. weight ;
from O to D, 12 Ib. weight ; from E to O, 7 Ib. weight ; from F to O, 3 Ib.
weight. Find the resultant.
FIG. 101.
JruntB&aJtion Side Elevation,.
FIG. 102.
20. In Fig. 102 forces in equilibrium act at O as follows : In the front
elevation, P, Q and S are in the plane of the paper and T is at 45 to the
plane of the paper ; Q makes 135 with S. In the side elevation, T and Vare in the plane of the paper ;
V is perpendicular to the plane containingP, Q, and S, and T makes 45 with V. Given Q =40 tons weight, T -25 tons
weight, find P, S and V.
21. State and establish the proposition known as the polygon of forces.
OA. OB, OC, OD, OE are five bars in one plane meeting at O, the anglesAOB, BOC, COD, DOE being each 30. Forces of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 tons
respectively act outwards from O along the bars. The joint O is held in
equilibrium by two other bars pulling in the opposite directions to OA andOD. Find the pull along each of these bars. Adelaide University.
22. A particle of weight W is kept in equilibrium on a smooth inclined
plane (angle of inclination = 0} by a single force parallel to the plane. Findthe magnitude of the force. If the particle is kept in equilibri mi by three
forces P, Q, R, each parallel to the plane and inclined at angles a, j8, y to
the line of greatest slope, find all the relations existing between P, Q, R, W,a, (3, y, 0. Tasmania Univ.
23. Enunciate the polygon of forces and show how it may be used to
find the resultant of a number of concurrent forces. Explain also themethod of getting the resultant by considering the resolved parts of the
forces in two directions at right angles. Bombay Univ.
vii EXERCISES 93
24. A string 12 feet long has 11 knots at intervals of 1 foot. The endsof the string are tied to two supports A, B, 9 feet apart and in the samehorizontal line. A load of 4 lb. weight is suspended from each knot in
turn ; find the tensions in the part of the string attached to A. Plotthese tensions as ordinates, and horizontal distances of the load from Aas abscissae.
25. A building measures 40 feet long and 20 feet wide. Tn the plan,the ridge of the roof is parallel to the long sides and bisects the shortsides. The ridge is 5 feet higher than the eaves. Wind exerts a normalpressure of 40 lb. weight per square foot on one side of the roof. Findthe horizontal and vertical components of the total force exerted by thewind on this side.
CHAPTER VIII
MOMENTS. PARALLEL FORCES
Moment Of a force. The moment of a force is the tendency of the
force to rotate the body to which it is applied, and is measured bythe product of the magnitude of the force and the length of a line
drawn from the axis of rotation perpendicular to the line of the
force. Thus, in Fig. 103, is shown a body
capable of rotating about an axis passing
through O and perpendicular to the plane of
the paper. A force P is applied in the planeof the paper and its moment is measured by
Moment of P = P xOM,fr m at rlht anleS t0 P "
FIG. 103.-Moment of a
Moment? involve both the units of force andof length employed in the calculation. In the c.G.s. systemmoments may be measured in dyne-centimetres or gram-weight-centimetres
;in the British system, poundal-feet or Ib.-weight-feet
are customary. The dimensions of the moment of a force are
obtained by taking the product of the dimensions of force and
length, thus :
Dimensions of the moment of a force = -^ x I=2
(' L
The sense of the moment of a force is described as clockwise or
anticlockwise, according to the direction of rotation which wouldresult from the action of the force. In calculations it is convenient
to describe moments of one sense as positive ;those of contrary
sense will then be negative.It is evident that no rotation can result from the action of a force
which passes through the axis of rotation;
such a force has no
moment.
Representation of a moment. In Fig. 104 is shown a body free
MOMENTS OF FORCES 95
to rotate about O and acted on by a force P, represented by the line
AB. Draw OM perpendicular to AB, producing AB if necessary. JoinOA and OB. Then
Moment of P = P x OM =AB x OM= 2AOAB.
We may therefore take twice the area of
the triangle, formed by joining the extremities
of the line representing the force to the pointof rotation, as a measure of the moment of the
force.
FIG. 104. Representationof a moment.
The components of a force have equal opposite
moments about any point on the line of the resul-
tant. In Fig. 105, R acts at O, and has com-
ponents P and Q, given by the parallelogram of forces OBDC. A is
any point on the line of R, and AM and AN are perpendicular to
P and Q respectively, a and /3 are the
C p angles between R and P, and R and Q.
Moment of P _ P x AM _ P x OA sin a
Moment of Q=Qx AN~Q xOA sin
'ft
N
Q
O M P B
FIG. lOo. Moments of P and Q. Also,
PxAM:
Qx AN=
P si n a=
Qsin"j8'
OB_OB:
OC~BDsin ft .
sin a'
moment of P sin ft sin a1.
moment of Q, sin a sin ft
.'. moment of P = moment of Q.
The moment of a force about any point is equal to the algebraic sum of
the moments of its components. There are two cases, one in which
Q ^v' Q
(a) (b)FIG. 106. Moments of P, Q and R about O.
the point is so chosen that the components have moments of
the same sign (Fig. 106 (a)) ;in the other case (Fig. 106 (b)) the
96 DYNAMICS CHAP.
components have moments of opposite sign. In each figure let Rbe the given force and let O be the point of rotation. Let the com-
ponents be P and Q, and drawOBD parallel to Q, and cutting P andR in B and D respectively. Complete the parallelogram ABDC.then
P:Q: R=AB:AC:AD.Join OA and OC. Then, in Fig. 106 (a),
AOAB + AABD - AOAD.
Also,*AABD = AACD = AOAC.
.'. AOAB + AOAC = AOAD,
or, moment of P + moment of Q = moment of R (p. 95).
In Fig. 106 (6) we have
AOAB + AOAD = AABD.
Also, AABD = AACD = AOAC;
/. AOAB + AOAD = AOAC,
or, AOAD = AOAC - AOAB,
or, moment of R = moment of Q, -moment of P.
Hence, in taking moments, we maysubstitute either the componentsfor the resultant, or the resultant for the components, without
altering the effect on the body.
Principle of moments. Let a number of forces, all in the same
plane, act on a body free to rotate about a fixed axis. If no rotation
occurs, then the sum of the clockwise moments is equal to the sum of
the anticlockwise moments.
This principle of moments may be understood by taking any twoof the forces, both having clockwise moments. The moment of the
resultant of these forces is equal to the sum of the moments of the
forces. Take this resultant together with another of the givenforces having a clockwise moment ; the moment of these will againbe equal to the sum of the moments. Repeating this process gives
finally a single force having a clockwise moment equal to the sumof all the given clockwise moments.
Treating the forces having anticlockwise moments in the samemanner gives a single force having an anticlockwise moment equalto the sum of all the given anticlockwise moments. Hence the
resultant of the two final forces has a moment equal to the algebraicsum of the given clockwise and anticlockwise moments, and if these
be equal the resultant moment is zero and no rotation will occur.
EXPT. 17. Balance of two equal opposing moments. In Fig. 107, a rod
AB has a hole at A through which a bradawl has been pushed into a vertical
board. The rod AB hangs vertically and can turn freely about A. Fix
vm PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS 97
it in this position by pushing another bradawl through a hole near B.
Attach a h'ne cord at C, lead it over a pulley D' and attach a weight W x ,
thus applying a pull P =Wi at C. Measure the perpendicular AM drawnfrom A to P, and calculate the moment of P=PxAM. Attach anotherfine cord at C' and lead it over a pulley E'. Measure the perpendicularAN, drawn from A to the cord, and calculate Q from
Moment of Q, =Moment of P,
QxAN=PxAM,PxAM
U ~AN
Apply a weightW 2 equal to the calculated value of Q, and withdraw the
bradawl at B. If the rod remains vertical, the result may be taken as
evidence of the principle that two equal opposing moments balance.
FIG. 107. Two inclined forces, having FIG. 108. Disc in equilibrium underequal opposing moments. the action of several forces.
EXPT. 18. Principle of moments. In Fig. 108 is shown a wooden disc
which can turn freely about a bradawl pushed through a central hole into a
vertical board. Apply forces at a, b, c, d, etc., by means of cords, pulleysand weights, and let the disc find its position of equilibrium. Calculate
the moment of each force separately, and attach the proper sign, plus or
minus. Take the sum of each kind, and ascertain if the sums are equal, as
they should be, according to the principle of moments.
Resultant of two parallel forces. There are two cases to be con-
sidered, viz. forces of like sense (Fig. 109 (a}} and forces of unlike
sense (Fig. 109 (b)}. The following method is applicable equally to
both cases, and may be read in reference to both diagrams, which
are lettered correspondingly.
For convenience, let the given forces P and Q, act at 90 to a rod
AB at the points A and B respectively. The equilibrium of the rod
will not be disturbed by the application of equal opposite forces
S, S, applied in the line of the rod at A and B, By means of the
DYNAMICS CHAP
parallelogram of forces kbca, find the resultant R2 of P and S actingat A
;in the same manner find the resultant Rj of Q and S acting
at B. Produce the lines of R1and R2 until they intersect at O, and
let R! and R2 act at O. Resolve Rxand R2 into components acting
at O, and respectively parallel and at right angles to AB;the com-
ponents parallel to AB will be each equal to S, therefore they balance
and need not be considered further. The components at right anglesto AB will be equal respectively to P and Q, and are the only forces
remaining. Hence R is eqiittl to their algebraic sum;
thus
In Fig. 109 (a) R = P + Q (1)
In Fig. 109 (6) R = P -Q (la)
FIG. 109. Restiltant of two parallel forces.
Let the line of R, which passes through O and is parallel to P and
Q, be produced to cut AB, or AB produced, in C. Then the triangles
OAC and Aca are similar ; hence
OC Aa A P
Also the triangles OBC and Bfd are similar, therefore
OC_Bd_Bd_Q,CB~Jf~Be~S'
"
Divide (2) by (2a), giving
CB = P..
CA Q
.(2a)
.(3)
This result indicates that the line of the resultant divides the rod
into segments inversely proportional to the given forces, internally
if the forces are like, and externally if the forces are unlike. It
will be noted also that the resultant is always nearer to the larger
force;
in the case of forces of unlike sense, the resultant has the
same sense as the larger force. The equilibrant of P and Q may be
obtained by applying to the rod a force equal and opposite to R.
VIII PARALLEL FORCES 99
In the case of equal parallel forces of unlike sense equations (la)
and (3) give R = P _ P = 0;
the interpretation being that the resultant is a force of zero magnitude
applied at infinity an impossibility. The name couple is given to
two equal parallel forces of unlike sense;a couple has no resultant
force, and hence cannot be balanced by a force. Some properties
of couples will be discussed later.
Moments of parallel forces. The light rods shown in Fig. 110 (a)
and (6) are in equilibrium under the actions of forces P and Q, of
like sense in Fig. 110 (a) and of unlike
sense in Fig. 110 (ft), together with the
equilibrants E, supplied by the reactions
of the pivots at C. From equation (3)
fE fa) (p. 98), we have
P_BCQ~~AC'
or, PxAC=QxBC..................(1)
This result indicates that the moments
(b) of P and Q, are equal and opposite, and1 we may infer that this condition must
FIG. no. Moments of parallel be fulfilled in order that the rod mayiorc6s.
not rotate.
Tn Fig. Ill, R is the resultant of P and Q. Take any other pointO in the rod, and take moments about O.
Moment of R = R xOC=R(OA+AC) .......................... (2)
Moment of P = P x OA.
Moment of Q =Q x OB =Q(OA + AC + CB) .
.'. Moment of P + moment of Q
Jode
-(P + Q)OA + (Q x AC) + (P x AC) ,
from (1 ) ,
= R(OA + AC)= moment of R.
FIG. m. -Moments of p, Q and We may therefore assert that theR about o.
algebraic sum of the moments of the
parallel components of a force about any point is equal to
the moment of the resultant.
100 DYNAMICS CHAP.
B, B2
Reaction of a pivot. In Fig. 112 (a) a horizontal rod is in equi-librium under the action of a load Wapplied at A, another load Pj appliedat B
1 ,and a reaction E
x exerted by the
pivot at C. It is clear that El is equal
and opposite to the resultant of Pj
and W; hence
r*; In Fig. 112 (b) is shown the same
rod carrying the same load W at the
same place, but now equilibrated by a
force P2 applied at B2 ,and the equilibrant E2 applied by the pivot.
As before : c ,
FIG. 112. Reactions of pivots.
In Fig. 112 (a) we have
P1xB
1C=WxAC; .'. p
i=^ w -
In Fig. 112 (&), in the same way :
P2xB
2C = WxAC; /. P2=~ W.
Since W and AC are the same in both cases, and since B2C is greater
than BjC, P2 is less than Pl ;
therefore E2 is less than Er It will
thus be noted that although the general effect
is the same in both cases, viz. the rod is in
equilibrium, the effects on the pivots are not
identical, nor will be the effects of the loads in
producing stresses in the material of the rod.
B
EXPT. 19. Equilibrant of two parallel forces.
Hang a rod AB from a fixed support by means of
a cord attached to A (Fig. 113) ; let the rod hang in
front of a vertical board and fix it in its position of
equilibrium by means of bradawls at A and B.
Apply parallel forces P and Q at C and D respec-
tively, using cords, pulleys and weights Wj and
W 2. Find the resultant R and its point of applica-
tion by calculation, and then apply E, equal and
opposite to R by means of another cord, pulley and
weight W,. Remove the bradawls ;if the rod remains unaltered in
position, the result shows that the method of calculation has been
correct.
FIG. 113. Equilibrantof two parallel forces ofthe same sense.
vm RESULTANT OF PARALLEL 1'OROES' 101
Repeat the experiment using forces P and Q, of unlike sense. Also verifythe fact that if P and Q are equal and of opposite sense and act in parallellines, no single force applied to
the rod will preserve equilibrium.
|p |Q jsT
I
Resultant of any number of fp |Q fs IT
parallel uniplanar forces. InA B c D
R
Fig. 114 forces P, Q, S, T are
applied to a rod at A, B, C, D
respectively. The resultant
of these forces may be found;. . FIG. 114. Kesultant of parallel forces.
by successive applications of
the methods described on p. 97 for finding the resultant of two
parallel forces. O being any convenient point of reference, first find
the resultant R of P and Q.
Ri= P -Q .................................................................... (1)
. _(PxOA)-(QxOB)' Xl
~~~P-Q~
Now find the resultant R2 of Rx and 8.
R2=R 1 + S = P-Q + S ....................... . .......................... (3)
R2x2= R^ + (S x OC) = (P x OA)
-(Q x OB) + (S x OC) ;
(PxOA)-(QxOB) + (SxOC) mP
~
In the same manner, find the resultant R of R2 and T;R will then
be the resultant of the given forces.
(5)
=(P x OA)
-(Q, x OB) + (S x OC) + (T x OD);
_ (P x OA)- (Q x OB) + ( S x OC) + (TxOD)-
In this result the numerator is the algebraic sum of the momentsabout O of the given forces, and may be written ZPx. The denomi-
nator is the algebraic sum of the given forces, and may be written
1'P. Hence from (5) and (6), we have
R = 2P............................................ (7)
It is evident that the resultant is parallel to the forces of the given
system ; its sense is determined by the sign of the result calculated
from (7).
102 DV.NA'MICS CHAP.
Reversal of R will give the equilibrant of the given system. Shouldthe given forces be in equilibrium, R will be zero, and the algebraicsum of the moments of 'the given forces will also be zero. Hencethe conditions of equilibrium are
2P = (9)
2Pz = (10)
These must be satisfied simultaneously.Should 2P be zero, and ~Px be not zero, then the interpretation is
that the system can be reduced to two equal parallel forces of oppositesense, i.e. a couple (p. 99). Should 2P have a numerical value and^Px be zero, then the point O about which moments have been takenlies on the line of the resultant.
Reactions of a loaded beam. The above principles may be appliedin the determination of the reactions of the supports of a loaded
beam. An example will render the method clear.
EXAMPLE. A beam AB rests on supports at A and B 16 feet apart and
carries loads of 2, 1, 0-75 and 0-5 tons as shown (Fig. 115). Find the re-
actions P and Q of the supports.
t$>
From equation (9) above,
I^fon 2P=0; /. P+Q=2 + 1 +075+0-5
B =4-25 tons
P. may be calculated by takingmoments about B ; Q has no moment
k about this point, and will therefore
not appear in the calculation.
The sum of the clockwise moments
\2tons\
It- - 6'- -
^P Q
Fia. 115. Reactions of a beam.
will be equal to the sum of the anti-clockwise moments ; hence
P x 16 = (2 x 14) + (1 x 11) + (0 75 x 5) + (0-5 x 3) ;
/. P =2-765 tons.
In the same way, Q may be found by taking moments about A ; thus :
Qx 16 =(2x2) +(1x5) +(0-75x11) +(0-5x13);
.'. Q = 1 -484 tons.
The sum of these calculated values gives
P + Q, -2-765 + 1 -484 =4-249 tons,
a result which agrees with the sum already calculated, viz. 4-25, within the
limits of accuracy adopted in the calculations.
EXPT. 20. Reactions of a beam. Suspend a wooden bar from two
supports, using spring balances so that the reactions of the supports may
VTI! EXERCISES 103
be observed (Fig. 1 16). Prior to placing any loads on the beam, read the
spring balances ; let the readings be Px and Qx lb. weight respectively.
FIG. 116. Apparatus for determining the reactions of the supports of a beam.
Place some loads on the beam and calculate the reactions, neglecting the
weight of the beam. Again read the spring balances, P and Q lb. weight
say. The differences (P -Pi) and (Q, -Qj) lb. weight should agree with the
values found by calculation.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER VIII.
1. A bicycle has cranks 7 inches long from the axis to the centre of the
pedal. If the rider exerts a constant push of 20 lb. weight vertically
throughout the downward stroke, find the turning moment when the
crank is at the top, also when it has turned through angles of 30, 60, 90,120, 150 and 180 from the top position.
2. A wooden disc is capable of turning freely in a vertical plane abouta horizontal axis passing through its centre O. Light pegs A and B are
driven into one side of the disc ; OA=OB=6 inches and OA and OB are
perpendicular to one another. Fine cords are attached to A and B and
hang vertically ; these cords carry weights of 4 lb. and 2 lb. respectively.Find, and show in a diagram, the positions in which the disc will be in
equilibrium.
3. Two parallel forces of like sense, one of 8 lb. weight and the other
of 6 lb. weight, act on a body in lines 12 inches apart. Find the resultant.
4. Answer Question 3 supposing the forces to be of opposite senses.
5. A uniform horizontal rod 2 feet long has a weight of 12 lb. hangingfrom one end, and the rod is pivoted at its centre. Balance has to be
restored by means of a weight of 18 lb. Find where it must be placed.
6. A rod AB carries bodies weighing 3 lb., 7 lb. and 10 lb. at distances
of 2 inches, 9 inches and 15 inches respectively from A. Neglect the
104 DYNAMICS CHAP.
weight of the rod and find the point at which the rod must be supportedfor equilibrium to be possible.
7. A beam 12 feet long is supported at its ends and carries a weight of
2-5 tons at a point 4 feet from one end. Neglect the weight of the beamand find the reactions of the supports.
8. A lever 3-J feet long is used by a man weighing 150 Ib. who can raise
unaided a body weighing 300 Ib. Find the load he can raise (a) appliedat the end of the lever, the pivt being 4 inches from this end ; (6) withthe pivot at one end of the lever and the load at 4 inches from this end.
9. A light rod AB is 1 metre long and has parallel forces applied at right
angles to the rod as follows : At A, 2 kilograms weight ; at 16 cm. from A,4 kilograms weight ; at 55 cm. from A, 6 kilograms weight ; at B, 8 kilo-
grams weight. Find the resultant of these forces.
10. A light horizontal rod AB is 2 feet long and is supported ut its cuds ;
the reaction at A acts at 30 to the vertical. Find both reactions if a load
of 3 Ib. weight is placed on the rod at 8 inches from A.
11. A light horizontal rod AB, 3 feet long, is supported at its ends ; thereaction at A is vertical. A force of 4 Ib. weight is applied at a point C in
the rod ; AC is 1 foot and the angle between AC and the line of the force
is 70. Find the reactions of both supports.
12. A horizontal lever AB is 6 feet long and is pivoted at C ; AC is 4 inches.
If a load of 400 Ib. weight is suspended at A, find the position and magnitudeof the weight which must be applied to the lever in order that the reaction
of the support shall be a minimum. State the minimum value of thereaction. Neglect the weight of the lever.
13. A plank AB, 10 feet long, is hinged at a point 6 feet from a vertical
wall and its upper end B rests against the wall. Assume that both hingeand wall are smooth. Find the reactions of the wall and hinge if loads of
40, 60 and 100 Ib. weight are hung from points in the plank at distances
of 2, 6' and 8 feet respectively from A. Neglect the weight of the plank.
14. A bent lever ACB is pivoted at C ; the arms AC and BC meet at 120 ;
AC = 18 inches, BC = 10 inches, and is horizontal. If a load of 150 Ib. weightbe hung from B, find, by taking moments about C, what horizontal force
must be applied at A. Find also the reaction of the pivot at C
15. A beam AB, 40 feet long, is supported at A and at a point 10 feet
from B. Loads of 4, 8, 6 and 10 tons weight are applied respectively at
points 8, 20, 30 and 40 feet from A. Neglect the weight of the beam andfind the reactions of the supports.
16. A plank 12 feet long spans an opening between two walls. A manweighing 150 Ib. crosses the plank. Find the reactions of the supportsof the plank when the man is at distances of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 feet from oneend. Neglect the weight of the plank. Plot a graph showing thesedistances as abscissae, and the reactions of the left-hand support asordinates.
17. In Question 16, two men A, B, cross the plank from right to left,
B keeping at a distance of 4 feet behind A. Each man weighs 150 Ib.
Find the reactions of the left-hand support when A is at the following
vm EXERCISES 105
distances in feet from it : 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2, 0. Neglect the weight of the
plank. Plot a graph showing the reactions of the left-hand support as
ordinates, and the distances of A from this support as abscissae.
18. The seats in a rowing boat are 3 feet apart. The steersman weighs110 Ib. Starting with bow, the weights in Ib. of the four oarsmen are as
follows : 162, 155, 149, 166. Find the resultant weight in magnitudeand position.
19. Give the conditions of equilibrium of a body under parallel forces.
A thin rod of negligible weight rests horizontally on the hooks of two springbalances suspended 10 inches apart. Two bodies of weight 2 Ib. and 3 Ib.
respectively are hung from the rod, always at a distance of 20 inches apartfrom each other. How will you suspend these weights so that each springbalance shows the same reading ? (Calcutta.)
CHAPTER IX
CENTRE OF PARALLEL FORCES. CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Centre of parallel forces. In Fig. 117, AB is a rod having forces
P and Q, applied at the ends in lines making 90 with the rod. The
resultant R of P and Q divides the rods into segments given by
P : Q = BC : AC (p. 98) .............................. (1)
Without altering the magnitudes of P and Q, let their lines be
kept parallel and rotated into new positions P' and Q'. Through Cdraw DCE perpendicular to P' and Q/.
The resultant R' of P' and Q' divides
DE into segments inversely propor-tional to P' and Q'. It is evident
that the triangles ACD and BCE are
similar;hence
CENTRE OF GRAVITY 107
vertical lines, but their directions will be altered in relation to anyfixed line AB in the body (Fig. 118 (a) and (6)).
Let W be the resultant weight of the body, and let its line of
action be marked at CD on the body in Fig. 118 (a), and to be marked
again as EF in Fig. 118 (b). CD and
EF intersect at G, and it is clear
from what has been said that Wwill pass through G whatever maybe the position of the body. G is
the centre of the weights of the
particles composing the body, and
is called the centre of gravity.
In taking moments of the forces
acting on a body, the simplest wayof dealing with the total weight of the body is to imagine it to
be applied as a vertical force concentrated at the centre of gravity
of the body. The centre of gravity of a body may be defined as
that point at which the total weight of the body may be imagined to be
concentrated without thereby altering the gravitational effect on the body.
EXAMPLE. A uniform beam AB weighs 1 -5 tons, and has its centre of
gravity at the middle of its length. The beam is 16 feet long, and is
supported at the end A and at a,
point C 4 feet from the end B
(Fig. 119). Loads of 2 and 3 tons
^weight are applied at 3 feet from
1,
: A and at B respectively. Find the
reactions of the supports.
The centre of gravity G is at a
w(b)
FiO. 118. Centre of gravity.
2 tons 3 tons
1-5 tons
_ 72 i.
FIG. 119.
distance of 8 feet from A ; apply the weight of the beam, 1 -5 tons weight,
at G, and take moments about C in order to find P.
(Px 12) +(3x4) -(2x9) +(1-5x4).18 + 6-12 _ 12
2~~ "12= 1 ton weight.
To find Q, take moments about A.
Qx 12 = (3x16) +(1-5x8) +(2x3).48 + 12 + 6 66
p=
a-- 12
Check:
= 5-5 tons weight,
p +Q = ] + 5*5 =6*5 tons weight= total load on the beam.
108 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Some simple cases of centre of gravity. The position of the centre
of gravity in certain simple cases may be located by inspection.
Thus, for a slender straight rod or wire of uniform cross section,
the centre of gravity G lies at the middle of the length. In a thin
uniform square or rectangular plate, G lies at the intersection of the
diagonals ;a thin uniform circular plate has G at its geometrical
centre.
A parallelogram made of a thin uniform sheet may be imaginedto be built up of thin uniform rods arranged parallel to AB (Fig. 1 20) ;
the centre of gravity of each rod lies at
the middle of length of the rod, henceall their centres of gravity lie in HK,which bisects AB and CD. The centre
of gravity of the parallelogram there-
fore lies in HK. Similarly, the plate
may be imagined to be constructed ofof a thin rods lying parallel to AD, and the
centres of gravity of all these rods, andtherefore the centre of gravity of the parallelogram, will lie in EF,which bisects AD and BC. Hence G lies at the point of intersection
of HK and EF;
it is evident that the
diagonals AC and BD intersect at G.
A thin triangular plate may be treatedin a similar manner (Fig. 121). First
take strips parallel to AB, when it is clear
that the centre of gravity of the plate lies
in CE, which bisects AB and also bisects
all the strips parallel to AB. Then take
strips parallel to BC ; AD bisects BC andalso all the strips parallel to BC, and there-
fore contains the centre of gravity. Hence FIG. 121. centre of gravity of a
G lies at the intersection of CE and AD.Let DE be joined in Fig. 121, then the triangles BED and BAG are
similar, since DE is parallel to AC. Therefore DE = |AC. Also the
triangles DEG and ACG are similar ; hence___ 1AG"AC~ AC~ 2 '
We have therefore the rule that the centre of gravity of a thin
triangular sheet lies on the line drawn from the centre of a side to
the opposite corner, and one-third of its length from the side.
Any uniform prismatic bar has its centre of gravity in its axis
at the middle of its length. The centre of gravity of a uniform
sphere lies at its geometrical centre. A solid cone or pyramid has
IX CENTRE OF GRAVITY 109
the centre of gravity on the line joining the centre of the base to the
apex, and one-quarter of its length from the base. A cone or pyramid
open at the base, and made of a thin sheet bent to shape, has its centre
of gravity on the line joining the centre of the base to the apex, and
one-third of its length from the base.
Method of calculating the position of the centre of gravity. The
problem of finding a line which contains the centre of gravity of a
body is identical with that of finding
the line of action of the resultant
weight of the body, having been given
the weights of the separate particles of
which the body is composed.
Fig. 122 shows a thin uniform sheet
in the plane of the paper; OX and OYare horizontal and vertical axes of
u
reference. Let xlt y, be the coordinates Fl - 122'-Cenle
etof gravity of a
of a particle at P;
let the weight of
the particle be w1 ,
and describe similarly all the other particles of
the body. Then
Kesultant weight of the body =W =wl + w2 -f w3 + etc.
= S, (1)
Take moments about O, and let x be the horizontal distance
between the line of W and OY;then
\Nx =
x =
w^x3 + etc.
W (2)
Now turn the figure until OX becomes vertical, and again take
moments about O; let the distance between the line of W and
OX be y, then w = + w + w + etc .
y= W .(3)
Draw a line parallel to OX and at a distance y from it;draw
another line parallel to OY and at a distance x from it;the centre
of gravity G lies at the intersection of these lines.
Generally the sheet under consideration may be cut into portions
for each of which the weights wl9w2 ,
w3 , etc., may be calculated,
and the coordinates of the centres of gravity
be written down by inspection.
, (x2y2), etc., may
110 DYNAMICS CHAP
EXAMPLE 1. Find the centre of gravity of the thin uniform plateshown in Fig. 123.
Take axes OX and OY as shown and let the weight of the plate per squareinch of surface be w. For convenience of calculation the plate is divided
into three rectangles as shown, the respective centres of gravity beingGp G2
and G3 . Taking moments about OY, we have
10 {(6 x 1) 4- (8 x 1) + (3 x l)\x=w(Q x 1 x 3) + w>(8 x 1 x) + w(3 x 1 x 1|),
_ 6-5
17= 1 -56 inches.
Again, taking moments about OX, we have
17y=(6xlx9)+(8x Ix5)+(3x 1 x
98-5-5-8 inches.
V 6'- *
1-56"
O 1
FIG. 123. FIG. 124.
EXAMPLE 2. A circular plate (Fig. 124) 12 inches diameter has a hole
3 inches diameter. The distance between the centre A of the plate and
the centre B of the hole is 2 inches. Find the centre of gravity.
Take AB produced as OX, and take OY tangential to the circumference
of the plate. It is evident that G lies in OX. Taking moments about
OY, we may say that the moment of the plate as made is equal to that of
the complete disc diminished by the moment of the material removed in
cutting out the hole. Let w be the weight per square inch of surface, D the
diameter of the plate, and d that of the hole. Then
Weight of the complete disc =w vrD 2
Weight of the piece cut out =>-
Weight of tho plate as made =ivArD 2 7rd2 \ WTT= IV ~. =3-T-\ 4
IX CENTRE OF GRAVITY ill
Take moments about OY, and let OG =x,
2 828ft ,,.-- = mches.
EXAMPLE 3. A notice board 3 feet broad by 2 feet high, made of
timber 1 inch thick, is nailed to a post 7 feet high, made of the same kind
of timber, 3 inches by 3 inches (Fig. 125).
Find the centre of gravity.
The volumes of the post and board are
proportional to the weights, and may be
used instead of the weights.
The weight of the board is proportionalto (36x24x1) -864.
The weight of the post is proportionalto (84x3x3) -756.
The total weight is proportional to
(864 +756) -1620.
The vertical plane of which AB is the
trace (Fig. 125) contains the centres of
gravity of both board and post, and therefore contains the centre of
gravity of the whole.
Take moments about O.
1620^ = (864 x 3 5) + (756 x 1 -5)
T864
756
FIG. 125.
_ 3024 + 1134* =
1620-= 2-566 inches.
Also, 1620?/ = (864 x 72) + (756 x 42).
="*-Hence the centre of gravity lies in the vertical plane AB, at a height of
58 inches and at 2-566 inches from the back of
the post.
EXAMPLE 4. Bodies having weights of wlt iv 2,
w3, WL are placed in order at the corners A, B, C,
D of a square (Fig. 126). Find the centre of gravity.
First find the centre of gravity G x of w^ and w> 2 ;
d falls in AB and divides AB in the proportion
FIG. 126. BGi Wj.
112 DYNAMICS CHAP.
In the same way, the centre of gravity of w z and w 4 falls in CD, anddivides CD in the proportion
CG2=^4
DG 2 ws
The centre of gravity of the whole system lies in G^.The centre of gravity G 3 of w z and w3 divides BC in the proportion
Also the centre of gravity of w^ and w 4 divides AD in the proportion
The centre of gravity G of the whole system lies in G 3G 4 . Therefore Glies at the intersection of GjG 2 and G 3G 4 . The completion of the problem
may be carried out on a drawing made carefully to scale.
EXAMPLE 5. Equal weights wlt w 2 and w 3 are placed at the corners
of any triangle ABC (Fig. 127). Find the
centre of gravity.The centre of gravity Gj of w^ and w 2
bisects AB, and the centre of gravity of the
system lies in CGj. Also the centre of
gravity G 2 of w z and w 3 bisects BC, and the
centre of gravity G of the system lies in
127
lines drawn from the centres of two sides
to the opposite corners of the triangle,
and therefore coincides with the centre of
gravity of a thin sheet having the same shape as the triangle.
EXAMPLE 6. In Fig. 128 (a), ABCD is a thin sheet : AB is parallel to
CD. Find the centre of gravity. (This is a case which occurs often in
practice.)
Imagine the sheet to be
divided into narrow strips
parallel to AB. The centre of
gravity of each strip will lie
in EF, a straight line which
bisects both AB and CD, and
therefore bisects each strip.
Join DE and CE, thus dividingthe sheet into three triangles
ADE, BCE and DEC. Since these triangles are all of the same height, their
areas and hence their weights are proportional to their bases ; thus
Weight of A ADE : weight of A BCE : weight of A DEC = |AB : fAB : DC.
D F C ^ F
(a) (b)
FIG. 128. A frequent case of centre of gravity.
IX STATES OF EQUILIBRIUM 113
Making use of the proposition discussed in Example 5 above, the weightof each triangle may be divided into three equal parts and one part placedat each corner of the triangle without altering the position of the centre of
gravity of the triangle. The equivalent system of weights will be as
follows (Fig. 128 (6) ).
At A, JAB; atB, JAB; at E, (*AB + DC) ; atC, (JAB + iDC);atD, (JAB + 1
DC).
The centre of gravity of the weights at A, E and B lies at , and the
resultant of these weights is (|AB +t?AB + JDC) =j|AB + JDC. The centre
of gravity of the weights at C and D is at F, and the resultant of these
weights is (j?AB + $DC). The centre of gravity G of the whole systemdivides EF in the proportion
FG 4AB + JDC _2AB+DCEG ~|AB +|DC ~AB + 2DC'
The following graphical
method (Fig. 129) is useful
in this case : Draw EF as
before ; produce AB and CDto H and K respectively,
making BH -CD, and DK =AB.
Join HK cutting EF in O.
The triangles EOH and FOKare similar, hence FQ ^ pK ^DK + FQ
EO""EH EB-i-BH
.(1)
2AB_4-DCABT2DC (2)
As this result is identical with that found in (1) for the position of G, it
follows that O and G coincide. Hence Fig. 129 provides a purely graphical
method of finding the centre- of gravity of the sheet.
States of equilibrium of a body. When a body is at rest under
the action of a system of forces, the equilibrium is stable or unstable
according as the body returns, or fails to return to its original position
after being disturbed slightly. The equilibrium is neutral if the
body remains at rest in any position. When a body is at rest under
the action of gravity and given supporting forces, the state of equi-
librium depends, among other conditions, upon the situation of the
centre of gravity.D.s.r. H
114 DYNAMICS CHAP.
A cone may assume any of the three states of equilibrium. In
Fig. 130 (a) the cone is resting with its base on a horizontal table;
if disturbed slightly (Fig. 130 (&)), the tendency of W, acting throughthe centre of gravity G, and the reaction R of the table, is to restore
(d)
FIG. 130. Stable and unstable equilibrium.
the cone to its original position. The equilibrium in Fig. 130 (a)
is therefore stable. In Fig. 130 (c) the cone is in equilibrium when
resting on its apex ;the slightest disturbance (Fig. 130 (d))' will
bring W and R into parallel lines, and they then conspire to upsetthe cone. The equilibrium in Fig. 130 (c) is therefore unstable.
In Fig. 131 the cone is lying on its side
on the horizontal table;
in this case it
is impossible for W and R to act other-
wise than in the same vertical line, nomatter how the cone may be turned while
still lying on its side. Hence the equili-brium is neutral.
A sphere resting on a horizontal table
is in neutral equilibrium, provided the
centre of gravity coincides with the
geometrical centre. A cylinder restingwith its curved surface on a horizontal
table is in neutral equilibrium, so far as
f/7~/ ///////I''/////////// f/7/t
rFIG. 131. Neutral equilibrium.
disturbance by rolling is concerned, provided the centre of gravitylies in the axis of the cylinder.
In Fig. 132 (a) a rectangular block rests on a horizontal plank,one end of which can be raised. The vertical through G falls within
the surfaces in contact ab, and the equilibrium is stable under the
action of W and the reaction R. It is impossible that R can act
outside of ab;
hence stable equilibrium just ceases to be possiblewhen the plank is inclined to such an angle that the vertical throughG passes through a (Fig. 132 (b). It is understood that means are
provided at a to prevent slipping of the block. If the plank be
IX STATES OF EQUILIBRIUM 115
inclined at a steeper angle (Fig. 132 (c)), R and W conspire to upsetthe block.
It will be noticed that when a body is in a position of stable equi-
librium, a disturbance by tilting has the effect of raising the centre
w
FiQ. 132. Stability of a block on an inclined plane.
of gravity. Further, if a body is capable of moving under the action
of gravitational effort, it will always move in such a way as to bringthe centre of gravity into a lower position. A position of stable
equilibrium will be attained when (as in a pendulum) the centre of
gravity has reached the lowest possible position.
In Fig. 133 (a) is shown a sphere having its geometrical centre at
C and its centre of gravity at G. This displacement of the centre
of gravity may be produced either
by introducing a heavy plug into
the lower hemisphere, or by cuttinga slice off the top of the sphere.The sphere rests on a horizontal
table, and will be in equilibriumwhen C and G are both in the samevertical. The reaction R and the
weight W are then in the same
straight line. If slightly disturbed
:Xxx>>r>Ifl *R
\(a) (b)\
. 133. Stability of a loaded sphere.
(Fig. 133 (&)), R and W conspire to restore the sphere to the original
position, which is therefore a position of stable equilibrium.
Graphical methods for finding the centre of gravity of a thin sheet.
The sheet abed (Fig. 134) is quadrilateral, and is drawn carefully to
scale. Divide the sheet into two triangles by joining bd. Bisect
bd in e; join ae and ce
;make ec^
= lae, and ec2= lec
;then c
t and c2
are the centres of gravity of the triangles abd and cbd respectively.
Join c^ ;the centre of gravity of the sheet lies in c^. Again
116 DYNAMICS CHAP.
divide the sheet by joining ac, and in the same way find the centres
of gravity c3 and CA of the triangles dbc and ode. The centre of
gravity G then lies at the intersection of CjC2and c3C4.
In Fig. 135 (a) the sheet has a curved
outline. Take as reference axes OX touch-
ing the outline at its lowest point, and OYat 90
tto OX. Draw AB parallel to OX and
touching the outline at its highest point.Let Ji be the perpendicular distance betweenOX and AB. CD is a very narrow strip
parallel to OX and at a distance y from it,
and has a breadth dy. The area of the
strip is proportional to its weight and is equal to CD x dy. Themoment of this about OX is CDxdyxy. Draw CE and DF per-
pendicular to AB; join EO and FO cutting CD in H and K. In the
similar triangles OHK and OEF, we have
FIG. 134. Centre of gravityby construction.
A E
.'. HK x^ = EF x?/ =CD x?/.
Multiply each side by dy, giving
HKxdyxh=CDxdyxy.
Y
F B
(a) (b)Fia. 135. Graphical method for finding the centre of gravity of a sheet.
This equation indicates that the product of the area of the stripHK and Ji is equal to the moment of the strip CD. A similar result
may be found for any other strip ; hence, if a number of points,such as H and K, be found and a curve drawn through them, the
area enclosed by this curve (shown shaded in Fig. 135 (a)}, when
multiplied by the constant h, will give the total moment of all the
ix POSITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM 117
strips resembling CD into which the sheet may be divided. Let Ajand A
2 be the areas of the given sheet and the shaded curve respec-
tively (these areas can be found by means of a plani meter), andlet y be the distance of the centre of gravity from OX, then
or- A2-
Take another pair of axes, OX and OY (Fig. 135 (6)), and carryout the same process, thus determining the distance x of the centre
of gravity from OY. The coordinates x and y of the centre of gravityhave now been found.
EXAMPLE. Apply the above method to find the centre of gravity of a
thin semicircular sheet (Fig. 136). The diameter AB is 5 inches.
The centre of gravity of the sheet lies in OC, which is a radius drawn
perpendicular to AB, hence y alone need be determined by the graphical
method, which is shown in Fig.
136. CThe following measurements
were obtained by means of a plani-
rneter :
The semicircular area
A! =9-82 sq. ins.
Also, A 2 4-12 sq. ins.
; _A 2 , _4 12* ' ^J ~A, ~9T82
XFia. 136. Centre of gravity of a semicircular
sheet.= 1/05 inches.
It is known that the centre of gravity of a semicircular sheet lies at a
distance 4r/3ir from AB (Fig. 136). Using this expression in order to
check the above result, we obtain
y -^ =1-06 inches.3x?r
Positions of equilibrium. If a body is suspended freely from a
fixed point, the position in which it will hang in equilibrium is such
that the centre of gravity falls in the vertical passing through the
fixed point.
EXAMPLE 1. A loaded rod AB (Fig. 137) is suspended by means of twocords from a fixed point C. Find its position of equilibrium.The centre of gravity, G, of the loaded rod is first found by application
of the foregoing methods. Join CG and produce it. The weight W of
118 DYNAMIC'S
the system acts in CG ; hence CG is vertical. Draw DE perpendicular to
CG and turn the paper round until DE is horizontal. The system will then
be in its position of equilibrium.
FIQ. 137. A loaded rod. FIG. 138. Position of equilibrium of aloaded body.
EXAMPLE 2. A body ABC (Fig. 138 (a)), of weight W, is suspendedfreely from C, and AB is then horizontal. The centre of gravity Gbisects AB, and CG is at 90 to AB. Find the angle which AB makeswith the horizontal when a body having a weight w is attached at B(Fig. 138(6)).
The centre of gravity G' now lies in GB, and divides it in the ratio
BG'~W'GG' _w
' '
GG'+BG'~W-H<;;
/. ocr4,w
GB. (1)vw+wJoin CG' and produce it ; draw DE at 90 to CG', then when the paper
is turned so that DE is horizontal, the system is in its position of equi-librium. The angle which AB then makes with the horizontal will be
equal to the angle GCG' ; let this angle be 6, thenf\f^/ / \ f\r*
A si vaw I W \ CahS /P ,, v , ._
From this result we see that if CG is diminished the angle 6 becomes
larger ;if C and G coincide, CG is zero, tan is then infinity and the system
would hang in equilibrium with CB vertical.
THE COMMON BALANCE 110
EXPT. 21. Centre of gravity of sheets. The centre of gravity of a thin
sheet may be found by hanging it from a fixed support
by means of a cord AB (Fig. 139) ; the cord extends
downwards and has a small weight W, thus serving as
a plumb-line. Mark the direction AC on the sheet,
and then repeat the operation by hanging the sheet
from D, marking the new vertical DE. G will be the
point of intersection of AC and DE. Carry out this
experiment for the sheets of metal or millboard
supplied.
EXPT. 22. Centre of gravity of a solid body. Arrangethe body so that it is supported on knife edges placed
on the pans of balances (Fig. 140). Find the weights
Wj and W 2 required to restore the balances to equi-
librium ; these give the reactions of the supports. FIG. 139. Centre
Measure AB, the distance between the knife-edges. ^SjJ^^J.*1**1
Let G be the centre of gravity, then
AG W 2 .
AG W2
where W =W X +W* is the weight of the body.
,B-- W2
FIG. 140. Experimental determination of the centre of gravity of a body.
The common balance. In the outline drawing given in Fig. 141,
the beam AB is capable of turning freely about a knife-edge at C,
and its centre of gravity is at G. Scale-pans are hung from knife-
edges at A and B. If the scale-
Pi B pans be removed, the beam will
remain at rest with G in the
vertical passing through C. AB
intersects CG at 90 at D, and is
? therefore horizontal. For the
FIG. 141. Principle of the common balance, balance to be true, AB must
120 DYNAMICS CHAP.
remain horizontal when the scale-pans are hung from the beam, and
also when bodies of equal weight are placed in the pans. These
conditions will be complied with if AD and BD are equal, and if
the scale-pans are of equal weights.
EXAMPLE. The beam of a balance is shown in Fig. 142. Unequal
weights, W x and W 2 , W2 beingthe greater, have been placed in
the pans. Determine the angle a
which AB now makes with the
horizontal.
Let S be the weight of each
scale-pan, W the weight of the
beam and any attachments fixed
rigidly to it. Let CD = a, CG = 6,
FIG. U2.-Uneaually loaded balance.
' andAD=DB=c. It is evident
that CG is inclined at a to the
vertical. DrawAE, BK, GF horizontally to meet the vertical CK ; let this
vertical cut AB in L. Take moments about C, giving
(W x + S)AE +W . GF = (W 2 + S)BK,
(W] +S)AL . cos a +W . CG . sin a =(\N 2 +S)BL . cos a,
(Wj +S)(AD +DL) cos a +W . b . sin a-(W 2 +S)(BD -DL) cos a,
(Wi +S)(c fa tan a) cos a +W . b . sin a =(W 2 +S)(c -a tan a.) cos a,
(Wi +S)(c +a tan a) fW& tan a =(W 2 +S)(c -a tan a),
?i +aS -fW6 +aW 2 + aS) tan a =W 2c + Sc -W xc -Sc,
tana <W-W '' C
W
The magnitude of the angle a for a given difference in weights(W 2
-W1 ) may be taken as a measure of the sensitiveness of a balance.
The factors influencing the magnitude of a are given in the formulafound above for tan a. Increase in the lengths of the armsAD=DB = c (Fig. 142) will increase a, and hence will increase the
sensitiveness. The sensitiveness is diminished by increasing the
product W6 ;hence the weight W of the beam should be reduced
to the minimum consistent with sufficient rigidity ; greater sen-
.sitiveness can be obtained by diminishing CG = 6 (Fig. 142). Dimin-
ishing CD = a will increase the sensitiveness, and in many laboratorybalances C and D coincide. If G also coincides with D, the result
will be a loss of stability, since the beam would then be capable of
resting in equilibrium at any angle to the horizontal. In a sensitive
balance, G falls a little below D, and C may coincide with D. Thesensitiveness is diminished by an increase in (Wj +W2 + 2S) ;
hencebalances intended for delicate work are unsuitable for weighing
ix EXERCISES 121
heavy bodies, and the scale-pans of delicate balances should be
light. In order to understand how these principles are applied, thestudent should examine the parts of a delicate balance.
Truth of a balance. A true balance having equal masses in the
pans will vibrate through equal angles above and below the hori-
zontal. The truth may be tested by placing masses in the pansuntil this condition is fulfilled
;the masses are then interchanged,
when equal angles will again be observed if the balance is true.
Referring to Fig. 141, let the arms AD and BD be unequal, andlet the balance be so constructed that AB remains horizontal, or
vibrates through equal angles above and below the horizontal whenthe scale-pans are empty. Let a body having a true weight W be
placed in the left-hand pan, and let it be balanced by a weight Pin the other pan. Now place W in the right-hand pan, and let Qbe the weight required in order to equilibrate. Take moments in
each case about C (Fig. 141).
WxAD=PxBD (1)
W xBD=QxAD (2)
Taking products, we have
W2 x AD x BD = P x Q, x BD x AD ;
/. W = VPQ. (3)
Thus the true weight is the geometrical mean of the false weightsP and Q. Had the arithmetical mean J(P + Q) been taken as the
true weight, the result would be greater than W.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER IX.
1. A uniform beam, 12 feet long, weighs 500 lb., and carries a load of
0000 lb. distributed uniformly along its left-hand half. If the beam is
supported at its ends, find the reactions of the supports.
2. The jib of a derrick crane (p. 89) is 30 feet long and weighs 800 lb. ;
the centre of gravity is 12 feet from the lower end. The post and tie of
the crane measure ] 6 feet and 20 feet respectively. Find the pull in the
tie necessary to support the jib.
3. A ladder AB, 20 feet long, weighs 90 lb., and its centre of gravityis 8 feet from A. The ladder is carried in a horizontal position by two
men, one being at A. A bag of tools weighing 60 lb. is slung at a point12 feet from A. Find where the second man must be situated if the menshare the total load equally between them.
4. A plate of iron of uniform thickness is cut to the shape of a triangle
having sides AB=2 feet, BC=3 feet, CA=4 feet. If the plate weighs50 lb. and lies on a horizontal floor, find what vertical force, applied at
one corner, will just lift that corner.
122 DYNAMICS CHAP.
5. A thin plate is cut to the shape shown in Fig. 143. Find its centre
of gravity.
6. Draw full size a quadrilateral ABCD ;
> AB= 4 inches, BC = 2^ inches,
CD =3-J inches, DA = 3| inches
;
diagonal AC=4 inches. The figure represents athin plate ; find its centre of gravity. If the plate
weighs 2 Jb. and lies on a table, what vertical force
would just lift the corner D ?
33-
1-13.
Y
ix EXERCISES 123
foot, find what horizontal force P, applied at a height CE-5 feet aboveC, will just overturn the wall.
14. A solid uniform hemisphere rests with its curved surface in contactwith a horizontal table. Show that the equilibrium is stable.
15. In Fig. 146, A is a semicylindrical body resting on a horizontal table.The top face of A is rectangular, 10 inches long in the direction perpen-dicular to the paper, and 4 inches in the direction
parallel to the plane of the paper. B is a cylindricalrod made of the same kind of material as A, 2 inches
diameter, and fixed perpendicularly to the centre of
the top face of A. Find the height of B so that the
equilibrium of the whole shall be neutral. (The centre
of gravity of A is at a distance 4r/37r below the topface.) -^^^^^^
16. Draw an isosceles triangle, sides AB and AC F4 inches long, base BC 3 inches long. Bodies weighing4, 6 and 8 Ib. are fastened at A, B and C respectively. The triangle is
made of a thin sheet weighing 1 Ib. If the arrangement is suspendedby a cord attached to the centre of AB, find and show in the drawing the
position it will assume.
17. Find graphically the centre of gravity of the sheet shown in
Fig. 147. AB is a chord drawn at a distance of 1 inchfrom the centre of the circular portion, and the radiusof the circular portion is 3 inches.
18. A body is placed first in one pan and then in theother pan of a false balance. When in the first pan,
A B it is balanced by weights amounting to 0-562 Ib.
Fio. 147. placed in the other pan ; in the second operation,the weights amount to 557 Ib. What is the true
weight of the body ? Assume that the balance beam swings correctlywhen both pans are empty. What is the error made by taking the arith-
metical mean of the readings as the true weight ?
19. A uniform lever weighing 85 grams rests on a knife-edge at a point7-3 cm. from its centre, and carries upon its longer end a weight of 105
grams, distant 23 3 cm. from the support, and a weight of 113 grams18-4 cm. from the support. What weight must be carried on the shorterend at a point 21 7 cm. from the support in order that the lever shall bein equilibrium ? Adelaide University.
20. Prove that if a passenger of weight W advances a distance a alongthe top of a motor-bus, a weight Wa/6 is transferred from the back springsto the front springs, where b is the distance between the axles. L.U.
21. A uniform bar AB, 18 inches long, has a string AC, 75 inches long,attached at A, and another string BC, 19-5 inches long, attached at B. Both
strings are attached to a peg C, and the rod hangs freely. Find graphicallythe angle which the rod makes with the horizontal.
22. The centre of gravity of a uniform semicircular sheet is at a distanceof 4r/3zr from the diametrical edge, r being the radius of the semicircle.
Deduce from this information the position of the centre of gravity of a
124 DYNAMICS
uniform sheet in the shape of a quadrant of a circle. Explain clearly the
method of deduction. L.U.
23. ABC is a horizontal lever pivoted at its middle point B, and carryinga scale-pan of weight W at C ; AD is a light bar pivoted at A to the lever
and at D, vertically above A. to a horizontal bar FDE, which is freelymovable about its end F, which is fixed. The weight of this bar is W lt
and its centre of gravity is at a distance d from F and FD c. Show howto graduate this bar with a movable weight w for varying weights Wplaced in the scale-pan at C. If inch-graduations correspond to Ib. wts.
and w = l Ib., find the value of c. In this case find the relation betweenW andW 1? when d = 1 inch and the zero mark is 1 inch from F. L.U.
24. Explain the meaning of the centre of a system of parallel forces,
and show how to find it.
Weights of 1, 3, 4, 10 Ib. respectively are placed at the corners of a square.Find the distance of their centre of gravity from each side of the square.
Tasmania University.
25. The axial distance between the wheels of a vehicle is 5 feet. Thevehicle is loaded symmetrically, and the centre of gravity is at a heightof 6 feet above the ground. Find the maximum angle with the vertical
to which the vehicle may be tilted sideways without upsetting.
26. To determine the height of the centre of gravity of a locomotive,it is placed on rails, one of which is 5 inches above the other ; and it is
then found that the vertical forces on the upper and lower rails are
respectively 23 and 37 tons. Calculate the height of the centre of gravityif the distance between the rails is 5 feet. Sen. Cam. Loc.
27. Prove that the sensibility of a balance is proportional to the lengthof the arm of the beam, and inversely proportional to the weight of the
beam, and also inversely proportional to the distance between the centre
of gravity of the beam and the central knife-edge.
CHAPTER X
COUPLES. SYSTEMS OF UNIPLANAK FORCES
Moment of a couple. In Fig. 148, P^and P2 are equal parallel
forces of opposite sense and therefore form a couple (p. 99). Bytaking moments successively about points A, B, C and D, it may be
shown that the couple lias the same
moment about any point in its plane.
Thus:
Taking moments about A :
Moment of the couple=
(P1 xO)-(P2 xd)=-P2d,....(I)
the negative sign indicating an anti-
clockwise moment.
Taking moments about B :
FIG. 148. A couple has the samemoment about any point in its Moment of the COUple
=(P2 xO)-(P1 x<Z)=-P1d (2)
lakmg moments about C :
Moment of the couple= -(Pl xa) -P2(d-a) = -P
2d (3)
Taking moments about D :
Moment of the couple = (P2 x 6) -Pl(d + b)= -Ptd (4)
As P! and P2 are equal, these four results are identical, thus provingthe proposition. The perpendicular distance d between the forces
is called the arm of the couple.
Equilibrant of a couple. A couple may be balanced by another couple
of equal and opposite moment applied (a) in the same plane, or (b) in a
parallel plane.
(a) Reference is made to Fig. 149, in which are shown a clockwise
couple, having equal forces Ptand P2
and an arm a, and an anti-
clockwise couple, having equal forces Qj and Q2and an arm 6. Both
126 DYNAMICS
couples are applied in the plane of the paper, and it is given that
the moments PLa and QX6 are equal, or
Qi:P1= :6 (1)
Produce the lines of the four forces to intersect at A. B, C and D.
From A draw AM and AN at right angles to Pland Qx respectively.
Then AM = a and AN = b. The trianglesAMC and AND are similar, hence
AC : AD -AM : AN =a : b (2)
Therefore, from (1) and (2),
QJ : P1=AC : AD (3)
Now AC and BD are equal, and ADand BC are also equal, being oppositesides of a parallelogram ;
hence we
may represent P3 by CB, P2 by DA, Qj
by DB, and Q2 by CA. Let Pj and ^act at B, then their resultant R! is
represented by the diagonal AB. LetP2 and Q2 act at A, and their resultant
R2
is represented by BA. As Rj and R2 are equal, opposite and in
the same straight line, they balance, and therefore the given couplesbalance.
(b) In Fig. 150 is shown a rectangular block having equal forces
Pland P2 applied to AD and BC respectively, and other equal forces
P1
and P2 applied to
the back edges FG and
EH. These forces beingall equal, the block is
subjected to two equal
opposing couples in
parallel planes.
The resultant Rx of
the forces P1P1 will act
perpendicularly to
bottom face andFIG. 150. Equal opposing couples in parallel planes arc
in equilibrium.
the
will
bisect the diagonal DG;
similarly, the resultant
R 2 of P2P2 will bisect the diagonal BE and will be perpendicular to
the top face. It is evident that Rj and R2 are equal and opposite,and that they act in the same straight line
;hence they balance, and
therefore the given couples balance.
COUPLES 127
The effect of a couple is unaltered by shifting it to another position in
the same plane or in a parallel plane. A couple may be balanced bythe application in the same plane, or in a parallel plane, of asecond couple of equal opposing moment
;it follows that if the
second couple be reversed its effect on the body will be identical
with that of the first couple. Thus the second couple, so reversed,
may be substituted for the first couple ;in other words, the first
couple may be shifted to any new position in the same plane, or in
a parallel plane, without changing its effect on the body as a whole.
Further, the second couple need not have its forces equal to those
of the first couple, a fact which enables us to state that the forces
of a given couple may be altered in magnitude, provided that the
arm is altered to correspond, so as to leave the couple of unaltered
moment. Thus, in Fig. 150, if the couple acting on the end EFGHhas its forces given unequal to those of the couple acting on the
end ABCD, equality of the forces may be obtained by making the
arms of the couples equal.
The law that to every action there is always an equal and con-
trary reaction may now be extended by asserting that to every
couple there must be an equal and contrary couple, acting in the same or
in a parallel plane.
Composition of couples in the same plane or in parallel planes.
Any number of couples applied to a bod)i and acting in the same
plane, or in parallel planes, may be
compounded by the substitution of a
single couple having a moment equalto the algebraic sum of the momentsof the given couples. This resultant
couple may act in the given plane, or
in any plane parallel to the given plane,
without thereby altering the effect on
the body as a whole.FlQ. 151. Transference of a force
Substitution Of a force and a COUple to a line parallel to the given line of
for a given force. In Fig. 151 is shownaction '
a body having a force Px applied at A. Suppose that it would
be more convenient if Px were applied at another point B. To
effect this change of position, let two opposing forces P2 ,P2,
each
equal to Pl3 be applied at B in a line parallel to Pl ;
the forces
P2 ,P2 will balance one another and therefore do not affect the given
128 DYNAMICS CHAP.
FIG. 152. Reduction of a given force andcouple to a single force.
condition of the body. Let d be the perpendicular distance between
the lines of Px and P2 . The downward force P2 , together with Pl5
forms a couple having a moment P-^d ;this couple may be applied
at any position in the same plane,
leaving a force P2 acting at B, equal
to and having the same sense and
direction as the given force Pr Agiven force is therefore equivalentto an equal parallel force of the
same sense together with a couple
having a moment equal to the
product of the given force and
the perpendicular distance between
the lines of the parallel forces.
Substitution of a force for a given force and a given couple. In
Fig. 152, a force P is given acting at A, also a couple having forces Q, Q,
and an arm d. The system may be reduced to a single force by first
altering the forces of the couple so
that each is equal to P, the moment
being kept unaltered by makingQeZ = Pa,
where a is the new arm of the couple.
Let P', P' be the new forces of the
couple, and apply the couple so that
one of its forces acts in the same
line as the given force P, and in the
sense opposite to that of P. Then
P and P' acting at A balance each
other, leaving a force P' of the same
sense as P, and acting in a line
parallel to P and at a perpendiculardistance a from the line of P.
EXPT. 23. Equilibrium of two equal
opposing couples. In Fig. 153 is shown
oa a
FIG. 153. An experiment on couples.
a rod AB hung vertically by a string attached at A and also to a fixed supportat C. By means of cords, pulleys and weights, apply two equal, oppositeand parallel forces P, P, and also another pair Q, Q ; all these forces are
horizontal. Adjust the values so that the following equation is satisfied :
PxDE=Qx FG.
Note that the rod remains at rest under the action of these forces.
SYSTEMS OF UNIPLANAR FORCES 129
P.cosoc,
Repeat the experiment, inclining the parallel forces P, P, at any angleto the horizontal, and inclining the parallel forces Q, Q, to a different
angle, but arranging that the moment of the P, P, couple is equal to thatof the Q, Q, couple. Note whether the rod is balanced under the actionof these couples.
Apply the P, P, couple only, and ascertain by actual trial whether it is
possible to balance the rod in its vertical position as shown in Fig. 153
by application of a single push exerted by a finger.
Reduction of any system of uniplanar forces. Tn Fig. 154 are
given four typical forces Pl5P2 ,P3 and P4 , acting in the plane of the
paper at A, B, C and D
respectively. Take any Y
two rectangular axes OXand OY in the plane of
the paper, and let the
direction angles of the
forces, av 2 >etc -> ^e
stated with reference to
OX. Resolve each force
into components parallel
to OX and OY;
thus
Px
will have componentsP
tcos <*! and Pj sin av
Transfer into OX each com-
ponent which is parallel
to OX, and also transfer
into OY each component which is parallel to OY. This will
introduce a couple for each component so shifted; thus, the
couple produced by shifting Px cos a
lwill be (P1 cos a1 )?/ 1
and
that produced by shifting P^inct! will be (Pj sin aja^. Some of
these couples will be clockwise and others anticlockwise ; to
obtain the resultant moment take the algebraic sum of the set
parallel to OX and also the algebraic sum of those parallel to OY,
giving :
Resultant moment of couples parallel to OX = ~(P cos a)y.
Resultant moment of couples parallel to OY (P sin a)x.
The reduction of the system so far as we have proceeded is givenin Fio;. 155, and shows that we now have a number of forces in OX,another set in OY, and two couples.
D.S.P. T
FIG. 154. A system of uniplanar forces.
130 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Take the resultant Rx of the forces in OX, also the resultant R Y
of the forces in OY, giving :
RX = 2P cos a (1)
RY= 2Psin a (2)
P4 gin <*
Couple =Z(Pcos)y.
P, 5171 OC,
Pa cosoca ^ R* cosa*
FiG. 155. A system equivalent to that in Fig. 154.
The resultant R of these forces will be given by
.(3)
The angle a which R makes with OX will be determined from
tana = ^.K v(4)
The system is now reduced to a force R and two
couples. The resultant moment L of the two
~X couples may be obtained by adding the couples
algebraically ;thus
L = 2(Pcosa)?/ + 2(Psin a)x (5)
Let each force of this resultant couple be made equal to R, and
let the arm be a;then
FIG. 156.
Ra=L, orL=-. .(6)
Apply the couple so that one of its forces R' is
in the same straight line as R acting at O, and
opposes R;
the other force will be at a perpen-dicular distance OM = a from O. It is evident
. Resultant that the two forces R, R' at O balance;hence
of the system. ^e given system has been reduced to a force R.
Special cases. Some special solutions of equations (1), (2) ancf
(5) above may be examined. Suppose the result given by (5) to
REDUCTION OF UNIPLANAR FORCES 131
be zero;then the system reduces to a force acting at O. Should
(2) also give zero, the system reduces to a force acting in OX, or to
a force acting in OY if (1) be zero.
Should (5) have a numerical result and both (1) and (2) give zero,
then the system reduces to a couple.For equilibrium, there must be neither a resultant force nor a
resultant couple ;hence all three equations must give zero. The
conditions of equilibrium may be written :
IP cos a = ...................................... (1)
2P sin a = ...................................... (2)
2(Pcosa)// + 2(Psina)z = .......................... (3)
These equations must be satisfied simultaneously, and will serve
for testing the equilibrium of any system of uniplanar forces.
The student will observe that equations (1) and (2) express the
condition that a body in equilibrium does not suffer any displacementin consequence of the application of the force system, as would bethe case if either or both the forces Rx ,
RY had a magnitude other
than zero. Equation (3) expresses the condition that no rotation
of the body takes place as a consequence of the application of the
forces. It will also be noted that equation (3) may be interpretedas the algebraic sum of the moments of the components of the givenforces taken about an arbitrary point O.
The following typical examples should be studied thoroughly. In
considering the equilibrium of a body, or of part of a body, care
must be taken to show in the sketch those forces only which are
applied to the body by agencies external to the body, and not those
forces which the body itself exerts on other bodies.
EXAMPLE 1. AB and BC are smooth planes inclined respectively at 45
and 30 to the horizontal (Fig. 158 (a)). DE is a uniform rod 3 feet longand weighing 4 lb., and is maintained in a horizontal position by means
of a body F, which has a weight of 2 lb. Where must R be placed ?
Since the planes are smooth, the reactions, P and Q, of the planes
are perpendicular respectively to AB and BC. Resolve each force into
horizontal and vertical components. Thus
Px =P sin 45 = -~;
Py =P cos 45 =-^V2 V2
Qx =Q sin 30 =-; O, =Q cos 30 =
132 DYNAMICS CHAP.
The rod is now acted upon by forces as shown in Fig. 158 (I). For
equilibrium, we have p Q 0. p . =QX ...... ______ ......... ..(1)
Pv +Qy -4-2=0; .% Py +Q,=6......................... (2)
Taking moments about E :
(P x3)-(4xl|)-2a?=0; /. 3P,,=6 +2ar. (3)
EQUILIBRIUM OF UN1PLANAR FORCES 133
Taking moments about C gives
(P x 4)-(10 x 3)
-(40 x CE) -
(10 x 1) =0 ;
/. 4P-30 + 10+40.CE,P = 10 + 10CE
From (1), Q =60 - P =60 - 10 - 10CE
=50-10CE
Also, CE=BC-BE=4-BE.
(2)
.(3)
FIG. 139. Equilibrium of two rods.
Draw AF perpendicular to BC, then, in the similar triangles BED, BFA,we have BE BF 2
/. CE=4-?.BD.
Hence, from (2) and (3), P - 10 + 10(4 -^
-50 --\PBD .............................................. (4)
And Q=50-10(4-?;BD)
= 10 + ^60 ....................................... . ...... (5)
Now consider the bar AC separately (Fig. 159 (b) ). The forces appliedto it are its weight, acting vertically through G 2 ,
the vertical reaction Q at
C, the horizontal pull T of the cord BC, and a reaction S at A. 8 is exerted
by the other bar AB, and its direction is guessed in Fig. 159 (6) ; the
precise direction will be determined in the following calculation. Resolve
134 [DYNAMICS
S into horizontal and vertical components Sx and8,^,
and apply the con-
ditions of equilibrium.
T -Sj.=0 ; /. T = SX (6)
Take moments about A, first calculating the length of AF :
AF -VAC 2 ,CF* =\/36~-1 - A/32.
(Qx2)-(10xl)-(TxV32)=0;
From (5) and (8), 2(10 +-^BD) = 10 +TV32 ;
' T=V3*2
'
_30 + 20BD,g,
3V32
From this result it will be seen that T increases if BD is made greater.
Again, from (6) and (9) : Sx =T = 3 t^D(10 >
And from (5) and (7) :
(11)
(It will be observed from the positive sign of this result that the assumed
direction of S has been chosen correctly.)
From (10) and (11) :
3600BD 2 + 1200BD+900288
Also, the angle a which S makes with the horizontal is given by
_Sy _ -IfBD _10.BDA/32~Sg ~30+20BD~ 30 + 20BD
'
3\/32
EXAMPLE 3. In Fig. 160, AB is a light rod having the end A guided so
as to be capable of moving freely in a horizontal line AD. At C another
light bar CD is smoothly jointed to AB ; CD can turn freely about D. Aload W is hung from B. If AC =CD and BC =n . AC, find the horizontal
and vertical reactions which must be applied at A in order to maintain
the arrangement with AB at an angle to the horizontal.
Consider the equilibrium of the rod AB. Let Q, be the reaction which
DC applies to C. Take horizontal and vertical components of Q and let
these be Q^ and Q,^ (Fig. 1G1). Since Q^ and AD are parallel, the angle
EQUILIBRIUM OF UNIPLANAR FORCES 135
between Q, and Q,,,is equal to the angle ADC ; also the angles ADC and CAD
are equal, since AC =CD. Hence the angle between Qx and Q = 0. There-fore Q^Qcostf, and Q,,=Qsm0.For equilibrium, P-Q^O; .'. P^Q^ '. (])
Qtf -W-S=0; A Q,y =W+S (2)
Taking moments about C :
PxCE) +(SxAE) -(WxCF)=0;/. (P x CE) + (S x AE) =W x CF (3)
FIG. 160.
A E
FIG. 161. Forces acting on AB.
From (3) : P . AC sin $ + S . AC cos =W . BC cos 0.
Dividing this throughout by AC cos 0, we obtain
From (2),
From (1),
Q sin =W + S.
P =Q cos 0, or Q = ~, ;
COS C/
Substituting in (4), we have
(4)
(5)
Hence, from (5) and (6),
Ptan#=W+W
P=-
n - 1+"2"
tan 6
2tan
.(6)
Jl)
It will be noted from (6) that if n-l, i.e. AC } CD and CB are all equal
(Fig. 160), then S=0. Inspection of Fig. 161 shows that under these
136 DYNAMICS CIIAI*.
conditions the line of W passes through D ; hence P, Q and W intersect
in a point and can equilibrate the rod AB without the necessity for the
application of a force S. If n be less than 1, the result given for S by(6) is negative, and indicates that S must act upwards.The graphical solution of this problem depends upon the fact that the
rod AB (Fig. 161) is acted upon by three forces, viz. W, Q, and the resultant
of P and S. The point at which these forces intersect may be found byproducing W and Q ; the resultant of P and S then passes through this
point, and also through A. The solution is then obtained by applicationof the triangle of forces, and will be found to be an interesting problem.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER X.
1. A rectangular plate, 6 inches by 2 inches, has a force of 400 Ib.
weight applied along a long edge. Show how to balance the plate by meansof forces acting along each of the other edges. Neglect the weight of the
plate.
2. A door weighs 120 Ib. and has its centre of gravity in a vertical
line parallel to and at a distance of 18 inches from the axis of the hinges.The hinges are 4 feet apart and share the vertical reaction required tobalance the door equally between them. Find the reaction of each hingo.
3. A vertical column has a bracket fixed to its side near the top. Aload of 5 tons weight hangs from the end of the bracket at a point 8 inchesfrom the axis of the column. Remove this load and apply an equivalentsystem of forces consisting partly of a force of 5 tons weight acting in theaxis of the column. Show the system in a sketch.
4. Sketch a right-angled triangle in which AB-16 feet and is vertical,
and BC = 10 feet and is horizontal. The triangle represents the cross
section of a wall 10 feet long and weighing 140 Ib. per cubic foot. Findthe reaction of the foundation of the wall, expressed as a force acting at
the centre of the base together with a couple.
5. A rod AB, 4 feet long, has a pull of 20 Ib. weight applied at A in adirection making 30 with AB. There is also a couple having a momentof 40 Ib.-feet acting on the rod. Find the resultant force.
6. Draw any triangle ABC. Forces act in order round the sides of the
triangle, and each force has a magnitude proportional to the length of
the side along which it acts. Reduce the system of forces to its simplestform.
7. A- square plate ABCD of 2 feet edge has forces acting along the edgesas follows : From A to B, 2 Ib. weight ; from B to C, 3 Ib. weight ; fromC to D, 4 Ib. weight ; from D to A, 5 Ib. weight. Find the resultant.
8. A uniform rod AB is 4 feet long and weighs 24 Ib. The end A is
smoothly jointed to a fixed support ; the rod is inclined at 45 and its
upper end B rests against a smooth vertical wall. A load of 10 Ib. weightis hung from a point in the rod 1 foot from A. Find the reactions at AandB.
EXE&CISES 137
9. In an isosceles triangle AC =CB ; AB is 15 feet and is horizontal ;
C is 5 feet vertically above AB. The plane of the triangle is vertical, andthe triangle is supported at A and B. A load of 400 Ib. weight is appliedat the centre of AC, another of 600 Ib. weight at C, and a force of 800 Ib.
weight acts at the centre of BC at 90 to BC. The reaction of the supportat B is vertical ; that at A is inclined. Find the reactions of both supports.
10. In the arrangement shown in Fig. 160 (p. 135), AC=CD=4 inches,BC =6 inches. Find P, S and Q when a load of 10 Ib. weight is hung fromB for values of Q of 45, 30, 15, 5.
11. Answer Question 10, (a) if BC=^4 inches ; (6) if BC=3 inches.
12. BC is a rod 12 inches long and capable of turning in the plane of
the paper about a smooth pin at C. Another rod AB, 4 feet long, is jointed
smoothly to BC at B ; the end A can travel in a smooth groove, which,when produced, passes through C. The angle ACB is 30, and a load of
200 Ib. weight is hung from the centre of AB. Calculate the resultant
force which must be applied at A in order to preserve the equilibrium.Check the result by solving the problem graphically.
13. A ladder, 20 feet long, is inclined at 60 to the horizontal, andrests on the ground at A and against a wall at B. The ladder weighs80 Ib., and its centre of gravity is 8 feet from A. Assuming both groundand wall to be smooth, the reactions at A and B will be vertical and hori-
zontal respectively. The ladder is prevented from slipping by means of
a rope attached at A and to a point at the foot of the wall. A man weighing150 Ib. ascends the ladder. Calculate the pull in the rope when he is 4,
8, 12, 16 and 19 feet from A. Plot a graph showing the relation of the
pull and his distance from A.
14. Show how to find the resultant of two unequal parallel forces actingat different points but in opposite directions upon a rigid body. Is there
a single resultant if the two forces are equal ?
A steel cylindrical bar weighing 1000 Ib. is held in a vertical position
by means of two thin fixed horizontal planks 5 ft. apart vertically, in
which are holes through which the bar can slide. If the sides of these holes
are smooth and the bar is lifted by a vertical force applied 2 inches fromits axis, find the pressure on each plank. Adelaide University.
15. If a number of uniplanar forces act upon a rigid body, prove that
they will be in equilibrium, provided that the algebraic sum of their
resolved parts in two directions at right angles and of their momentsabout one given point in the plane be zero.
ABCD is a square lamina. A force of 2 Ib. weight acts along AB, 4 Ib.
weight along BC, 6 Ib. weight along CD, 8 Ib. weight along DA, 2\/2 Ib.
weight along CA, and 4V2 Ib. weight through the point D parallel to AC.
Find the resultant of the system of forces.
16. A uniform plank. 12 feet long, weighing 40 Ib., hangs horizontally,and is supported by two ropes sloping outwards ; the ropes make angles of
60 and 45 respectively with the horizontal. If the plank carries a weightof 100 Ib., find where this weight must be placed.
17. Four equal uniform rods, each of weight W, are jointed so as to
form a square ABCD. The arrangement is hung from a cord attached at A,
138 DYNAMICS CHAP.
and the corners B and D are connected by a light rod so that the squareretains its shape. Show that the thrust along the rod BD is 2W, and find
the reaction at the bottom hinge.
18. Define the expression" moment of a force about a point." Show
from your definition that the sum of the moments of two equal and parallelforces acting in opposite directions is the same about every point in the
plane in which they act. L.U.
19. Each half of a step-ladder is5-|- feet long, and the two parts are
connected by a cord 28 in. long, attached to points in them distant 16 in.
from their free extremities. The half with the steps weighs 16 lb., andthe other half weighs 4 lb. Find the tension in the cord when a manweighing 11 stone is standing on the ladder, 1^ ft. from the top, it beingassumed that the cord is fully stretched, and that the reactions betweenthe ladder and the ground are vertical. L.U.
20. A bar AB of weight W and length 2a is connected by a smooth
hinge at A with a vertical wall, to a point C of which, vertically above A,
and such that AC =AB, B is connected by an inextensible string of length21. Find in terms of these quantities the tension of the string and the
action at the hinge.
If the bar is 6 ft. long and weighs 10 lb., and the string be 2 ft. long,show that its tension is 1?
}lb. wt. And if the joint at A be slightly stiff,
so that in addition to the supporting force it exerts a couple G reducingthe tension in the string to 1 lb. wt., then G will be approximately 3 94
Ib.-ft. units. L.U.
21. ABC and ACD are two triangles in which AB ==AC -AD, and the
angles BAG and CAD are 60 and 30 respectively. With AD vertical, the
figure represents a wall bracket of five light rods. The bracket is fixed
at A, and kept just away from the wall by a small peg at D, and a massof 5 pounds is suspended from B. Find, preferably by analytical methods,the pressure on the peg at D and the forces in the rods DC, CA and AB,
stating whether they are in compression or tension. L.U.
22. Two ladders, AB and AC, each of length 2a, are hinged at A andstand on a smooth horizontal plane. They are prevented from slipping
by means of a rope of length a connecting their middle points. If the
weights of the ladders are 40 and 10 lb., find the tension in the rope, andthe horizontal and vertical components of the action at the hinge.
L.U.
23. A rod AB can turn freely about A, and is smoothly jointed at B to
a second rod BC, whose other end C is constrained to remain in a smooth
groove passing through A. A force F is applied to BC along CA. Provethat the couple produced on AB is F x AK, where K is the point in whichBC produced cuts the perpendicular at A to AC. L.U.
24. Define a couple. What is the characteristic property of couples ?
Prove that a couple and a force acting in the same plane are equivalentto a single force. Three forces act along the sides of a triangular lamina
and are proportional to the sides along which they act ; find the magnitudeof their resultant. Bombay Univ.
EXERCISES 139
25. Six equal light rods are jointed together at their ends so as to
form a regular hexagon ABCDEF. C and F are connected together byanother light rod. The arrangement is hung by two vertical cordsattached to A and B respectively, so that AB, CF and DE are horizontal.
Equal weights of 20 Ib. each are hung from D and E. Find the forces in
each rod, and state whether they are pulls or pushes.
26. Prove that the moment of two non-parallel coplanar forces about
any point in the plane is equal to the moment of their resultant. Provealso that, if forces act along the sides of a plane polygon taken in order,each force being represented in magnitude and direction by the side
along which it acts, they are equivalent to a torque (i.e. turning moment)represented by twice the area of the polygon. Madras Univ.
CHAPTER XI
GRAPHICAL METHODS OF SOLUTION OF PROBLEMSIN UNIPLANAR FORCES
Link polygon. The following graphical method of determining the
equilibrant of a system of uniplanar forces is of great practical
importance. In Fig. 162 (a) PI}P2 and P
3 are any three forces acting
in the plane of the paper and not meeting in a point ;it is required
to find their equilibrant.
(a)(b)
FIG. 162. Graphical solution by the link polygon.
P1 may be balanced by application, at any point A on its line of
action, of two forces p1 and p2 in the plane of the paper and not
in the same straight line. Pj, p1and pz
must comply with the usual
conditions of the triangle of forces;
thus in Fig. 162 (b) ab repre-sents P
156O and Oa represent p2 and p respectively. Some means
must be supplied for enabling p1and p2 to be applied, and it is
convenient to use rods, or links, one of which, AB, is used for applying
p2 &t Aj and is extended to a point B on the line of action of P2,where
it applies an equal and opposite force p2. The link AB is thus
equilibrated.
LINK POLYGON 141
Again, P2 may be balanced by application at B of a third force
Ps ;P
2> PS an(i TJ2 are represented respectively by the sides be, cOand Ob of the triangle of forces bcO (Fig. 162 (6)). Extend the line
of ps to cut P3 in C, and let BC be a link which is equilibrated by theforces p3 , p3 acting at B and C. In the same manner, balance P
3
by application of the force p4 at C; the triangle of forces for P3 ,
p and p.) acting at C will.be cdO in Fig. 162 (&).. Produce the lines
of p4 and pLto intersect at D, and let the links CD and AD be equili-
brated by permitting them to apply forces p^ and ptto D
;this can
only be effected provided a third force E is applied at D, the three
forces acting at D being represented by the triangle of forces daO in
Fig. 162 (b).
Each of the forces Px ,P2 ,
P 3 arid E is now balanced by the forces
in the links, i.e. the forces P15
P2 ,P3 and E together with the forces
in the links constitute an equilibrated system. Further, each link
is balanced separately ;hence the link system may be disregarded,
and we may state that the forces Pt ,P2 ,
P3 and E are in equilibrium,or that E is the equilibrant of P
1?P2 and P3 .
Inspection of Figs. 162 (a) and (b) leads to the following statement
of the conditions of equilibrium : A system of uniplanar forces will
be in equilibrium provided
(i) a closed polygon of forces abed (Fig. 162 (b)) may toe drawn having
sides which, taken in order, represent the given forces ;
(ii) a closed link polygon, ABCD (Fig. 162 (a)), may be drawn having
its sides parallel respectively to lines drawn from a common point O to the
corners of the force polygon (Fig. 162 (b)}.
It will be noted that the position of the point, or pole, O in Fig.162 (b) depends solely on the directions chosen for the first two forces
pland p2 . As there was liberty of choice in this respect, it follows
that O may occupy any position. Further, it will be noted that anylink, such as BC (Fig. 162 (a)), connecting the forces P
2 and P3 ,is
drawn parallel to Oc (Fig. 162 (b)), and that Oc falls between bv and
cd, lines which represent the same pair of forces P2and P
3.
Should all the given forces meet at a point, the link polygon maybe reduced to a point situated where the forces meet, and the polygonof forces alone suffices for the solution.
Resultant of a number of parallel forces ; graphical solution. In
Fig. 163 (a) P, Q, S and T are given parallel forces acting on a body,and their resultant is to be determined.
First draw the polygon of forces ABCDEA (Fig. 163 (&)). which in
is case is a straight line, as the given forces are parallel. P, Q, S
142 DYNAMICS CHAP.
and T are represented by AB, BC, CD and DE respectively ;the closing
line of the polygon is EA, which therefore represents the equili brant.
Hence the resultant R of the given forces is represented by AE, i.e.
the equilibrant reversed. Choose any pole O and join OA, OB, etc.;
draw the links ab, be, cd (Fig. 163 (a)) parallel respectively to OB,OC and OD in Fig. 163 (6). Draw pL and p5 (Fig. 163 (a)) parallel
respectively to OA and OE. In the triangle AEO, AE represents the
'/ (a) (b)
FIG. 163. Resultant of a system of parallel forces.
resultant R, therefore EO and OA represent a pair of forces whichwould equilibrate R if applied to the body. Hence pl
and p 5in
Fig. 163 (a) will intersect, if produced, in a point on the line of R.
This point is /, and R acts through / in a line parallel to the givenforces.
In practice it is customary to employ Bow's notation in using the
link polygon. The methods will be understood by study of the
following examples.
EXAMPLE 1. Given forces of 3, 4 and 2 tons weight respectively, find
their equilibrant (Fig. 164).
The principles on which the solution depends are (a) the force polygonmust close, (b) the link polygon must close. Name the spaces A, B and C,
and place D provisionally near to the 2 tons force. Draw the force polygonABCD (Fig. 164 (b)). The closing line DA gives the direction, sense and
magnitude of the equilibrant E. To find the proper position of E, choose
any pole O, and join O to the corners A, B, C and D of the polygon of forces.
Construct a link polygon by choosing any point a on the line of the 3 tons
force (Fig. 164 (a)), drawing in space B a lino ab parallel to OB, in space Ca line be parallel to OC ; to obtain the closing sides of the link polygon,
draw ad parallel to OA and cd parallel to OD, these lines intersecting in d.
XI LINK POLYGON 143
The equilibrant E passes through dtand may now be shown completely
in Fig, 164 (a).
Had the resultant of the given forces been required, proceed in the
same manner to find the equilibrant, and then reverse its sense in order
to obtain the resultant.
(a) c i "/
FIG. 104. An application of the link polygon.
EXAMPLE 2. Given a beam carrying loads as shown in Figj 165 (a) ;
find the reactions of the supports, both reactions being vertical.
In this case, as all the forces acting on the beam are parallel, the force
polygon is a straight line. Begin in space B, and draw BC, CD, DE, EFand FG (Fig. 165 (b)) to represent the given loads. Choose any pole O,
1 C I I E|
FKJ. 165. Reactions of a beam by the link polygon method.
and join O to B, C, D, E, F and G. Choose any point a on the line of the
left-hand reaction, and draw in space B a line ab parallel to OB. Continue
the construction of the link polygon by drawing in spaces C, D, E and F
lines be, cd, de and ef parallel respectively to OC, OD, OE, OF. From/,a point on the force FG, a side of the link polygon has to be drawn to
intersect the line of the force GA ; as these forces are in the same straight
line, this side of the link polygon is of zero length, consequently the link
144 DYNAMICS
polygon has a side missing. Complete the polygon by joining fa, and draw
OA (Fig. 165 (&)) parallel to fa. The magnitudes of the reactions maynow be scaled as AB and GA.
Rigid frames. -Tn Fig. 166 (a) is shown the outline of a thin plate
to which forces P15
P2 ,
P 3 , etc., are applied at points A, B, C, etc.,
respectively. The forces are all in the plane of the plate and are
given in equilibrium. It will be noted that the equilibrium of the
forces is independent of the shape of the plate ;hence any shape
may be chosen for the outline and the forces will remain in equi-
librium provided no alteration is made in the given magnitudes,
lines of direction, and senses of the forces. We may proceed further
FIG. 166. Substitution of a rigid frame for a body.
by removing the plate and substituting an arrangement of bars
(shown dotted in Fig. 166 (a)) connected together at A, B, C, etc.,
by means of hinges or pins ;the result will be the same, viz. the
given forces balance and the frame formed by the bars will be in
equilibrium.
Care must be taken in devising the arrangement of bars that no
motion of any bar relative to any other bar may take place In
Fig. 166 (a) relative motion is prevented by means of the diagonal
bars EB and EC. An alternative arrangement is shown in
Fig. 166 (6).
From these considerations it may be asserted that, if a given
equilibrated system of uniplanar forces acts on a rigid frame, the
equilibrium is independent of the shape of the frame or the arrange-
ment of its parts. A rigid frame may be defined as an arrangementof bars jointed together and so constructed that no relative motion
of the parts can take place.
EQUILIBRIUM IN RIGID FRAMES 145
Conditions of equilibrium in rigid frames. Two points presentthemselves for consideration :
(a) The system of forces applied to the frame (called generally the
external forces) must be in equilibrium, and must comply with the
conditions already explained ;i.e. treated analytically, the three
equations of equilibrium (p. 131) must be satisfied; or, treated
graphically, both the force polygon and the link polygon mustclose.
(6) Any joint in the frame is in equilibrium under the action of
any external force or forces applied at the joint, together with the
forces of push or pull acting along the bars meeting at the joint.
As all these forces pass through the joint, the condition of equi-librium of the joint is that the force polygon for the forces actingat the joint must close. The student will observe that this fact
enables the magnitude and kind of force acting in any bar of the
frame to be determined.
It may be verified easily for any system of uni planar concurrentforces that it is not possible to construct a force polygon if there bemore than two unknown quantities. These may be either two
magnitudes, or two directions, or one magnitude and one direction.
It is thus necessary to examine the number of unknowns at anyjoint in a given frame before attempting a solution of the forces
acting at that joint.
EXAMPLE. In Fig. 167 (a) is given a frame having its joints numbered1, 2, 3, 4, 5. External forces act at each of these joints ; those acting at
1, 2 and 3 are given completely. Determine the forces acting at 4 and 5
in order that the frame may be in equilibrium. Determine also the force
in each bar, and indicate whether it is push or pull.
Using Bow's notation, the letters A, B. C, D and E enable the external
forces to be named. The letters F, G and H placed as shown in Fig. 167 (a)
enable the force in any bar of the frame to be named ; thus the force in
the bar 12 is BG, or GB.
Assuming clockwise rotation throughout, draw as much as possible of
the force polygon for the external forces. Thus AB (Fig. 167 (6) ) represents
the external force acting at joint 1, BC that at joint 2, and CD that at
joint 3. The forces acting at joints 4 and 5 cannot be shown meanwhile,
but since the force represented by the closing side of the polygon ABCDA,viz. DA (Fig. 167 (&)), would equilibrate the forces acting at joints I, 2
and 3, it follows that DA represents the resultant of the forces acting at
4 and 5. since this resultant would also equilibrate the forces acting at
1,2 and 3.
D.S.P. K
146 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Select any suitable pole O (Fig. 167 (6) ), and join O to A, B, C and D.
Start drawing the link polygon in Fig. 167 (a) by selecting a point a on
the line of the force AB, and drawing ab and be parallel to OB and OC
respectively in Fig. 167 (b). From a draw af parallel to OA, and from
c draw cf parallel to OD ; these lines intersect at/, and the resultant force
represented by DA must pass through /. Now this force is the resultant
of the forces acting at 4 and 5, and the resultant and the componentsmust intersect in the same paint, therefore the lines of direction of the
forces acting at 4 and 5 will be found by joining /4 and/5.
FIG. 167. Equilibrium of a rigid frame.
The force polygon in Fig. 167 (6) may be closed now by drawing DE
parallel to the line /4, and AE parallel to the line/5. DE and EA give
completely the forces acting at joints 4 and 5 respectively.
The forces in the bars of the frame may now be obtained by considering
each joint separately. Taking joint 3 ; there are three forces acting, and
the triangle of forces is constructed by using CD (Fig. 167 (b) ) for one side,
and drawing DH and CH parallel respectively to bars 34 and 23. To
determine the kind of force, go round joint 3 clockwise, and find the sense
of each force from the triangle of forces. The force represented by DH
(Fig. 167 (&)) acts away from joint 3 in Fig. 167 (a) ; hence the bar 34 is
under pull. The force represented by HC in Fig. 167 (b) acts towards
joint 3 ; hence the bar 23 is under push.
ROOF TRUSS 147
At joint 4 there are five forces, and two only are known in magnitude ;
hence three magnitudes have to be determined, and this joint cannot bo
solved meanwhile. At joint 2 there are four forces, two of which are
known completely, and the remaining two are known in direction. Hencethis joint may be solved. The polygon- of forces for joint 2 is shown in
Fig. 167 (6) as BCHGB, and determines the forces in bars 12 and 24.
Determining whether these forces are pull or push in the same manneras above, we find that 12 is under push and 24 is under pull.
Joint 1 is solved in the same manner as joint 2. The polygon of forces
is ABGFA (Fig. 167 (6)). Inspection shows that bar 14 is under pull andbar 15 is under push.
Joint 5 is solved by the triangle of forces AFE (Fig. 167 (6) ). The sides
EA and AF already appear in the drawing, and the closing side FE must be
parallel to bar 45 ; this fact provides a check on the accuracy of the entire
drawing. Inspection shows that bar 15 is under push and that bar 45
is also under push.There is no need to consider joint 4 specially, as it will be noted that
all the forces acting there have been determined in the course of the above
solutions.
Roof truss. The frame shown in Fig. 168 (a) is suitable for sup-
porting a roof, and is called a roof truss. Vertical loads are appliedat the joints 1, 2, 4, 5 and 7, and the truss rests on supports at 1
and 7, the reactions of the supports being vertical. The external
forces applied to this frame are all vertical, and the reactions may be
found by applying the methods of calculation given in Chapter X.,
or by application of the link polygon in the same manner as for the
beam on p. 143.
TABLE OF FORCES.
Name of part.
148 DYNAMICS CHAP.
in Fig. 168 (b). The joints are then solved separately in the order
1, 2, 3, 4, 5. The closing line AN in Fig. 168 (6) should be parallelto the bar 67 in Fig. 168 (a), and this gives a check on the accuracyof the work. The forces in the various bars are scaled from Fig.168 (b) and are shown in the table on p. 147.
500/6
Ib
FIG. 168. Forces in a common type of roof truss.
The bars which are under push have thick lines in Fig. 168 (a) ;
the thin lines indicate bars under pull.
EXPT. 24. Link polygon. Fig. 169 (a) shows a polygon ABCDEA madeof light cord and having forces P, Q, S, T and V applied as shown. Let
the arrangement come to rest. Show by actual drawing (a) that the force
polygon abcdea closes (Fig. 169 (b)), its sides being drawn parallel and
proportional to Q, S, T, V and P respectively ; (6) that lines drawn from
a, b, c, d and e parallel respectively to AB, BC, CD, DE and EA intersect in
a common pole O.
XI LOADED CORD 149
EXPT. 25. Loaded cord. A light cord has small rings at A, B, C and
D, and may be passed over pulleys E and F attached to a wall board (Fig.
170 (a)). Loads W 15 W 2 , W 3 and W 4 may be attached to the rings, and
FIG. 169. An experimental link polygon.
P and Q, to the ends of the cord. Choose any values for W 1? W 2 , W 3 and
W 4 ,and draw the force polygon for them as shown at abode. Choose any
suitable pole O, and join O to a, b, c, d and e. Oa and Oe will give the
FIG. 170. A hanging cord.
magnitudes of P and Q respectively. Fix the ring at A to the board bymeans of a bradawl or pin ; fix the pulley at E so that the direction of the
cord AE is parallel to Oa ;fix the ring at B by means of a pin so that the
direction of the cord AB is parallel to Ob. Fix also the other rings C and
150 DYNAMICS CHAP.
FIG. 171.
D, and the pulley at F so that the directions of BC, CD and DF are parallel
to cO, dO and eO respectively. Apply the selected weights W 15 W 2, W 3
and W 4, and also weights P and Q of magnitude given by Oa and Oe.
Remove the bradawls and ascertain if the cord remains in equilibrium.It will be noted that the shape of the cord and the values of P and Q
depend upon the position of the pole O ; hence a large number of solutions
is possible.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XI.
These exercises are intended to be solved graphically.
1. Four forces act on a rod as shown in Fig. 171. AB =BC =CD = 1 foot.
The magnitudes in Ib. weight are as follows : P =4 ; Q=6; 8=5; T=7.The direction angles are :
\/ / PAB = 110; QBC=60;/Q /T SCD=45; TDC = 120./ C / Find the equilibrant and hence the
A B V D resultant of the system of forces.
\S 2. Vertical downward forces as follows
act on a body: P=400 Ib. weight;Q =200 Ib. weight ; S =600 Ib. weight ;
T = 300 Ib. weight. Horizontal distances between P and Q, 2 feet ; betweenQ, and S, 4 feet ; between S and T, 3 feet. Find the resultant of the
system.
3. A beam AB, 24 ft. long, is supported at its ends, and carries vertical
loads of 1-5, 2, 3 and 4-5 tons weight at distances of 3, 6, 12 and 18 feet
from A. Find the reactions of the supports.
4. The frame shown in Fig. 172 is made of rigid bars smoothly jointed
together, and is symmetrical about the vertical line AY. AB =AC =6 feet ;
BC =9 feet ; BE =CD =4 feet ; DE = 11 feet.
A vertical force of 600 Ib. weight is appliedat A; a force of 400 Ib. weight at B, makingan angle of 75 with BA ; a force of 800 Ib.
weight at C, making an angle of 90 withCD. The frame is supported by forces
applied at D and E, that at D being vertical.
Find the forces in all the bars of the frame,
indicating push and pull, and also find the
forces required at D and E in order to
equilibrate the frame.
5. Six equal loads are hung from a cord.
The ends of the cord are attached to two
pegs A and B at the same level and 7 feet
apart. The horizontal line AB is divided into seven equal parts by pro-
ducing upwards the lines of action of the loads. The lowest part of the
cord is 3 feet below AB. Make a drawing showing the cord, and find the
tension in each part of it if each load weighs 2 Ib.
FIG. 172
XI EXERCISES 151
6. Find the forces in all the bars of the frame shown in Fig. 173, indi-
cating whether each bar is under push or pull.
7. Draw full size a rectangle ABCD having sides AB=4 inches andAD =3 inches. Forces of 4, 5, 8 and 3 Ib. wt. act along the sides AB, CB,CD and AD respectively ; a force of 7 Ib. wt. acts along the diagonal AC ;
the senses of the forces are indicated by the order of the letters. Find theresultant.
1400 Ib 800 Ib
N fflr.--.-J
Jl j5
r20
-1
Wcwt
FIG. 173. FIG. 174.
8. The sketch given in Fig. 174 represents a crane formed of rods
smoothly jointed at A, B, C, D ; the crane is kept in position by reactionsat A, B, of which the former is horizontal. A load of 10 cwt. is hung fromD ; find, by a graphical construction or otherwise, the stresses in the rods,and determine the reactions at A and B. Sen. Cam. LOG.
9. Show how to find graphically, by means of a force polygon and afunicular (or link) polygon, the resultant of a number of forces whose lines
of action lie in one plane.Draw four parallel lines A, B, C, D, the successive distances between them
being 1|> 2|> 2 inches. The vertices of a funicular polygon formed by a
light chain are to lie on these lines supposed vertical. From the vertices
A, B, C, D are to be suspended weights of 3, 5, 7, 2 Ib. respectively.Construct the figure of the polygon, so that the portion of the chain
between B and C shall be horizontal, and the portion between C and Dshall be inclined at 60 to the horizontal. L.U.
10. ABC is a triangle in which BC is horizontal and 32 feet long andCA =AB =24 feet. D. E, F are the middle points of the sides BC, CA, andAB respectively, and D is joined to E, A and F. The figure represents aroof truss, supported at B and C, which is subjected to vertical loads of
\, 1 , 1,2 and \ ton at B, F, A, E and C. Find graphically the stresses in
each bar of the" truss. L.U.
11. Seven equal light rods are freely jointed together so as to form two
squares ABCD and ABEF (lying in one plane on opposite sides of AB). Twoother light rods join DB and AE. The system is supported at C and carries
a weight W hanging from F. Find the tension or compression of each
rod, explaining the method you use. L.U.
12. Two uniform beams AB, AC of equal length and of weights respec-
tively W, W' are jointed at A, the ends B, C being hinged to two fixed
points on the same level. The beams rest in a vertical plane. Prove bymeans of a force-diagram or otherwise that the vertical component of the
reaction at A is (W -W') and find the horizontal component. L.U.
152 DYNAMICS
13. In a roof truss similar to that shown in Fig. 168 (p. 148), the dimen-sions are as follows : Horizontal distance between the supports, 20 ft. ;
vertical height of joint 4 above the supports, 5 ft. ; the bar 36 is 1 foot
above the supports ; the bars 23 and 56 bisect at right angles the rafters
14 and 47 respectively. Vertical loads are applied as follows : At joint 1,
400 Ib. wt. ; at joint" 2, 800 Ib. wt. ; at joint 4, 1000 Ib. wt. ; at joint 5,
1200 Ib. wt. ; at joint 7, 1000 Ib. wt. The reactions of the supports are
vertical. Find these reactions, and then find the forces in each bar of
the frame, stating whether the forces are pushes or pulls.
CHAPTER XII
STRESS. STRAIN. ELASTICITY
Stress. The term stress is applied to the mutual actions whichtake place across any section of a body to which a system of forces
is applied. Stresses are described as tensile or pull, compressive or
push, and shear, according as the portions of the body tend to separate,to come closer together, and to slide on one another respectively.
If equal areas at every part of the section sustain equal forces, thestress is said to be uniform
;otherwise the stress is varying. Stress
is measured by the force per unit area, and is calculated by dividingthe total force by the area over which it is distributed ; the result
of this calculation is called the stress intensity, or more usually simplythe stress.
In the case of varying stress, the result of the above calculation
gives the average stress intensity. In such cases the stress at anypoint is calculated by taking a very small area embracing the point,and dividing the force acting over this area by the area.
Common units of stress are the pound, or ton-weight per square
inch, or per square foot. In the C.G.s. system the dyne per squarecentimetre is the unit of stress
;the kilogram weight per square
centimetre is the practical metric unit, and is equivalent to 14-19 Ib.
weight per square inch. The dimensions of stress are
ml. n_m
~P~l ~W
Strain. The term strain is applied to any change occurring in
the dimensions, or shape of a body when forces are applied. A rod
becomes longer or shorter during the application of pull or push,
and is said to have longitudinal strain. This strain is calculated as
follows :
Let L = the original length of the rod,
e = ihe alteration in length, both expressed in the same units.
154 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Then Longitudinal strain = -
A body subjected to uniform normal stress (hydrostatic stress) all
over its surface has volumetric strain.
Let V = the original volume of the body ;
v = the change in volume, both expressed in the same units.
Then Volumetric strain =
Shearing strain occurs when a body is subjected to shear stress.
In this kind of stress a change of shape occurs in the body. Thus,
hold one cover of a thick book firmly on the table, and apply a
shearing force to the top cover (Fig. 175). The change in shape is
A A B B'
FIG. 175. An illustration of shearing strain. FIG. 176. Shearing strain.
rendered evident by the square, pencilled on the end of the book,
becoming a rhombus. Under similar conditions, a solid body would
behave in the same manner, but in a lesser degree (Fig. 176). Shear-
ing strain is measured by stating the angle 6 in radians throughwhich the vertical edge in Fig. 176 has rotated on application of
the shearing stress. For metals 6 is always very small, and it is
sufficiently accurate to write
BB'Shearing strain = 6 =
BC
It will be noted that strain has zero dimensions.
Elasticity. Elasticity is that property of matter by virtue of which
a body endeavours to return to its original shape and dimensions
when strained, the recovery taking place when the disturbing forces
are removed. The recovery is practically perfect in a great manykinds of material, provided that the body has not been loaded
beyond a certain limit of stress which differs for different materials.
xn HOOKE'S LAW 155
If loaded beyond this elastic limit of stress, the recovery of the original
shape and dimensions is incomplete, and the body is said to have
acquired permanent set.
Hooke's law. Experiments on the pulling and pushing of rods
show that the change in length is proportional very nearly to the
force applied. If one end of a rod is held firmly while the other
end is twisted, it is found that the angle through which this endrotates relatively to the fixed end is proportional to the twistingmoment applied. Experimental evidence shows that beams are
deflected, and springs are extended, by amounts proportional to the
loads applied. This law was discovered by Hooke and bears his
name. Since in every case the stress is proportional to the load, andthe strain is proportional to the change in dimension, Hooke's law
may be stated thus : Strains are proportional to the stresses producing
them.
Hooke's law is obeyed by a great many materials up to a certainlimit of stress, beyond which strains are produced which are larger
proportionally than those for smaller stresses. In ductile materials,such as wrought iron, which are capable of being wire-drawn, rolled,and bent, the point of break-down of Hooke's law marks the beginningof a plastic state which, when fully developed, is evidenced by a
large strain taking place with practically no increase in the stress.
The stress at which this large increase in strain occurs is called the
yield point, and is considerably greater than the stress at whichHooke's law breaks down.
Experiments for the determination of the stress at which a givenmaterial first acquires permanent set are tedious, arid when theterm
"elastic limit
"is used, it is generally understood to mean
the stress at which Hooke's law breaks down;
the latter stress is
determined easily by experiment.
Modulus of elasticity. Assuming that Hooke's law is obeyed bya given material, and that s is the strain produced by a given stress
p, we have8 ^
>or as =
,
(i)
where a is a constant for the material considered, and is called a
modulus of elasticity. The value of the modulus of elasticity depends
upon the kind of material and the nature of the stress applied.
There are three chief moduli of elasticity.
150 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Young's modulus applies to a pulled or pushed rod, and is obtained
by dividing the stress on a cross section at 90 to the length of the
rod by the longitudinal strain.
Let P = the pull or push applied to the rod, in units of force.
A = the area of the cross section.
L = the original length of the bar.
e = the change in length of the bar.
Writing E for Young's modulus, we have
stress P e PL
AeE = (2)
strain A'
L
The bulk modulus applies to the case of a body having uniform
normal stress distributed over the whole of its surface.
Let p= the stress intensity.
V= the original volume of the body.
v = the change in volume.
Writing K for the bulk modulus, we have
stress ^ .v _pV
"~v~TK= ,i
volumetric strain
MODULI OF ELASTICITY
(Average values.)
(3)
MATERIAL.
XII TENSILE TESTS ON WIRES 157
The rigidity modulus applies to a body under shearing stress.
Let q= the shearing stress intensity.= the shear strain.
Writing C for the rigidity modulus, we have
c= q-
The dimensions of all these moduli are the same as those of stress.
The numerical values are expressed in the same units as those used
in stating the stress.
EXPT. 26. Elastic stretching of wires. A simple type of apparatus is
shown in Fig. 177. Two wires, A and B, are hung from the same support,which should be fixed to the wall as high as possible in
order that long wires may be used. One wire, B, is
permanent and carries a fixed load \A/! in order to keepit taut. The other wire, A. is that under test, and maybe changed readily for another of different material. Theextension of A is measured by means of a vernier D,
clamped to the test wire and moving over a scale E,
which is clamped to the permanent wire. The arrange-ment of two wires prevents any drooping of the support
being measured as an extension of the wire.
See that the wires are free from kinks. Measure the
length L, from C to the vernier. Measure the diameter
of the wire A. State the material of the wire, and also
whatever is known of its treatment before it came into
your hands. Apply a series of gradually increasing loads
to the wire A, and read the vernier after the application
of each load. If it is not desired to reach the elastic
limit, stop when a maximum safe load has been applied,
and obtain confirmatory readings by removing the load
step by step. In order to obtain the elastic I'mit, the Apparatus for ten-111111- 11 11 j .Ls *le tests on wires.
load should be increased by small increments, and the
test stopped when it becomes evident that the extensions are increasing
more rapidly than the loads. Tabulate the readings thus :
TENSION TEST ON A WIRE.
Load,Ib. or kilograms wt.
158 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Plot loads as ordinates, and the corresponding extensions as abscissae
(Fig. 178). It will be found that a straight line will pass through most
Load
Extension
FIG. 178. Graph of a tensile test on awire.
of the points between O and a point A,
after which the graph turns towards the
right. The point A indicates the break-
down of Hooke's law.
Let W t -load at A in Fig. 178,
d = the diameter of the wire.
Then
Stress at elastic break-down =W 1/^7rd2.
Select a point P on the straight line
OA (Fig. 178), and measure W 2 and e
from the graph.
Let
Then
W 2= the load at P.
e =the extension produced by P.
L = the length of the test wire.
stress W 2 LYoung's modulus =E =
.
strain
FIG. 179. Pure torsion.
Pure torsion. In Fig. 179 is shown a rod AB having arms CD and
EF fixed to it at right angles to the length of AB. Let AC =AD = BE = BF,
and let equal opposite parallel
forces Q, Q be applied at C and
D in directions making 90 with
CD. Let other equal opposite
parallel forces P, P be applied in
a similar manner at E and F. The
rod is then under the action of
two opposing couples in parallel
planes. If the forces are all equal,
the couples have equal moments, and the system is in equilibrium
(p. 125). The rod is then said to be under pure torsion, i.e. there is
no tendency to bend it, and there is no push or pull in the direction
of its length. The twisting moment or torque T is given by the
moment of either couple, thus
Torque =T=Qx CD =PxEF.
The actions of the couples are transmitted from end to end of the
rod AB, and produce shearing stresses on any cross section, such as
G (Fig. 179).
The following experiment illustrates the twisting of a wire under
pure torsion.
XIT TORSION OF A WIRE 159
EXPT. 27. Torsion of a wire. In Fig. 180, AB is a wire fixed firmly at
A to a rigid clamp and carrying a heavy cylinder at B. The cylinder serves
to keep the wire tight, and also provides means of applying a twisting
couple to the wire. Two cords are wound round the
cylinder and pass off in opposite parallel directions
to guide pulleys. Equal weights W x and W 2 are
attached to the ends of the cords. Pointers C and
D are clamped to the wire, and move as the wire
twists over fixed graduated scales E and F. The
angle of twist produced in the portion CD of the wire
is thus indicated.
State the material of the wire ; measure its diameter
di and the length L between the pointers C and D.
Measure the diameter t? 2 of tne cylinder B. Apply a
series of gradually increasing loads, and read the
scales E and F after each load is applied. Tabulate
the readings.
EXPERIMENT ON TORSION.
Load,
W^Wo.
160 DYNAMICS CHAP.
at the ends. Strapping the planks together (Fig. 183) preventsthis action, and each end of the beam now lies in one plane ;
the
planks now behave approximately like a solid beam. Inspectionof Fig. 183 shows that planks near the top have become shorter and
Fia. 182. Bending of a loose plank beam. FIG. 183. Bending of a strapped plank beam.
those near the bottom have become longer. The middle plank does
not change in length. Hence we may infer that, in solid beams,there is a neutral layer which remains of unaltered length when the
beam is bent, and that layers above the neutral layer have longi-
tudinal strain of shortening, and must
therefore be under push stress. Layersbelow the neutral layer have longitu-
dinal strain of extension and are there-
fore under pull stress.
In Fig. 184 the beam carries a load
W, and the reactions of the supports are P and Q. Considering anycross section AB, the actions of P on the portion of the beam lying
on the left-hand side of AB, and of W and Q, on the other portion,
produce a tendency for the material at AB to slide as shown. Hence
the material at AB is under shear stress.
Q
FIG. 184. Shear at the section AB.
Beams firmly fixed in and projectingfrom a wall or pier are called cantilevers.
A model cantilever is shown in Fig. 185,
and is arranged so as to give some con-
ception of the stresses described above.
The cantilever has been cut at AB;in order
to balance the portion outside AB, a cord
is required at A (indicating pull stress)
and a small prop at B (indicating pushstress). Further,' in order to balance the FIQ 185 ._.Mode , O f a canti-
tendency to shear, a cord has been arranged lever, cut to show the forces at
so as to apply a force, S. In the uncut
cantilever, these forces are supplied by the stresses in the material.
Bending moment and shearing force in beams. In Fig. 186 (a)
is shown a beam carrying loads WT ,W
2 ,and supported by forces
P, Q. AB is any cross section. P and \N1have a tendency to rotate
XTI BENDING MOMENT AND SHEARING FORCE 161
jw,
the portion of the beam lying on the left-hand side of AB. Similarly,
Q and W2 tend to rotate the other portion of the beam in the con-
trary sense. These tendencies may be calculated by taking the
algebraic sum of the moments of the forces about any point in AB.
A little consideration will show that
the resultant moment of P and W1
must be equal to the resultant
moment of Q and W2 , since both
these resultant moments are balanced
by the same stresses transmitted
across AB. The evaluation of these
stresses is beyond the scope of this
book, but we may say that they
give rise to equal forces X and Y
(Fig. 186 (b) ).
^
The bending- moment at any section
of a beam measures the tendency to
bend the beam about that section,
162 DYNAMICS CHAP.
EXAMPLE. A beam of 20 feet span is supported at its ends and carries
a uniformly distributed load of 1 ton weight per foot length (Fig. 189 (a)).
Find the bending moment and shearing force at a section 6 feet from the
left-hand support.
I ton per foot length
i
XII DEFLECTION OF A BEAM 163
In the same manner the bending moments and shearing forces at other
sections may be calculated and the results plotted (Fig. 189 (c) and (d)).
The resulting diagrams show clearly how the bending moments and shearingforces vary throughout the beam.
EXPT. 28. Deflection of a beam. The apparatus employed is shownin Fig. 190, and consists of two cast-iron brackets A and B, which can be
H 3
Fio. 190. Apparatus for measuring the deflection of a beam.
clamped anywhere to a lathe bed C, or other rigid support. The brackets
have knife edges at the tops, and the test beam rests on these. A wrought-iron stirrup D, with a knife-edge for resting on the beam, carries a hook
E for applying the load. The deflections are measured by means of a
light lever F, pivoted to a fixed support G, and attached by a fine wire
at its shorter end to the stirrup ; the other end moves over a fixed scale
H as the beam deflects. The ratio of the lever arms may be anything
rrFIG. 191.
from 1 : 10 to 1 : 20. The deflection produced by any load will be
obtained by dividing the difference in the scale readings before and after
applying the load by the ratio of the long arm to the short arm of the
lever. If the test beam is of timber, it is advisable to place small metal
plates at a, b and c (Fig. 191) in order to prevent indentation of the soft
material.
Arrange the apparatus as shown. Let the beam be of rectangular
section ; note the material and measure the span L, the breadth b and the
depth d. Apply the load at the middle of the span, and take readings
164 DYNAMICS CHAP.
as indicated in the table for a series of gradually increasing loads W.Take readings also when the load is removed step by step.
DEFLECTION TEST ON A BEAM.
Load, W.
XII EXERCISES 165
8. A column, 20 feet high and having a cross sectional area of 12 squareinches, carries a load of 36 tons weight. Find the decrease in length whenthe load is applied. E =29,000,000 Ib. wt. per sq. inch.
9. A wire, 120 inches long and having a sectional area of 0-125 squareinch, hangs vertically. When a load of 450 Ib. weight is applied, the wireis found to stretch 0-015 inch. Find the stress, the strain, and the valueof Young's modulus.
10. Find the tensile stress in a bolt 2-5 inches diameter when a load of30 tons weight is applied. If E=30x10 Ib. wt. per square inch, findthe longitudinal strain. The original length of the bolt was 102 inches ;
find the extension when the load is applied.
11. A cast-iron bar, diameter 0-474 inch, length 8 inches, was loadedin compression, and the contraction in length caused by a gradually in-
creasing series of loads was measured :
Load, Ib. wt.
166 DYNAMICS
18. Discuss the nature of the forces acting on the fibres at any cross
section of a beam fixed at one end and loaded at the other.
A uniform beam, 20 ft. long, weighing 2000 lb., is supported at its ends,
The beam carries a weight of 4000 lb. at a point 5 ft. from one end. Findthe bending moments at the centre of the beam and at the point wherethe weight is supported. Adelaide University.
19. A light horizontal beam AB, of length 7 feet, is supported at its
ends, and loaded with weights 40 and 50 lb. at distances of 2 and 4 feet
from A. Find the reactions at1*V and B, and tabulate the bending momentand shearing force at distances 1, 3, 5 and 7 feet from A Draw a diagramfrom which can be found the bending moment at any point of the beam.
L.U.
CHAPTER XIII
WORK. ENERGY. POWER. FRICTION
Work. Work is said to be done by a force when the point of
application undergoes a displacement along the line of action of the
force. Work is measured by the product of the
,'\ magnitude of the force and the displacement."^
Thus, if A (Fig. 192) be displaced from A to B, a
distance s along the line of action of the force F,
then
FIG. 192,-WorkdoneW rk d ne ^ F = Fs W
In Fig. 193 the point of application is displaced
from A to B, and AB does not coincide with the direction of F. The
displacement AB is equivalent to the component displacements AC
and CB, which are respectively along and at right angles to the line
of F. Let s denote the displacement AC, then
Work done by F = Fs = F x AB x cos a (2)
no. 193.
The work done by F may also be calculated by the following
method : In Fig. 194 take components of F, (P and Q), respectively
at right angles to and along AB. Q is equal to F cos a. P does no
work during the displacement from A to B;
the work is done byQ alone, and is given by
Work done=QxAB = FxcosaxAB, (3)
which is the same result as before.
No work is done against gravity when a load is carried along a
level road. This follows from the consideration that the point of
163 DYNAMICS CBAP.
application of the vertical force supporting the load moves in a
horizontal plane, and therefore undergoes no displacement in the
vertical line of action of the weight.
Units of work. Unit work is performed when unit force pro-
duces unit displacement. The G.G.s. absolute unit of work is the
erg, and is performed when a force of one dyne acts through a
distance of one centimetre.* The metric gravitational unit of work
usually employed is the centimetre-kilogram, and is performed when
a force of one kilogram weight acts through a distance of one centi-
metre;
the centimetre-gram and the metre-kilogram are also used.
The British absolute unit of work is the foot-poundai, and is per-
formed when a force of one poundal acts through a distance of one
foot. The gravitational unit of work is the foot-lb., and is performedwhen a force of one pound weight acts through a distance of one foot.
In practical problems in electricity the unit of work employed is
the joule ;this unit represents the work done in one second when a
tcurrent of one ampere is maintained by an
E M.F. of one volt.
The dimensions of work are
ml ml2
FIG. l3.-Wrkddone in raising
Work done in elevating a body. In
Fig. 195 is shown a body having a total
weight W, and having its centre of gravity
Gj at a height H above the ground. wlt
w2 , etc., are particles situated at heightsh
lt7*2 , etc., above the ground. Let the
body be raiged go tha(. ^ moveg to Q >
and wv w2 to w/, iv2 at heights H', 7^'
and h2 respectively. The work done against gravity in raising ivl
and w2 is Wi(^i'-^i) and w2 (h2 -h2)', hence the total work donein raising the body is given byWork done = iv^h^
-hj + w2 (h2
- h2} + W3 (h3
' - h3] + etc.
=(ivjii + w2h2 + iv3h3
' + etc.) (wJh-L + W2h2 + wji3 + etc.)
= WH'-WH, (p. 109)= W(H' -H).
The work done in raising a body against the action of gravity maytherefore be calculated by taking the product of the total weight of
the body and the vertical height through which the centre of gravityis raised.
WOBK
Graphic representation of work. Since work is measured by the
product of force and distance, it follows that the area of a diagramin which ordinates represent force and abscissae represent distances
will represent the work done.
If the force is uniform, the diagram is a rectangle (Fig. 196).The work done by a uniform force P acting through a distance
D is P x D. If unit height of the diagram represents p units of force,
and unit length represents d units of displacement, then one unit
of area of the diagram represents pd units of work. If the diagrammeasures A units of area, then the total work done is given by pdk.
FIG. 196. Diagram of work done bya uniform force.
FiQ. 197. Diagram of work done bya varying force.
If the force varies (Fig. 197), the diagram of work is drawn bysetting off ordinates to represent the magnitude of the force at
different values of the displacement. The work done may be
calculated by taking the product of the average value of the force
and the displacement. Since the average height of the diagramrepresents the average force, and the lengthof the diagram represents displacement, wehave, as before, the work done represented
by the area of the diagram, and one unit
of area of the diagram represents pd units
of work. The area A of the diagram maybe found by means of a planimeter, or
by any convenient rule of mensuration,when pdA will give the total work done.
EXAMPLE. Find the work done against
gravity when a cage and load weighing Wj are
raised from a pit H deep by means of a rope
having a weightW 2 (Fig. 198).
At first the pull P required at the top of the
rope is (Wj +W 2 ), and this diminishes graduallyas the cage ascends, becoming W x when the
d^ne i,\^oisting a load,
cage is at the top. The diagram of work for
hoisting the cage and load alone is the rectangle ABCD, in which BC
and AB represent W x and H respectively ; the diagram for hoisting the
170 DYNAMICS
rope alone is DCE, in which W 2 is represented by CE. From the
diagrams, we have
Total work done =W 1H + |W 2H
Energy. Energy means capability of doing work. A body is
said to possess energy when, by reason of its position, velocity, or
other conditions, work maybe performed during an alteration in
the conditions. Thus an elevated body is said to possess energybecause work can be done by the gravitational effort if the body is
permitted to descend. Energy of this kind is called potential energy.
A flying bullet is said to possess energy because work can be done
while the bullet is coming to rest. Energy possessed by a body byvirtue of its motion is called kinetic energy. There
are various other forms of energy, such as heat,
electric energy, etc.
Energy is measured in units of work. Thus the
potential energy of a body of mass m at an eleva-
vwww/// tion h (Fig. 199) is mgh, since mgh absolute units
FIG. 199. Potential of work will be done bv gravitational effort whilstenergy. .
* '
the body is descending.
Conservation of energy. Experience shows that all energy at
our disposal comes from natural sources. The principle of the
conservation of energy states that man is unable to create or destroy
energy ; he can only transform it from one kind into another. For
example, a labourer carrying bricks up a ladder is not creating
potential energy, but is only converting some of his internal store
of energy into another form. Presently rest and food will be neces-
sary in order that his internal store of energy may be replenished.No matter what may be the form of food, it is derived ultimatelyfrom vegetation, and vegetation depends for its growth upon the
light and heat of the sun. Hence the store of energy in the sun is
responsible primarily for the elevation of the bricks. The student
will be able to supply other examples from his own experience.The statement that energy cannot be destroyed requires some
explanation. In converting energy from one form into another,
some of the energy disappears generally, so that the total energyin the new form is less than the original energy. If careful examina-
tion be made, it will be found that the missing energy has been
converted into forms other than that desired, and that the total
xm ENERGY 171
energy in the various final forms is exactly equal to the original
energy. For example, a hammer is used for driving a nail and is
given kinetic energy by the operator. The hammer strikes the
nail, and some of its energy is used in performing the useful workof driving the nail. The remainder is wasted in damaging the headof the nail and in the production of sound and heat. The student
should accustom himself to the use of the term "wasted energy"in preference to "lost energy," which A Bmight lead to the idea that some energy /~\ r~\
had been destroyed. F~~Lj/ v
Kinetic energy. In Fig. 200 a result-
ant external force F acts on a mass m,which is at rest at A. Let the body be displaced to B through a
distance s, and let its velocity at B be v. Then
Work done by F = Fs (1)
None of this work has been done against any external resistance,
hence it must be stored in the body at B in the form of kinetic energy.
Hence Kinetic energy at B = Fs = mas.
Also, v* = 2as, or a =^; (p. 33)
.*. Kinetic energy at B = ms .~
J^ absolute units (2)2>
It will be noted that the result obtained for the kinetic energy is
independent of the direction of motion of the body. This follows
from consideration of the fact that the velocity appears to the second
power in the result, which is therefore independent of the direction
or sign of the given velocity. Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity.
The dimensions of kinetic energy are ml2/t
2,
i.e. kinetic energy
has the same dimensions as work.
Average resistance. When a body is in motion and it is desired
to bring it to rest, or to diminish its speed, a force must be applied
having a sense opposite to that of the velocity. In general it is not
possible to state the precise value of this resistance at any instant,
but the average value may be calculated from the consideration that
the change in kinetic energy must be equal to the work done againstthe resistance. The following example illustrates this applicationof the principle of the conservation of energy.
172 DYNAMICS
EXAMPLE. A stone weighing 8 Ib. falls from the top of a cliff 120 feet
high and buries itself 4 feet deep in the sand. Find the average resistance
to penetration offered by the sand, and the approximate time of penetra-
tion. L.U.
In this case it is simpler to use gravitational units of force ; thus :
Total energy available = potential energy transformed
= 8 x(120 + 4 )
- 992 foot-lb.
Let P the average resistance in Ib. weight,
then Work done against P - P x 4 foot-lb. ;
;. 4P=992,P =248 Ib. weight.
Again, the velocity just before reaching the sand is given by
i> = 87-9 feet per sec.
Also, Average velocity x time = distance travelled ;
87-9, T-xi-4
t=WT&=0-091 second.
Power. Power means rate of doing work. The C.G.S. unit of
power is a rate of doing work of one erg per second. The British
unit of power is the horse-power, and is a rate of working of 33,000
foot-lb. per minute ;this rate of doing work is equivalent to 550
foot-lb. per second. In any given case the horse-power is calculated
by dividing the work done per minute, in foot-lb., by 33,000.
The electrical power unit is the watt, and is 10" ergs per second;
the watt is developed when an electric current of one ampere flows
between two points of a conductor, the potential difference between
the points being one volt. The product of amperes and volts
gives watts. 746 watts are equivalent to one horse-power ;hence
amperes x voltsHorse-power= ^
The Board of Trade unit of electrical energy is one kilowatt
maintained for one hour. One horse-power maintained for one
nour would produce 33,000x60 = 1,980,000 foot-lb. The kilowatt-
hour is therefore given by1000
1 kilowatt hour = 1,980,000 x74o
= 2,654,000 foot-lb.
xm FRICTION 173
Friction. In practice much energy is wasted in overcomingfrictional resistances, and the general laws of friction should be
understood by the student.
When two bodies are pressed together it is found that there is a
resistance offered to the sliding of one upon the other. This resist-
ance is called the force of friction. The force which friction appliesto a body always acts in such a direction as to maintain the state
of rest, or to oppose the motion of the body.
Let two bodies A and B (Fig. 201 (a)) be pressed together, and let
the mutual force perpendicular to the surfaces in contact be R.
Let B be fixed, and let a
force P, parallel to the sur- I R IRfaces in contact, be applied i
^1 p i
' '
(Fig. 201 (6)). If P is not 1*1 ~^Jlarge enough to produce slid- '"*
ing, or if sliding with steady I /a \
speed takes place, B will
apply to A a frictional force
F equal and opposite to P. The force F may have any value lower
than a certain maximum, which depends on the magnitude of R andon the nature and condition of the surfaces in contact. If P is less
than the maximum value of F, sliding will not occur; sliding will
be on the point of occurring when P is equal to the maximum possiblevalue of F. It is found that the frictional resistance offered, after
steady sliding conditions have been attained, is less than that offered
when the body is on the point of sliding.
Let Fs= the frictional resistance when the body is on the
point of sliding.
Ffc= the frictional resistance when steady sliding has been
attained.
R = the perpendicular force between the surfaces in
contact.
These forces should all be stated in the same units. Then
_F _F*/*- J**- R
-
fjis andjufc
are called respectively the static and kinetic coefficients of
friction.
Friction of dry surfaces. Owing to the great influence of appar-
ently trifling alterations in the state of the rubbing surfaces, it is
not possible to predict with any pretence at accuracy what the
174 DYNAMICS CHAP.
frictional resistance will be in any given case. For this reason the
proper place to study friction is in a laboratory having suitable
apparatus. For dry clean surfaces the following general laws are
complied with roughly :
The force of friction is proportional to the perpendicular force between
the surfaces in contact, and is independent of the extent of these surfaces
and of the speed of rubbing, if gnoderate. It therefore follows that the
kinetic coefficient of friction for two given bodies is practically constant for
moderate pressures and speeds. Experiments on the static coefficient
of friction are not performed easily ; roughly, this coefficient is
constant for two given bodies.
COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION.
(Average values.)
Metal on metal, dry O2Metal on wood, dry 0-6
Wood on wood, dry 0-2 to 0-5
Leather on iron 0-3 to 0-5
Leather on wood - 0-3 to 0-5
Stone on stone 0-7
Wood on stone 0-6
Metal on stone 0-5
The average values given in this table should be employed only in the
absence of more definite experimental values for the bodies concerned.
EXPT. 29. Determination of the kinetic coefficient of friction. Set upa board AB (Fig. 202) as nearly horizontal as possible, and arrange a slider
C (which can be loaded to anydesired amount) with a cord,
pulley and scale-pan, so that
the horizontal force P requiredto overcome the frictional re-
sistance may be measured.
Weigh the slider, and let its
weight, together with the load
placed on it, be called W. TheFIG. 202. Friction of a slider.
perpendicular force between the
surfaces in contact will be equal to W. Weigh the scale-pan, and let its
weight, together with the weights placed in it in order to secure steady
sliding, be called P. P and F will be equal ; hencep
Kinetic coefficient of friction =
xra FRICTION 175
It is necessary to assist the slider to start by tapping the board. The
rubbing surfaces should be clean and free from dust. More consistent
results can be obtained from surfaces which have been freshly planed.Make a series of about ten experiments with gradually increasing loads.
Plot P and W ; the plotted points will lie approximately on a straightline. Draw the straight line which best fits the points ; select one pointon the graph, and read the values of P and W for it ; let these values be
P! and W^ thenp
Average kinetic coefficient of friction =J-
.W x
The materials of which the slider and board are made should be stated,
and, if these are timber, whether rubbing has been with the grain or across
the grain of the wood.
Friction on an inclined plane. In Fig. 203, XZ is an inclined boardwhich has been arranged so that a block A just slides down with
steady speed. Let ca represent the
weight of the block; by means of
the parallelogram of forces chad, find
the components Q, and P of W, respec-
tively perpendicular and parallel to
XZ. The board applies a frictional
force F to the block in a direction
coinciding with the surface of the
board and contrary to the motion of
thp hlnplr i P im fhp r>lanp A fhprA Fl - 203. Coefficient of friction de-)CK i.e. up tJ e plane. AS tnertermined by inclining the board.
is no acceleration, P and F are equal.The plane also exerts on the block a force R, equal and opposite to
Q. R is the normal or perpendicular force between the surfaces
in contact. Hence, by the definition (p. 173),
F PKinetic coefficient of friction^ - = -.
K ti
Since cb and ca are perpendicular to XZ and ZY respectively, it
follows that the angles acb and XZY are equal. Hence
Q =W cos acb =W cos XZY,P-W sin acb =W sin XZY ;
P W sin XZY
V /ZA:~Q~WcosXZY= tan XZY.
The angle XZY is called the angle of sliding friction.
EXPT. 30. Determination of|tk from the angle of sliding friction. Use
the same board and slider as in Expt. 29. Raise one end of the board
until, with assistance in starting, the slider travels down the inclined plane
176 DYNAMICS CHAP.
with constant speed. Measure the angle of inclination of the plane, or
measure its height and base, and so obtain the tangent of the angle of
sliding friction ; this will give /x^. Place a weight on the slider, and
ascertain if the block will still slide with steady speed. Compare the
result with that obtained in Expt. 29.
Resultant reaction between two bodies. In Fig. 204 is shown a
block A resting on a horizontal table BC. The weight W of the
block acts in a line normal to BC. Let a
horizontal force Px be applied to the block;
P! and W will have a resultant Rr For equi-
librium the table must exert a resultant force
on the block equal and opposite to Rj and in
the same straight line. Let this force be Elt
cutting BC in D. Ex may be resolved into two
forces, Q, perpendicular to BC, and Fx along
BC. Let</>!
be the angle which Elmakes with
GD. Then F!_HG_Q~GD~
n< '
Now, when Pl is zero, <
xand hence tan
(/>xwill also be zero, and
Q will act in the same line as W. <x will increase as Pj increases,
and will reach a maximum value when the block is on the point of
slipping. It is evident that Q will always be equal to W. Let</>
be the value of the angle when the block just slips, and let F be the
corresponding value of the frictional force;then
fat
H X3
FIG. 204. Friction angle.
Static coefficient of friction = = tan</>.
(f>is called the friction angle or the limiting angle of resistance ; when
steady sliding has been attained, <f>is lower in value and is called,
as noted above, the angle of sliding friction.
It is evident from Fig. 204 that Pj and Fj are always equal (assum-
ing no sliding, or sliding with constant speed) ;W and Q are also
always equal. These forces form couples having equal opposingmoments, and so balance the block. It will be noted that D, the
point through which Q, acts, does not lie in the centre of the rubbingsurface unless P, is zero. The effect is partially to relieve the normal
pressure near the right-hand edge of the block and to increase it
near the left-hand edge. With a sufficiently large value of /zs ,and
by applying P at a large enough height above the table, the block
can be made to overturn instead of sliding.
XIII FRICTION 177
In Fig. 205 the resultant R of P and W may fall outside the baseAB before sliding begins. Hence E, which must act on AB, cannotact in the same line as R, and the block will overturn. For
overturning to be impossible, R must fall
within AB.W
EXAMPLE. A block of weightW slides steadily on
a plane inclined at an angle a to the horizontal under
the action of a force P. Find the values of P in 'the
following cases :
(a) P is horizontal and the block slides upwards.
(6) P is horizontal and the block slides down-
wards.
(c) P is parallel to the plane and the block slides
upwards.
(d) P is parallel to the plane and the block slides
downwards.
Case (a). In Fig. 206 (a) draw AN perpendicular to the plane ;the
angle between W and AN is equal to a. Draw AC, making with AN an
angle </> equal to the angle of sliding friction ; the resultant reaction R
of the plane acts in the line CA, and ABC is the triangle of forces for
W, P and R. Let //be the kinetic coefficient of friction, then
FIG. 205. Conditionthat a block may over-
turn.
FIG. 206. Friction on an incline ;P horizontal.
Case (b). The construction is shown in Fig. 206 (6), and is made as
directed under Case (a), excepting that R acts on the other side of AN.
The triangle of forces is ABC.
P BC / i v
p-wp.s.p.
tan </>- tan a
I +tan a tan ^M
\i- tan a
1 +/JL tan a(2)
178 DYNAMICS CHAP.
It will be noticed in this case that, if < is less than a, the block will
slide down without the necessity for the application of a force P. Rest
is just possible, unaided by P, if a and</>
are equal.
Case (c). The required construction is shown in Fig. 207 (a) ; the triangle
of forces is ABC.
P _BC _sin BAC _ sin (a +()~sln~ACBW ~AB snACB sin (90
-
_sin a. cos ^ +cos a sin <.
cos(f>
P=W(sin a +cos a tan <)= a+/x cos a)........... (3)
H'*-*(a)
B(6)
FIG. 207. Friction on an incline ; P parallel to the incline.
Case (d). Referring to Fig. 207 (6), we have
P BC sin BAC sin(c/>-a)
W AB sin ACB sin (90-
</>)
_sin </>cos a -cos
</>sin a
.
P =W(tan (/>cos a - sin a) =W(/x cos a - sin a). (4)
Friction of a rope coiled round a post. When a rope is coiled
round a cylindrical post, slipping will not
occur until the pull applied to one end is
considerably greater than that appliedto the other end. This is owing to the
friction between the rope and the post
having to be overcome before slipping
can take place. As the frictional resist-
ance is distributed throughout the^sur-
face in contact, the pull in the ropewill diminish gradually from a value
FIG 208. Tensions in the rope j at one end, to T2 at the other end.at different parts of the arc of
In Fig. 208 the rope embraces the arc
ACF, and this arc has been divided into equal arcs AB, BC, etc.,
subtending equal angles a at the centre of the post. Since these
T,
XIII FRICTION 179
arcs are all equal, it is reasonable to suppose that the ratios of
the tensions in the rope at the beginning and end of each arc
are equal, i.e.
Il = lB = Ic = lD = lE n\TB Tc TD T
ET2
This assumes that the surfaces
are such that the value of thecoefficient of friction is the same
throughout, and the result is
confirmed approximately by ex-
periment.
EXPT. 31. Friction of a cord
coiled round a post. The apparatusshown in Fig. 209 enables the
tensions to be found for angles of
contact differing by 90. Weighthe scale-pans. Put equal loads in
each pan, then increase one load
until steady slipping occurs. Eval-
uate T t and T 2, and repeat the
experiment with a different angleof contact. The following is a
record of an actual experiment, using a silk cord on a pine post.
FIG. 209. Apparatus for experiments on thefriction of a cord coiled on a drnm.
AN EXPERIMENT ON SLIPPING.
Angle of lap.
180 DYNAMICS CHAP.
surfaces in contact. The pulls in the straight parts of the belt differ
in magnitude by an amount equal to the total frictional force round
the arc of contact. Hence the pull Tl (Fig. 210) in one straight
portion is greater than T2 in the other straight
portion. Let Txand T2 be stated in Ib. weight,
and let the speed of the belt be V feet per minute ;
then, since T1
is assisting the motion and T2 is
opposing it? we have
Work done per minute = (T! -T2)V foot-lb.
Hence, Horse-power transmitted = - *^1-
FIG. 210. 66,(jv
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XIII.
1. A load of 3 tons weight is raised from the bottom of a shaft 600 feet
deep. Calculate the work done.
2. In Question 1 the wire rope used for raising the load weighs 12 Ib.
per yard. Find the total work done.
3. Calculate the work done in hauling a loaded truck, weight 12 tons,
along a level track one mile long. The resistances to motion are 11 Ib.
weight per ton weight of truck.
4. A well is 100 feet deep and 10 feet in diameter, and is full of water
(62-5 Ib. weight per cubic foot). Calculate the work done in pumping the
whole of the water up to ground level.
5. A pyramid of masonry has a square base of 40 feet side and is 30 feet
high. If masonry weighs 150 Ib. per cubic foot, how much work mustbe done against gravity in placing the stones into position ?
6. The head of a hammer has a mass of 2 pounds and is moving at
40 feet per second. Find the kinetic energy.
7. A ship having a mass of 15,000 tons has a speed of 20 knots (1 knot =6080 feet per hour). What is the kinetic energy in foot-tons ? If the
ship is brought to rest in a distance of 0-5 mile, what has been the averageresistance ?
,
8. A train having a mass of 200 tons is travelling at 30 miles per houron a level track. Find the average pull in tons weight which must be
applied in order to increase the speed to 40 miles per hour while the train
travels a distance of 3000 feet. Neglect frictional resistances.
9. A bullet has a mass of 0-03 pound, and is fired with a velocity of
2400 feet per second into a sand-bank. If the bullet penetrates a distance
of 3 feet, what has been.the average resistance ?
10. A horse walks at a steady rate of 3 miles an hour along a level road
and exerts a pull of 80 Ib. weight in dragging a cart. What horse-poweris he developing ?
11. Find the useful horse-power used in pumping 5000 gallons of water
per minute from a well 40 feet deep to the surface of the water. Supposing40 per cent, of the horse-power of the engine driving the pump is wasted,
what is the horse-power of the engine ?
xm EXERCISES l8l
12. A pump raises 6-2 cubic feet of water per second to a height of 7feet ; how much horse-power must be supplied if 55 per cent, is wasted ?
The pump is driven by an electro-motor, and current is supplied at 200volts. How many amperes of current must be supplied to the motorassuming that the motor wastes 15 per cent, of the energy supplied to it ?
13. A horizontal force of 8 Ib. weight can keep a load weighing 30 Ib.
in steady motion along a horizontal table. What is the coefficient of
friction ? What is the minimum inclination of the table to the horizontalif the block is just able to slide steadily on it ?
14. A block of oak rests on an oak plank 8 feet long. To wrhat heightmust one end of the plank be raised before slipping will occur ? Thecoefficient of friction is 045.
15. A block weighing W Ib. is dragged along a level table by a forceP Ib. weight acting at a constant angle 6 to the horizontal. The coefficient
of friction is 0-25. 'Take successive values of 0=0, 15, 30, 45, 60 and 75
degrees, and calculate in terms ofW (a) the values of P, (6) the work donein dragging the block a distance of 1 foot. Plot graphs showing the rela-
tion of P and 0, and the relation of the work done and 6.
16. A block weighs W Ib. and is pushed up an incline making an anglewith the horizontal by a force P Ib. weight which acts in a direction parallel
to the incline. The coefficient of friction is 0-25. Find in terms of W(a) the values of P, (6) the work done in raising the block through a vertical
height of one foot, in each case taking successive values of 0=0, 15, 30,
45, 60, 75 and 90 degrees. Plot graphs of P and 0, and of the work doneand 0.
17. Answer Question 16 if P is horizontal. At what value of does Pbecome infinite ?
18. A block slides down a plane inclined at 45 to the horizontal. If
the coefficient of friction is 0-2, what will be the acceleration ?
19. When a rope is coiled 180 degrees round a post, it is found that
slipping occurs when one end is pulled with a force of 30 Ib. weight andthe other end with a force of 50 Ib. weight. Supposing that the force of
30 Ib. weight remains unchanged, and that three complete turns are givento the rope round the post, what force would just cause slipping ?
20. A belt runs at 2000 feet per minute. The pulls in the straight
portions are 200 and 440 Ib. weight respectively. What horse-power is
being transmitted ?
21. A belt transmits 60 horse-power to a pulley. If the pulley is 16
inches in diameter and runs at 263 revolutions per minute, what is the
difference of the tensions on the two straight portions ?
22. A pile-driver weighing 3 cwt. falls from a height of 20 feet on a pile
weighing 15 cwt. : if there is no rebound, calculate how far the pile will
be driven against a constant resistance equal to the weight of 30 cwt. ?
Sen. Cam. Loc.
23. Define energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy ; and show that
when a particle of mass m is dropped from a height h, the sum of its kinetic
and potential energies at any instant during motion is constant and equals
mgh. Calcutta Univ.
182 DYNAMICS CHAP.
24. A motor-car develops 20 horse-power in travelling at a speed of40 miles per hour up a hill having a slope 1 in 50. If the frictional resistanceis 80 Ib. wt. per ton weight of car, find the weight of the car, and the speedit could reach on the level, supposing the horse-power developed and theresistance to be unaltered.
25. Explain the difference between the momentum and the kinetic
energy of a moving body. Two bodies, A and B, weigh 10 Ib. and 40 Ib.
respectively. Each is acted upon by a force equal to the weight of 5 Ib.
Compare the times the forces *nust act to produce in each of the bodies
(a) the same momentum, (6) the same kinetic energy. L.U.
26. A cyclist always works at the rate of ^ H.P.. and rides at 12 milesan hour on level ground and 10 miles an hour up an incline of 1 in 120.If the man and his machine weigh 150 Ib., and the resistance on a level
road consists of two parts, one constant and the other proportional to the
square of the velocity, show that, when the velocity is v miles per hour,the resistance is ^^ (76 +vz
)Ib. wt. Find also the slope up which he
would travel at the rate of 8 miles per hour. L.U.
27. Define work and power, and give their dimensions in terms of thefundamental units of mass, length and time. The maximum speed of amotor van weighing 3 tons is 12 miles an hour on a level road, but dropsto 5 miles an hour up an incline of 1 in 10. Assuming resistances per tonto vary as the square of the velocity, find the horse-power Of the engine.
L.U.
28. A bicycle is geared up to 70 inches, and the length of the pedal-cranks is 6 inches. Calculate the velocity of the pedal (a) at its highestpoint, (6) at its lowest point, when the bicycle is travelling at 10 milesan hour. If the bicycle and rider weigh 160 Ib., find the pressure on the
pedals in climbing a hill of 1 in 20. L.U.
29. Explain what is meant by (1) the coefficient of friction, (2) the angleof friction.
A window curtain weighing 4 Ib. hangs by 6 equidistant thin rings froma curtain rod in such a way that the weight is equally distributed betweenthe rings. If the coefficient of friction is 0-6, and the rings are 6 inches
apart, find the work done in drawing the curtain back to the position of
the end ring. L.U.
30. A body having a mass of 20 pounds is placed on a rough horizontal
table, and is connected by a horizontal cord passing over a pulley at the
edge with a body having a mass of 10 pounds hanging vertically. If the
coefficient of friction between the body and the table be 0-25, find theacceleration of the system and the pull in the cord.
31. Explain what is meant by the"angle of friction." If a body be
placed on a rough horizontal plane, show that no force, however great,
applied towards the plane at an angle with the normal less than the angleof friction, can push the body along the plane.A uniform circular hoop is weighted at a point of the circumference
with a mass equal to its own. Prove that the hoop can hang from a roughpeg with any point of its circumference in contact with the peg, providedthat the angle of friction exceeds 30. Adelaide University.
EXERCISES 183
32. A ladder of length 2a leans against a perfectly smooth wall, the
ground being slightly rough. The weight of the ladder is w ; and its
centre of gravity is at its middle point. The inclination to the vertical
is gradually increased till the ladder begins to slip. The inclination is
then further increased, and the ladder is prevented from slipping by thesmallest possible horizontal force applied at the foot. Find the magnitudeof this force if
//,is the coefficient of friction and 6 the final inclination
to the vertical. Tasmania University.
CHAPTER XIV
SIMPLE MACHINES
Machines. A machine is an arrangement designed for the purposeof taking in energy in some definite form, modifying it, and delivering
it in a form more suitable for the purpose in view.
There is a large class of machines designed for the purpose of
raising loads; many of these machines can be used for experimental
work in laboratories. The crab shownin Fig. 211 is an example. The ropeto which the load W is attached is
wound round a cylindrical barrel A.
The machine is driven generally byhand by means of handles. For the
purposes of experiment, the handles
have been removed and a wheel Dsubstituted. D is rotated by meansof a cord and weights placed in a
scale-pan at P, and drives the barrel
by medium of the toothed wheels Cand B.
FIG. 211.-A small lifting crab.
Energy ig gupplied to this machine
by means of a comparatively small force P acting through a large
distance, and is delivered by the machine in the form of the work
done in overcoming a large force W through a small distance.
If no energy were wasted in a machine, it would follow, from the
conservation of energy, that the energy supplied must be equal to
the energy delivered by the machine. Thus, referring to Fig. 211,
Work done by P = Work done on W.
This statement is generally referred to as the principle of work,
and requires modification for actual machines, in which there is
always some energy wasted. Actually, the energy supplied is equalto the sum of the energy delivered by the machine and the energy
MACHINES 185
wasted. The investigation of frictional resistances in the various
kinds of lubricated rubbing surfaces of machines is beyond the
scope of this book. Usually, however, it is the determination of the
total waste of energy in the machine which is of importance, and
experiments having this object are performed easily in the case of
simple machines used for raising loads.
Some definitions regarding machines. In Fig. 212 is shown anoutline diagram of the crab illustrated in Fig. 211. Let W be
raised through a height h while P descends
through a height H, H and h being in
the same units. The velocity ratio of the
machine is defined as the ratio of the dis-
tance moved by P to the distance moved
by W in the same time, or
Velocity ratio = V= , -(1)
H and h may be obtained by direct measure-
ment, or they may be calculated from knowndimensions of the parts of. the machine.
The mechanical advantage of the machine is
the ratio of the actual load raised to the force required to operatethe machine at a constant speed.
WMechanical advantage = (2)
Neglecting any waste of energy in the machine, the work done byP would be equal to the work done in raising the load, and, in
these circumstances, the load raised would be larger than W. LetW
x be this hypothetical load, then
Work done by P = work done on W1?
H.(3)
The effect of frictional and other sources of waste in the actual
machine has been to diminish the load from W to W. Hence
Effect of friction = F =Wx-W
=PV-W (4)
The efficiency of any machine is defined as the ratio of the energydelivered to the energy supplied in the same time. .
186 DYNAMICS CHAP.
energy supplied
_W^_W !_~piT
~P
xv
mechanical advantage (f,,
velocity ratio
The efficiency thus stated wilfrbe always less than unity. Efficiencyis often given as a percentage, obtained by multiplying the result
given in (5) by 100. 100 per cent, efficiency could be obtained onlyunder the condition of no energy being wasted in the machine, a
condition impossible to attain in practice.From equation (3) we have
W'= PF
This result shows that the mechanical advantage of an ideal
machine, having no waste of energy, is equal to the velocity ratio.
A typical experiment on a machine. In the following experimenta complete record is given of tests on a small crab
;this record will
serve as a model for any other hoisting machines available.
EXPT. 32. Efficiency, etc., of a machine for raising loads. The machine
used was a small crab illustrated in Fig. 211 and shown in outline in Fig.
212. By direct measurement of the distances moved by P and W, the
velocity ratio was found to be V =8-78. This was confirmed by calcula-
tion :
Diameter of barrel to centre of rope sustaining W = 6 -4 inches.
Diameter of wheel to centre of cord sustaining P =7-9 inches.
Number of teeth on the barrel wheel, 128.
Number of teeth on the pinion, 18.
Let the barrel make one revolution, then
Height through which W is raised =TT x64 inches.
Number of revolutions of grooved wheel =-1fs l<
Height through which P descends =-112ir X7r x 7 '9-
Hence, Velocity ratio =^ X
18 X7T X64= 8-78.
The weight of the hook from which W was suspended is 1 -75 Ib. The
weight of the scale-pan in which were placed the weights at P is 0-665 Ib.
The machine was first oiled, and a series of experiments was made, in
each case finding what force P was required to produce constant speed in
XIV MACHINES 187
the machine for each value of W. There must be no acceleration, other-
wise a portion of P will be utilised in overcoming inertia in the movingparts of the machine, and also in P and W. As the test has for its objectthe investigation of frictional resistances only, inertia effects must be
eliminated, and this is secured by arranging that the spesd shall be
uniform. The results obtained are given below, together with the calcu-
lated values of the loadsW x which could be raised if there were no friction,
the effect of friction F, the mechanical advantage and the efficiency.
RECORD OF EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS.
(1)W Ib. wt.,
includingweight of hook.
188 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Select two points on the PW graph, and read the corresponding values
of P and W. P = 3 5 Ib. wt. when W - 22-7 lb. wt.
P = 16-0 lb. wt. when W = 120-0 lb. wt.
Hence, from (1), 3 -5 = 22 -la + b,
16 = 1200+6.
Solving these simultaneous equations, we obtain
a=0-J28, 6=0-64;
/. P=0-128W +0-64.................................. (3)
Similarly, When F = 8 lb. wt., W = 20 lb. wt.
When F = 18 lb. wt., W = 100 lb. wt.
Hence, from (2), 8 = 20c + d,
The solution of these gives
c=0-125, d=5-5.
Hence, F=0-125W +5-5. . ................................. (4)
If both the load and the hook sustaining the load be removed so that
there is no load on the machine, the machine may be run light. Thevalues of P and F for this case may be found from (3) and (4) by makingW equal to zero, when p =0 -64 lb. wt., F =5-5 lb. wt.
PANOFLB
nr\
xrv MACHINES 189
a load of 5-5 Ib. wt. could be raised by this force. These values are shown
in Fig. 213 by the intercepts on the OY axis between O and the points
EFFICIENCYPER CENT
100
MECHANICALADVANTAGE
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 60 90 100 HO 120 1301LB
FIG. 214. Graphs of efficiency and mechanical advantage for a small crab,
where the graphs of P and F
cut the axis. -*"**
Principle of work applied
to levers. Tn Fig. 215 (a) is
shown a lever AB, pivoted at
C, and balanced under the
action of two loads W and
P. The weight of the lever
is neglected. Let the lever
be displaced slightly from
the horizontal, taking up the
position A'CB'. Work has
been done by W to the
amount of WxA'D, andFIG. 215. Principle of work applied to levers,
work has been done on P
to the amount of PxB'F. Assuming that there has been no fric-
tional or other waste of energy, we have
WxA'D = PxB'F.
The triangles A'DC and B'FC are similar ;hence
A'D : B'F = A'C : B'C=AC : BC;
190 DYNAMICS CHAP.
This result agrees with that which would have been obtained by
application of the principle of moments.
In Fig. 215 (6) is shown the same lever with the addition of circular
sectors for receiving the cords. It is evident that the arms AC andBC are of constant length in this lever. If the lever is turned througha small angle a radians, W will be lowered through a height h andP will be raised through a height H, and we have
A = =**--AC BC'
.'. ^=AC . a, and H =BC . a.
Assuming no friction,
Work done by W = work done on P,
or WxACxa = PxBCxa;.'. WxAC = PxBC,
a result which again agrees with the principle of moments.In Fig. 216 the sectors are of the same radius and are extended
to form a complete wheel. It is evident that Pand W will be equal if there be no friction.
Such wheels are called pulleys, and are muchused for changing the direction of a rope or
chain under pull, and arc found often in tackle
used for raising loads.
Hoisting tackle. The fact that the mechani-
cal advantage of a machine, neglecting friction,
is equal to the velocity ratio (p. 186) enablesFIG ' 216
uneyse f a tne latter to ke calculated easily in the following
cases of hoisting tackle.
Simple pulley arrangements. In the pulley-block arrangementshown in Fig. 217, let n be the number of ropes leading from the
lower to the upper block. Neglecting friction, each rope supports
W/n ;this will also be the value of P. Hence
W WnV=V =^T = n '
In the arrangement shown in Fig. 218 (seldom used in practice)each rope A and B sustains |W ;
the pull in B is balanced by the
pulls in C and D, therefore C and D have pulls each equal to JW ;
XIV HOISTING TACKLE 191
hence E and F have pulls equal to JW, and the pull in G is alsoand is equal to P. Thus
\/\/ x/V
In the arrangement shown in Fig. 218 there are three inverted
pulleys. Had there been n inverted pulleys, the value of P wouldhave been W WP-. and v-=a.
Fio. 217. A common pulley-block arrangement.
WFIG. 218. Another pulley
arrangement.FIG. 219. Another ar-
rangement of pulleys.
In the system shown in Fig. 219 (also seldom employed) the pullsin A and B will be each equal to P
;hence the pull in C is 2P
(neglecting the weight of the' pulley), and equals the pull in D.
The pull in E is thus 4P and equals the pull in F. Hence
W =pull in B + pull in D + pull in F
vP
7 '
It is evident that P, 2P and 4P are terms in a geometrical pro-
gression having a common ratio 2. Hence, if there be n pulleys,we may write W = P + 2P + 22P + 23P + ... + 2n
~1P
= P2-1
W
192 DYNAMICS CHAP.
The Weston's differential blocks shown in outline in Fig. 220 are
much used in practice. The upper block has two pulleys of different
diameters, and are fixed together ;an endless
chain, shown dotted, is arranged as shown. Thelinks of the chain engage with recesses formedin the rims of the pulleys and thus cannot slip.
Neglecting friction, each of the chains A and B
support |W. Taking moments about the centre
r
p C of the upper pulleys, and calling the radii R
and r respectively, we have
JW x CD = (P x CF) + (IW x CE),
iW(R-r) = PR;W 2R
Instead of R and r, the number of links whichcan be fitted round the circumferences of the
upper pulleys may be used; evidently these
w^ ^e numbers proportional to R and r.
The wheel and differential axle (Fig. 221) is a
similar contrivance, but has a separate pulley Afor receiving the hoisting rope. Taking moments as before, we
have PRA + JWRB= JWRC ,
PRA = JW(RC -RB),
W 2R
rwFIG. 220. Outline
diagram of Weston'sdifferential blocks.
P Re-ReA set of helical blocks is shown in outline in Fig. 222. The pulley
A is operated by hand by Ameans of an endless chain,
and rotates a worm B. Theworm is simply a screw cut
on the spindle, and engageswith the teeth on a worm-
wheel C. Each revolution of
B causes one tooth on C to
advance ; hence, if there be
uc teeth on the worm-wheel,B will have to rotate nc times
in order to cause C to makeone revolution. Let LA be
the length of the number of
links of the operating chain
which will pass once round A,
VWFRONT ELEVATION END ELEVATION
FIG. 221. Wheel and differential axle.
XIV SCREWS 193
then P will advance a distance wc LA for one revolution of C. Thechain sustaining the load W is fixed at E to the upper block, passesround F, and then is led round D, which has
recesses fitting the links in order to prevent
slipping. Let LD be the length of the
number of links which will pass once round
D, then in one revolution of D, W will be
raised a height equal to |l_ D . Hence
LA
"JLD
Screws. In Fig. 223,A is a cylindrical piece
having a helical groove cut in it, thus leaving
a projecting screw-thread which may be of
square outline as shown in Fig. 223, or V as
in a common bolt. A helix may be defined
as a curve described on the surface of a
cylinder by a point which travels equal dis-
tances parallel to the axis of the cylinder
for equal angles of rotation. The pitch of
the screw is the distance measured parallel
to the axis from a point on one thread to
the corresponding point on the next thread. In Fig. 223, B is a
sliding block guided so that it cannot rotate, and having a hole
with threads to fit those on A. A can rotate, but the collars on it
prevent axial movement. One revolution of A will therefore move
FIG. 222. Helical blocks.
Fia. 223. Section through a nut, B, showing screw, A. FIG. 224. A left-handedscrew.
B through a distance equal to the pitch. If there be n threads per
inch, then the pitch p = l/n inch. The thread shown in Fig. 223 is
right-handed ;that shown in Fig. 224 is left-handed. Screws are
generally made right-handed unless there is some special reason for
the contrary ;thus the right pedal-pin of a bicycle has generally
D.S.P.
194 DYNAMICS CHAP.
a left-handed screw where it is fixed to the crank;
the action of
pedalling then tends to fix it more firmly, whilst a right-handed screw
might become unscrewed.
In Fig. 225 is shown a differential screw. A has a screw of pitch
p1 fitting a screwed hole in B. One revolution of A (the handle
moving away from the observer)will advance it towards the left
through a distance p. C hasanother screw of smaller pitch
p2 cut on it, and fits a screwedhole in the sliding block D If
A had no axial movement, DFIG. 225. A differential screw. jwould move towards the right
through a distance equal to p2 . The actual movement of D towardsthe left will therefore be (p^ p2) for each revolution of A. Bymaking pl
and p2 very nearly equal, a very slow movement may be
given to D.
EXPT. 33. The screw-jack. This device for raising loads is shown in
Fig. 226. A hollow case A has a hole at the top screwed to receive a square-threaded screw B. The load W Ib. weight rests
on the top of B ; C is a loose collar interposedto prevent the load rotating with the screw.
The screw is rotated by means of a bar D. Let
a force P Ib. weight be applied to D at a distance
R inches from the axis of the screw, and let Pact horizontally at right angles to the bar. Let
the pitch of the screw be p inches. Then, if the
screw makes one revolution,
Work done by P =P x2?rR inch-lb.
Work done onW =W xp inch-lb.
Assuming that there is no waste of energy,we have w v /n P
FIG. 226. Screw-jack.This result gives the mechanical advantage
neglecting friction, and is therefore equal to the velocity ratio of the
machine. Hence 9^.0
Velocity ratio =V =
For experimental purposes the bar D is removed, and a pulley havinga grooved rim takes its place. A cord is wound round the rim of the
pulley, passes over another fixed pulley and has a scale-pan at its free
xiv EXERCISES 195
end. Make a series of experiments with a gradually increasing series
of loads W, determining P for each. Reduce the results as directed
previously (pp. 186 to 189).
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XIV.
1. In a set of pulley blocks there are two pulleys in the upper blockand one in the lower block. The rope is fastened to the lower block,
passes round one of the upper pulleys, then round the lower pulley, andlastly round the other upper pulley. An effort of 70 Ib. weight is requiredto raise a load of 150 Ib. weight. Find the velocity ratio and the mechanical
advantage, also the effect of friction and the efficiency with this load.
2. In a system of pulleys similar to that shown in Fig. 218 there arefour movable pulleys each weighing 6 Ib. Neglect friction, and calculate
what effort must be applied if there is no load. If the efficiency is 60 percent., reckoned on the work done on W and that done by P, find whateffort will be required in order to raise a load of 200 Ib. weight.
3. A system of pulleys resembling that shown in Fig. 219 has three
movable pulleys, each of which weighs 4 Ib. Neglecting friction, whateffort will be required to sustain a load of 60 Ib. weight ? If the efficiencyis 70 per cent., reckoned as in Question 2, what effort will be required to
raise a load of 60 Ib. weight ?
4. The barrel of a crab is 6 inches diameter to the centre of the ropesustaining the load ; the wheel on the barrel shaft has 80 teeth, and the
pinion gearing with it has 20 teeth. The machine is driven by a handle15 inches in radius. Find the velocity ratio. If the efficiency is 70 percent., what load can be raised by an effort of 30 Ib. weight applied to thehandle ? What is the mechanical advantage under these conditions ?
5. In a Weston's differential pulley block, the numbers of chain links
which can be passed round the circumferences of the pulleys are 16 and 15
respectively. Find the velocity ratio of the machine. If a load of 550 Ib.
weight can be raised by an effort of 20 Ib. weight, what are the values of
the mechanical advantage, the effect of friction and the efficiency ?
6. In a wheel and differential axle the wheel is 24 inches in diameter,and the barrel has diameters of 7 and 6 inches respectively. Find the
velocity ratio. What load can be raised by an effort of 30 Ib. weight if the
efficiency is 65 per cent. ? Under these conditions, what are the values
of the mechanical advantage and the effect of friction ?
7. In a machine for testing materials under torsion, one end of the
test piece is attached to the axle of a worm-wheel and the other end is
fixed. The worm-wheel has 90 teeth, and is driven by a worm and hand-
wheel. If the hand-wheel is rotated 785 times before the specimen breaks,how many degrees of twist have been given to the specimen ? If the
average torque on the Specimen was 2400 Ib. -inches, and if the efficiencyof the machine is 70 per cent., how much work was done on the hand-wheel ?
8. The screw of a screw-jack is 0-5 inch pitch and the handle is 19
inches long. The efficiency is 50 per cent. What effort must be applied
196 DYNAMICS CHAP.
to the handle in raising a load of one ton weight ? What is the maximumvalue of the efficiency of any machine ?
9. A block and tackle is used to raise a load of 200 Ib. ; the rope passesround three pulleys in the fixed block, and round two in the movableblock, to which is fastened the load and one end of the rope. Calculate
the force which must be applied to the rope.
Assuming that, owing to the effect of friction, the tension on one side
of a pulley is iths of the tension on the other side of the pulley, provethat the force required to raise the load must be increased to over 74 Ib.
Sen. Cam. LOG.
10. Define the terms"velocity ratio,"
"mechanical advantage
" and"efficiency
"as applied to machines, and show that one of these quantities
is equal to the product of the other two. In a lifting machine the velocityratio is 30 to 1. An effort of 10 Ib. is required to raise a load of 35 Ib.,
and an effort of 25 Ib. a load of 260 Ib. Find the effort required to raise
a load of 165 Ib. and the efficiency under this load. Assume a linear
relation between effort and load. L.U.
11. How is the work done by a force measured ? Define erg, foot-
poundal. foot-pound. A vertical rubber cord is stretched by gradually
loading a scale-pan attached to its lower end, and a graph is drawn showingthe relation between the load and the extension of the cord. Explainhow the work done in stretching the cord may be found from the graph.
L.U.
12. Find the condition of equilibrium for a system of pulleys in whicheach pulley hangs in the loop of a separate string, the strings being all
parallel and each string attached to the beam. The weights of the pulleysare to be taken into account.
If there are 5 pulleys and each weighs 1 Ib., what weight will a force
equal to the weight of 6 pounds support on such a system, and what will
be the total pull on the beam ? L.U.
13. Find the velocity ratio, mechanical advantage and efficiency of a
screw-jack, whose pitch is inch, and the length of whose arm is 15 inches,
if the tangential force at the end of the arm necessary to raise one tonis 24 Ib. weight. L.U.
14. Describe the construction of a differential screw, and on the assump-tion of the principle of work (or otherwise) calculate its velocity ratio.
If the two screws have 2 threads and 3 threads to the inch respectively,and a couple of moment 20 lb.-wt.-ft. applied to the differential screw
produces a thrust equal to the weight of half a ton, calculate the efficiencyof the machine. L.U.
15. A body having a weight W is pushed up a rough inclined plane bya force P which acts in a line parallel to the plane. The length, heightand base of the plane are L, H and B respectively, Find the work done
by P, taking //, as the coefficient of friction. Show that this work is the
same as the work done by a horizontal force in pushing the body along a
horizontal plane of length B, and having the same value of /z,and then
elevating the body through a height H. Find the mechanical advantage,i.e., the ratio W/P, in the case in which
//, =H/B.
xiv EXERCISES
16. Describe the system of pulleys in which the same rope goes roundall the pulleys, and find the mechanical advantage (neglecting friction).
If one end of the rope is attached to the lower block, and there are five
pulleys in all, find the pull which is necessary to raise a mass of one ton.
Find also the power required to pull the free end at a speed of 5 ft. persecond. Madras Univ.
CtfAPTER XV
MOTION OF ROTATION
Centre of mass. In Fig. 227 is shown a body travelling towards
the left in such a manner that every particle has rectilinear motion
only ;this kind of motion is called pure translation. Let the body
as a whole have an acceleration a, then every particle will have this*
acceleration. If the masses of the particles be mltm2 ,
m3 , etc.,
the particles will offer resistances, due to their inertia, given bym^a, m2a, mBa, etc. These forces are parallel ;
hence the resultant
resistance is R = <m-/7. -u ._/. 4-*w._/7. -i-Afp.. = 2witt = flt2wi (1)
ma
FIG. 227. Centre of mass of a body. FIG. 228. Centre of mass of a thinsheet.
The centre of these parallel forces (p. 106) is called the centre of
mass of the body. To find the centre of mass of a thin sheet (Fig.
228), take reference axes OX and OY. Let the coordinates of mlt
w2 ,w 3 , etc., be (x^j^, (x2y2), (xsys), etc. Let the sheet have pure
translation parallel to OY, and let the acceleration be a. Take
moments about O, giving
where x is the abscissa of the centre of mass. Hence
(2)
ROTATIONAL INERTIA 199
Similarly, by assuming pure translation with acceleration a parallel
to OX, we obtain 2m?y
The student will note that these equations are similar to those
employed for finding the centre of gravity (p. 109), the only differ-
ence being the substitution of mass for weight. It may be assumedthat the centre of mass coincides with the centre of gravity, andall the methods employed in Chapter IX. may be used for deter-
minin the centre of mass.
Referring again to Fig. 227, C is the centre of mass and R is the
resultant resistance due to inertia and acts through C. If a force
F be applied to the body, and passes through C, it is evident that
F and R will act in the same straight line and the motion will be
pure translation. The truth of the principle that a force passing
through the centre of mass of a body produces no rotation may be
tested by laying a pencil on the table and
flicking it with the finger nail. An impulse
applied near the end of the pencil causes the
pencil to fly off, rotating as it goes ;an
impulse applied through the centre of mass
produces no rotation.
Rotational inertia. To produce pure rota-
tion in a body, i.e. the centre of mass remains,. . . e FIG. 229. Relation be-
at rest, requires the application of a couple, tween the couple and the
The effect of the equal opposing parallel forcesrotational inertia -
is not to produce translational motion. Let a body be free to rotate
about an axis OZ perpendicular to the plane of the paper (Fig. 229).
Let a couple F, F, be applied, and let the couple rotate with the
body so that its effect is constant. The body will have angular
acceleration which we proceed to determine.
Consider a particle having a mass m and at a radius r from OZ.
Let the particle have a linear acceleration a in the direction of the
tangent to its circular path. The inertia of the particle causes it
to offer a resistance ma. Let</>
be the angular acceleration, then
a = $r.
Also, Resistance of the particle= ma = m$>r.
To obtain the moment of this resistance about OZ, multiply byr
> giving Moment of resistance of particle=
m<j>r*
200 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Now<f>
is common for the whole of the particles ;hence we have :
Total moment of resistance = ^(m^r-f + M 2r22 +w 3r3
2 + etc.)
This moment balances the moment of the applied couple. Letthe moment of the couple be L = FD, then
L = </>2wr2........................................ (1)
It will be noted that L must be stated in absolute units in usingthis equation.
2/wr2 is called the second moment of mass, or, more commonly,the moment of inertia of the body. It is a quantity which depends
upon the mass and the distribution of the mass with reference to
the axis of rotation. It is usual to denote it by I, and to add a
suffix indicating the axis for which the moment of inertia has been
calculated; thus L = Iz ^>........................................... (2)
In the c.G.s. system state L in dyne-centimetres, and I in gramsmass and centimetre units
;in the British system state L in poundal-
feet, and I in pounds mass and foot units.<f>
ig in radians per second
per second in both systems.The dimensions of moment of inertia are ml2
.
Gravitational units may be employed ; thus, if T is the momentof the applied couple in Ib.-feet, and I is the moment of inertia in
pounds-mass and foot-units, then
T =!<* ........................................... (3)9
EXAMPLE 1. A wheel has a moment of inertia of 800 gram and centi-
metre units. Find what constant couple must be applied to it in order
that the angular acceleration may be 2 radians per second per second.
L =I</>
= 800 x 2 = 1600 dyne-centimetres.
EXAMPLE 2. A grindstone has a moment of inertia of 600 pound andfoot units. A constant couple is applied and the grindstone is found to
have a speed of 150 revolutions per minute 10 seconds after starting fromrest. Find the conpie.
150 Ko> =
-Qfi-x "TT = OTT radians per sec.
. w 5?r TT ,.
<p=
=Yf\ =o radians per sec. per sec.
g 0x2600X22
=29,3 Ib. feet.32-2x2x7
XV MOMENTS OF INERTIA 201
Cases of moments of inertia. A few of the simpler cases of momentsof inertia are now discussed.
A thin uniform wire of mass M is arranged parallel to the axis
OX (Fig. 230). Every portion of the wire is at the same distanceD from the axis
;hence
j
The same wire is bent into a circle of radius R (Fig. 231) ;the
axis OZ passes through the centre and is perpendicular to the planeof the circle. Every portion of the wire is at the same distance Rfrom the axis
;hence
j_vmp2_|y|R2 /2\
A number of such circular wires laid side by side form a tube;
hence the moment of inertia of the tube with respect to the longi-tudinal axis is :MR2
, .(3)
where M is the total mass of the tube.
FIG. 230. FIG. 231.
OFIG. 232.]
An important theorem. In Fig. 232 is shown a thin plate in the
plane of the paper. The coordinates of a small mass m, referred to
the axis OX, OY are y and x. We have for the mass m,
where r is the distance of m from the axis OZ, which passes throughO and is perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Since I02
= wr2,
we have for the particle T T _ T
^OX + IOY^OZ-
A similar result can be obtained for any other particle in the
plate ; hence, for the whole plate,
+ w 2r22 +m 3r3
2 + etc.
oz= I
This result enables us to calculate the moment of inertia in
cases which would otherwise require mathematical work of some
difficulty.
202 DYNAMICS CHAP.
EXAMPLE. A thin wire of mass M is bent into a circle of radius R
(Fig. 233). Find the moment of inertia with respect to a diameter.
Draw the diameters AB and CD intersecting at right angles at O ; let
OZ be perpendicular to the plane of the circle. Then
Also
From symmetry,
Another important theorem. In Fig. 234 is shown a thin plate in
the plane of the paper. CD is in the same plane and passes throughthe centre of mass of the plate ;
OX is also in the same plane and is
parallel to CD, and at a distance y from it. To find the relation of
ICD and Iox ,we proceed thus :
Considering the particle m^ at a distance yl from CD, we have
.(5)
Similarly for m2 ,
For all particles above CD the moments of inertia are given by
expressions similar to (5), and for particles below CD, by expressions
similar to (6) ;hence the total moment of inertia may be obtained
by taking the sum of the equations (5) and (6) for every particle in
the plate. The first and second terms in both expressions are
similar ;the third terms differ only in sign. When all the particles
in the plate are considered, the sum of the third terms in (5) and (6)
evaluates the product 2_y times the simple moment of mass of the
plate about CD. Now CD passes through the centre of mass of the
plate, and therefore the simple moment of mass with reference to
CD is zero;hence we have for the whole plate
MOMENTS OF INERTIA 203
Since y is constant, this reduces to
, ........................................(7)
where M is the total mass of the plate.
EXAMPLE. A thin wire of mass M is bent into a circle of radius R.
Find the moment of inertia about a tangent.Let AB (Fig. 235) be a diameter of the circle, and
let OX be a tangent parallel to AB. Then
(p. 202).
O X
Routh's rule for calculating the moments of
inertia of symmetrical solids. If a body is symmetrical about three
axes which are mutually perpendicular, the moment of inertia about
one axis is equal to the mass of the body multiplied by the sum of
the squares of the other two semi-axes and divided by 3, 4 or 5
according as the body is rectangular, elliptical (such as a cylinder),
or ellipsoidal (such as a sphere).
EXAMPLE 1. A rectangular plate (Fig. 236) is symmetrical about GZand other two axes passing through G and parallel to B and T respectively.
Find IGZ
^
204 DYNAMICS CHAP.
A thin rectangular plate, mass M, breadth B, height H;
the axis
OX coincides with one of the B edges.T =*MH2
. ., ...(12)OX 3 \-1-"/
A thick rectangular plate (Fig. 236) ;the axis OY coincides with
one edge. IQY= i.M(B2 + T2
) (13)
A thin circular plate, mass M, radius R ; the axis OZ passes
normally through the centre;OX is a diameter.
i, iMR .(15)
A thin circular plate of mass M having a concentric hole;external
radius R1?
internal radius R2 ;the axis OZ passes normally through
the centre. I z=
lM (Ri2 + R
22) (16)
This result also applies to a hollow cylinder having a coaxial hole.
Radius of gyration. The radius of gyration of a body with respectto a given axis is denned as a quantity k such that, if its square be
multiplied by the mass of the body, the result gives the momentof inerfia of the body with reference to that axis. Thus
MR2
For example, a solid cylinder has I =of the cylinder ;
hencewith respect to the axis
*\7jJ
R
V'EXAMPLE. In a laboratory experiment a flywheel of mass 100 pounds
and radius of gyration 1 -25 feet (Fig. 237) is mounted so that it may be
rotated by a falling weight attached to a cord wrapped round the wheel
axle. Neglecting friction, find what will be the
accelerations if a body of 10 Ib. weight is attached
to the cord ; the radius of the axle is 2 inches.
Let M = the mass attached to the cord, in pounds.
M(/=its weight, in poundals.T =pull in the cord, in poundals.r = radius of the axle, in feet.
I =moment of inertia of wheel= 100 x 1 -25 x 1 25 = 156-2 pound and foot
units.
a=the linear acceleration of M, in feet persec. per sec.
d> =the angular acceleration of the wheel, inFIG. 237. An experimen- ...
tal flywheel. radians per sec. per sec.
xv ANGULAR MOMENTUM 205
Then, considering M, we have
Mgr -T =Ma (1)
Considering the wheel, we have
Tr = 10 (2)
Also, <=-. (p. 55) (3)
These three equations enable the solution to be obtained. Thus :
From (2) and (3). Tr = 1- ;
Substituting in (1) gives
10x32-2
M-i10 +(1562x6x6 )
=0-0572 feet per sec. per sec.
From (3), < = 00572 =0-0572 x 6
=0 343 radian per sec. per sec.
Angular momentum. The angular momentum or moment of mo-
mentum of a particle may be explained by reference to Fig. 238.
v A particle of mass m revolves in the circum-
--"^v^m, ference of a circle of radius r and has a linear
/' r / \ velocity v at any instant in the direction of
/ / \the tangent. Hence its linear momentum at
<j(****
,'any instant is given by mv. Now v is equal
/ to wr, when <o is the angular velocity ;hence
v /
\ / Linear momentum of the particle= tomr. (1)
FIG. 238..-Angiiiar momen- The moment of this momentum about OZturn of a body. ^ig 238) may be obtained by multiplying
by r, the result being called the moment of momentum, or angular
momentum.
Angular momentum of the particle= wmr2
....................(2)
206 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Each particle in a body rotating about OZ would have its angularmomentum given by an expression similar to (2) ;
hence
Angular momentum of a body
Consider now a body free to rotate about a fixed axis, and, startingfrom rest, to be acted upon by a constant couple L. The constant
angular acceleration being <^, we have
L = Ioz<Mp- 200).
Let L act during a time t seconds, then the angular velocity wat the end of this time will be
<D =(j>t,
or < = -. (p. 55)t
Hence L =^^ : (4)
Now <oioz is the angular momentum acquired in the time t seconds;
hence w!oz / will be the change in angular momentum per second.
We may therefore write
L = change in angular momentum per second (5)
If the couple is expressed in gravitational units, say T, we have
coloz,
5,v
If the angular velocity of a rotating body be changed from o^ to
w2 in t seconds, then w - o>
*--L_V (p. 56)
and the couple required is given by
z , absolute units, (6)t
or 7 =^ ~2\IQZ , gravitational units, (6')
Kinetic energy of a rotating body. In Fig. 239 is shown a body
v rotating with uniform angular velocity o> about
an axis OZ perpendicular to the plane of them
i
\ paper. Consider the particle mlt having a linear
velocity vv(yyi
rti 2
Kinetic energy of the particle=
^-. (p. 171.)
Now, V-L=
UT-L ;
FIG. 239. Kinetic . 2 _ 2 2energy of rotation. . . "i w r
\
xv KINETIC ENERGY OF ROTATING BODIES 207
Hence., , mw2^2 w2
Kinetic energy of particle=
-^-i- =-^-. mrx
2.................... (1)
A similar expression would result for any other particle ;hence
Total kinetic energy of the body = 2
o
="2
loz absolute units ......... ..(2)
=~ Ioz gravitational units. ..(2')
EXAMPLE 1. A wheel has a mass of 5000 pounds and a radius of gyration
of 4 feet. Find its kinetic energy at 150 revolutions per minute.
(o = J^P x 2?r =5?r radians per sec.
I =Mk2 =5000 x 4 x 4 =80,000 pound and foot units.
<o2
T 25 X7r2 x 80,000 y'Kinetic energy =^ I =
644~~= 306,500 foot-lb.
EXAMPLE 2 The above wheel siows from 150 to 148 revolutions per
minute. Find the energy which has been abstracted.
Change in kinetic energy=- I --5 I
Also,
Energy abstracted = (o^- w 2)(wi + w 2 )
~
=0-067 x 9-933 x
= 8,160 foot-lb.
Energy of a rolling wheel. The total kinetic energy of a wheel
rolling with uniform speed along a road may be separated into two
parts, viz. the kinetic energy due to the motion of translation, and
the kinetic energy due to the motion of rotation. The total kinetic
energy will be the sum of these.
Let to = the angular velocity.v = the linear velocity of the carriage to which the wheel
is attached (this will also be the velocity of the
centre of the wheel).M =the mass of the wheel.
&=its radius of gyration with reference to the axle.
208 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Then Kinetic energy of rotation = -5- = s
Kinetic energy of translation =
m , , i. ,.
lotal kinetic energy = ^--
l~~o~ ....................'
Further, if there be noslipping
between the wheel and the road,i.e. perfect rolling, we have
s-
where R is the radius of the wheel.
Substituting in (1), we obtain for perfect rolling :
, ,v*Mk* Mv*
lotal kinetic energy = ^~^- + -~-
^=2^(52
+1)
absolute units .............. (3)
=2\R2 +
"0 grav^a^onal units ...... (3')
Energy of a wheel rolling down an inclined plane. Fig. 240 illus-
trates the case of a wheel rolling from A to B down an inclined plane.
A is at a height H above B. Assumingthat no energy is wasted, we may applythe principle of the conservation of
energy.
Potential energy at A
= McrHFIG. 240. Energy of a wheel rolling
down an incline. = total kinetic energy at B.
Let M and R be respectively the mass and radius of the wheel,and let v and w be the linear and angular velocities at B. As there
is supposed to be no waste of energy, there will be no slipping whichwould lead to waste in overcoming frictional resistances. . Hence
v = uR.
Using equation (3) above for the total kinetic energy, we obtain
or - fcflE. (1)
XV MOTION OF WHEEL DOWN INCLINE 209
into components 1% sin a and
FR
Motion of a wheel rolling down an incline. The above problem,may be studied in the following manner. In Fig. 241 a wheel is
rolling without slipping down a plane inclined at an angle a to thehorizontal. Resolve the weight
"
M# cos a respectively paralleland at right angles to the
incline. The normal reaction
Q, of the incline will be equalto M# cos a, since no acceler-
ation takes place in the direc-
tion perpendicular to the
incline. The force of friction,
=My.cos
a
My. cosa,
FIG. 241. Motion of a. wheel rolling down anincline.
F, acts on the wheel tangen-
tially in the direction of the
incline.
The effect of F may beascertained by transferring it to the centre of mass O of the wheel
(p. 127), introducing at the same time a couple of anticlockwise
moment FR. The wheel is now under the action of opposing forces
M# sin a and F, both applied at O in a direction parallel to the incline,
together with a couple FR. The forces produce a linear acceleration
a given by Mg sin a - F = Ma (1)
The couple produces an angular acceleration < given byFR FR
....(2)
Also, since there is no slipping,
.(3)
From (2), FK
Substituting in (1), we obtain
c/>M&2
Mg sin a = Ma.R
Substituting for < from (3), gives
ak*
g sin a
1 +
D.S.P.
210 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Suppose that the body starts from rest at A (Fig. 242) and rolls
to B. The linear velocity of the centre of mass when at B may be
calculated thus :
'' ^-v v2 = 2al_(p. 33).
Also,H . H= sm a ; or, L = . ,
L sin a
FIG. 242.sin a
Inserting the value of a from (4), we have
a 2ffsinq H 2#Hk2 sin a
~k2
.(5)
Comparison of this with equation (1) (p. 208) indicates that the
results obtained by both methods agree.
EXPT. 34. Kinetic energy of a flywheel. In this experiment the wheel
is driven by means of a falling weight attached to a cord which is wrappedround the wheel axle and looped to a
peg on the axle so that the cord
disengages when unwound (Fig. 243).
Weigh the scale-pan and let its
mass together with that of the load
placed in it be M. Let the scale-pan
touch the floor and let the cord be
taut ; turn the wheel by hand through
??! revolutions (a chalk mark on the
rim helps), and measure the height
H through which the scale-pan is
elevated. Allow the scale-pan to
descend, being careful not to assist
the wheel to start ; note the time of
descent ; repeat three or four times
and take the average time t seconds.
Again allow the scale-pan to descend
three or four times, and note the total
revolutions of the wheel from start-
ing to stopping, being careful not to FIG. 243. Experimental flywheel,
XV KINETIC ENERGY OF FLYWHEEL 211
interfere with it in any way ; let the average revolutions be n,. Repeat theexperiment, using different values of M and of H. Tabulate the results :
EXPERIMENT ON A FLYWHEEL.
No. of
Expt.
212 DYNAMICS CHAP.
M, together with the energy wasted in overcoming friction whilst M is
descending, from the energy available Let this energy be K, then
(5)
During the descent of M, the wheel has made n^ revolutions in t seconds.
Let N be the maximum speed in revolutions per second, then
Average spe^d xt=n1 ;
/. Average speed =-^,t
and N =^ .............................................. (6)
The kinetic energy is proportional to the square of the speed, hence
Kinetic energy of the wheel at 1 revolution per second
= . ....(7)N 2
Obtain the value of this for each experiment ; there should be fair
agreement. Take the average result and call it Kj. Then
^=4*1, (p. 207)*
and w =27r radians per sec. ;
The final result gives the moment of inertia of the wheel.
^0
C
FIG. 244. Apparatus for investigating the motion of a wheel rolling down anincline.
EXPT. 35. A wheel rolling down an incline. A convenient form of
apparatus is shown in Fig. 244 ; the incline consists of two bars AB and
the axle E E of the wheel D rolls on them. The time of descent is thus
increased, and it becomes possible to measure it with fair accuracy bymeans of a stop-watch.
Set the incline to a suitable inclination by means of the adjustable
prop F. Measure the height from the horizontal table to the centre of the
wheel axle ; first, when the wheel is at the top, and second, when the wheel
EXERCISES 213
is at the bottom of the incline. Let the difference in the heights be H.
Measure the diameter of the wheel axle, and hence find its radius R. Allow
the wheel to roll down, being careful not to assist it to start ; note the
time of descent. Repeat several times, and take the average time t seconds.
Measure the length of the incline traversed by the wheel ; let this be L.
Then Average velocity x t = L ;
.'. average velocity =-,t
2Land maximum velocity =v= ................................... (1)
Evaluate this velocity and substitute in equation (1), p. 208, giving
4L2
whence ja^ ~ R2.................................... (2)
Weigh the wheel with its axle in order to determine its mass M. Then
Moment of inertia of the wheel =Mfc2
Repeat the experiment, giving different slopes to the incline, and calcu-
late the moment of inertia for each experiment ; take the average value.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XV.
1. A wheel has a moment of inertia of 10,000 in pound and foot units.
If the wheel starts from rest and acquires a speed of 200 revolutions perminute in 25 seconds, what constant couple has been acting on it ?
2. A wheel has a mass of 6 kilograms, and its radius of gyration is
20 centimetres. If its speed be changed from 8000 to 7000 revolutions
per minute in 10 seconds, what constant couple has opposed the motion ?
3..A wheel is acted upon by a constant couple of 650 poundal-inches ;
starting from rest it makes 6 revolutions in the first 8 seconds. What is
the moment of inertia of the wheel ?
4. A thin straight rod 6 feet long has a mass of 0-4 pound. Find its
moment of inertia with respect to (a) an axis parallel to the rod and 8
inches from it ; (6) an axis perpendicular to the rod and passing throughone end ; (c) an axis perpendicular to the rod and passing through its
centre.
5. The rod given in Question 4 is bent into a complete circle. Find
its moment of inertia with respect to (a) an axis passing through the centre
of the circle and perpendicular to its plane ; (6) a diameter of the circle ;
(c) a tangent.
214 DYNAMICS CHAP.
6. A thin circular plate has a mass of 2 pounds and the radius is 9inches. Find the moment of inertia with respect to the following axes :
(a) passing through the centre and perpendicular to the plane of the plate ;
(6) a diameter ; (c) a tangent ; (d) a line perpendicular to the plane of the
plate and passing through a point on the circumference ; (e) a similar line
to that given in (d), but bisecting a radius.
7. A thin rectangular plate has a mass of 1 -5 pounds ; the edges are
3 feet and 2 feet respectively. Find the moment of inertia with respectto (a) a 3 feet edge ; (6) a 2 feettedge ; (c) a line parallel to the 3 feet edgesand bisecting the plate ; (d) a line parallel to the 2 feet edges and bisectingthe plate ; (e) a, line perpendicular to the plane of the plate and passing
through the intersection of the diagonals ; (/) a line perpendicular to the
plane of the plate and passing through one corner.
8. An iron plate, 4 feet high, 2 feet wide and 2 inches thick, is hingedat a vertical edge. Find the moment of inertia with respect to the axis
of the hinges. The density of iron is 480 pounds per cubic foot.
9. A hollow cylinder of iron is 60 feet long, 20 inches external and8 inches internal diameter. The density is 480 pounds per cubic foot.
Find the moment of inertia about the axis of the cylinder.
10. A solid sphere of cast iron is 12 inches in diameter. The densityis 450 pounds per cubic foot. Find the moment of inertia about a diameter,and also about a tangent.
11. A wheel having a mass of 50 tbns and a radius of gyration of 15 feet
runs at 50 revolutions per minute. It is observed to take 4-5 minutes in
coming to rest. What steady couple has been acting ?
12. A wheel is mounted in bearings so that the axis of rotation is hori-
zontal, and is driven by a cord wrapped round the axle and carrying aload. The axle is 4 inches diameter measured to the centre of the cord.
A preliminary experiment shows that a load of 2 Ib. weight producessteady rotation, the wheel being assisted to start by hand. The load is
then increased to 4 Ib. weight ; starting from rest, this load descended3 feet in 6-5 seconds. Find the moment of inertia of the wheel.
13. A solid disc, 3 feet in diameter, has a mass of 200 pounds. Calculate
its angular momentum when rotating 300 times per minute. If the speedis changed to 320 revolutions per minute in 40 seconds, what constant couplehas been applied ?
14. A thin iron rod, 2 feet long, mass 0-6 pound, revolves about an axis
perpendicular to and bisecting the rod. If the speed is 120 revolutions
per minute, find the moment of momentum. If a couple of 0-3 Ib.-feet
be applied for 2 seconds so as to increase the speed, find the final speedof rotation.
15. Calculate the kinetic energy of a wheel having a moment of inertia
of 30,000 in pound and foot units, when rotating 180 times per minute.How much energy does the wheel give up in changing speed to 179 revolu-
tions per minute ?
16. A bicycle wheel, 28 inches in diameter, has a mass of 2 pounds, andthe radius of gyration is 13 inches. The bicycle is travelling at 12 miles
per hour. Find (a) the kinetic energy of rotation of the wheel ; (6) its
kinetic energy of translation ; (c) its total kinetic energy.
EXERCISES 215
17. A solid cylinder, mass 4 pounds, diameter 6 inches, starts from rest
at the top and rolls without slipping down a plane inclined at 5 to
the horizontal. If the incline is 10 feet long, find the kinetic energies of
translation and rotation when the cylinder reaches the bottom.
18. Find the linear and angular accelerations of the cylinder given in
Question 17.
19. Two cylinders, A and B, have the same over-all dimensions and their
masses are equal. The cylinder A has a lead core and the outer part is
wood ; the cylinder B has a wooden core and the outer part is lead. Both
cylinders start simultaneously from rest at the top of an incline and roll
without slipping. Which cylinder will reach the bottom first ? Givereasons for your answer.
20. Write down expressions for the coordinates of the centre of massof a number of particles of given mass, the coordinates of whose positionsare given.A uniform square plate of 1 ft. side has two circular holes punched in
it, one of radius 1 inch, coordinates of centre (4, 5) inches, referred to two
adjacent sides of the plate as axes, the other of radius J inch, coordinates
of centre (8, 1) inches ; find the coordinates of the centre of mass of the
remainder of the plate. L.U.
21. Write down an expression for the kinetic energy of a wheel whosemoment of inertia is I, rotating n times a second.
A wheel has a cord of length 10 feet coiled round its axle ; the cord
is pulled with a constant force of 25 Ib. wt., and when the cord leaves the
axle, the wheel is rotating 5 times a second. Calculate the moment of
inertia of the wheel. L.U.
22. A hollow circular cylinder, of mass M, can rotate freely about anexternal generator (i.e. a straight line drawn on the curved surface and
parallel to the axis of the cylinder), which is horizontal. Its cross section
consists of concentric circles of radii 3 and 5 feet. Show that its
moment of inertia about the fixed generator is 42 M units, and find the
least angular velocity with which the cylinder must be started when it is
in equilibrium, so that it may just make a complete revolution. L.U.
23. A projectile whose radius of gyration about its axis is 5 inches is
fired from a rifled gun, and on leaving the gun its total kinetic energy is
50 times as great as its kinetic energy of rotation. How far does the
projectile travel on leaving the gun before making one complete turn ?
L.U.
24. On what does the inertia of a body, with respect to rotation about
an axis, depend ?
Prove that the energy of rotation of a small mass whirled in a circle is
equal to half the product of its rotation-inertia (moment of inertia) about
the axis of rotation into the square of its angular velocity.Show that one-half of the kinetic energy acquired by a hoop in rolling
down an inclined plane is rotational. Adelaide University.
25. What is meant by" moment of inertia"
of a body ? Show that the
moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to its moment of inertia
about a parallel axis through its centre of mass, plus the moment of inertia
216 DYNAMICS
which the body would have about the given axis if all collected at its
centre of mass. Allahabad Univ.
26. A wheel runs at 240 revolutions per minute, and is required to give
up 10,000 foot-lb. of energy without the speed falling below 2,39 revolutions
per minute. Calculate the moment of inertia which the wheel must have.
If the radius of gyration is 5 feet, find the mass of the wheel.
CHAPTER XVI
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE. PENDULUMS
Centrifugal force. It has been shown (p. 45) that when a
particle moves in the circumference of a circle of radius R with
uniform velocity v (Fig. 245) there is a constant acceleration
towards the centre of the circle given by
To produce this acceleration requires the application of a uniform
force F, also continually directed towards
the centre of the circle and given by
F =wa =^- absolute units, .......... (1)R
or P =!;
gravitational units ............. (!')#R
The force F overcomes the inertia of the
FIG. 245. central and ceu- particle, which would otherwise pursue atrifugal forces. .
,,. . , , , ,
straight line path, and may be called the
central force (sometimes called the centripetal force). It is resisted
by an equal opposite force Q, (Fig. 245) due to the inertia of the
particle. Q is called the centrifugal force.
Expressed in terms of the angular velocity,
(2)
Since mR is the simple moment of mass of the particle with
reference to the axis of rotation, it follows that in a large body,
consisting of many particles, the centrifugal force may be calcu-
lated by imagining the whole mass- of the body to be concentrated
at the centre of mass. Let M be the mass of the body and let
218 DYNAMICS
Y be the radius drawn to the centre of mass from the axis of rotation
(Fig. 246), then
Centrifugal force = (o2MY absolute units (3)o
= MY gravitational units (3')
FIG. 246. Resultant centri-
fugal force.
FIG. 247. Rocking couple due to want of
symmetry.
It follows from this result that if a body rotates about an axis
passing through its centre of mass (in which case Y=O), there will
be no resultant force on the axis due to centrifugal action. If the
body is not symmetrical, a disturbing couple may act on the axis.
Thus in Fig. 247 is shown a rod rotating
j 1
about an axis GX, G being the centre of mass.
L_ ! J The rod is not symmetrical about GY; hence,
considering the halves separately, there will
be centrifugal forces Q, Q forming a couple
tending to bring the rod into the axis GY.
To balance this tendency, the bearings must
apply forces S, S, forming a couple equal and
opposite to that produced by Q, Q. These
forces will, of course, rotate with the rod and
produce what is called a rocking couple. In
Fig. 248 is shown a body symmetrical about
GY, and consequently having neither rocking
couple nor resultant centrifugal force;
in other words, this, body is
completely balanced.
Centrifugal force on vehicles. In Fig. 249 is shown the front
view of a motor car moving in a path curved in plan. To preventside slipping, the road is banked up to such an extent that the
resultant Q of the centrifugal force and the weight falls perpen-
dicularly to the road surface.
Let M = the mass of the car.
v = the velocity.R = the radius of the curve, as seen in the plan.
FIG. 248. A balancedsymmetrical body.
XVI CENTRIFUGAL FORCE ON VEHICLES 219
Then Centrifugal force = absolute units.R
Weight of car = Mg absolute units.
The triangle of forces is ABG;hence
Centrifugal force _ Mv2_ v2 _AB
Weight of car~~
RM#~ ~
Now
BGAD
= tan a (Fig. 249),
and a is also the angle which the section of the road surface makeswith the horizontal
;hence
R
FIG. 249. Section of a banked motortrack.
FIG. 250. A cyclist turning acorner.
Railway tracks are banked in a similar manner;
the outer rail
is laid at a greater elevation than that on the inside of the curve,and so grinding of the flanges of the outer wheels against the rail
is prevented.A cyclist turning a corner instinctively leans inwards (Fig. 250).
The forces acting on machine and rider are the total weight Mg,the centrifugal force Mv2
/R where R is the radius of the curve andv is the velocity, the vertical reaction of the ground Q equal to 1%,and a frictional force F applied to the wheels by the ground. If
all goes well, the clockwise couple formed by Mg and Q is balanced
by the anticlockwise couple formed by F and Mv2/R. It is evident
that the higher the speed and the smaller the radius of the curve,the greater will be the centrifugal force, and the rider will have to
lean inwards at a greater angle. Since the centrifugal force and the
friction are equal, it may happen that the limiting value of the
friction may be attained, when a slide slip will ensue.
220 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Simple harmonic motion. In Fig. 251, AB is any diameter of the
circle and NS is another diameter at right ajigles to AB. Let a pointP travel in the circumference
of the circle with
velocity v ; drawI ^- K
P
N uniform
PM per-
pendicular to NS. It will
be seen that M, the projection
of P on N S, vibrates in N S as
P moves round the circum-
ference of the circle. The
motion of M is called simple
harmonic motion, or vibration.
Let the radius of the circle
be R, and let the angle a
described by OP be measured
from the initial position OA. The angular velocity oj of OP is v/R,
and the displacement of M from the middle of the vibration at anyinstant is given by
OM =OP sin a = R sin a..................................... (1)
Let t seconds be the time in which OP describes the angle a, then
a = (j)t, and we may write
FIG. 251. Simple harmonic motion.
Denoting as positive the displacements above O, and as negative
those below O, the algebraic sign of sin (at will determine on which
side of O the point M falls at the end of the time t. The maximum
displacement ON or OS is called the amplitude of the vibration.
Velocity and acceleration in simple harmonic motion. To obtain
the velocity V of M, take components vx and vy of the velocity of P
respectively parallel and perpendicular to AB (Fig. 251). Since vv
is perpendicular to OA and v is perpendicular to OP, it follows that
the angle between v and vy is equal to a. Hence
Vy V COS a = V COS 0)t.
The component vx does not affect the velocity of M, therefore
V = vcos a........................................... (2)
= vcos iot........................................ (2')
= ojR cos ut...................................... (2")
XVT SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 221
To obtain the acceleration a of M, resolve the central acceleration
of P, viz. vz/R, into components ax and ay respectively parallel and
perpendicular to AB, as shown separately in Fig. 251. The com-
ponent ax does not affect the motion of M; hence
v2a = ay = sin a..................................... (3)
rt
=^-
sin <o*......................................... (3')
= a>2R sin (ot....................................... (3")
It will be noticed from (2) that the velocity of M is proportional to
cos a. Now cosa = PM/OP and is therefore proportional to PM;
hence V is proportional to PM. V is zero when M is at N and also
when M is at S. Maximum value of V occurs when M is passing
through O and is given by
Vmax.='ycosO = 'y .................................... (4)
The algebraic sign of cos a indicates whether V is from S towardsN (positive), or from N towards S (negative). From (!') and (3")
we may write for the acceleration of M,
a = w2 x displacement of M from O ................... (5)
Hence the acceleration of M is proportional to the displacementfrom the middle of the vibration. The algebraic sign of sin a in
(3) indicates whether a is from N towards O (positive), or from Stowards O (negative) (Fig. 251). It will be noted that the accelera-
tion is directed constantly towards O. From (3), a has zero value
when sin a = 0, i.e. when a = or TT;M will then be passing^through
O. Maximum values of a occur when sin a= 1, i.e. when M is at
N and again at S;in these positions
(6)
Displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams for M have been
drawn in Figs. 252 (a), (6), and (c) for values of a from to 2-rr. It
is evident that the displacement and acceleration graphs are curves
of sines, and that the velocity graph is a curve of cosines. Further,
since a is proportional to t, it follows that these diagrams are also
displacement, velocity and acceleration graphs on time bases;
the
base line O to 2?r represents the time of one revolution of P (Fig.
251), or the time of one complete vibration of M from N-to S and
back to N. This time is called the period of the vibration.
222 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Let T = the period, then
T = 27rR (Fig. 251),
2;rRT =
v
27TR_27T(oR to
Displacement
..(7)
.(7')
27T
FIG. 252. Graphs for simple harmonic motion.
The frequency of the vibration is the number of vibrations per
second, and is obtained by taking the reciprocal of T;thus
Frequency = n = - vibrations per sec. .(8)
EXAMPLE. A point describes simple harmonic vibrations in a line
4 cm. lon. Its velocity when passing through the centre of the line is
12 cm. per second. Find the period.
XVI SIMPLE HARMONIC VIBRATIONS 223
The given maximum value of V is also the velocity of P in the circum-
ference of the circle (Fig. 251) ; hence
2x22x2T=12x7
1 -05 seconds.
A well-known mechanism in which simple harmonic motion is
realised is shown in -Fig. 253. A crank revolves in the dotted circle
about a fixed centre and engages a block
which may slide in a slotted bar. Rodsattached to the bar are guided so as to be
capable of vertical motion only. The effect
of the slot is to cancel the horizontal com-
ponents of the velocity and acceleration of
the crank pin ;hence the vertical motion of
the rods is simple harmonic.
Forces required in simple harmonic vibra-
tions. Referring to Fig. 254, in which a
particle of mass m is executing simple har-
monic vibrations in NS, the force F required
to overcome inertia when the particle is at
C is given by F = ma.
Substituting the value of a obtained in (3"),
p. 221, we have
F = mo>2R sin <o
= mo>2 x displacement OC (Fig. 254) (1)
Hence F is proportional to the displacement OC and
is directed constantly towards the middle of the vibra-
tion. The maximum values of F occur when the
particle is at N and at S, and are given by
Let//.be the value of F when the particle is at unit
displacement from O, then
/x= m<o2
,or a>
2 = .
The period of the vibration is given by (7'), P- 222.
FIG. 253. Slotted-barmechanism.
Fio. 254. Force
required in simpleharmonic motion.
.(3)
In using this result/Amust be stated in absolute units,
224 DYNAMICS CHAP.
EXAMPLE. A body of mass 2 grams executes simple harmonic vibra-
tions. When at a distance of 3 cm. from the centre of the vibration,
a force of 0-4 gram weight is acting on it. Find the period.
0-4M=-Q- =0-133 gram weighto
=0-133x981 =130-3 dynes.
_ Jm 2x22 [~2~T=27rV/I
=7 Vl130-3
=0-777 second.
The simple pendulum. A simple pendulum may be realised byattaching a small body to a light thread and allowing it to execute
small vibrations in a vertical plane under the action of gravity
(Fig. 255). The forces acting on the small bodyat B are its weight, mg, and the pull T of the
thread. The resultant of these is a force F, which
may be taken as horizontal if the angle BAD is
kept very small, and may be obtained from the
triangle of forces ABD.
F BD BD=,
or F = mqmg AD AD
Now, if the angle BAD is very small, AC and ADwill be sensibly equal. Let L be the length of the
thread, thenBD mq ,F = #7^=~ - BD (!)
f nn
FIG. 255. A simplependulum.
Hence we may say that F is proportional to BD for vibrations of
small amplitude. BD and BC coincide nearly for such vibrations,
and the body will execute simple harmonic vibrations under the
action of a force F which varies as the displacement of B from the
vertical through A. To obtain the value of /x,make BD = 1 in (1),
giving mgL
'
Now mLmg
-(2)
XVI VIBRATIONS DIFFERING IN PHASE 225
EXAMPLE. Find the period of a simple pendulum of length 4 feet at
a place when g is 32 feet per second per second. Find also the frequency.
T = = 2
n = =o~292
vibration per second.
Vibrations differing in phase. In Fig. 256 (a), two points Pt and P2
rotate in the circumference of the circle with equal and constant
angular velocities. Their projections M x and M 2 on AB execute
simple harmonic vibrations which are said to differ in phase. The
(6)FIG. 256. Vibrations differing in phase.
phase difference may be denned as the value of the constant anglePiOP2
= <, and may be stated in degrees or radians. Thus a phasedifference of 90 or .ir/2 radians would give vibrations, such that Mjwould be at the end A of the vibration, at the instant that M
2 was
passing through the point O.
The vibrations possessed separately by M t.and M 2 may be impressed
on a single particle, which will then execute simple harmonic vibra-
tions compounded of the vibrations possessed by IV^ and M 2 . In
Fig. 256 (b) construct a parallelogram by making P3P and P
2P equal
and parallel respectively to OP2 and OPj. Join OP and draw PM
perpendicular to BA produced.OM
2 and MJVI are equal, since they are the projections on AB of
equal lines equally inclined to AB. Therefore OM is equal to the
sum of the component displacements OM1and OM
2. Hence, if the
parallelogram OP,PP2 rotate about O with the same angular velocity
possessed originally by OP, and OP2 , then M will execute simpleharmonic vibrations in A'B
,and will have a resultant motion of
which the vibrations of Mj and M 2 are the components.D.S.P. p
226 DYNAMICS CHAr.
It will be evident now that if two simple harmonic vibrations in
the same straight line, of equal amplitudes and periods but" differingin phase by 180, be impressed onthe same particle, the particle will
remain at rest.
For further examples of simpleharmonic vibrations, the student is
referred to the Part of the volumedevoted to Sound.
-.
FIG. 257. A couical pendulum.
Conical pendulum. The conical
pendulum consists of a small heavy
particle B (Fig. 257) attached to a
light cord AB which is attached at
the upper end to a fixed point A.
The axis AY is vertical and the particle B describes a circular path,the plane of which is horizontal. AB in revolving generates a
conical surface.
Let m = the mass of the particle,w = the constant angular velocity, radians/sec.,a = the angle between AB and AY,R=the radius of the circle described by B,
H =the height AC of the cone.
The forces acting on the particle are its weight mg, the centrifugalforce u>
2wR, and the tension P of the cord. These forces balance,and the triangle of forces for them is ABC. Hence
AC_H_ mg gCB
~R
~~
w2mR~~
o>2R
'
. ^ = 9^_^9_ (^
It will be seen from this result that the height of the cone is inde-
pendent of the mass of the particle and of the length of the cord
AB;
it depends solely on the angular velocity and on the value of g.
For a given value of H at a stated place, for which the value
of g is known, w has a definite value, and hence the time of one
revolution has a fixed value.
Let T = the time in sec. of 1 revolution.
Then o>T = 27r, or, T = 27r/w.
From (1), ,0 =
-(2)
XVI CONICAL PENDULUM 227
Referring again to Fig. 257, we have from (]),
cos a =AB o>
2AB'.(3)
Also,
(4)
If the angular velocity be changed from o^ to w2 ,there will be a
corresponding alteration in the height of the cone from Hj to H2
.
Thus, from (1), Q aHI = -^2, and H
2= -~
.(5)
If o>2 be greater than
1- H 2) is a decrease in the height of
the cone, i.e. the particle rises;
if <o2 be less than wl5 the particle
takes up a lower position.This fact renders the conical pendulum useful as an engine governor,
an example of which is shown in Fig. 258. The vertical spindle is
driven by the engine and has two arms
pivoted near the top. These arms carrymasses which realise the ideal particle in
the conical governor. Other arms connect
the masses to a sleeve which can slide
on the spindle. Movements of the sleeve
as the speed changes are communicated
by the bent lever and rod to a throttle
valve in the steam pipe. Increase in
speed causes the masses to rise;hence
the sleeve also rises and the movement
partially closes the throttle valve, thus
reducing the quantity of steam passingto the engine and hence reducing the
speed. Reduction in speed is followed byan inverse action, and more steam is
supplied to the engine.Loaded governor or conical pendulum. The speed of revolution
of the simple governor shown in Fig. 258 is limited to about 70 or
80 revolutions per minute;
at higher speeds H becomes too small
to be suitable for fulfilling the function of governing. The speed
may be increased and these defects avoided by the device of loadingthe sleeve (Fig. 259 (a)). In this governor the sleeve carries a
mass of M units;
all four arms are inclined at the same angle ato the vertical. Each of the pins Cx and C2 sustain jMgr ; also
FIG. 258. An engine governor.
228 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Cj is balanced under the action of three forces, |M#, the pull P
in C^Aj, and a horizontal force Q, supplied by the sleeve (Fig. 259 (6)).
The pull P is transmitted by the link A1C
1 ,and applies a force P to
the mass Ax ;this force may be resolved into a vertical force |M<7
and a horizontal force Q. From the triangle of forces AC wenave
or
FIG. 259. Loaded Porter governor.
Referring to Fig. 259 (a), we see that Aj is subjected to three
forces, viz. the pull T in the upper arm AjB, the resultant (F-Q)of the centrifugal force F and Q, and the resultant (mg + |M#) of the
weights. AXBY is the triangle of forces, and we have
~^7-=~=tana (2)mg + %N\g BY
Let the angular velocity be w, and let A1Y = R and BY=H, then,
from (1) and (2),
R
H_R~H '
= mg + |M# ;
m H
.(3)
(4)
These results show that H is increased by an addition to the mass
M ; by adjusting M suitably, the governor arms can be made to run
XVI VALUE OF g 229
at the most desirable angle to the vertical, whatever niay be the
normal speed of revolution.
EXPT. 36. Determination of the value of g by means of a simple pendu-
lum. Arrange a simple pendulum by attaching a small heavy bob to
one end of a long silk cord. Take a series of readings with varying lengths
of cord, in each case taking care that the angle of vibration is small. For
each length of cord L, note the time of 100 complete vibrations, and hence
determine the period of vibration, T seconds.
/; T 2 ocL.
Plot the values of T 2 and L obtained in the experiment ; the resulting
graph should be a straight line. From the graph determine the averagevalue of the ratio L
r=f5
;
then <7=4;r2 xr.
EXPT. 37. Longitudinal vibrations of a helical spring. Hang a helical
spring from a rigid support and attach a load to the lower end. Applyan additional smaller load and measure the extension produced by it.
From the result calculate the force required to give unit extension to the
spring. Remove the additional load ; gently pull the load downwards
and let go. Since the extension of the spring is proportional to the pull
applied (p. 155), the force at any instant tending to return the load to
the initial position is proportional to the displacement from this position.
Hence the load will have, simple harmonic vibrations. The spring also
vibrates, and may be taken into account by adding one-third of its mass
to that of the load.
Let m=the mass of the load + ?. mass of the spring.
[j.=the force required to produce unit extension of the
spring.
Then T = 2:r A/ seconds (p. 223).VEvaluate this time, and check it by finding the period of vibration
experimentally. Do this Iby finding the time t taken to execute 100 vibra-
tions, when ^=100'
Let m-i be the mass of the load required to give unit extension to the
spring, then fL=m
1g t and T =2Wm/m 1^, therefore g= 47r2m/T2m
1. Hence
calculate the value of g from the experimental quantities.
230 DYNAMICS CHAP.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XVI.
1. A body having a mass of 20 pounds revolves in a circular path of9 inches radius with a velocity of 40 feet per second. Find the centrifugalforce.
2. A small wheel revolves 24,000 times per minute. There is a bodyhaving a mass of 0-05 pound fastened to the wheel at a radius of 4 inches.
Find the centrifugal force.
3. Assuming that the earth rotates once in 24 hours, and that the
equatorial diameter is 8000 miles, find the centrifugal force acting on a
person having a mass of 150 pounds when at the equator.4. A cylinder has equal masses of 10 pounds each attached to its ends
at radii of 9 inches. The distance between the masses, parallel to theaxis of the cylinder, is 12 inches. Looking at the end of the cylinder,both masses appear to be on the same diameter, on opposite sides of thecentre. Calculate the rocking couple when the angular velocity is 10;r
radians per second.
5. A railway coach, mass 20 tons, runs round a curve of 1600 feet
radius at a speed of 45 miles per hour. Calculate the centrifugal force.
If both rails are on the same level, 5 feet apart centre to centre, and if thecentre of mass of the coach is 6 feet above rail level, find the resultantforce on each rail.
6. An oval track for motor cycles has a minimum radius of 80 yards,and has to be banked to suit a maximum speed of 65 miles per hour. Findthe slope of the cross section at the places where the minimum radii occur.
7. A bicycle and rider together have a mass of 180 pounds. Find the
angle which the machine must make with the horizontal in travellinground a curve of 12 feet radius at 8 miles per hour. At this speed, whatfrictional force must the ground exert on the wheels if no side slip occurs ?
What is the minimum safe value of the coeffioient of friction ?
8. A point describes simple harmonic vibrations. If the period is
0-3 second and the amplitude 1 foot, find the maximum velocity and themaximum acceleration.
9. A body having a mass of 4 grams executes simple harmonic vibra-tions. The force acting on the body when the displacement is 8 cm.is 24 grams weight. Find the period. If the maximum velocity is 500cm. per second, find the amplitude and the maximum acceleration.
10. A simple pendulum beats quarter-seconds in a place where gr=32-18feet per second per second. Find its length. If the pendulum is takento a place where 0=32-2 feet per second per second, how many seconds
per day would it gain or lose ?
11. Two simple harmonic vibrations, A and B, of equal periods and differ-
ing in phase by 7r/2, are impressed on the same particle. The amplitudesof A and B are 4 and 6 inches respectively. Find the amplitude of the
resulting vibration and its phase difference from A.
12. In a conical pendulum find the height in feet of the cone of revolutionfor velocities of 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120 revolutions per minute. Plot a
graph showing the relation of the height and the revolutions per minute.
xvi EXERCISES 231
13. The height of a conical pendulum is 8 inches and the arm is 12 inches
long. Find the period. If the mass at the end of the arm is 2 pounds,find the pull in the arm. Find the revolutions per minute at which the
arm will make 45 with the axis of revolution.
14. Find the change in the height of the cone of revolution of a simpleunloaded governor when the speed changes from 60 to 62 revolutions perminute.
15. In a loaded governor the mass at the end of each arm is 2 pounds.The arms are each 8 inches lung. The height of the cone of revolutionhas to be 5 inches at 180 revolutions per minute. Find the load whichmust be placed on the sleeve.
16. In the governor given in Question 15, the heights between whichthe governor works are 5-5 and 4-5 inches. Find the maximum andminimum speeds of revolution.
17. A train is travelling round a curve of 500 feet radius at a speed of
30 miles per hour. The distance between centres of rails is 3 ft. 9 in.
If the resultant force on the train is to be perpendicular to the line joiningthe tops of the rails, find how much the outer rail must be raised abovethe inner. Adelaide University.
18. The roadway of a bridge over a canal is in the form of a circular
arc of radius 50 ft. What is the greatest velocity (in miles per hour) withwhich a motor cycle can cross the bridge without leaving the ground at
the highest point ? L.U.
19. A train is travelling in a curve of 240 yards radius. The centre of
gravity of the engine is 6 feet above the level of the rails, and the distance
between the centre lines of the rails is 5 feet. Find the speed at whichthe engine would be just unstable, if the rails are both at the same level.
L.U.
20. A motor racing track of radius a is banked at an angle a ; obtain
an equation which will give the speed for which the track is designed.Show that if the speed of a car is one-half this speed there will be a total
transverse frictional force of W sin a between the car and the ground,W being the weight of the car. L.U.
21. The period of a simple harmonic motion is27r/jp,
and its amplitudeis A. Prove that the displacement can be expressed in the form
A cos (pt-
a),
and find the velocity.The distance between the extreme limits of the oscillation is 6 inches,
and the number of complete oscillations per minute is 100. Calculate the
velocity of the point when it is 2 inches from the centre ; find also the
interval of time from the centre to that point. Sen. Cam. LOG.
22. A particle is performing a simple harmonic motion of period Tabout a centre O, and it passes through a point P with velocity v in the
direction OP ; prove that the time which elapses before its return to P is
(T/TT) tan-1(vT/27rOP). L.U.
23. A particle moves with simple harmonic motion ; show that its time
of complete oscillation is independent of the amplitude of its motion.
The amplitude of the motion is 5 feet and the complete time of oscillation
232 DYNAMICS
is 4 sees. ; find the time occupied by the particle in passing between pointswhich are distant 4 feet and 2 feet from the centre of force and are on thesame side of it. L.U.
24. A weight of 5 Ib. is tied at the end of an elastic string, whose other
end is fixed, and is in equilibrium when the string is of length 14 inches,its unstretched length being 12 inches. The weight is pulled gently down,through another inch, and then let go ; find the time of the resultingoscillation. L.U.
25. Show that the vertical distance of the bob of a conical pendulumbeneath the fixed end of the string depends only upon the number of
revolutions of the pendulum per sec. If the mass of the bob is 4 pounds,and the length of the string is 2 ft., find the maximum number of revolu-
tions per second of the pendulum when the greatest tension that can with
safety be allowed in the string is 40 Ib. weight. L.U.
26. "Prove that the restoring force acting on a simple pendulum is pro-
portional to the angle through which it is displaced from the equilibrium
position, provided this angle be small.
Describe also a method of verifying the above result by experiment.Adelaide University.
27. A simple pendulum, 10 feet long, swings to and fro through a distance
2 inches. Find its velocity at its lowest point, its acceleration at its highest
point, and the time of an oscillation, calculating each result numericallyin foot and second units. L.U.
28. Investigate the time of revolution of a conical pendulum.A ball, of mass one pound, describes a horizontal circle attached to two
cords, the other ends of which are fixed to two points in the same vertical
line. The cords are each of length 3 feet, and are at right angles to oneanother. If the ball makos 100 revolutions a minute, compute the tension
of each cord in pounds weight. Adelaide University.
29. Two equal light rods, AB and BC, are freely jointed to a particleof mass m at B
;the end A of the rod AB is pivoted to a fixed point A,
and the end C of BC is freely jointed to a smooth ring of mass m, which canslide on a smooth vertical rod AC. Show that, when C is below A and the
mass at B is describing a horizontal circle with uniform angular velocity
o), cos a-3,7/Zo>2
, where a is the inclination of the rods to the vertical
and I is the length of either rod. L.U.
30. Show that a body moving with uniform velocity v in a circle of
radius r has acceleration equal to v*/r directed towards the centre. Hence
explain why a man riding a bicycle on a curved path has always to bendhis body inwards towards the centre of the path. Panjab Univ.
CHAPTER XVII
IMPACT
Direct impact. Direct impact occurs when two bodies are both
travelling in the straight line joining their centres of mass before
collision, or when a moving body impinges normally on a fixed
surface. It is not possible to state the precise magnitude of the
stress between two bodies, A and B, at any instant during impact,but we may say that whatever action A exerts on B, at- the same
instant B exerts an equal opposite reaction on A. Also these
actions are maintained during the same interval of time. Thus a
diagram, showing the relation of the action F which A exerts on B at
any instant t seconds after the commencement of impact, would be
similar and equal to a diagram showing the reactions which B exerts
on, A. The area of such a diagram represents the change in
momentum of the body (p. 72) ; hence, since the areas are equal,
we may say that the momentum acquired by one body is equal and
opposite to that lost by the other body during the impact. It
follows from this that the total momentum before impact must be
equal to the total momentum after impact is completed.
Inelastic and elastic bodies. The motion of the bodies after
collision depends greatly on the degree of elasticity possessed bythem. A body having no elasticity makes no effort whatever to
recover its original form and dimensions. For example, deformation
of a plastic substance like putty, which is practically inelastic,
progresses so long as a force is exerted on it, and the putty retains
the shape it possessed at the instant of the removal of the force.
When two such bodies collide with direct impact, force between
them ceases at the instant when their centres of mass cease to
approach each other. Hence there is no tendency for the bodies
to separate, and they continue to move as one body. In other
words, the relative velocity after collision is zero.
DYNAMICS CHAP.
In the case of elastic, or partially elastic bodies, the force does
not cease at the instant of closest approach of the centres of mass.
The effort which the bodies make to recover their original dimensions
causes the action and reaction to continue, with the result that there
is a second period during the impact, in which the centres of mass are
receding from each other. Finally, the efforts to recover the original
dimensions cease, and at this instant the bodies separate, and continue
to move separately. Experiment shows that, roughly, the relative
velocity after collision bears a definite ratio to the relative velocitybefore collision, and is of opposite sense. The value of this ratio
differs for different materials;
it is called the coefficient of restitution.
In direct impact (Fig. 260), let
u1= ihe velocity of the body A before impact.
u2= ihe velocity of the body B before impact.
vl= the velocity of the body A after impact.
v2= the velocity of the body B after impact.= the coefficient of restitution.
Then Eelative velocity of approach =ul-u2 ,
Eelative velocity of separation = v2 -v1 ,
and e^'-^-Ul -u2
The coefficient of restitution has values about 0-95 for glass andabout 0-2 for lead. Modern experiments indicate that the value of
(a)
FIG. 260. Direct impact. FIG. 261. Direct impact of inelasticbodies.
e may differ considerably for different parts of the surface of the
same body. It is also well known that, if two metal bodies impingetwice, so that the same parts of their surfaces come into contact Onboth occasions, the hardness of the surfaces has been so altered
during the first impact that a different value of the coefficient of
restitution is apparent during the second impact.
Direct impact of inelastic bodies. In Fig. 261 (a) two inelastic
bodies of masses n^ and w2 ,
and velocities % and u2 ,are about
xvn DIRECT IMPACT 236
to experience direct impact, u^ is greater than u2 . We have
(p. 233)
Total momentum before impact = total momentum after impact ;
.*. m1u1 +m2u2= (m1 +m2)v,
where v is the common velocity after impact (Fig. 261 (b) ) ;
If u2 is of the sense opposite to that of uv then call u2 negative ;
...(2)
In general, .,,Wi *". .....................................(3)
v will have the same or the opposite sense to ult according as the
result in (3) is positive or negative.Since work has been done in deforming the bodies, and there has
been no recovery, it follows that energy has been wasted during thecollision. The energy wasted may be calculated as follows :
Before impact, the total kinetic energy = - + z......... (4)
A A
After impact, the total kinetic energy = - 1 2'............ (5)
2i
/m^u-.2 m9K
Hence, Energy wasted =(
- L + -\* <
+ - - --=
* < /
Inserting the value of v from (3), we have
Energy wasted =(W*+***}
/
(m1u1~2 ~2(
By squaring and reducing to the simplest form, we obtain
Energy wasted=_^^ ,K + w2)
2.................... (6)
&\m^ +m2)
Now (%-Wg) is the relative velocity of approach before impactif both bodies are moving in the same sense, and
(u-^ + u^ is the
relative velocity if the senses of the velocities are opposite. Hence
the wasted energy is proportional to the square of the relative velocity of
approach.
Direct impact of bodies having perfect elasticity. Perfect elasticity
implies not only perfect recovery of shape and original dimensions,
236 DYNAMICS
but also perfect restitution of the energy expended during the
deformation period. Hence no energy is wasted in the impact of
perfectly elastic bodies.
To avoid complications, let the bodies be smooth spheres and let
the impact be direct. Let u and u2 be the velocities before collision,
and let v and v2 be the velocities after collision (Fig. 262). As
before, we have
Total momentum before collision = total momentum after
collision;
/. m1w1 +m2w2
=m1f1 +m2v2................................ (7)Also
Total energy before collision = total energy after collision ;
_mlv12 m2v<f ,~i
From (8), m^u^ -v^) = m2(v2
2 - u22),
From (7), m1(w1
-v^)
= m2(v2
- u2).
Hence, from (8'), U1 + v1= v2 + u2 ;
.'. U1-u2
= v2 -v1..................................... (9)
This result indicates that the relative velocity of approach is in
this case equal to the relative velocity of
x-vseparation ;
in other words, the coefficient
^, \~s 2 of restitution for perfectly elastic bodies is
(a) unity.
AS~~\ B/~"\ ^n Usm8 these and the following equations( j ^T \^_j ^
aand in interpreting the results, velocities
J.) having the same sense as u^ should be* < denoted positive, and those of opposite sense,
FIG ' 26|'^uc
ir
bodie^pact f negative ; negative results indicate velocities
having senses opposite to uvSupposing the masses to be equal, then, from (7) :
ul + u2= v
l + v2 .
And from (9) : u - u2= v2
- v;
and u2= vv
It therefore follows that in the direct collision of perfectly elastic
spheres having equal masses, the spheres interchange velocities
during impact.
xvii DIRECT IMPACT.
237
Direct impact of imperfectly elastic spheres. Keference is made
again to Fig. 262. As before, we have :
Total momentum before impact = total momentum after impact.
.'. m^ +m2u2= m-pi + m2v2............................. (10)
Also, e=V^
(p. 234);Ul -u2
.'. eul -eu2= v2 -vl
. ... ................................ (10')
Multiplying this by w2 :
em^Ui- em
2u2=m
2v2 -m2v1 ............................. (11)
From (10) and (11),
(m1- em^Ui + (1 + e)m2
u2=
(wi^ + m 2)v1 ;
+ (l+ e)m.2u2_, . I/I
Multiplying (10') by ml gives
em1w1 -em1u2=m
1v2 -m1v1 ............................. (13)
From (10) and (13),
(1 + e)m1M
1 + (m2-em-^u2
=(wij + m2)v2 ;
+m
Impact of a smooth sphere on a smooth fixed plane. It is not
possible to realise a plane absolutely fixed in space ;what is meant
by a fixed plane is one fixed to the earth. The mass of the bodyagainst which an elastic sphere collides is then very large as com-
pared with that of the sphere, and its velocity after impact may betaken as equal to its velocity before impact. Direct impact occurs
when the line of motion of the sphere is normal to the fixed plane.In direct impact, if the sphere and fixed plane are either or both
inelastic, then the sphere will not rebound. If both sphere and
plane are perfectly elastic, then the sphere rebounds with a velocity
equal and opposite to that which it possessed before impact. If
they are imperfectly elastic, and if the velocities of approach and
separation are u and v respectively, then
v = eu ............................................. (1)
The impact is oblique if the line of motion of the sphere prior to
impact is inclined to the normal to the plane (Fig. 263). Let a bethis angle, and let the sphere leave the plane in a line inclined at
/3 to the normal. Let u and v be the initial and final velocities.
Resolve these velocities parallel to and perpendicular to the plane.
DYNAMICS CHAP.
Since both sphere and plane are regarded as being smooth there
can be no force parallel to the plane during impact. Hence there
can be no change in the component velocity parallel to the plane.Therefore usiua = vsmf3 (2)
If the coefficient of restitution is e, then, from (1) :
eu cos a v cos /? (3)
From (2) and (3) :
u* sin2 a +eV cos'a = v2 (sin2/3 + cos2 /?)
= v*;
/. v = w /
V/sin2a + e2 cos2a (4)
Also, from (2) and (3) :
n tan a /t-\
tan/3=- (5)e
If both sphere and plane are perfectly elastic, then e = l, and
equations (4) and (5) becomev = u, (6)
tan /3= tan a (7)
FIG. 263. Oblique impact of a sphere FIG. 264. -Impact of a jet of water,
on a plane.
Hence in this case the sphere leaves the plane with its initial
velocity unaltered in magnitude, and the angles which the initial
and final directions of motion make with the normal are equal.If the sphere be perfectly inelastic, then the whole of the normal
component wcos a disappears, and the sphere will finally slide alongthe plane with a velocity u sin a.
When a jet of water impinges on a fixed plate (Fig. 264), the
impact practically follows the laws of inelastic bodies. The jet
spreads out during impact, and the water then slides along the
plate.Let v = the velocity of the jet.
a = the angle between the jet and the normal.
w = the mass of water reaching the plate persecond.
Normal component of the velocity = v cos a.
XVII CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 230
B
This disappears during impact, hence :
Force acting on the plate= change in momentum per second= mv cos a.
If A = the cross sectional area of the jet,
6? = the density of water,then m = vhd
;
.*. Force acting on the plate =Adv2 cos a.
Conservation of momentum. This principle asserts that the total
momentum of any system of bodies which act and react on each other
remains constant. The truth of the principle
will be evident when we consider the
equality of the action which one body A
exerts on another body B and the reaction
which B exerts on A (Fig. 265). These
actions continue during the same interval
of time;hence whatever momentum B is
losing, A is gaining an equal momentum.Hence the total momentum along AB remains
constant. Similarly, the total momentum
along each of the lines BC, CD, DA, AC and
BD remains constant. Therefore the total momentum of the systemremains constant. The forces may be caused by gravitational
attraction, magnetism, or impact ;
their nature is immaterial;the im-
portant points are their equality,
QT|~1 .1w
^ % their opposing character and the
equality of the times during which
they act.
FIG. 265. Principle of theconservation of momentum.
o
..*,
_L_i
EXPT. 38. Coefficient of restitution.
Arrange a tall retort stand A (Fig. 266)
with two rings B and C which may be
clamped at different heights. D is a
massive block of cast-iron or steel. Asmall steel ball, | inch to \ inch in
diameter (these can be obtained from
any cycle dealer), is dropped from the
level of B and rebounds from D. The
ring C is adjusted until it is found that
the ball reaches its level in the first rebound. Measure ht and h 2. Then,
keeping the ring C in its initial position, B is shifted to a position below
FI -
Sc^fSfof
240 DYNAMICS
C, and the ball is dropped from the level of C. B is adjusted until it is
found that the ball rebounds to its level. In this way are found the
heights hlt h z , Ji & , etc., of successive rebounds.
In the first drop, the velocity of approach =u^ \i2ghj
and the velocity of separation = v^ =\f%gh 2 .
In the second drop, the velocity of approach =u z =>j2gh^and the velocity of separation = v.2 =\f
2gh^.
The velocities for the succeeding drops may be calculated in the same
way. Now
also
Similarly,
velocity of separation~velocity of approach
'
Work out these values of e from the experimental values of h l9 h, etc.
Are they in fair agreement ? What is the mean value of e ? What is the
maximum error in the value of e stated as a percentage on the mean value ?
,c c
FIG. 267. Hicks's ballistic pendulum.
EXPT. 39. Ballistic pendulum. In the Hicks's form of this apparatus
(Fig. 267) two platforms, A and B, are each suspended from supports bymeans of four threads. As seen in the front elevation, the threads appear
xvn EXERCISES
vertical ; in the end elevation the threads spread as they approach the
upper support. The platforms just touch when hanging freely, and in
this position the pointer which each carries is at zero on the scale D. The
platforms are of equal mass and can be loaded by placing weights on them.
There is a locking contrivance, by means of which the platforms become
locked together automatically after impact, and thus move as one body.The suspending threads are about 3 feet in length.
Referring to Fig. 268, in which the bob of a pendulum has been displaceda distance BD from the vertical, and has been raised a height CD from the
position of static equilibrium, we have for the velocity
v at the instant the bob passes through C when swing-
ing freely: v =j2g.CD.Now CD x 2AC =BD 2
nearly ;
BD 2
- =a constant x BD.2/\C
Hence the maximum velocity is very nearly propor-
tional to the horizontal displacement. In the Hicks's
pendulum we may therefore assume that the maximum
velocity of either platform is proportional to the distance
through which it has been displaced, as shown by the
scale D (Fig. 267).
Place equal masses on the platforms ; displace each platform to the
same extent and let go. It will be found that the platforms immediatelyafter impact are at rest. This follows from the fact that the momenta
immediately before impact were equal and opposite, and hence the total
momentum was zero.
Now load A until the total mass is, say, 1 pound, and load B until its
total mass is, say, 2 pounds. Displace B through 2 inches, and displace
A through 4 inches ; again let go and observe what happens at the moment
of impact. If the platforms remain at rest, the momenta before impact
were equal and opposite. Repeat the experiment, varying the masses of
A and B and also the displacements.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XVII.
1. Two inelastic bodies, A and B, moving in the same straight line come
into collision. The mass of A is 4 pounds and its velocity is 10 feet persecond ; the mass of B is 10 pounds and its velocity is 6 feet per second.
Find the common velocity after collision. How much energy has been
wasted ?
2. Answer Question 1, supposing the velocity of B to be -6 feet persecond.
3. Direct impact occurs between two spheres A and B. The masses
are 4 and 3 kilograms respectively, and the velocities are 12 and 8 metres
D.S.P. Q
242 DYNAMICS CHAP.
per second respectively. The coefficient of restitution is 0-7. Find the
velocities after impact. Find also the energy wasted.
4. Answer Question 3, supposing the velocity of B to be -8 metres
per second.
5. In Questions 3 and 4, what would be the velocities of A and B after
collision, supposing both bodies had been perfectly elastic ?
6. A sphere A, having a mass of 10 pounds, experiences direct impactwith another sphere B, mass U> pounds, velocity 12 feet per second. Thecoefficient of restitution is 0-5. Find the initial velocity of A if it remainsat rest after impact ; find also the velocity of B after impact.
7. A small steel ball is dropped vertically on to a horizontal fixed
steel plane from a height of 9 feet. If the coefficient of restitution is 0-8,
find the heights of the first, second, third and fourth rebounds. If the
mass of the ball is 0-1 pound, how much energy is wasted during the first
three impacts ?
8. In Question 7 the ball is dropped vertically from the same height,and the fixed plane is at an angle of 30 to the horizontal. Find the
velocity with which the ball leaves the plane. Assume both ball and planeto be smooth.
9. A jet of water having a sectional area of 0-5 square inch and a velocityof 40 feet per second, impinges on a fixed flat plate. Find the force actingon the plate when the jet makes angles of 0, 30, 45, 60 and 90 degreeswith it. Plot a graph showing the relation of forces and angles.
10. If a gun of mass M fires horizontally a shot of mass m, find the ratio
of energy of the recoil of the gun to the energy of the shot.
If a |"-ton gun discharges a 50-pound shot with a velocity of 1000 ft.
per sec., find the uniform resistance necessary to stop the recoil of the gunin 6 inches. L.U.
1 1 . State Newton's law of impact, and show how it can be experimentallyverified. A smooth sphere of small radius moving on a horizontal table
strikes an equal sphere lying at rest on the table at a distance d from a
vertical cushion, the impact being along the line of centres and normal to
the cushion. Show that if e be the coefficient of restitution between the
spheres and between a sphere and the cushion, the next impact betweenpZ
the spheres will take place at a distance . 2d from the cushion.
L.U.
12. What do you understand by Conservation of Momentum ? Describe
an experimental method of illustrating the conservation of momentum at
the impact of two bodies. L.U.
13. Define"impulse
"and energy, and give their dimensions in terms
of the fundamental units of length, time and mass.
A box of sand, used as a ballistic pendulum, is suspended by four parallel
ropes, and a shot is fired into its centre. In one experiment the weightof the box was 1000 lb., the weight of the shot was 10 lb., the length of
the ropes was 6 feet, and the displacement of the centre of mass of the
box and shot was 4J feet. What was the velocity of the shot before
hitting the box ? L.U,
xvii EXERCISES 243
14. A uniform chain, 10 feet long and having a mass of 4 pounds, hangsvertically from an upper support, and its lower end touches the scale panof a balance. The upper end is released, and the chain falls into the scale
pan. Find the force acting on the pan at the instant when the last link
reaches the pan. Find the energy wasted.
CHAPTER XVIII
HYDROSTATICS
Definition of a fluid. Substances in the fluid state are incapableof offering permanent resistance to any forces, however small, tending
to change their shape. Fluids are either liquid or gaseous. Gases
possess the property of indefinite expansion and liquids do not.
Liquids in a partially filled vessel show a distinct surface not coincid-
ing with any of the walls of the vessel;
if this surface is in contact
with the air, as would be the case in an open vessel, it is called
the free surface.
Comparatively small compressive forces cause appreciable altera-
tion in the volume of a gas ; liquids show very little change in volume,
even when the compressive forces are very great. It may be assumed
for our present purposes that liquids are incompressible. This
assumption, together with the neglect of changes in volume due to
changes in temperature, is equivalent to taking the density of any
given liquid to be constant.
The property which differentiates a liquid from a solid is the
ability of the former to flow. Some liquids, such as treacle and
pitch, flow with difficulty, and are said to be viscous;the property
is called viscosity. Mobile liquids, such as alcohol and ether flow
easily. No fluid is perfectly mobile.
That branch of the subject which treats of fluids at rest is called
hydrostatics. In hydroMnetics, the laws of fluids in motion are dis-
cussed. Pneumatics deals with the pressure and flow of gases.
Hydraulics is the branch of engineering which treats of the practical
applications of the laws of the .pressure and flow of liquids, especially
of water.
Normal stress only can be present in a fluid at rest. Change of
shape of a body occurs always as a consequence of the application
of shearing stresses (p. 154). Hence, if there be shearing stresses
PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS 245
present in a fluid, the fluid must be in the act of changing shape,and must therefore be in motion. Therefore there can be none but
normal stresses acting on the boundary surfaces and on any section of a
fluid at rest. Since friction is always evidenced as a force acting
tangentially to the sliding surfaces, it follows that there can be no
friction in a fluid at rest.
The term pressure is given to the normal stress which a fluid
applies to any surface with which it is in contact. Pressure is stated
in units of force per unit of area. The dimensions are therefore the
same as those of stress, viz.
ml 1 _m~fi~
X'J2 1(2'
In general, the pressure of a fluid varies from place to place. Thepressure at a given point may be defined as follows : Take a small
area a embracing the point, and let P be the resultant force whichthe fluid exerts on a. The average value of the pressure on a is
P/a. The actual value of the pressure at any part on the small area
differs from the average value to a small extent only, and the difference
will become smaller if a be diminished. Of course, P will then becomesmaller also. If a be diminished indefinitely, thus approximatingto a point, the value of P/a gives the pressure at this point.
Pressures may be stated in dynes, or in grams weight, per squarecentimetre
;for practical purposes the most convenient metric unit
is the kilogram weight per square centimetre. In the British systemwe may use poundals per square foot, or, for practical purposes,
pounds weight per square foot, or per square inch.
Pressure at a point on a horizontal area at a given depth in a liquid
under the action of gravity. In Fig. 269 is
shown an open vessel containing liquid at rest.
Consider the equilibrium of a vertical column
of the liquid, of height y measured downwards
from the free surface. Let the lower end of
the column be horizontal and have an area a;
this area is supposed to be small, and all hori-
zontal sections of the column are taken to be
equal and similar.
Neglecting any gaseous pressure acting on F^:ef|e
-t
P7n
s
^ffqi ,a
the free surface, the forces acting on the
column are (i) its weight W ; (ii) the upward reaction P which the
liquid immediately under the foot of the column exerts on the
246 DYNAMICS CHAP.
column; (iii) the forces exerted by the liquid surrounding the
column;
these forces act inwards and prevent the column from
spreading outwards. The forces mentioned in (iii) are applied
everywhere in directions normal to the vertical sides of the column,and are therefore horizontal. Hence they cannot contribute directlyto the equilibrating of the vertical force W. Therefore P and Wmust be equal, and must act in the same straight line.
If d is the density of the liquid, then dg, or w, is the weight of the
liquid per unit of volume. Let p be the pressure at the depth y,
then, since the volume of the column is ay,
p =W = way,
or(1)
It will be noted that w has been assumed to be constant throughoutthe column, i.e. the liquid has been assumed to be incompressible.Hence the result should not be applied to a compressible fluid such as
air. Note also that the pressure in a given
liquid is proportional to the depth y.
Pressure at a point on an inclined surface.
In Fig. 270 is shown a vertical column of
liquid of rectangular section and havingsmall transverse dimensions a and b. AB is
the horizontal bottom of the column, and
AC is a sloping section. Consider the
equilibrium of the wedge ABC, neglectingthe weight of the wedge and taking account
only of the pressures p, q and r acting on AB,
BC and CA respectively. As the faces of the
wedge are taken very small, we may assume
that p, q and r are distributed uniformly ;
hence they give rise to resultant forces
P ~p x AB x o, Q, q x BC x o, and R T x AC x b,
and these forces act normally at the centres of the faces. Hence P, Q,
and R intersect at the centre of the circle circumscribing the triangle
ABC, and thus comply with one of the conditions of equilibrium of
three non-parallel forces. Taking horizontal and vertical componentsof R, we have R
a.= R sin BAC=Q. .. ...(I)
FIG. 270. Pressure on aninclined surface.
RcosBAC (2)
xv in PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS 247
From (1), r . AC . b . sin BAC = ? . BC . 6,
sin BAG;
(3)
BCor r . sin BAG = q
=q . sin BAG
;
From (2), r . AC . b . cos BAG =p . AB . I,
AGor r . cos BAG =p .
= p . cos BAG;
-'. r=P ............................................. (4)
.". p = q= r........................................ (5)
Strictly speaking, this result is true only when the dimensions of
the wedge are reduced indefinitely, in which case the assumptionsmade become justifiable. In the limit, the wedge becomes a point,
lying on three intersecting planes, one horizontal, one vertical and
one inclined, and we may assert that the fluid pressure at the inter-
section of these planes is the same on each plane, i.e. the pressure
at a point in a fluid is the same for any plane passing through that
point. Hence equation (1) (p. 246) becomes available for calculating
the pressure at a point on any immersed surface, whatever may be
its inclination.
Head. Since the pressure in a given liquid is proportional to the
depth y below the free surface, pressures are often measured bystating the value of y and also the name of the liquid ; y is then
called the head. The head may be denned as the vertical height of
a column of liquid reaching from the point under consideration upto the free surface level. Thus a head of 30 inches of mercury(density 13-59 grams per cubic cm.) is equivalent to a pressure of
14-7 Ib. per square inch, and a head of 144 feet of water (density62-3 pounds per cubic foot) is equivalent to a pressure of 62-3 Ib.
per square inch.
Pressures are also sometimes stated in atmospheres. One atmo-
sphere may be denned for the present as the pressure produced at the
base of a column of mercury 76 centimetres high. This is equivalentto a pressure of 76 x 13-59 = 1032 -8 grams weight per square centi-
metre, or to 1 -033 kilograms weight (= 1 -0132 x 10 dynes) per square
centimetre. In the British system one atmosphere is taken as the
pressure at the base of a column of mercury 30 inches high, and is
equivalent to a pressure of 14-7 Ib. per square inch.
The pressure in a liquid at rest is constant at all points in a hori-
zontal plane. In Fig. 271 is shown a horizontal row of small liquid
cubes, enlarged in the drawing for the sake of clearness. The cubes
248 DYNAMICS CHAP.
a
~T
xvm PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS 249
of this portion in a bent tube. The pressures which were supplied
initially by the surrounding liquid are now supplied by the walls ol
(a)FIG. 273. Free surfaces in a tube. FIG. 274. Free surfaces in com-
municating vessels.
the tube. Further, the tube, now full of liquid, may be removedwithout disturbing the liquid contained in it, i.e. the free surfaces
at C and E (Fig. 273 (b) )will still be in a horizontal plane. If required,
both limbs of the U tube may be extended upwards without pro-
ducing any effect on the state of equilibrium of
the liquid. We infer that the free surface of a
liquid at rest lies entirely in a horizontal plane,even when the liquid is contained in different but
communicating vessels (Fig. 274). This fact leads
to the popular statement that water always finds
its own level.
EXPT. 40. Pressure on a horizontal surface at different
depths. Arrange apparatus as shown in Fig. 275. A is
a brass tube suspended vertically from a spring balance
C and partially immersed in a liquid contained in a
vessel B. The tube is closed at its lower end, and the
outside of the bottom is horizontal. The tube may be
loaded internally and may thus be immersed at different
depths ; a scale of centimetres engraved on the outside
of the tube (zero at the bottom) enables the depth y of
the bottom below the free surface to be observed.
It is evident that the total upward force P which
the liquid exerts on the bottom together with the
upward pull T exerted by the spring balance is equal to
the weight W of the tube and contents. Hence
P+T=W,or P=W-T.
FIG. 275. Appar-atus for finding the
pressure at different
depths.
Make a series of experiments, and evaluate P for each ; note the depth
y for each experiment. Since the area of the bottom of the tube is
250 DYNAMICS
constant, P will be proportional to the pressure at the depth y. Test if
this is so by plotting P and y ;a straight-line graph provides evidence of
the truth of the law.
Total force acting on one side of an immersed plate. If the plate
is horizontal, e.g. the horizontal bottom of a vessel containing a
liquid, the pressure is uniform and the total force is calculated by
taking the product of the pressure and the area.
Let w = the weight of the liquid per unit volume.
y= ihe depth of the plate below the free surface.
A = the area of one side of the plate.
Then Total force exerted on one side = P = w?/A (1)
The following method is applicable to both vertical and inclined
plates (Fig. 276 (a) and (6)). Let a be a small area of the plate at a
(b)
FIG. 276. Total pressure on immersed surfaces.
depth y below the free surface. Let p be the pressure on a;then
p = wy,
and Force acting on a = wya.
This expression applies equally to any other small area of the
plate ;hence
Total force exerted on one s\de = P = w(a1yl + a2y2 + a sy3 + etc.)
= w^ay (2)
Now 'Zay is the simple moment of area of the plate about the free
surface of the liquid, and may be calculated by tab'ng the productof the total area A of one side of the plate, and the depth y of its
centre of area (a point which coincides with the centre of gravity of
a thin sheet having the same shape and area as the plate). Thus :
P = wky (3)
wy is the pressure of the liquid at the centre of area;hence the
rule : The total force on one side of an immersed plate is given by the
xviii TOTAL FORCE ON IMMERSED PLATE 251
product of the area and the pressure at the centre of area. Thus the
pressure at the centre of area is the average pressure on the plate.
The above proof does not depend upon the surface of the plate
being plane, so that the rule applies also to curved surfaces, such
as a sphere immersed in a liquid.
EXAMPLE 1. Find the total force exerted on the wetted surface of a
rectangular tank 6 feet by 4 feet by 2 feet deep when full of water.
Total force on the bottom =wh]yl
= 62-3 x6 x4 x2= 2990 Ib. weight.
Total force on one side =w& 2y 2
= 62-3 x6x2xl= 747-6 Ib. weight.
Total force on one end =whjy 3
=62-3x4x2x1=498-4 Ib. weight.
.'. Total force on the wetted surface =2990 +(747-6 +498-4)2= 5482 Ib. weight.
EXAMPLE 2. A cylindrical tank 7 feet in diameter has its circular
bottom horizontal and contains water to a depth of 4 feet. Find the
total force exerted by the water on the curved wetted surface.
The centre of area of the curved surface lies on the axis of the cylinderat a depth of 2 feet below the free surface ; hence
Total force on the curved surface =wby= 62-3 x(?rdx4) x2= 62-3 x~2- x7 x4 x2= 10,965 Ib. weight.
EXAMPLE 3. A sphere 8 cm. in diameter is sunk in an oil weighing0-8 gram per cubic centimetre. The centre of the sphere is at a depthof 40 centimetres. Calculate the total force on the surface of the sphere
Total force =why=0-8 x47rr2 x40
=0-8 x4 x-'-v?- x!6 x40= 6437 grams weight.
The student should note that the total force exerted on the hori-
zontal bottom of a vessel containing a liquid is independent of the
shape of the vessel, and consequently is independent of the weightof the contained liquid . This follows as a consequence of the pressure
being constant over the whole horizontal surface. The total force
252 DYNAMICS CHAP.
is why, and it is evident that this is independent of the shape of the
vessel.
Resultant force exerted by a liquid. The total force exerted by a
liquid on an area with which it is in contact is the arithmetical
sum of the forces which the liquid exerts on the small areas into
which the given area may be divided. The resultant force is the
vector sum of these forces*. In Example 1, p. 251, the total force
on the wetted surface of the tank was found to be 5482 Ib. weight.
It is evident, however, that the total force acting on one side is
balanced by the equal total force acting on the opposite side of the
tank. Similarly, the total forces acting on the opposite ends balance
each other, and therefore the resultant force exerted on the wetted
surface is equal to the total force acting on the
bottom, viz. 2990 Ib. weight.
In the case of all plane surfaces subjected to
fluid pressure, the total force and the resultant
force are equal. It will also be evident that the
resultant force exerted by the liquid contained
in a vessel of any shape is equal to the weightof the liquid. This is evident from the consider-
ation that the resultant effect of the reactions of
the walls of the vessel is to balance the weightof the contained liquid, and hence the resultant
force exerted by the liquid must be equal to this
weight, and must act vertically through the
centre of gravity of the contained liquid.
Elevation
Plan
FIO. 277. Resultantforce on plane andcurved sides.
In Fig. 277 is shown a vessel having one side
plane, vertical and rectangular in shape ;this
side is EG in the plan and AC in the elevation,
'he remainder of the sides EFG is vertical, and is curved in the
plan. The vessel contains liquid, the free surface of which is AB.
That the vessel is equilibrated horizontally by the liquid pressuresis apparent, as may be tested easily by suspending it from a long
cord, when no horizontal movement will occur. Hence the resultant
force P acting on the plane side EG must be equal and opposite to,
and must act in the same straight line as the resultant force onthe curved sides. In other words, if components of the forces
which act normally on the curved sides be taken in directions
perpendicular and parallel to EG, then the arithmetical sum of
the components perpendicular to EG will be equal to P. Hence
XVIII CENTRE OF PRESSURE 253
the resultant force R acting on the curved sides may be found byevaluating P. p = wf =wx (AC x EQ) x
FIG. 278. Centre of
pressure.
Centre of pressure. The centre of pressure of an area exposed to
fluid pressure is that point through which the resultant force acts.
Let a vertical rectangular area ABDC (Fig. 278)
be subjected to the pressure of a liquid, the free
surface of which cuts the area in AB. It is evident
from symmetry that the centre of pressure G lies
in the vertical line HK, which divides the area
into two equal and similar parts.
To find the depth of G, consider a small area a
lying in ABDC and at a depth y below AB. Then
Force acting on a = way.
Taking moments about AB, we have
Moment of the force acting on a = way xy = way2.
This expression serves for the moment of the force acting on anyother small portion of the area ABDC
;hence the total moment is given
by Total moment about AB = w(a1yl2 + o2y2
2 + a 3y?* + etc.)
= w^ay*.
2a?/2is called the second moment of area
;the form of the expression
is similar to that for the moment of inertia of a body, viz. 2w#2,and
the results given on pp. 201-204 may be used by substituting the total
area A for the total mass M. Writing 2cM/2 =
I, we have
Total moment about AB = wI ................................. (1)
This moment may be expressed in another way. The resultant
force P acts through G, therefore
Total moment about AB = P x GH=i<%xGH ;
...................... (2)
where y is the depth of the centre of area below the free surface.
Hence, from (1) and (2) : wf x GH = wl;
.(3)
For the rectangular area ABDC (Fig. 278), and for the axis AB,
A * HK2,
O1rAxHK2
I= and
GH =Ax^HK
254 DYNAMICS
It will be noted that the position of the centre of pressure is not
affected by the kind of liquid, and that w disappears from thefinal result.
For a vertical circular area touching the free
surface (Fig. 279) we have
.*. Depth of the centre of pressure=
-J-AR?/AR
FIG. 279. =-J-R.
Pressure diagrams. A pressure diagram, for an area subjected to
fluid pressure, shows the pressure graphically at all points in the
area. The method of construction may be understood by reference
to Fig. 280, showing one side of a rectangular tank containing a liquid.
Neglecting the gaseous pressure on the free surface of the liquid, the
pressure at A on the side ABCD is zero, and the pressure at B is w x AB.
Make BE=CF = ?pxAB to any convenient scale of pressure, and join
AE, DF and EF. The resulting figure is a wedge, and the pressure at
any point in ABCD may be found by drawing a normal at that point to
meet the sloping face of the wedge.Cff
2 P.
B E
FIG. 280. Example of a pressure diagram.
B F
FIG. 281 A dock gate.
EXAMPLE 1. A gate closing the entrance to a dock is 40 feet wide.
There is sea water on one side to a height of 30 feet, and on the other side
to a height of 18 feet above the lower edge of the gate. Find the resultant
force exerted by the water on the gate.
Referring to Fig. 281 (which is not drawn to scale), AB is the section of
the gate, and the pressure diagrams for the high-water and low-water sides
of the gate are CDB and EFB respectively. The total forces on the high-
water and low-water sides are Px and P 2 respectively.
= 64 x (40 x 30) x 3p = 1,152,000 Ib. weight.
=wk.,y.i
= 64 "x (40 x 18) xif- =414,720 Ib. weight,
EXERCISES 255
P! acts at the centre of pressure G 15 and BG X is one-third of BC (p. 253)
and is therefore 10 feet. Similarly, P 2 acts at the centre of pressure G 2 >
and BG 2 is 18 -=-3 =6 feet. The resultant of Pj and P 2 is the resultant
force R required in the question.
R=p1 -p a= 1,152,000 -414,720
=737,280 Ib. weight.
Take moments about B, giving
RxBG=(P 1 xBG 1)-(P 2 xBG 2);
(1,152,000 x 10)- (414,720 x 6)
737,280= 12 -25 feet.
BG =
W
_A
EXAMPLE 2. The wall of a reservoir is rect-
angular in section (Fig. 282), 9 feet high and 4 feet
thick. The free surface of the water is 1 foot
below the top of the wall. Take moments about
A, and evaluate the ratio, overthrowing momentof the water/moment of resistance of the weightof the wall. The density of the water is 62-5
pounds per cubic foot and the density of the
material of the wall is 120 pounds per cubic foot.
In examples of this kind it is customary to consider a portion of the
wall one foot in length. P =wky=62-5 x(9 xl) xf=2531 -25 Ib. weight.
And BG =8 ^3 feet;
. Overthrowing moment =2531 -25 x 3
= 7593-7 Ib.-feet.
Weight of the wall =(9 x 4 x 1) x 120
= 4320 Ib. weight.
Moment of resistance =4320 xf= 8640 IK -feet.
Required ratio =- =0-8789.~~i^"^"<
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XVIII.
1. Define a fluid. Distinguish the states solid, liquid and gaseous.
Explain why normal stress only may be present in a fluid at rest.
2. What is meant by the pressure at a point in a fluid ? How is pressure
measured ? What are the dimensions of pressure ?
256 DYNAMICS
3. Calculate the pressure at a depth of 24-5 cm. in mercury. (Densityof mercury = 13-6 grams per cubic centimetre.)
4. Find the pressure in Ib. weight per square inch at a depth of 2 milesin sea water of density 64 pounds per cubic foot.
5. One side of a vessel slopes at an angle of 30 to the vertical. Thevessel contains oil having a density of 52 pounds per cubic foot. Findthe pressure on the sloping side at depths of 3 and 5 feet.
6. Prove that the pressure at a given depth in a liquid is the same on
any plane.
7. What head of mercury corresponds to a head of 34-6 feet of water ?
To what pressure is the given head equal. (The density of mercury is
13-6 times that of water.)
8. Find the head of water necessary to produce a pressure of one
atmosphere. State the result in feet.
9. Prove that the free surface of a liquid at rest is a horizontal plane.
10. A rectangular tank, 4 feet long, 2 feet broad and 2 feet deep, is full
of water (density 62-5 pounds per cubic foot). Find the magnitudes of
the total forces on the bottom, on one side and on one end.
11. Find the total force acting on the horizontal bottom of a cylindricaltank, 6 feet diameter and 3 feet deep, containing sea water (density 64
pounds per cubic foot) to a depth of 2-75 feet.
12. In Question 11 find the total force acting on the curved sides of the
tank.
13. A tank 10 feet long has a rectangular horizontal bottom 4 feet wide.
The ends of the tank are vertical ; both sides are inclined at 45 to the
horizontal. The tank contains water to a depth of 6 feet. Find the total
forces acting on the bottom, on one side and on one end. (Density of
water 62-5 pounds per cubic foot.)
14. In Questions 10 and 13 find the resultant forces exerted by the
liquid on the tanks.
15. A hemispherical bowl, 12 cm. in dianeter, is full of mercury (density13-6 grams per cubic centimetre). Find the resultant force exerted bythe liquid on the bowl.
16. A vessel has the form of an inverted cone, 6 inches diameter of base,4 inches vertical height, and is full of oil having a density of 51 poundsper cubic foot. Find the resultant force and the total force acting on the
curved inner surface of the vessel.
17. The ends of a vessel are triangular (Fig. 283). The side AB is vertical,
and BC is inclined at 60 to the horizontal. AB=3 feet,
and the length of the vessel is 4 feet. Find the resultant
forces acting on the vertical side, on the sloping side andon one end when the tank is full of water (density 62-5
pounds per cubic foot). Find the depth of the centre of
pressure of the triangular end. (The second -moment of
area of a triangle about the base is ^AH2, where A is the
area of the triangle and H is its vertical height.)
xvra EXERCISES 257
18. A rectangular opening in a reservoir wall is closed by a vertical
door 4 feet high and 3 feet wide. The top edge of the door is 20 feet
below the surface of the water. Find the resultant force acting on thewetted side of the door ; find also the centre of pressure.
19. A hole in the vertical side of a tank containing water is 2 feet in
diameter and is closed by a flap. The centre of the hole is 10 feet belowthe surface of the water. Find the resultant force which the water exerts
on the flap, and show where it acts.
20. A cylindrical tank is 2 feet in diameter and 3 feet high, and has avertical partition which divides the tank into two equal compartments.One compartment is full of oil of density 50 pounds per cubic foot, andthe other is full of oil of density 55 pounds per cubic foot. Find theresultant forces acting on the inner curved surface of each compartment,and find also the resultant force acting on the partition.
21. A reservoir wall is rectangular in section ; the wall is 20 feet longand 7 feet high. The depth of the water is 6 feet. Find the total force
which the water exerts on the wall (neglect the pressure of the atmosphere).If the material of the wall weighs 120 Ib. per cubic foot, what should bethe thickness of the wall in order that the moment of the weight may betwice the overthrowing moment ?
22. Draw a right-angled triangle ABC ; AB is vertical and is 30 feet
high ; BC is horizontal and is 25 feet. The triangle represents the section
of a reservoir wall. Take one foot length of the wall and find its weight,if the material weighs 140 Ib. per cubic foot. Water pressure acts on theside AB, the free surface being 3 feet below the top of the wall. Find theresultant force which the water exerts on this portion of the wall. Findalso the resultant of the force exerted by the water and the weight of the
wall ; mark the point in BC through which this force passes, and give its
distance from B.
23. A dock gate is 12 feet wide. There is fresh water on one side of
the gate to a depth of 9 feet, and on the other side to a depth of 6 feet.
Find the resultant force which the water exerts on the gate and its
position.
24. Obtain the dimensions of the units of force, pressure and energyin terms of the units of length, time and mass. Prove that a pressure of
a million dynes per square centimetre is equivalent to a pressure of about15 Ib. wt. per square inch, having given that 1 pound -454 grams, </
= 980
cm./sec.2 and 1 inch =2-54 cm. approximately. L.U.
25. A cubical open vessel of edge 1 ft. is filled with water ; one of the
vertical sides is hinged along its upper edge, and can turn freely about it.
What force must be applied to the lower edge of the side so as just to keepit from opening ? (The weight of a cubic foot of water is 62 1 Ib.) L.U.
26. A sea-wall slopes from the bottom at an angle of 30 to the horizon
for 20 feet, and is then continued vertically upwards. Find the resultant
horizontal and vertical forces on it, in tons weight per yard of its length,when there is a depth of 15 feet of water. (Take a cubic foot of sea-water
to weigh 64 Ib.) J-..U,
D.S.P. R
258 DYNAMICS
27. A reservoir containing water to a depth of 20 feet has an openingin a vertical side 5 feet wide at the lower edge, 3 feet wide at the upperedge, and 4 feet high, and the lower edge is flush with the bottom of the
reservoir. This opening is closed by a plate. If the coefficient of friction
between the plate and the side of the reservoir is 0-2, find the force requiredto move the plate vertically. Adelaide University.
CHAPTER XIX
HYDEOSTATICS (CONTINUED). HYDRAULIC MACHINES
Pressure of the atmosphere. The weight of the atmosphere causes
it to exert pressure on the surfaces of all bodies. This pressure maybe rendered evident by the following experiment.
EXPT. 41. Pressure of the atmosphere. Take a
glass tube about 82 cm. in length, sealed at one end
and open at the other (Fig. 284). Thoroughly clean
and dry the interior of the tube. Fill it with clean
mercury. Close the open end with a finger, and in-
vert the tube two or three times so as to collect anycontained air into one bubble ; allow this bubble to
escape and add mercury so as to fill the tube. Close
the end with a finger, invert the tube and place its
mouth below the surface of mercury contained in a
beaker. Withdraw the finger and clamp the tube in
a vertical position. It will be found that the mercurylevel falls to a definite height in the tube. The part of
the tube above the mercury contains mercury vapouralone, at a pressure too small to be taken into account.
This space is called a Torricellian vacuum. The
pressure on the surface of the mercury in the tube
may thus be taken as zero. At A the pressure of the
FIG. 284. Appara-tus for showing theprinciple of the baro-meter.
atmosphere on the free surface of the mercury in the beaker is equal to
the pressure inside the tube at the same level. The latter pressure is
produced by the weight of the column of mercury in the tube. Let h be
the height of the mercury column in centimetres, and let w be the weightof mercury in grams weight per cubic centimetre ; then the pressure of
the atmosphere at the time of the experiment is
p =wh grams weight per sq. cm.
Since w is constant, the height h is used in practice as a measure of the
pressure of the atmosphere. The instrument described is a form of baro-
meter.
260 DYNAMICS CHAP.
From the observed height of mercury in the barometer, find the pres-
sure of the atmosphere at the time of the experiment in grams weight
per square centimetre and also in Ib. weight per square inch.
Effect of gaseous pressure on the free surface of a liquid. The
pressure of the atmosphere, or other gaseous pressure, on the free
surface of a liquid was neglected in
Chapter XVIII.;
it may be taken into
account by the following artifice. In
Fig. 285, AB is the free surface of a liquid
contained in a vessel and is subjected to
a gaseous pressure pa - Let pa be removed
entirely, and let an equivalent pressure beFIQ ' 28
ofl^ff
atC
inos
f
Phhere
Pre8Sure obtained b7 the addition of another layer
of the same liquid. The surface level of
the liquid added is CD and is supposed to have no gaseous pressure
acting on it. If the weight per unit volume of the liquid is w, the
depth ya of the layer may be found from
The pressure p at any point E in the liquid, situated at a depth y
below the real free level AB, is given by
=wy+pa .................................... (2)
It may therefore be said that the pressure at any point in the
liquid is given by the sum of the pressure due to the weight of the
liquid actually in the vessel, and the constant gaseous pressure
applied to the free surface. This statement may be generalised by
saying : If, at a given place in a liquid, an additional pressure be applied,
then that additional pressure is transmitted unaltered in magnitude to all
points in the liquid.
EXAMPLE. The vertical side of a rectangular tank is 6 feet long and
4 feet high. If the tank is full of water, find the magnitude of the resultant
force acting on the wetted side, taking into account the atmospheric
pressure of 15 Ib. wt. per square inch.
PRESSURE PRODUCED BY A PISTON 201
Due to the pressure of the atmosphere there is & uniform pressure on
the wetted side of 15 x 144=2160 Ib. wt. per square foot.
Total force due to the atmospheric pressure =2160 x 6 x 4
= 51,840 Ib. wt.
Due to the water alone, the total force is given byTotal force due to the water = average pressure x area
= (62-3 x2) x(6x4)= 29904 Ib. wt.
The magnitude of the resultant of these forces is given by their sum ;
hence Resultant force = 51 ,840 + 2990
=54,830 Ib. wt.
In the case of open vessels and in other similar examples, the
pressure of the atmosphere is neglected in practice. It is evident
that both the outer and inner surfaces of the sides of the vessel are
subjected to equal pressures by the atmosphere ;hence the result-
ant forces due to these
pressures balance, and the
resultant effect on the sides
of the vessel is the sameas would be experienced
by the application to the
innec surfaces of the liquid
pressures alone.
Pressure produced by a
piston. -In Fig. 286 (a), a
vessel A is in communica-
tion with a cylinder B,
which has a piston C
capable of sliding freely
FIG. 286. Pressure produced by a loaded piston.
in the cylinder, and nicely fitted so as to prevent leakage taking
place between the piston and the walls of the cylinder. The vessel
A and the portion of the cylinder below the piston are full of liquid.
The piston carries a load the weight of which is P, and the area of
the piston is a square units. It is evident that the downward force
P is balanced by the resultant upward force which the liquid exerts
on the piston. The latter force is produced by the pressure of the
liquid, and if p be this pressure, we have
P
262 DYNAMICS CHAP.
It is immaterial whether this pressure is produced by means of a
loaded piston, as in Fig. 286 (a), or by means of a column of liquid,
as shown in Fig. 286 (6). If H is the head required to produce the
pressure p, then _ w^
or H = P,W
where w is the weight of the liquid per unit volume.
The 'pressure p is transmitted uniformly throughout the liquid
(p. 260), and hence the inner surfaces of the cylinder, pipes andvessel will be everywhere subjected to this pressure. It will be
understood in making this statement that the effects of the weightof the liquid in the vessel are disregarded, and that the effect of
the loaded piston alone is being considered. The truth of the abovestatement may be proved by attaching a glass tube D to the vessel
A in Fig. 286 (a) at a place on the same level as the lower side of the
piston, when it will be found that the liquid rises in the tube to a
height h, which will be found to be equal to the calculated value of
the head H due to p. It will be noted that the actual pressure at
points above the place where the tube is connected to A will be less
than p, and at points below the connection greater than p, this
being owing to the weight of the liquid in the vessel.
Hydraulic or Bramah press. Very great forces may be obtained
by the employment of a liquid under pressure. The principle maybe understood by reference to Fig. 287, which
shows an outline diagram of a hydraulic or
Bramah press. A is a cylinder of small diameter
fitted with a plunger rod B, which can slide in
the cylinder. A load P is applied to B, thus
producing pressure in the liquid which fills the
FIG. 287. Principle of lower part of the cylinder. A pipe E connects B
with another cylinder C, having a diameter
considerably larger than that of B. C is fitted with a ram D, which
can slide in the cylinder C. The ram carries a load W. Since the
pressure of the liquid is uniform throughout, we may calculate the
relation of W and P as follows :
Let d = the diameter of the plunger B.
D= ., ramD.
j= the pressure of the liquid.
XIX PRESSURE ENERGY OF A LIQUID 263
Then ^ = P; and p-W 7TD2 Trd2 D 2
It will be noted that the effect of friction in preventing free move-
ment of the plunger and ram in the cylinders has been neglected in
the above.
So far we have considered only the static balancing of W and P;
the arrangement however becomes a machine if we permit the
plunger B to descend. Liquid is then forced out of the cylinder Aand must find accommodation in the cylinder C ;
therefore the ramD and load W must rise. If B descends a distance H while D rises a
distance h, P does PH units of work while WA units of work are doneon W. Neglecting frictional waste, we have by the principle of the
conservation of energy, PH _w^
H W D2(9
.
T =>-
=T2 '...............................
?' (2)
an expression which gives the velocity ratio of the machine.
The principle of the hydraulic press is used in many hydraulicmachines. The liquid generally employed is water. The cylinderA in Fig. 287 represents a hydraulic pump, which in practice is so
arranged as to deliver a constant stream of water under high pressureto the cylinder C.
Transmission of energy by a liquid under pressure. In the hydraulic
press discussed above it is apparent that the load P gives up
potential energy while descending, and at the same time the load
W is acquiring potential energy. Thus energy has been transmitted
from one place to another by the medium of the flow of liquid under
pressure. It is evident that the transmission of energy will continue
so long as P is allowed to descend, i.e. so long as flow is kept up in
the liquid under pressure. This principle is made use of in hydraulic
power installations. Water is brought to a high pressure by means
of pumps in a central station, and the water is led through pipes
to various points in the district at which energy is required, and
where machines capable of utilising this energy are installed.
Pressure energy of a liquid. In Fig. 288, AB is a pipe having a
piston C capable of sliding along the pipe. Liquid under a pressure
p enters the pipe at A, and work is done in forcing the piston in the
direction from A towards B against a resistance R. Let the area of
264 DYNAMICS
R
FIG. 288. Pressure energy of a liquid.
the piston be a square units, and let the piston move through a
distance L. Then the resultant force P acting on the left-hand side
of the piston is equal to pa, and
the work done is given byWork done by P = PL =pa L. (1)
It is evident that the volume
described by the piston is aL, and
this is equal to the volume V of
liquid which must be admitted at A in order to keep the pipe full of
liquid while the piston is moving. Hence
Work done by P=pV (2)
As this work has been done by supplying a volume V of liquid,
we have Work done per" unit volume =p (3)
Suppose the water to be supplied from an overhead cistern situated
at a height h above A, and that the density of the liquid is d. The
weight of the liquid per unit volume is dg, therefore
p = dgh.Hence we may say
Work done by expending a mass d of liquid =p = dgh.
Work done by expending unit mass of liquid =^ (4)
=9* (5)
The pressure energy of a liquid is defined as the energy which can
be derived by expending unit mass of the liquid in the manner
described; hence p 7
.Pressure energy =^~=gh (6)
Absolute units of force have been employed in the above dis-
cussion;hence the quantities involved in (4), (5) and (6) must be
expressed as follows :
HYDRAULIC TRANSMISSION OF ENERGY 265
EXAMPLE 1. Water is supplied by a hydraulic power company at a
pressure of 700 Ib. wt. per square inch. How much pressure energy in
foot-lb. is available per pound of water ?
Pressure =p =700 x 1440
= 100,8000 poundals per sq. foot.
p 100,800^ .
Pressure energy = 5 = ~
62-3 toot-poundals
= 100'800 =:1618 foot-lb. per pound of water.62 'o ^"^^
EXAMPLE 2. Some mercury is under a head of 30 cm. of mercury.What is the pressure energy ?
Pressure energy ~-gh = 981 x 30
= 29,430 ergs per gram of mercury.
Hydraulic transmission of energy. The principal apparatus re-
quired in a hydraulic installation is shown in outline in Fig. 289.
FIG. 289. Diagram of a hydraulic installation.
A is a hydraulic pump driven by a steam engine, or other source of
power, and delivers water under high pressure into the pipe systemBC. A safety valv$ is provided at D and permits some of the water
to escape should the pressure become dangerously high. Near to
the pump is situated a hydraulic accumulator E, which is connected
to the pipe system, and maintains constant pressure in the water.
A branch pipe from the main pipe system is led into the consumer's
premises, and a stop valve F enables him to cut the supply off when
266 DYNAMICS CHAP.
necessary. There is also a safety valve G, which serves to protect
his machinery from damage due to any excessive pressure. The
machines H, H are operated by the water;
each machine has a
valve K, by use of which the machine may be started and stopped.
-a/D
FIG. 290. Section of a hydraulic pump.
A typical hydraulic pump is shown in Fig. 290. A. cylinder A is
fitted with a piston B, which may be pushed to and fro by means of
a rod C operated by an engine. Hydraulic packing at D renders
water-tight the hole through which the rod
passes. The valves F and K are discs whichrise and fall vertically, thus opening and
closing passages E and L through which the
water may pass. The piston is shown
moving towards the right, and water is
flowing into the cylinder from E past the
open valve F. At the same time, the water
on the right-hand side of the piston is being
expelled under high pressure through a pass-
age G into H and so into the delivery pipe.When the piston is moving towards the
left, the valve F drops and closes E. The
MACHINES water on the left-hand side of the piston is
then forced under high pressure through L,
past the valve K (which has now lifted), andso partly into the delivery pipes at H, and
partly through the passage G into the right-
hand side of the cylinder. The pump thus
delivers water during ea^h stroke of the
piston.A hydraulic accumulator is illustrated in Fig. 291, and consists of
a cylinder fitted with a ram which passes through a hole at the topof the cylinder and carries a load W on the top. The cylinder is
connected to the pipe system of the plant (Fig. 289), and therefore
the ram is subjected to the same pressure as that in the pipes.
FIG. 291. Diagram of ahydraulic accumulator.
XIX HYDRAULIC MACHINES 267
Let
Then
p = the pressure of the water, Ib. wt. per sq. in.
d = the diameter of the ram, inches.
Resultant upward force on the ram =p x 7r^2/4=W Ib. wt.
Since d is constant, it is apparent that the working pressure
depends on the magnitude of W, which accordingly determines the
maximum pressure which may exist in the pipes.The accumulator has another very important function. Suppose
that all the machines operated by the water are
cut off and that the hydraulic pumps continue
to work. Owing to the incompressibility of
water, either some of the pipes would be burst
or the whole of the energy expended in giving
pressure to the water would be wasted in the
flow through the safety valve. The accumu-lator prevents both damage and waste. Underthe conditions mentioned, the water delivered
by the pumps causes the ram of the accumulatorto rise. If H be the height through which the
ram travels, the load W stores potential energyto the amount WH, which is available for doinguseful work when the machines are started
again.A system of levers, not shown in Fig. 291, is
operated by W when the accumulator has beenraised to the maximum safe height ;
the lever
system is connected to the engine driving the
pumps and cuts off the steam, thus stoppingthe pumps. Directly the machines are started
again, the ram begins to descend and the lever
system is operated in the reverse direction,
thus restarting the pumps. The whole arrange-ment is automatic, and the pumps in the FIG. 292. A direct-acting
power house start and stop in answer to anydemand for water from premises situated perhaps a considerable
distance away.
Hydraulic lift. A simple type of hydraulic lift is shown in Fig.
292, and consists of a hydraulic cylinder fitted with a ram which
carries a cage on its top. The total weight of the ram, cage and
load carried in the cage must be equal to the resultant force which
the water exerts on the ram, neglecting friction.
Hydraulic engine. Fig. 293 shows a common form of hydraulic
engine whereby the pressure energy possessed by water under pressure
DYNAMICS CHAP.
may be converted into useful work. The engine has three cylinders
A, B and C arranged at angles of 120, each fitted with a piston that
at A is shown in section. Each piston is connected by a rod to a
crank DE, which is fixed to a shaft capable of rotating about D. The
water acts on the outer sides of
the pistons only, and is admitted
B and discharged by an arrange-
ment of valves not shown in
Fig. 293.
The piston in A has justcommenced to move, towards D,
and is doing work on the crank;
that at C is just finishing its
movement towards D, and the
piston in B is moving awayfrom D
;the water in the latter
. 293.-Three-cyliuder hydraulic ene. ^^ is,
fl?w
j.
n?
* * thc
cylinder, and is finished with so
far as the derivation of energy is concerned. Thus there is alwaysat least one piston which is doing work on the crank, and continuousrotation of the shaft D is secured.
The horse-power may be calculated in the following manner :
Let
Then
p = ihe water pressure in Ib. wt. per square inch.
rf = the diameter of each cylinder in inches.
L = the travel, or stroke of the piston towards D in feet.
N =the revolutions per minute of the shaft.
Resultant force exerted by the water on one piston =p x 7rd2/4 Ib.wt.
Work done on one piston per stroke =p7rd2/
x L foot-lb.
As there are three pistons, there will be 3N strokes per minute,
during each of which work will be done;hence
Work done per minute =p x 7rd2/4 x L x 3N foot-lb.
And Horse-power =
Pressure of a gas. In dealing with a gas such as air, the pressure
may be measured above absolute zero of pressure. Absolute zero of
pressure may be defined as the state of pressure in a closed vessel
containing no substance in the gaseous state, and this empty spaceis termed a perfect vacuum. Pressures measured from a perfectvacuum are called absolute pressures.
PRESSURE OF A GAS
In practical work, the pressure of a gas is measured by an appliancecalled a pressure gauge, several types of which are described in the
Part of the volume on Heat. Pressure gauges indicate the difference.
between the existing absolute pressure of the atmosphere and the
absolute pressure inside the closed vessel containing the gas. The
pressure of the atmosphere is denoted by zero on the graduated scale
of the gauge, and other pressures are measured as so much above, or
below the pressure of the atmosphere ; hence the term gauge pressure.
Consider a closed vessel containing a gas under high pressure. If
the absolute pressure of the gas is p, and the absolute pressure of
the atmosphere is pa ,then the pressure indicated by the pressure
gauge is (p pn), and we have
Absolute pressure= gauge pressure + pressure of the
atmosphere.
Boyle's law. Experiments on the relation of the pressure and
volume of gases will be described later. These show that, for gases
such as air, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen under ordinary con-
ditions of pressure and temperature, the absolute pressure is in-
versely proportional to the volume, provided the temperature is
kept constant. Taking a given mass of gas, we have
1P OC -5* v
or pv = a constant.
If the initial conditions of pressure and volume are p and vltand
if the final conditions are p2 and vztthen
This law was discovered by Boyle and bears his name.
Lift pumps. The lift pump depends for its action on the pressureexerted by the atmosphere. In Fig. 294. A is a cylinder fitted
with a piston or pump bucket B;
this piston has a valve which
opens upwards, thus permitting water to pass from the lower to
the upper side through holes in the piston. The cylinder is con-
nected by a pipe C, having a foot valve D at its bottom, to a cistern
of water E. The pump is operated by means of a rod which is
attached to the bucket and passes through a hole in the top cover of A.
During the up-stroke of the bucket, the valve B is closed and Dis open ;
the pressure of the air in C falls, and the pressure of the
atmosphere on the surface of the water in E causes some water to
270 DYNAMICS CHAP.
flow up the pipe. During the down-stroke, the valve D closes andB opens. No water can pass D now, and some air will be expelled
through B. Kepetition of these operations will bring water ulti-
mately into the cylinder A, when it will pass B and be discharged
through F. The process of starting in this manner is long, and maybe hastened by first charging the cylinder and pipe C with water.
FIG. 294. Section of a lift pump. Fm. 295. Section of a boiler feed pump.
Taking the pressure of the atmosphere to be equivalent to a head
of 30 inches of mercury, or 30 x 13 -59 = 407 -7 inches of water, we
see that the pressure of the atmosphere is incapable of forcing water
to a height greater than about 34 feet. The cylinder of a lift pumpis placed usually at a height not exceeding 30 feet from the free
surface of the water in the well,
xix EXERCISES 271
Force pumps. In force pumps the piston is employed for forcing
liquids into vessels in which the pressure is higher than that of the
atmosphere. For example, the pump employed to feed water into
a steam boiler has to force the water to enter the boiler against the
pressure of the steam in the boiler. Such a pump is shown in section
in Fig. 295. A is the cylinder with a ram, or plunger, B. Waterenters the cylinder, passing the valve C, during the upward stroke
of the plunger, and is delivered through another valve D during the
downward stroke of the plunger. The valve D opens when the pres-
sure in the cylinder A, produced by forcing the plunger downwards,becomes greater than that exerted on the upper side of the valve.
This pump is fitted with an air-vessel E, the action of which is of
interest. The vessel is in communication with the discharge pipeof the pump, and is closed entirely otherwise. Air is contained in
the upper part of the vessel, and is compressed, during the early
part of the downward stroke of the plunger, by some of the water
discharged from A entering the vessel. Water being practically
incompressible, absence of the soft cushion provided by the air in
the air-vessel would lead to shocks due to the action of the plungerwhen it meets the water during the downward stroke, and mightpossibly cause the pipes to burst. Further, the pump shown in
Fig. 295 is single-acting, i.e. water is delivered during the downwardstroke only. During the upward idle stroke of the plunger, the
compressed air in the air-vessel maintains some flow of water alongthe discharge pipe, and thus assists in producing a continuous
pumping action.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XIX.
1. If the mercury in a barometer falls from 29-8 to 294 inches, find the
difference in the total forces which the atmosphere exerts on the outersurface of a sphere 2 feet in diameter.
2. An open rectangular tank is 6 feet long, 4 feet wide and 3 feet deep,and is full of fresh water. Find the total forces on the interior surfaces
of the bottom, one side and one end, taking account of thepressure^of
the
atmosphere of 15 Ib. wt. per sq. in.
3. In a hydraulic or Bramah press the ram is 15 inches in diameterand the pump plunger is 2 inches in diameter. What is the velocity ratio
of the machine ? If the pressure of the water is 1000 Ib. wt. per squareinch, what force must be applied to the pump plunger, and what force
will be exerted by the ram ? Neglect friction.
4. What is the pressure energy of water when under a pressure of
1200 Ib. wt. per square inch ? State the result in foot-lb. per pound massof water.
272 DYNAMICS CHAP.
5. How many gallons of water, under the conditions given in Question 4,must be supplied per hour in order to maintain a rate of working of one
horse-power ? (There are 10 pounds of water in one gallon.)
6. Water at a pressure of 700 Ib. wt. per square inch acts on a piston1 square foot in area and the piston has a stroke of 1 foot. How muchwork is done (a) by the total volume of water admitted, (6) by one poundof the water ? If the water company charges 20 pence per thousand
gallons of water, how much energy is given for each penny ?
7. A vertical tube, 3 metres high, is full of mercury. What is the
pressure energy per gram of the mercury at the bottom of the tube ?
8. The load of a hydraulic accumulator is 130 tons weight, and theram is 20 inches in diameter. Find the pressure of the water in Ib. wt.
per square inch.
9. The ram of a hydraulic accumulator is 7 inches in diameter, and thestroke is 12 feet. If the pressure of the water is 700 Ib. wt. per squareinch, find the weight of the load. - How much water is stored when theram is at the top of the stroke ? Find also the energy then stored.
10. In the simple form of goods lift shown in Fig. 292, the ram is 3 inches
in diameter and has a stroke of 12 feet. If the water is supplied under a
pressure of 700 Ib. wt. per square inch, what total load can be raised,
neglecting friction ? How much work is done in raising this load ?
11. The hydraulic engine shown in Fig. 293 has three rams, each 3-5
inches in diameter and having a stroke of 6 inches. The pressure of the
water supplied is 120 Ib. per square inch, and the engine runs at 90 revolu-
tions per minute. Neglect waste, and find the horse-power. If the
efficiency is 65 per cent., find the useful horse-power.
12. The pressure in a closed vessel is known to be 150 Ib. wt. per squareinch above that of the atmosphere. The barometer reads 29-6 inches of
mercury. Find the absolute pressure inside the vessel.
13. If the volume of a given mass of gas is 450 cubic centimetres whenthe absolute pressure is 2000 cm. of mercury, find the volume if the
absolute pressure falls to 550 cm. of mercury without change in tempera-ture.
14. A vertical tube has its lower end immersed in a bath of mercury,and an air pump is connected to the upper end of the tube. The baro-
meter stands at 30 inches of mercury. By means of the pump the pressurein the interior of the tube is lowered to 10 Ib. wt. per square inch absolute.
Find, the height at which the mercury in the tube will stand above that
in the bath.
15. In a lift pump (Fig. 294) the pump bucket is 14 inches in diameter,and has a stroke of 2 feet. If the pump makes 20 double strokes (one
upwards and one downwards) per minute, how many cubic feet of waterwill be raised per hour, neglecting waste ?
16. In Question 15 the moving parts of the pump (bucket, rod, etc.)
weigh 150 Ib., and the level of the water in the well is 15 feet below the
top of the discharge pipe. What total upward force must be applied to
the pump rod when the bucket is ascending ? Neglect friction.
EXERCISES 273
17. A lift pump is used to pump oil of specific gravity 0-8 from a lower
into an upper tank. What is the maximum passible height of the pumpabove the lower tank when the pressure of the atmosphere is 30 inches of
mercury ?
18. A boiler feed pump (Fig. 295) is single-acting, and the plunger hasa stroke of 12 inches. The pump makes 60 double strokes per minute,and has to force 20,000 pounds of water per hour into a boiler working at
a pressure of 1 60 Ib. wt. per square inch. Neglect waste and friction, andfind (a) the diameter of the plunger, (b) the force which must be appliedto the plunger during the downward stroke.
D.S.P.
CHAPTER XX
FLOATING BODIES. SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Resultant force exerted by a liquid on a floating or immersed body.
In Fig. 296 (a) is shown a body floating at rest in still liquid.
Equilibrium is preserved by the action of two forces, viz. the
weight W acting vertically through the centre of gravity of the
body, and the resultant force R exerted by the liquid. It is evident
W
FIG. 296. Equilibrium of a floating body.
that these forces must act in the same vertical line, and that the}T
must be equal and of opposite sense. The force R is called the
buoyancy.
Imagine for a moment that the liquid surrounding the bodybecomes solid, and so can preserve its shape ;
let the body be re-
moved, leaving a cavity which it fits exactly (Fig. 296 (&)). Let
this cavity be filled with some of the same liquid, and let the sur-
rounding liquid resume its ordinary state. The pressures on the
liquid now filling the cavity are identical with those which formerlyacted on the body, and the effect is the same the weight of the
liquid is balanced. Hence the weight of the liquid filling the cavity
and the weight of the body must be equal, since each is equal to R,
the resultant force exerted by the surrounding liquid.
Further, in Fig. 296 (6), R must act through the centre of gravity
of the liquid filling the cavity ;this centre is called the centre of
PRINCIPLE OF ARCHIMEDES 275
buoyancy. It is clear that, since R acts in the same vertical line in
both figures, the centre of buoyancy B, and the centre of gravityof the body G, must fall in the same vertical. Hence we have the
statement : When a body is floating at rest in still liquid, the weight of
the body is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body, and the
centres of gravity of the body and of ttte displaced liquid are in the same
vertical line.
A little consideration will show that the same method of reasoning
applies also to a body totally immersed in a liquid and that the
same result follows. Thus, the upward resultant force, or buoyancy,which water exerts on a piece of lead lying at the bottom of a tank
is equal to the weight of the water displaced by the lead.
The principle of Archimedes follows from the above facts, viz. : A
body wholly, or partially, immersed in a liquid experiences an apparent
loss of weight which is exactly equal to the weight of the liquid displaced.
Stability of a floating body. The state of equilibrium of a bodyfloating at rest in still liquid may be determined by slightly in-
clining the body (Fig. 297) ;the originally
vertical line passing through G, the
centre of gravity of the body, now
occupies the position XY. The weightW of the body acts through G, and the
resultant force R exerted on the bodyby the liquid acts vertically upwardsthrough the centre of buoyancy B. It
will be noted, since more liquid is now
displaced on the right-hand side of XY, FIG. 297. stability of a floating
that the tendency has been to move B a
little to the right of its first position while the body was beinginclined. In Fig. 297, R and W form a couple tending to restore
the body to its original position ;hence the equilibrium is stable.
Produce R upwards, cutting XY in M;M is called the metacentre.
If M falls above G, as in Fig. 297, the equilibrium is stable. If Mcoincides with G (as in the case of a rubber ball floating in water),the lines of R and W coincide and the equilibrium is neutral. If Mfalls below G, the couple will have the sense of rotation opposite to
that shown in Fig. 297. and has an upsetting tendency ;the equi-
librium was therefore unstable. The determination by calculation
of the position of the metacentre is beyond the scope of this book.
Force required to equilibrate an immersed body. Should the
weight of an immersed body be exactly equal to that of the liquid
276 DYNAMICS CHAP.
displaced by the body, then the forces of weight and buoyancybalance one another, and the body is in equilibrium. Otherwise,
an upward or downward force must be applied to the body, dependingon whether the weight of the body is greater or smaller than that of
the liquid displaced. In Fig. 298 (a), the weight of the body is
greater than the buoyancy B, hence an upward force P is required
= A
B
'W
(a) (b)
FIG. 298. Equilibrium of immersed bodies. FIG. 299. Use of pontoons.
to maintain equilibrium. In Fig. 298 (b), B is greater than W, and
a downward force P is required in order to ensure total immersion.
In Fig. 298 (a), P + B = W.In Fig. 298 (6), P +W = B.
A pontoon is a closed or partially open vessel used sometimes for
raising sunken wrecks from the bottom in water of moderate depth.In Fig. 299, two pontoons, A and B, support a stage CD, having hoisting
tackle at E and F. Chains are
placed round the sunken bodyG, which may thus be raised
from the bottom. The total
. pull in the chains is equal to the
weight of the sunken bodydiminished by the weight of the
liquid displaced by the body.
FIG. 300. A floating dock.In floating docks (Fig. 300) a
large vessel A, forming the dock,
may be sunk to the position shown at (a) by the artifice of admittingwater into internal tanks. The ship B may then float into the dock.
On pumping the water out of the tanks, the dock rises slowly out
of the water, and the ship rests on the floor. Ultimately the position
shown in Fig. 300 (b) is attained, in which the ship is entirely out of
the water.
The immersion of submarine boats may also be accomplished bymeans of internal water tanks. Wnen cruising, the free surface
level is AB (Fig. 301), and a considerable portion of the boat is above
xx SPECIFIC GRAVITY 277
water. The vessel may be sunk lower in the water by admittingwater into internal tanks
;the free surface may then be at CD, or
even higher. Pumps are provided in the interior for emptying the
water tanks, and thus bringing the vessel again to its original level.
FIG. 301. A submarine boat.
When the boat is in motion, diving may be accomplished by the use
of horizontal rudders, which cause the longitudinal axis of the boat
to become inclined.
Specific gravity. The specific gravity of the material of a given
body is denned as the ratio of the weight of the body to the weightof an equal volume of water. In Great Britain the comparison is
made generally at 60 F., or 15 C.
Let W,s. = the weight of the body,
Ww = the weight of an equal volume of water, both expressedin the same units.
WThen Specific gravity = p = ^ ............................ (1)
VywThe weight of any body may be calculated from a knowledge of
its volume V and specific gravity p. Thus, if w be the weight of
unit volume of water, the weight of the body, if made of water, is
Vttf ,and the actual weight is
(2)
Relation between the density and specific gravity of a given sub-
stance. It will be remembered (p. 4) that the density of a
substance is its mass per unit volume.
Let M = the mass of a body.V=its volume.
d = the density of the material.
P = the specific gravity of the material.
t0 = the weight of unit volume of water, in absolute units.
W = the weight of the body, in absolute units.
Then W - Mg = Vdg = Vw p .
d wa /o\.. - = ^ = a constant .................................. (3)
P ff
DYNAMICS CHAP.
In the c.G.s. system, WQ
is the weight of a cubic centimetre of
water and is g dynes ;hence in this system the same number expresses
both the specific gravity and the density of a given substance. In
the British system, WQ is the weight of a cubic foot of water; taking
the density of water at 60 F. to be 62-3 pounds per cubic foot, w(}
is 62 '3<7 poundals ;hence in this system
FIG. 302. Specificgravity bottle.
It follows from these regions that any experiment having for its
object the determination of the specific gravity of a substance at
60 F., gives also the density of the substance at the same temperature.
EXPT. 42. Determination of the specific gravity of a liquid by weighing
equal volumes of the liquid and of water. A specific gravity or densitybottle is employed (Fig. 302), and is a small glass bottle
having a fine stem. The bottle is filled with liquid bywarming it slightly and dipping its mouth into the liquid ;
repetition of this process will ultimately fill the bottle.
The bottle and its contents are then brought to the tem-
perature of 60 F. approximately by standing the
bottle for some time in a beaker of water maintained
at 60 F.
Weigh the empty bottle ; let this be W x grams weight. Fill the bottle
with distilled water, taking care to get rid of any air. Bring the contents
to the temperature required, and if necessary add. some more water in
order to fill the bottle completely. Weigh again, and by subtracting W x
from the result, findWw grams weight, i.e. the weight of the water alone.
Empty the bottle and dry it thoroughly. Fill it again with the liquid
under test, adjust the temperature and again weigh. From the result
deduct Wj, thus giving W lS- grams
weight for the weight of the liquid
alone. Now W,s and \NW occupied
equal volumes ; hence
p-Wf' vwd=p grams per cubic centimetre
=62-3/> pounds per cubic foot.
EXPT. 43. Specific gravity of a
solid by weighing in air and in water.
First weigh the solid in air; let the
FIG. 303.-Weighing a body in water. result beWj grams weight. Arrangea balance and a vessel of water as
shown in Fig. 303, and suspend the solid by means of a fine thread
attached to one arm of the balance. The solid should be completely
HYDROMETERS 279
immersed in the water, the temperature of which should be adjusted as
nearly as possible to 60 F., or 15 C. Weigh again, thus determining the
pull W 2 grams weight in the thread. If the buoyancy is B grams weight,then W 2 +B=W 1 ;
Now B is the weight of a quantity of water having a volume equal to
that of the solid ; hence \w l ^/J= ~B~ "wT-w, (1
In this way determine the specific gravities of the samples of iron, brass,
lead, etc., supplied.
If some liquid other than water had been employed in the second weigh-
ing operation, let the specific gravity of this liquid be p'm Then
Weight of the liquid displaced=W X -W 2.
Weight of an equal volume of water = - 1 ->
- 2.
Specific gravity of the solid -W
(2)
EXPT. 44. Specific gravity of a liquid by weighing a solid in it. Usethe apparatus shown in Fig. 303. Weigh the solid (a) in air, (6) in water,
(c) in the liquid. Let the results be W 15 W 2 andW 3 grams weight respec-
tively. Then
Weight of the water displaced by the solid=W X -W 2.
Weight of the liquid displaced by the solid =W X -W 3 .
The volumes occupied by the water and liquid displaced are equal ;
Specific gravity of the liquid =crrrr^'Wi -W 2
You are supplied with a piece of brass and some turpentine. Find the
specific gravity of the turpentine.
Variable immersion hydrometer. A hydrometer
is an instrument which can float in the liquid
to be tested and by means of which the specific
gravity of the liquid may be determined. The
instrument shown in Fig. 304 consists of a glass
bulb weighted with some mercury contained in
an enlargement at the bottom of the bulb, for
the purpose of making the instrument float in
an upright position. A graduated glass stem is
attached to the bulb. Since the weight of the, . , , FIG. 304. Variable im-
mstrument is constant, and is equal always to mersion hydrometer.
280 DYNAMICS
the weight of the liquid displaced, it follows that the free surface of
the liquid.will cut a division on the stem depending on the specific
gravity of the liquid. Deeper immersion will occur with lighter
liquids. British instruments generally have the stems calibrated
for a temperature of 60 F., and the liquid to be tested should be
brought to this temperature. Variable immersion hydrometers can
be used for a limited range only, and therefore a number of -instru-
ments is required if there ft considerable difference in the specific
gravities of the liquids to be tested.
EXPT. 45. Use of variable immersion hydrometers. Find the specific
gravities of the liquids supplied, water, turpentine, petroleum, etc.,
employing the method described above.
EXPT. 46. Specific gravity of a solid by use of Nicholson's hydrometer.
This instrument is shown in Fig. 305, and is a hydrometer of constant
immersion. A hollow metal vessel C is loaded so as
* L, to float upright, and has a wire stem D, which carriesA P
_ a scale-pan E. Another scale-pan is attached at F.
A- - A scratch on the stem D determines the standard
depth of immersion, and the instrument must be
loaded so that the free surface AB cuts this mark.
Float the instrument in water, and ascertain what
weight Wj grams must be placed in E in order to bringthe instrument to standard immersion. RemoveW l5
and place the body under test into the scale-pan E ;
add weights W 2 to E so as again to produce standard
immersion. ThenFIG '
?yto,meter!SOn
'
SWeight of the body in air
W =W t-W 2 grams weight (1)
Now place the body in the scale-pan F (use a fine thread to tie it downif the body is lighter than water) ; place weightsW 3 grams in the scale-panE in order to secure standard immersion. Then
Weight of the body in water^W^W^ -W 3 grams weight (2)
The difference of (1) and (2) gives the weight of the water displaced bythe body ; hence
Weight of the water displaced -W -W=W 3
-W 2 grams weight.............. (3)
In this way determine the specific gravities of the various samples
supplied.
XX RELATIVE SPECIFIC GRAVITY 281
EXPT. 47. Relative specific gravities of liquids which do not mix. TheU tube shown in Fig. 306 contains two liquids which do not mix ; one
liquid occupies the tube lying between A and B, and the other occupiesthe portion BC ; the surface of separation is at B. Let the specific gravitiesof these liquids be px and p 2 respectively. Let D be at the same level
as B ; then the pressure at D is equal to the pressure at B, i.e.
or =i=*.w 2 p 2 ^
Measure h 2 and h^ and evaluate the ratio of the specific gravities. If
the specific gravity of one of the liquids is known, find the specific gravityof the other liquid.
FIG. 300. Apparatus for liquidswhich do not mix.
FIG. 307. Apparatus for liquids whichmix.
EXPT. 48. Relative specific gravities of liquids which mix. Fig. 307
shows two U tubes connected by a short rubber tube at G. One liquid
occupies the space ABC, and the other occupies the space DBF. The air
trapped in AGD prevents contact of the liquids, and exerts the same pressureon the surfaces at A and D. Therefore
PA =Po-
A and B are at the same level, as are also D and E.
'
PA =PB =Po =PE >
Measure ft x and h 2 , and evaluate the ratio.
EXPT. 49. Relative specific gravities of two liquids which mix, by in-
verted U tube. In Fig. 308 an inverted U tube is shown having a branch
at the top furnished with a stop-cock, and connected to an air pump bymeans of which air may be withdrawn from the tube. The lower openends of the tube are immersed in two liquids contained in separate vessels.
282 DYNAMICS CHAP.
On operating the pump, the superior pressure of the atmosphere on the
surfaces of the liquids in the vessels will cause the liquids to rise in the
tubes. The pressures inside the tubes at A andC are equal to that of the atmosphere ; also
the air in the upper part of the tube exerts
equal pressures on the surfaces at B and D.
Hence ,,,* -.7>
Measure ht and h 2 , and evaluate the ratio.
Specific gravity of mixtures of liquids.
We will suppose that the volume and specific
gravity of each liquid are known, that no
chemical action occurs, and that there is no
change in the volumes. The total volume
V c.c. after mixing will be equal to the sumof the volumes V
1 , V2 . V3 , etc., in c.c., of
the separate liquids ; further, there will be
FIG. 308. inverted u tube for no change in weight during mixing \hence
"f
EXERCISES 283
If the volume changes during mixing, becoming V say, then,
since the weight after mixing is equal to the sum of the weightsbefore mixing, we have
V 'p= V
1 /> 1 + V2/o2 + V3p 3 + etc.;
p =VlPl + V2/J2 + V3?3 + etc.
(5)
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XX.
1. A ship displaces a volume of 400,000 cubic feet of fresh water. Findthe weight of the ship. If the ship sails into sea-water (64 Ib. weight percubic foot), what volume of water will it displace ?
2. A rectangular pontoon is required to carry a load of 4 tons weight,and the depression when the load is applied is not to exceed 6 inches in
fresh water. Find the horizontal area of the pontoon in square feet.
3. A closed cylindrical vessel is 6 feet in diameter and 15 feet long,and weighs 5000 Ib. If the vessel is floating in fresh water with the axis
of the cylinder in the plane of the water surface, what load is it carrying ?
4. A body weighing 8 Ib. and having a volume of 15 cubic inches lies
at the bottom of a tank of fresh water. What force does it exert on the
bottom of the tank ?
5. A piece of iron weighing 4 Ib. is immersed in oil weighing 50 Ib.
per cubic foot, and is supported by means of a cord to which it is tied.
If the iron weighs 0-26 Ib. per cubic inch, what is the pull in the cord ?
6. Some oil is poured into a vessel containing some water. Describe
what will happen if the liquids do not mix. Give reasons.
7. A rectangular body weighing 3-3 Ib. in air has dimensions as follows :
4-2 inches long, 2-4 inches wide, 1-1 inches thick. What is the specific
gravity of the material ?
8. A piece of lead, specific gravity 114, weighs 0-32 Ib. in air. Whatwill be the apparent loss of weight when the lead is immersed in water ?
9. The density of steel is 480 pounds per cubic foot. What is the
specific gravity ? Explain why the density and specific gravity of a
substance are represented by the same number in the C.G.S. system.
10. A plank of wood measures 6 feet by 9 inches by 3 inches, and the
specific gravity is 0-6. How many cubic inches will be below the surface
if the plank is floating at rest in fresh water. What vertical force mustbe applied in order to immerse the plank ?
11. A piece of zinc weighs 42 grams in air, and 37 -8 grams when immersedin oil having a specific gravity of 0-7. Find the specific gravity of the
zinc.
12. A piece of brass weighs 2 Ib. in air, and the specific gravity is 8-5.
Find the pull in the suspending cord when the brass is immersed in a
liquid having a specific gravity of 0-82.
284 DYNAMICS CHAP.
13. The weight of a submarine boat is 200 tons, and it lies damagedand full of water at the bottom of the sea. If the specific gravity of the
material is 7-8, find the total pull which must be exerted by the liftingchains in order to raise the vessel from the bottom. Take the specific
gravity of sea-water = 1 -025.
14. A piece of brass was found to weigh 22-68 grams in air and 20-04
grams in water, and was then used as a sinker for determining the specific
gravity of a piece of cork. The cork weighed 1'595 grams in air, andsinker and cork together weighed 14-275 grams in water. Find the specific
gravities (a) of the brass, (6) of the cork.
15. To determine the length of a given tangle of copper wire the followingmeasurements were made : Diameter (measured by means of a screw
gauge), 0-0762 cm. ; weight of the tangle in air, 5-43 grams ; and in water,4-81 grams. Find the specific gravity of the copper and the length of the
wire.
16. The specific gravity of a piece of brass was found by use of a Nichol-
son's hydrometer, and the following observations were recorded : Weightrequired to sink the hydrometer to the standard mark, 4-48 grams ; withthe brass in the upper pan, 2-22 grams weight were required in the upperpan ; with the brass in the lower pan, 2-48 grams weight were requiredin the upper pan. Find the specific gravity of the brass.
17. Some water is introduced into a U tube and fills about 12 cm. of
each vertical limb. Some oil of specific gravity 0-8 is poured into onelimb and fills a length of 6 cm. of the tube. Find the difference in levels
of the free surfaces of the water and oil. (No mixing takes place.)
18. An inverted U tube (Fig. 308) has the open end of one limb immersedin water and the other open end is immersed in a liquid having a specific
gravity 0-85. The air pump is then worked until the water stands in the
tube to a height of 20 cm. Find the height to which the liquid will rise
in the other tube.
19. Three liquids, A, B, C, are mixed and no chemical action takes place.The volumes and specific gravities are as follows :
Liquid
xx EXERCISES 285
22. Explain how Nicholson's hydrometer may be used to find the specific
gravity (a) of a liquid, (&) of a solid heavier than water. Give a sketch of
the instrument.
23. A U tube, whose ends are open, whose section is one square inch,and whose vertical branches rise to a height of 33 inches, contains mercuryin both branches to a height of 6-8 inches. Find the greatest amount of
water that can be poured into one of the branches, assuming the specific
gravity of mercury to be 13-6. L.U.
24. Explain how you would compare the specific gravities of two liquidsthat mix by means of a U tube. Madras Univ.
CHAPTER XXI
LIQUIDS IN MOTION
Steady and unsteady motion in fluids. The motion of a fluid maybe either steady or unsteady. In steady motion, each particle in the
fluid travels in precisely the same path as the particle preceding it,
thus setting up stream lines or filaments, which may be either straight
(a)
(*)FIG. 309. Steady and unsteady motion.
or curved. Thus, if a fine jet of coloured water be injected into a
mass of water moving with steady motion, the coloured water will
pursue the stream line which passes through the point of injectionand will move unbroken, giving a coloured band which appears to
remain fixed in position, and may be curved or straight, dependingon the conditions under which flow takes place.
In unsteady or turbulent motion, eddies are formed in the fluid.
If a coloured jet be injected into water moving with unsteady motion,no colour band is formed
;the jet breaks up at once, and colours
faintly and uniformly a considerable portion of the water.
Osborne Reynolds used the colour band method to demonstrate
steady and unsteady flow of water along a glass pipe. At slow
speeds of flow, a fine jet of coloured water, introduced into the bodyof water entering the pipe at one end, travels unbroken along the
TOTAL ENERGY OF A LIQUID 287
pipe and indicates steady flow (Fig. 309 (a)). As the speed of flow
is increased, a critical velocity is reached, above which the colour
band breaks up and mingles with the whole of the water in the pipe,
thus indicating unsteady flow (Fig. 309 (6)).
Pressure on stream lines. Since force is required to change the
direction of motion of a body, it follows that straight stream lines
can exist only provided there is no resultant force acting on the
boundary of the stream line in a direction perpendicular to that of
the motion of the fluid (p. 217). In other words, the pressures whichthe adjacent stream lines exert on the
filament under consideration must be uni-
formly distributed all over the boundaryof the filament.
In a mass of fluid moving in curvedstream lines, the concave side of anystream line is in contact with the convexside of an adjacent stream line (Fig. 310 (a)).
The pressure which the concave side ab of
the lower stream line* exerts on the convexside ab of the upper stream line is equaland opposite to the pressure which the
convex side of the upper stream line exerts FIG- sio. Transverse pressures
on the concave side of the lower streamline. Let this pressure be p. The pressure on the concave side cd
will be less than p by a small amount 8p, and that on ef will be
greater than p by another small amount 8p. Applying the same
reasoning to all stream lines in a body of fluid moving steadily in a
curved path (Fig. 310 (6) ), we see that the pressure p on the convex
boundary ab will diminish gradually across the stream, attaining a
lower value p2 at the concave boundary cd.
Total energy of a liquid. The total energy at any point in a liquid
rn motion may be separated into three different kinds of energy,
and is expressed conveniently as so much energy per unit mass of
liquid : (a) Potential energy, due to the elevation h above some
arbitrary datum level, and given by gh absolute units of energy perunit mass, (b) Pressure energy, due to the pressure p, in absolute
units, at the point under consideration, and given by p/d absolute
units of energy per unit mass, d being the density of the liquid
(p. 264). (c) Kinetic energy, due to the motion of the liquid, and
given by vz/2 absolute units of energy per unit mass, v being the
speed of the liquid at the point under consideration. These energies
are mutually convertible, i.e. any one kind may be converted into
289 DYNAMICS CHAP.
either of the other two kinds of energy. The total energy of the
liquid at the point in question is obtained by taking the sum. Thus
'D V2Total energy = yh +^ + ~- (1)
d A
Bernoulli's theorem. Suppose that a small portion of liquid flows
from one point to another point, and that the change of position is
effected without incurring any waste of energy, then, from the
principle of the conservation of energy, we may assert that the total
energy is not changed during the displacement. This statement is
known as Bernoulli's theorem, and leads to the following equation.
Let hlt p and v
lbe respectively the elevation, pressure and velocity
at a certain point in a liquid having a mass d per unit volume, and
let the liquid flowing past this point arrive at another point where
the elevation, pressure and velocity are respectively h 2 . p 2 and v2 .
Then P ^- h & ^ (to
EXPT. 50. An illustration of Bernoulli's theorem. In Fig. 311, AC is
a glass tube having a contraction at B ; a branch D is attached at the middle
Q of the contraction and dips into
I
coloured water in a vessel E.
The tube ABC is arranged
horizontally, and is connected
to a water-tap by means of
rubber tubing attached to A.
On opening the tap, water flows
through the tube and is dis-
FIG. 311. Apparatus for illustrating Bernoulli's charged into the atmospheretheorem.
at C. Notice also that the
coloured water in E ascends D, mingles with the water flowing along ABCand is also discharged at C. The arrangement constitutes a kind of lift
pump, and has been used in a modified form for raising water.
The action may be explained as follows : The tube ABC being horizontal,
there will be no change in the potential energy of the water flowing alongthe tube. Imagine the branch D to be closed for a moment, then, neglect-
ing any wasted energy, the sums of the pressure and kinetic energies at
A, B and C will be equal. It is also evident, since the tube ABC is every-where full of water, that the same quantity of water per second passes
every cross section of the tube ; therefore the velocity at B must be greater
than the velocity at C. Hence the kinetic energy at B is greater than the
kinetic energy at C, and therefore the pressure energy at B must be less
than the pressure energy at C. Now the pressure at C is equal to that of
XXI THE SIPHON 289
D B
the atmosphere, therefore the pressure at B must be less than that of the
atmosphere. Hence, if the branch D be opened, the pressure of the atmo-
sphere on the free surface of the water in E will cause this water to ascend
D, and, provided the branch is not too long, to join the water flowingalong ABC.
The siphon. The siphon consists of a bent tube, usually madewith the limbs of unequal length, and is employed for emptyingliquid from a vessel without the necessity for tipping the vessel.
EXPT. 51. Use of a siphon. Fill a vessel with water (Fig. 312) ; the
free surface is AB. Fill both limbs of the siphon CDEF with water, close
the ends by applying the fingers, invert the siphonand place it in the position shown in Fig. 312, andremove the fingers. It will be found that water is
discharged at F until the level in the vessel falls to C.
The action may be explained as follows : Sup-pose the flow to be stopped by applying a fingerat F
; the pressure at D inside the tube wouldthen be equal to the pressure of the atmosphereacting .on AB. If the flow be started again, thewater at D has taken up some kinetic energy,and has therefore parted with an equivalentamount of pressure energy, and its pressure is
now less than that of the atmosphere. Hencethere is a resultant effort tending to producemotion from AB downwards through the vessel and thence throughCD towards D.
Consider now the column EF, E being on the same level as AB.
On its upper surface and acting downwards there is a pressure equalto that at D
;the pressure of the atmosphere acts upwards at F,
and the weight of the column of liquid acts downwards. Thereis thus a net downward tendency which causes the liquid to be
discharged at F.
Discharge from a sharp-edged orifice. Bernoulli's theorem maybe applied to the flow of water or other liquid through a small sharp-
edged circular orifice. Reference is made to Fig. 313, in which de
is the orifice;OX is an arbitrary datum level. The free surface
level of the liquid is at WL, and is maintained at a constant height
h above the centre of the orifice by allowing liquid to flow into the
tank at a rate equal to that of the discharge through the orifice.
The pressure of the atmosphere, pa in absolute units, is taken
into account by removing the gaseous pressure from WL andD.S.I*. T .
FIG. 312. Use of asiphon.
290 DYNAMICS CHAP.
substituting a layer of liquid FGLW, having a depth ha ;the
imaginary free surface FG has then no gaseous pressure acting on
it. If the density of the liquid is d, then
Pa
At A the liquid has .potential energy due to the elevation hA ; its
pressure energy is due to the pressure of the atmosphere p, ( ; the
velocity is too small to be tajcen into account, and the kinetic energyis assumed to be zero.
At B the liquid has potential energy due to the elevation hB ;the
pressure energy is due partly to the head h and partly to the pressure
O XFia. 313. Discharge through a sharp-edged orifice.
p a transmitted through the liquid ;the velocity, and hence the
kinetic energy, is again assumed to be zero.
As the liquid approaches the orifice, its velocity begins to be
important on crossing an imaginary boundary abc (Fig. 313). Bb
being taken as a horizontal line passing through the centre of the
orifice, the liquid particles at B pass along the straight line Bb andare discharged ; other particles, such as those at a and c, haveto pass round the edges of the orifice, and can do so only by pursuingcurved paths. Hence the jet contracts after passing the plane of
the orifice de. The exterior surfaces of the jet are subjected to the
pressure of the atmosphere p lt ,but the interior of the jet has pres-
sures in excess of pn up to the section CD, where contraction is
complete. After passing CD, the pressure throughout the interior of
the jet is equal to pa .
At CD the liquid has potential 'energy due to the elevation hco ;
XXI DISCHARGE FROM AN ORIFICE 291
its pressure energy is due to pa ;the kinetic energy is due to the
velocity v (Fig. 313).Consider unit mass of liquid initially at A, then passing slowly
downwards to B, and thence along Bb until it acquires the velocityv. The energies above stated may be tabulated in absolute units
as follows :
292 DYNAMICS CHAP.
Water-wheels. There are large natural stores of energy in the
water contained in lakes elevated above the level of the sea. The
utilisation of this energy has provided many interesting problemsfor engineers. The old-fashioned method was to employ a water-
wheel. A suitable place was selected on a river or stream where
there was either a natural waterfall, or where an artificial fall could
be obtained by building a dam across the stream. A difference in
level being thus obtained, tttfe water was led to the water-wheel, of
which there are three types.
In the over-shot wheel (Fig. 315) water is brought to the top of the
wheel and there enters buckets fastened all round the rim. Thewater remains in these buckets
until the wheel, turned by the
extra weight of water on one side,
has brought the buckets into sucha position that the water is spilledout. The wheel is thus rotated
continuously and drives machineryby means of toothed wheel gearing.
In breast-shot wheels the waterenters the buckets about half-way
up, and the action is similar to
that in over-shot wheels. In boththese types, the attempt is to
utilise the potential energy of the
FIG. 315,-Over-shot water-wheel. ^ater only. In under-shot wheels
the wheel is furnished with blades,
and the water is caused to impinge on these near the bottom of the
wheel. The water entering the wheel must have considerable speed,and its kinetic energy is utilised.
Water-wheels are seldom constructed now; they waste a large
amount of the available energy and are not suitable for developing
large powers.
Water-turbines. The modern system of utilising the energy of
elevated water is by the employment of turbines. In these machines
the water passes through a wheel furnished with blades. The action
consists in causing the water to whirl before entering the wheel;
in
this condition it possesses angular momentum, and the function of
the wheel blades is to abstract the angular momentum and to dis-
charge the water with no whirl. A couple will thus act on the wheel
(p. 206), and will cause it to rotate, thus performing mechanical work.
XXI WATER TURBINES 293
In impulse turbines arrangements are made so as to convert the
whole of the available energy of the water into the kinetic formbefore it enters the wheel. In reaction turbines the energy is partlyin the kinetic form and partly in the form of pressure energy.The action in the Girard impulse turbine may be understood by
reference to Fig. 316. Water is supplied from A and passes througha ring of guide passages B, B, having blades so shaped as to cause
the water to whirl. Immediately under the guide passages is a hori-
zontal wheel C, which is fixed to a vertical shaft DD. This wheel
has a ring of blades round its rim bent contrary to the blades in the
guide passages. If the wheel were prevented from rotating, the
action of the wheel blades would be to direct the water backwards.
FIG. 316. Action of a Girard impulse turbine.
The wheel actually revolves in the direction shown by the arrow,
and the effect is to cause the water to be discharged vertically
downwards from the wheel ;the whirl is thus eliminated. The water
leaves the guide blades B, B in a ring of jets under atmospheric
pressure ;hence the potential energy represented by (H-/i) units
per unit mass of water- has been converted into kinetic energy in
the jets. The water passes in thin layers over the wheel blades C, C,
and the pressure in the wheel passages is kept equal to that of the
atmosphere by means of side openings in the rim of the wheel, one
at the back of each blade. It will be noted that the wheel is situated
above the level of the discharged water in the tail-race E, E;
the
water is therefore discharged at atmospheric pressure from the wheel
into the atmosphere.In Fig. 317 is shown in outline a Jonval reaction turbine. The
arrangement is similar to the Girard turbine. Water is suppliedfrom A and passes through a ring of orifices B, B, having guide blades
so as to whirl the water. The wheel C, C has blades so shaped as to
294 DYNAMICS
eliminate the whirl. The difference between the two types is thatin the Jonval turbine the water passing through the wheel fills com-
pletely the passages in the wheel, and may therefore have a pressurenot equal to that of the atmosphere, tn the example illustrated
FIG. 317. Action in a Jonval reaction turbine.
the wheel is below the level of the water in the tail-race E, E, andthe pressure in the wheel passages is therefore greater than that
of the atmosphere.The difference in free surface levels of the supply water in A. A
and of the discharged water in E, E is H;hence H units of potential
energy per unit mass of water are avail-
able for conversion into work.
Pelton wheel. To obtain efficient
conditions of working in water turbines,
the wheel blades must be so formed that
the water slides on to them without
impact. Impact, or shock, always
produces waste of energy (p. 235).
Further, the water must be dischargedfrom the wheel with as small a velocity
as possible. Both of these conditions
will be readily understood by reference
to Fig. 318 showing a Pelton wheel. A jet of water is discharged into
buckets which are fixed to the rim of a revolving wheel. In the
plan the buckets are made double, having a sharpened dividing
edge ;the jet enters the buckets at this edge and divides, part
flowing round one bucket and part flowing round the other. There
FIG. 318. Action in a Pelton wheel.
XXI CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 295
is thus no shock produced by the entering water, whicji slides tan-
gentially into the buckets. If the wheel were at rest, the water
leaving the buckets would have a velocity in the direction oppositeto that of the water in the jet. Owing, however, to the velocity of
the bucket, the water leaving the bucket has very little velocity
relative to the earth. If the velocities of the jet and the bucket
are v1and V respectively, and if V is equal to %vl9
then the velocity
of the leaving water relative to the earth will
be zero, and the whole of the kinetic energyof the water in the jet is available for con-
version into work. If m be the mass of
water per second delivered by the jet, then
I'M 4)2
Energy supplied per sec. =a
In practice from 70 to .90 per cent, of this
appears as useful work done on the wheel.
Centrifugal pumps. Water may be raised
from a lower to a higher level by means of a
centrifugal pump. In Fig. 319 the water in Aflows up a vertical pipe, and reaches a wheel
B where additional kinetic energy is impartedto it. The wheel is driven by some source
of power and whirls the water, giving it a
higher speed. This speed is reduced graduallyin the casing which surrounds the wheel, andhence the kinetic energy added by the action
of the wheel is converted into pressure energyin the discharge pipe at C. The resulting
pressure is sufficient to overcome the headof water in the pipe CD, hence flow is main-tained upwards, and the pressure energy is
converted finally into potential energy in the upper tank E. If His the difference in free surface levels, then #H units of useful workhave been done per unit mass of water.
FIG. 319. Arrangement of
a centrifugal pump.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XXI.
1. Describe what is meant by steady and unsteady motion in fluids.
Explain what is meant by a stream line.
2. Describe briefly Osborne Rcynolds's colour band experiment. Whatis meant by the critical velocity ?
296 DYNAMICS CHAP.
3. Water is traveling through a bent pipe (Fig. 320), and it is foundthat the fluid pressure on the wall at A is greater than that at B. Explain
this clearly.
4. Water is flowing steadily along a pipe. Calculate
the total energy possessed by one pound of the water at
a point where the pressure is 30 Ib. wt. per square inch, the
velocity is 4 feet per second and the height is 16 feet above
ground level.
FlQ 3 .,5. State Bernoulli's theorem. When a liquid flows
along a horizontal pipe having a gradual constriction, the
pressure at the constriction is less than that at the larger parts of the
pipe. Explain this, and describe briefly an experiment for demon-
strating it.
6. Water flows up a vertical pipe from ground level to a point 40 feet
above the ground. The speed is constant and is 6 feet per second. Thetop of the pipe is open to the atmosphere. Find the potential, pressureand kinetic energies of one pound of the water at points (a) at the top of
the pipe, (b) at 6 feet above ground level.
7. Water is flowing steadily along a horizontal pipe of varying section.
At a place where the pressure is 20 Ib. wt. per square inch the speed is
4 feet per second. At another place the speed is 40 feet per second.
What is the pressure at this place ?
8. If a liquid flows steadily through a pipe of varying circular cross
section, show that the speed is inversely proportional to the square of
the diameter of the pipe provided that the liquid fills the pipe completely.
9. A horizontal pipe of circular section is 4 inches in internal diameterat a section A and contracts to 1 inch diameter at another section B. Waterflows steadily along the pipe, filling it completely, and has a speed of 4 feet
per second at A. If the pressure at A is 40 Ib. wt. per square inch, find
the pressure at B, neglecting friction.
10. Give a brief general account of the changes in energy which occurwhen one pound of water passes from the free surface level in a tank,
through the tank and is finally discharged through an orifice in the side
of the tank.
ll! A tank containing water has an orifice in one vertical side. If the
centre of the orifice is 9 feet below the free surface level in the tank, find
the velocity of discharge, assuming that there is no wasted energy. Theactual velocity is 97 per cent, of the value calculated above ; find the
actual velocity.
12. A circular jet of water is 0-4 inch in diameter, and has a speed of
30 feet per second. Calculate the quantity in cubic feet which passes anygiven section in one second.
13. A tank contains water of which the free surface level is maintained
constantly at 4 feet above the centre of a sharp-edged orifice in the side
of the tank. The orifice is 1 inch in diameter. Take the usual values
for the various coefficients (p. 291) and calculate (a) the actual velocityof the jet at the section where contraction is complete, (b) the diameterof the jet there, (c) the volume discharged per second in cubic feet.
xxi EXERCISES 297
14. A stream of water supplies an overshot water-wheel which is 20 feet
in diameter. The stream is 4 feet wide and 6 inches deep, and flows at
6 feet per second. Calculate the weight of water supplied per minute.If 65 per cent, of the potential energy of the water alone is converted into
useful work, find the horse-power developed by the wheel.
15. Distinguish between impulse and reaction water turbines. Giveclear sketches and a very brief description of the action in a turbine of
each of these types.
16. A Pelton wheel is supplied by a jet of water 4 inches in diameterand having a speed of 120 feet per second. How much energy is suppliedper second ? If the efficiency is 80 per cent., what horse-power can the
wheel develop ?
17. Describe briefly, by reference to a sketch, the action of a centrifugal
pump.
18. Describe the action of a siphon. Give any practical application
you may have observed of the use of a siphon.
CHAPTER XXII
SURFACE TENSION. DIFFUSION. OSMOSIS
Surface tension. It is a matter of common observation that a
drop of liquid, e.g. water, can cling to the lower side of a horizontal
glass plate. This fact illustrates twd properties : the liquid can
adhere to the glass by reason of molecular attraction between the
substances, and the liquid behaves as though it were enclosed in an
elastic bag, having a constant tendency to contract, and forming a
boundary between the liquid and the atmosphere which surrounds
the drop. Water or other liquid in an open vessel has a horizontal
free surface, and this surface shows properties similar to those of a
stretched elastic film. Thus a clean, dry needle may float on the
surface of water, and is supported by the action of the surface film
which bends under the weight of the needle.
The portions of the free surface of any liquid in an open vessel
lying on opposite sides of any straight line, drawn in the surface,
tend to separate, showing the existence of tension in the surface.
The surface tension is measured by the force in dynes exerted across
a portion of the line one centimetre in length.
EXPT. 52. Surface tension of water. Make a rectangular frame of
platinum wire (Fig. 321) about 3 cm., long and 1-5 cm. high. Clean the
frame by heating it in a Bunsen flame and hang it
from one arm of a balance, and let the top be
about 3 mm. above the surface of water in a
beaker. Add weights to the balance so as to
restore equilibrium. Depress the arm of the
balance from which the frame hangs so as to
FIG. 321. Measurement immerse the frame. On allowing the frame to
water?SUrfaCe tenSi n f
rise a am ' jt wil1 be found that ]t has taken 11Pa film of water, and that more weights are
required in order to restore equilibrium. By taking the difference in
weights, obtain the total pull of the film, P grams weight, say. The
CAPILLARY ELEVATION 299
film of water has two surfaces, front and back ;. hence the surface tension
T is calculated from pqT = ~7 dynes per centimetre,
where 6 is the breadth of the frame in centimetres.
The surface tension of water is 75-8 dynes per centimetre at C., anddecreases by 0-152 dyne per cm. for each degree rise of temperature.Take the temperature of the water in the beaker at the time of performingthe experiment ; estimate the surface tension, and compare the result withthat obtained in the experiment.
Capillary elevation. If a glass tube of fine bore, open at both
ends, be dipped vertically into water it will be observed that someof the water rises in the tube to a level
higher than the free surface outside the
tube, and that the surface of the water in
the tube which is exposed to the pressureof the atmosphere is shaped like a cup
(Fig. 322). This cup is termed the meniscus.
The elevation of the water inside the tube
appears to controvert the laws of fluidFro. 322. Capillary elevation,
pressure and is attributable to surface
tension. Water wets glass and tends to spread over its surface ;
the tendency of the surface skin to contract is resisted by the
weight of the water in the glass tube.
The shape of the surface may be explained by considering that
the elastic surface skin is subjected on the upper side to the pressureof the atmosphere pa , and, on the lower' side, to a pressure p whichis less than pa by an amount corresponding to the difference in
head h. The superior pressure pa therefore causes the skin to bulgedownwards. If d be the density of the liquid, then the difference
in the pressures on the opposite sides of the skin is Mg dynes per
square centimetre. If the tube has a radius r centimetres, then the
area over which the pressure is distributed is Trr2
, and the resultant
vertical force acting on the surface skin is given byP = hdg-r* (1)
This force is balanced by the surface tension T distributed round
the inner boundary of the tube, of length 2irr, and since the liquidwets the tube, the surface tensions at this boundary are upwardvertical forces. Hence
Tx277T = P = M<77rr2
,
or T = %r/2 (2)
300 DYNAMICS CHAP.
If the tube is of small diameter, the surface of the meniscus is very
nearly hemispherical. The volume of water above a horizontal
plane which touches the meniscus at its lowest point will be the
difference between the volume of a cylinder of radius r and height r,
viz. Trr3
,and the volume of a hemisphere of radius r, viz. frr
3,and
is therefore ^-Tf3
. The error in measuringh to the bottom of the meniscus maytherefore be corrected in tubes of small
Bore by adding Jr to the height h.
f If a similar experiment be tried with
mercury, it will be found that the sur-
face of the mercury inside the tube is
depressed below the level of the free
surface outside the tube (Fig. 323).
Mercury does not wet glass, and in this
case the skin is bulged upwards by reason
of the pressure ) on the lower side of the
skin being greater than the atmospheric pressure pa on the upperside. Mercury has a definite angle of contact a with glass (about
50), and hence it is necessary in this case to take the vertical com-
ponents of T round the boundary. Thus
T cos a x 2-rrr = P =
r/
Fia. 323 - Capillary depressionof mercury.
T = hdgr/2 cos a (3)
The surface tension of mercury is 547 dynes per cm. at 17-5 C.,
and diminishes by 0-379 dyne per cm. for each degree C. rise in tem-
perature. The angle of contact varies considerably, depending onthe freshness of the surfaces
;it is 41 5' in a freshly formed drop
on glass, and may increase to 52 40' for surfaces which are not
fresh. Fouling of the glass in mercurial barometers accounts for
the fact that the shape of the meniscus in a rising barometer differs
from that when the barometer is falling.
EXPT. 53. Measurement of the surface tension of water by the capillary
tube method. Clean the tubes supplied by drawing through them strong
sulphuric acid and then washing with distilled water. Point one end of
a piece of wire, bend it twice at right angles and secure it to one of the
tubes by means of rubber bands (Fig. 324). Fix the tube vertically and
let the lower end dip into a beaker of water ; the beaker should rest on a
support so that it may be removed easily without disturbing the tube.
Adjust the height of the tube until the point of the wire lies exactlyin the surface of the water ; the point should not be too close to the
tube or the side of the beaker. Attach a piece of rubber tubing to
the top of the glass tube, and draw water up the tube so as to wet
the interior.
XXII SURFACE TENSION 301
Focus a vernier microscope on the liquid in the tube, and take the
reading corresponding to the bottom of the meniscus. Remove the beaker,and by means of the microscope obtain the
reading corresponding to the point of the
wire. The difference in these readings will
give the elevation of the water in the tube
above the free surface level in the beaker.
Repeat the experiment with several tubes
of different diameter ; in each case measure
the diameter of the tube (Expt. 7, p. 20),
and note the temperature of the water in the
beaker.
Calculate the value of the surface tension
in each experiment, using equation (2), p. 299.
Apply the correction for the shape of the
meniscus.
Liquids which do not mix. In Fig. 325is shown a vessel containing two liquidswhich do not mix. Suppose AGKB to bethe surface of separation of the liquids,and consider two points E and F in thesame horizontal plane. Let w
land w
2 be the weights per unit volumeof the upper and lower liquids respectively. The pressures at E andF must be equal ;
hence
FIG. 324. Surface tension ofwater by capillary tube method
Also,
x HG) + (w2x GE) = (wj x LK) + (wz
x KF) ;
/. W1(HG-LK)=W2(KF-GE)
H6+GE =(I)
HG-LK = KF-GE. (2)
and w2 mustFor (1) and (2) to be true simultaneously, either
be equal, in which case both liquids havethe same specific gravity, or if w1
and w2
be unequal, then the result of (2) mustbe zero, i.e.
HG = LK, and KF=GE.
Hence the surface of separation must be
parallel to the free surface CD, and musttherefore be a horizontal plane.
In Fig. 326 (a) the heavier liquid A is supposed to occupy the upperpart of the vessel. That the equilibrium is unstable may be shownas follows : Let the surface of separation be disturbed as shown in
H
302 DYNAMICS
Fig. 326 (b) and consider a small area on this surface at E.
pressure pLon the upper side is given by .
The
Take another point F in the same horizontal plane as E.
pressures pz at E and F are equal, and are given by
(1)
The
(2)
Also, 2/=
T. /'i= ^Ayi+wAy2 (from (1)) ............... (3)
Comparing (2) and (3), and remembering that WA is greater thanwe see that ^ is greater than pz .
(a)FIG. 326.- -The heavier liquid must occupy the
lower part.
Hence on the small area at Ethere is a resultant downward
pressure (pi~p^- Therefore
the disturbance at E will con-
tinue downwards, and the
heavier liquid will occupyultimately the lower part of
the vessel. The state of equi-librium shown in Fig. 326 (a)
is therefore unstable.
Carbon dioxide has aThe same principle also applies to gases.
density greater than that of air, and therefore tends to occupy the
lower part of an enclosed space. This fact has been illustrated bythe death of small animals in vats containing some carbon dioxide,
while men have been able to breathe the superstratum of air. Strati^
fication of this kind is not permanent ;diffusion takes place more or
less quickly, and produces an atmosphere in which both gases are
distributed uniformly.
Diffusion of liquids. In Fig. 327 is shown a jar containing two
liquids A and B, A having a greater density than B. If the liquids are
incapable of mixing, no alteration will take place if the
jar is left undisturbed;but if the liquids possess the
capability of mixing in any proportion, it will be found
that a process of self-mixing is going on, A travelling
upwards in spite of its greater density, and B travelling
downwards. Finally the mixture becomes uniform
throughout the jar. This process is called diffusion.
FIG. 327Diffusion of
liquids.Diffusion in liquids takes a long time to complete.
A demonstration jar may be prepared by introducinga strong solution of copper sulphate A, (Fig. 327), the quantity beingrather less than half the capacity of the jar. An equal quantity of
distilled water B is then poured in carefully so as not to disturb the
xxn DIFFUSION 303
copper sulphate. The jar should be covered and placed where it
will not be disturbed. Periodic inspections will show that the bluecolour of the copper sulphate is extending upwards, and that thetint in the lower part of the vessel is becoming fainter. At one
stage the colour gradation extends throughout the whole depth of
liquid. Finally, uniformity of tint is attained, showing that diffusion
is complete.
Observations in experiments of this kind show that the time
required to complete the diffusion process is proportional to the
square of the total depth of liquid. Solutions of different substances,
having the same degree of concentration and other conditions similar,
have been found to possess different rates of diffusion;
for example,
hydrochloric acid diffuses more rapidly than potassium bromide.
Solutions of the same substance, having different degrees of con-
centration, have been found to possess rates of diffusion proportionalto the strength of the solution. Increase in temperature increases
considerably the rate of diffusion.
Diffusion can be completed in a few seconds in a jar, such as is
shown in Fig. 327, by using a piece of wire having a loop bent at
right angles at one end and stirring the liquids vertically. Theeffect of such stirring is two-fold
; layers of strong solution are
brought into juxtaposition with layers of water, arid therefore therate of diffusion is greatly increased
; further, the concentrated
layers of solution have now a shorter distance to travel
in completing the diffusion process.The uniformity of distribution of the various sub-
stances dissolved in sea-water is owing to diffusion.
Otherwise the ocean would consist of stratifications of
salt solutions of different densities, the heaviest beingat the bottom.
Diffusion of gases. Gases possess the property of
diffusion, and the process is completed much more
rapidly than is the case with liquids.
EXPT. 54. Diffusion of gases. Referring to Fig. 328, A is
a flask charged with coal gas and B is another flask havinga capacity about eight times that of A. The flasks are fitted FlG 328.
with rubber stoppers, and are connected by means of a glassDiffusion of
tube about 18 inches along and|-
inch bore. Leave the
arrangement undisturbed in a vertical position, as shown in Fig. 328, for
two or three hours. It will be found that diffusion has taken place, the
heavier air in B travelling upwards and the lighter gas in A downwards.
304 DYNAMICS CHAP.
That the gases have mixed may be proved from the fact that a gaseousmixture of air and coal-gas having the stated proportions (about eight to
one) is explosive. Wrap a piece of cloth round each flask ; quicklyremove the stoppers, and test each flask by applying a lighted taper.
Diffusion in non-uniform mixtures of gases takes place by the
flow of each gas from places where its density is higher towards
places where its density is lower. Ultimately uniformity of densityof each gas throughout trfe whole space is attained. The rate of
diffusion of two given gases depends on the kind of gases ; it is
inversely proportional to the pressure of the mixed gases, and
roughly is proportional to the square of the absolute temperature.The rate of diffusion also depends on the densities of adjacent layers
of the two gases ;hence mechanical mixing of the gases hastens
the process of diffusion, as is the case also in liquids.
The property of diffusion in gases is of great importance in the
prevention of accumulations of noxious gases in towns and confined
spaces. Carbon dioxide does not support life, and a comparativelysmall percentage of this gas in the atmosphere is dangerous. Theexhalations of animals consist largely of carbon dioxide, which is
also given off in large volumes in many industrial processes. The
gas diffuses rapidly into the atmosphere, the process being assisted
by the stirring produced by air currents, and thus a mixture is
attained which is not dangerous. Some idea of the rate of diffusion
of carbon dioxide and air may be obtained from the observed fact
that in a vertical tube about 60 cm. long, and having the lower
tenth of its length charged with carbon dioxide, the upper nine-
tenths containing air, diffusion is completed in about two hours.
The time taken is proportional to the square of the length of the
tube.
Osmosis. The term osmosis is given to the ability which some
liquids have to pass through certain membranes. For example,water is able to pass through the membrane of a pig's bladder, while
alcohol is unable to do so. Hence, if a pig's bladder be filled with
alcohol, closed, and placed under water, it will swell and may burst.
If the bladder be filled with water and placed under alcohol, shrinkage
occurs. Dried currants placed under water swell and become
spherical owing to the passage of water through their skins.
EXPT. 55. Osmosis. Arrange apparatus as shown in Fig. 329. A is a
glass vessel to which a capillary tube B is attached ; the upper end of Bis open. The lower end of A is closed by a piece of parchment paper (paper
XXII OSMOSIS 305
treated with sulphuric acid). Fill A with a solution of sugar so that the
level of the liquid is a short distance up the tube, and immerse the vessel
in distilled water C, arranging that the liquid levels
inside and outside the tube coincide at first. It
will be found that the surface level inside B moves
upwards with visible velocity, showing that osmotic
flow of the water is taking place through the
diaphragm into A.
Graham divided substances into two classes,
crystalloids, and colloids. Crystalloids include A_|_Q
such substances as glucose, cane sugar, etc.;
when dissolved in water, crystalloids can diffuse
through a parchment, or animal membrane. FIG. 329. Apparatus for
Colloids include SUCh substances as gum,demonstrating osmosis.
starch and albumen ;these either do not diffuse at all, .or at a
very slow rate.
These properties led Graham to devise a method of separating
crystalloids and colloids from a mixed solution. The method is
called dialysis. In Fig. 330, A is a tube having its lower end closed
by a diaphragm of colloidal substance such as parchment paper or
bladder. The mixed solution of crystalloids and colloids is pouredinto A, and the tube is partially immersed in a
vessel of water B. The crystalloids diffuse throughthe membrane into the water and the colloids
remain in A. If the water be changed at intervals,
and sufficient time allowed, it is possible to effect
nearly complete separation of the colloids fromthe crystalloids.
The separation produced by dialysis in this
way is probably due to the sizes of the constituent
particles of crystalloids and of colloids. The view now held is
that a colloid particle is an aggregate of molecules too small to
be visible in a solution to the unaided eye and yet large enoughto affect light and be seen by means of the ultra-microscope.Colloidal solutions may, therefore, be defined as uniform distri-
butions of solids in fluids, which are transparent to ordinary light,
and not separable into their constituents by the action of gravityor by filtration. Euby glass owes its colour to the presence of
gold particles in a colloidal state. In the manufacture of the glass,
gold chloride is added when the glass is in a molten state. If the
glass be cooled quickly, it is colourless, but if it is afterwards heated
up to the point of softening it becomes suddenly ruby red. In the
D.S.P. i. u
FIG. 330. Graham'smethod of dialysis.
306 DYNAMICS CHAP.
coloured glass, the ultra-microscope reveals the presence of colloidal
gold particles, but in the colourless glass none can be seen. Colloidal
gold can be obtained red, purple, blue or green in solutions contain-
ing the same amount of metal, the difference of colour being due to
the difference in the size of the particles, which may vary from 5/*j&
to 20/x/x (/x/x= 10~7
cm.). In recent years much attention has been
given to the subject of colloids both in their scientific and their
industrial aspects, and Gratam's original conception of them has
been extended greatly.
Osmotic pressure. In Expt. 55 if the contents of the outer vessel
be examined, it will be found that some of the dissolved substance
has passed through the membrane. Flow
has thus taken place in both directions
through the membrane. Parchment paperand bladder permit both crystalloids and
water to pass, but there are certain
membranes known, which will permitwater to pass, and stop certain salt solu-
tions. For experimental work the most
convenient material is the gelatinous
precipitate of copper ferrocyanide. This
f material is very weak, and Pfeffer con-
trived a method of precipitating it in
the interior of the walls of a porous
pot, thus producing a continuous film
of sufficient strength for practical work.
In Fig. 331, A is a Pfeffer pot with its
internal film of copper ferrocyanide B. Into the top of the pot is
cemented a glass tube C, which is considerably longer than is shownin Fig. 331. The pot is filled with a dilute solution of salt D, and is
then immersed in a vessel E containing distilled water. Inward flow
of the water takes place through the pot and its internal film, andthe increased bulk of liquid in the pot causes the level to rise in C.
The process goes on until a definite pressure is attained in the pot,as indicated by a steady difference in levels in C and E. Inwardflow has then ceased.
It is evident that had an artificial pressure equal to this final
pressure been applied to the contents of the pot, no flow would have
taken place. This pressure, which depends on the kind of solution
and its strength, is called the osmotic pressure of the solution.
Passage of gases through porous diaphragms. The mode by which
FIG. 331. Pfeffer pot.
xxu FLOW OF GASES THROUGH POROUS PLUGS 307
a gas passes through a porous obstruction depends on the size of the
orifices and the thickness of the obstruction. Thus, if the obstruction
is thin and the orifice is relatively large, the flow of the gas resembles
the flow of a liquid through an orifice in a thin plate (p. 289) and
follows the same laws. If the obstruction is thick and the passage^still fairly large, the flow of the gas resembles that of a liquid througha capillary tube. If the pores are very fine, such as in plates of
plaster of Paris or compressed graphite, the phenomena of flow are
quite different from the other two cases. The passages in such a
plate are of cross sectional dimensions comparable with the size of
the gaseous molecules, and the flow through any one pore may be
regarded as a stream of single molecules following one another in
succession.
The laws of flow in such cases were discovered by Graham, whofound that the volume, measured at standard pressure, of a given
gas passing through a porous plate was directly proportional to the
difference in pressure on the two sides of the plate, arid inversely
proportional to the square root of the molecular weight of the gas.
The molecular weights of hydrogen and oxygen are in the proportion
of 1 to 16; hence, under like conditions of pressure on the two sides
of a porous plate, the rates of flow of hydrogen and oxygen will be
in the proportion of 4 to 1. It therefore follows that, if there be a
mixture of stated proportions of hydrogen and oxygenon one side of a porous plate, the mixture after passing
through the plate will be found to contain a greater
proportion of hydrogen.
EXPT. 56. Diffusion of a gas through a porous plug. In
Fig. 332, A is a glass tube having an enlargement near its
upper end. Above the enlargement there is a thin plate B
of plaster of Paris, and above this again a cork is inserted
temporarily. The tube is then filled with hydrogen, and the
lower end is inserted in a vessel of water D. On with-
drawing the cork C, diffusion of the hydrogen outwards and
of the air inwards takes place through the diaphragm. The
rate of flow of the hydrogen through the porous plate is
much greater than that of the air, on account of its smallerj)iffi2i<n o'fa
molecular weight ; hence it will be observed that the level gas through a
. nl . ,, porous plug.of the water rises rapidly in the tube.
Repeat the experiment, using coal-gas in place of the hydrogen. This
gas is a mixture of gases, several of which have molecular weights more
'
308 DYNAMICS CHAP.
nearly approaching those of the mixture of oxygen and nitrogen of which
the atmosphere is composed. On the whole, however, the molecular
weight of the coal-gas is less than that of the atmosphere, and the flow
outwards is therefore greater than that inwards. Hence the level of the
water rises, but the velocity is less than when hydrogen is used.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XXII.
1. Explain what is meant by the surface tension of a liquid. Givesome instances which illustrate the existence of surface tension.
2. In an experiment for determining the surface tension of water,
performed as directed on p. 298, the breadth of the platinum frame was2-81 cm. The force required to balance the pull of the film, of water wasfound to be 0-422 gram weight. The temperature of the water was 15 C.
Find the surface tension of water at this temperature.
3. A capillary tube having an internal diameter of 0-5 mm. dips verti-
cally into a vessel of water. At what height will the water in the tubestand above the surface level of the water in the vessel ? Take thesurface tension of water to be 73 dynes per cm.
4. Give a brief explanation of the shape of the meniscus in tubes
containing (a) water, (6) mercury.
5. The limbs of a U tube are vertical, and have internal diameters of
5 and 1 mm. respectively. If the tube contains water, what will be thedifference in the surface levels in the limbs ? Take the surface tension of
water to be 72 dynes per cm.
6. A glass tube, 5 mm. in internal diameter, is pushed vertically into
mercury. Take the surface tension of mercury to be 545 dynes per cm.and the angle of contact to be 50. Calculate the difference in level of
the mercury in the tube and that outside the tube.
7. A ring of glass is cut from a tube 7-4 cm. internal and 7-8 external
diameter. This ring, with its lower edge horizontal, is suspended fromthe arm of a balance so that the lower edge is just immersed in a vessel of
water. It is found that an additional weight of 3-62 grams must be placedon the other scale-pan to compensate for the pull of surface tension onthe ring. Calculate in dynes per cm. the value of the surface tension.
Adelaide University.
8. Describe briefly the phenomenon of diffusion in liquids and gases.
Explain clearly why stirring hastens the process of diffusion.
9. A vertical tube 50 cm. long contains carbon dioxide in the lower5 cm. and the remainder of the tube contains air. Diffusion is found to
be completed in 1 hour 20 minutes. Supposing the proportions of the
gases to be the same, in wjiat time would diffusion be completed in a tube10 cm. long ?
10. Give a brief description of the phenomenon of osmosis. Describean experiment for illustrating oamosis.
11. Describe Graham's method of dialysis. Explain the modern con-
ception of a colloidal solution.
xxil EXERCISES 309
12. What is meant by the term osmotic pressure ? Describe how it
may be found for a given salt solution.
13. Describe briefly the methods by which a gas may flow through a
porous substance, with reference to the size of the pores.
14. Describe an experiment to demonstrate that coal-gas diffuses morerapidly than air.
LOGARITHMS.
LOGARITHMS.
ANTILOGARITHMS.
ANTILOGARITHMS.
TKIGONOMETRICAL TABLE.
Angle.
ANSWERS
PART I. DYNAMICS
CHAPTER I. p. n.
1. Miles x 1 -609 = kilometres ; 5-129 kilometres.
2. 9 ft. 7-75 in. 3. 7-298 sq. in.
4. 154 sq. cm. ; 1-54 grams wt. 5. 381-9 cub. in. ; 99-45 pounds.
6. 19,500 Ib. wt. 7. 4,400 sq. cm. 8. 1,200 sq. ft.
9. 17-49 Ib. wt. 10. 3-055 Ib. wt. 11. 8-710 inches.
12. 1-125:0-96:1. 13. 2-347.
CHAPTER II. p. 24.
1. Length of forward reading vernier 1 -2 inches ; vernier has 25 divisions.
Length of backward reading vernier 1 -3 inches ; vernier has 25 divisions.
2. Length of vernier, 59 circle divisions ; vernier has 30 divisions.
3. 20 divisions on thimble scale. 4. 250 divisions.
5. 5-013 cm. 6. 81 -05 cm. 7. 0-0660 mm.
8. 0-288 Ib. wt. per cub. inch. 11. 2-6356 mm.12. 24-467 mm. ; 7,668 cub. mm.
CHAPTER III. p. 37.
3. 49-94 cm. at 19 53' east of north.
4. 3-101 inches at 64 8' to OX. 5. 12-91 ft./sec.
6. 0-729 mile. 7. i mile. .8. 26-67 miles/hour.
9. 32-73 miles/hour. 10. 0-9778 feet/sec.2
11. -0-02778 metre/sec.2 12. - lOd-7 feet /sec.
2
13. 0-447 metres/sec.2 14. 18-75 miles/hour ; 0-0651 mile.
15. 0-2291 mile. 16. 367-1 seconds ; 415-1 seconds.
17. -1-613 feet/sec.2
18. 31-32 metres/sec. ; 3-19 seconds.
19. 98-28 feet/sec. ; 6-104 seconds. 20. 100-6 feet.
21. 101-2 feet. 22. 116-6 feet/sec. ; 204-9 feet.
316 ANSWERS
400 feet ; 181-3 feet/sec, (taking (7-32 feet/sec.2).
1 second ; 48 feet above the ground.
25.
26.
27.
30.
No. of body
ANSWERS 317
22. 64-49 feet/secv at 82 53' to the horizontal.
23.Time, sec.
318 ANSWERS
19. 40 54'; 33-58 pound-feet/sec.
20. (a) 2-236 seconds ; (6) 3-354 seconds (taking g= 32 feet/sec.2).
22. 40 feet/sec. ; 30.
CHAPTER VII. p. 90.
1. 10-58 Ib. wt. at 19 8' to the 8 Ib. force.
2. 6-928 Ib. wt. at 30 to the 8 Ib. force.
b. 1-951 Ib. wt. at 41 13' totlje
resultant.
4. 27 40' between 7 Ib. and 10 Ib. ; 40 32' between 5 Ib. and 10 Ib.
5. 5-292 Ib. wt. ; 48 36'. 6. 3-085 Ib. wt. ; 40 30'.
Angle, degrees
ANSWERS 319
3. 14 Ib. wt., falling between the given forces at 5-143 inches from the 8 Ib. wt.
4. 2 Ib. wt., falling outside the given forces ; of same sense as, and distant
36 inches from the 8 Ib. wt.
5. At 0-667 foot from the pivot, on the side opposite to the 12 Ib. wt.
6. 10-95 inches from A. 7. 1-667 tons wt. ; 0-833 ton wt.
8. 1,425 Ib. wt. ; 3,150 Ib. wt. 9. 20 kilograms at 59-5 cm. from A.
10. 2-309 Ib. wt. at 30 to the vertical ; 1-527 Ib. wt. at 49 6' to the vertical.
11. 2-506 Ib. wt., vertical ; 1-856 Ib. wt. at 47 29' to the vertical.
12. 23-53 Ib. wt. ; 423-53 Ib. wt.
13. Reaction at A = 220 -6 Ib. wt. at 24 56' to the vertical; reaction at
B=93 Ib. wt., horizontal.
14. 96-22 Ib. wt. ; 178-2 Ib. wt. at 32 41' to the vertical.
15. Reaction at A= 2-267 tons wt. ;reaction at B = 25-73 tons wt.
16.Distance from left-hand support, feet
320 ANSWERS
23. The zero mark on FDE is from p . the iength Of graduationJ
corresponding to unit load in the scale pan is c/w ; c=0-25 inch;
24. |s and T7^s, where s=the side of the square.
25. 22 37'. 26. 83-6 inches.
CHATTER X. p. 136.
1. Two opposing couples ;a force of 400 Ib. wt. along each long edge ; a force
of 133-3 Ib. wt. along each short edge.
2. Top hinge, upward pull of 75 Ib. wt. away from the door at 36 52' to the
vertical ; bottom hinge, upward push of 75 Ib. wt. towards the door
at 36 52' to the vertical.
3. A vertical force of 5 tons wt. in the axis, and a couple of 40 ton inches.
4. 112,000 Ib. wt. acting vertically at the centre of the base, and a coupleof 186,700 Ib.-feet.
5. 20 Ib. wt. at B, at 30 to AB produced.
6. The system reduces to a couple, having a moment represented by 2AA BC.
7. R= 2-828 Ib. wt., at 45 to the sides of the square, and acting at a point2 feet from CD produced and 3 feet from AD produced.
8. 36-96 Ib. wt. at A, at 23 6' to the vertical ; 14-5 Ib. wt. at B, horizontal.
9. 825-3 Ib. wt. at B ; 950-2 Ib. wt. at A, at 62 10' to the horizontal.
10.
11.
6, degrees
ANSWERS 321
15. 2-828 Ib. wt., parallel to CA and passing through a point on CD producedat twice the side of the square from D.
16. 10-65 feet from the end having the rope inclined at 60.
17. Reaction =|W, horizontal. 19. 22-66 Ib. wt.
20. /W/2a; Wv/4a2^J2/2a.
21. 5 Ib. wt. ; 5-176 Ib. wt. compression ; 4-226 Ib. wt. tension 2-887 Ib. wt.
tension.(
5. 7 = 14-43 Ib. wt. ; R^= 14-43 Ib. wt. ; R^ = Ib. wt.
25.Bar
322 ANSWERS
10.Bar
ANSWERS 323
19. R A =50 Ib. wt. ; R R = 40 Ib. wt.
Distance from A, ft. -
324 ANSWERS
5. 32 ; 27-5 ; 90 Ib. wt. ; 85-9 per cent.
6. 48 ; 936 Ib. wt. ; 31-2; 504 Ib. wt.
7. 3,140 degrees ; 187,900 inch-lb. 8. 18-75 Ib. wt.; 100 per cent.
9. Neglecting friction, 40 Ib. wt ; taking account of friction. 74-3 Ib. wt.
10. P =1VW+ 7-jj ; 18 Ib. wt. ; 29-5 per cent.
W12. P= /2W -1\
V 2" /' wner*w; = tne weight of each pulley, w=the number
of pulleys, and friction is neglected ; 161 Ib. wt. ; 160 Ib. wt., assumingthat there is no fixed pulley attached to the beam.
13. 377-1; 93-33
; 24-75 per cent. 14. 12-37 per cent.
15. Work done = W(H + yuB) ; mechanical advantage = L/2H.
16. Mechanical advantage, neglecting friction =number of ropes passing fromthe upper to the lower block ; n.p. =11-07.
CHAPTER XV. p. 213.
1. 260-3 Ib.-feet. 2. 25,143,000 dyne-cm.
3. 45-96 pound and foot units.
4. (a) 0-1778 ; (6) 4-8; (c) 1-2 ; all in pound and foot units.
5. (a) 0-364 ; (6) 0-182 ; (c) 0-546 ; all in pound and foot units.
6. (a) 0-5625 ; (b) 0-2812 ; (c) 1-406 ; (d) 1-687 ; (e) 0-8437 ; all in pound andfoot units.
7. (a) 2 ; (6) 4-5 ; (c) 0-5 ; (d) 1-125 ; (e) 1-625 ; (/) 6-5 ; all in pound andfoot units.
8. 859-2 pound and foot units. 9. 21,270 pound and foot units.
10. 23-57 ; 82-49 ; both in pound and foot units.
11. 6-78 ton-feet. 12. 12-49 pound and foot units.
13. 7,071 pound, foot and sec. units ; 0-366 Ib.-feet.
14. 2-514 pound, foot and sec. units ; 1042 revs./min.
15. 166,000 foot-lb. ; 1,660 foot-lb.
16. (a) 8-31 foot-lb. ; (6) 9-62 foot-lb. ; (c) 17-93 foot-lb.
17. Kinetic energy of translation =2 -325 foot-lb.; kinetic energy of rota-
tion =1-163 foot-lb.
18. 1-872 feet/sec.2
; 7-488 radians/sec.2
19. A reaches the bottom first. 20. x =6 -03 inches ; y6-Qo inches.
21. 2?r2n.2I absolute units
; 16-3 pound and foot units.
22. 0-69 N/gr radians/sec. 23. 18-33 feet.
26. 122,500 pound and foot units; 4,900 pounds,
ANSWERS 325
CHAPTER XVI. p. 230.
1. 1,325 lb. wt. 2. 3,270 Ib. wt. 3. 16-7 poundals.
4. 230 Ib.-feet. 5. 1-691 tons wt. ; 7-971 tons wt. ; 12-029 tons wt.
6. 49 33'. 7. 19 39' ; 64-2 lb. wt. ; 0-357.
8. 20-95 feet/sec. ; 438-8 feet/sec.2
9. 0-2319 second ; 18-45 cm. ; 13,550 cm./sec.2
10. 0-2038 foot ; 8-64 seconds gain per day.
11. 7-211 inches ; 0-5882 radian.
12.Revs. /rain.
326 ANSWERS
CHAPTER XVIII. p. 255.
3. 333-2 grams wt./sq. cm. 4. 4,693 Ib. wt./ sq. inch.
5. 156 and 260 Ib. wt./sq. foot.
7. 2-544 feet ; 15-01 Ib. wt./sq. inch. 8. 34 feet.
10. 1,000 Ib. wt. ; 500 Ib. wt. ; 250 Ib. wt.
11. 4,978 Ib. <wt. . 12. 4,563 Ib. wt.
13. 15,000 Ib.-wt. ; 15,910 Ib. wt. ; 9,000 Ib. wt.
14. 1,000 Ib. wt. ; 37,500 Ib. wt.
15. 6,154 grams wt. 16. 1-113 Ib. wt. ; 1-855 Ib. wt.
17. AB, 1,125 Ib. wt. ; BC, 1,299 Ib. wt. ; end, 162-4 Ib. wt. ; depth, 1-5 feet.
18. 16,500 Ib. wt. ; 2-06 feet below the top of the door.
19. 1,963 Ib. wt. at a depth of 10-02 feet.
20. 450 Ib. wt. ; 495 Ib. wt. ; 45 Ib. wt. at a depth of 2 feet.
21. 22,500 Ib. wt. ; 3-27 feet.
22. 52,500 Ib. wt. ; 22,780 Ib. wt. ; 57,220 Ib. wt. at 23 27' to the vertical ;
12-23 feet from B.
23. 16,875 Ib. wt. at 3-8 feet from the bottom.
24. ml/P; m/ll2
; ml2/l
2; 14-51 Ib. wt./sq. inch.
25. 20-83 Ib. wt. 26. 21,600 Ib. wt. ; 33,250 Ib. wt. 27. 3,633 Ib. wt.
CHAPTER XIX. p. 271.
1. 356 Ib. wt. 2. 56,340 Ib. wt. ; 40,570 Ib. wt. ; 27,045 Ib. wt.
3. 56-25 ; 3,142 Ib. wt. ; 176,700 Ib. wt.
4. 2,765 foot-lb. 5. 71-6 gallons per hour.
6. (a) 100,800 foot-lb.; (b) 1,613 foot-lb. ; 806,500 foot-lb.
7. 294,300 ergs. 8. 926 Ib. wt./sq. inch.
9. 26,950 Ib. wt.; 5,544 cubic inches ; 323,400 foot-lb.
10. 4,950 Ib. wt. ; 59,400 foot-lb.
11. 4-725 horse-power ; 3-071 horse-power.
12. 164-6 Ib. wt./sq. inch. 13. 1,636 c.c. 14. 9-67 inches.
15. 2,567 cubic feet. 16. 1,153 Ib. wt. 17. 42-5 feet.
18. 4-036 inches ; 2,045 Ib. wt.
CHAPTER XX. p. 283.
1. 11,160 tons wt. ; 390,600 cubic fort. 2. 286-7 sq. feet.
3. 8,270 Ib. wt. 4. 7-454 Ib. wt. 5. 3-555 Ib. wt.
7. 8-23. 8. 0-0289 Ib. wt. 9. 7-68.
ANSWERS 327
10. 1,166 cubic inches ; 28-12 Ib. wt. 11. 7-00.
12. 1-807 Ib. wt. 13. 173-7 tons wt. 14. 8-59; 0-2167.
15. 8-76; 135-9 cm. 16. 8-69. 17. 1-2 cm.
18. 23-53 cm. 19. 0-864 ; 0-8698. 23. 27-2 cubic inches,
CHAPTER XXI. p. 295.
4. 85-37 foot-lb.
6. (a) 40 ; 33-9 ; 0-559 ; (6) 6; 67-9 ; 0-559 ; all in foot-lb.
7. 9-33 Ib. wt./sq. inch. 9. 12-5 Ib. wt./sq. inch.
11. 24-07 feet/sec. ; 23-3 feet/sec.
12. 0-0262 cubic feet/sec.
13. 15-57 feet/sec. ; 0-8 inch; 0-0543 cubic feet/sec.
14. 45,000 Ib. wt. ; 17-72 horse-power.
16. 146,400 foot-lb.; 213 horse-power.
CHAPTER XXII. p. 308.
2. 73-7 dynes/cm. 3. 5-958 cm. 5. 2-35 mm.
6. 2-10 mm. 7. 74-3 dynes/cm. 9. 3-2 minutes.
INDEX
Absolute units of force, 8, 67.
Acceleration, 30.
and couple, Angular, 199.
and force, Law for, 67.
Angular, 53, 55-57, 60, 199, 200.
Composition and resolution of, 44.
due to gravitation, 34.
Equations for uniform, 33.
in circular motion, 45-47.
Linear, 30-37, 44-47.
Relation of linear and angular, 55.
Varying, 36.
Acceleration-time diagrams, 30-32.
Accumulator, Hydraulic, 266.
Air-vessel for pumps, 271.
Amplitude of vibration, 220.
Angle, of resistance, Limiting, 176.
of sliding friction, 175.
of twist, 159.
Angles, Measurement of, 15.
Angular, acceleration, 53, 55-57, 60,
199, 200.
momentum, 205, 206.
motion, Equation of, 55-57.
Angular velocity, 53, 55-63.
Relative, 61.
Representation of, 53.
Uniform, 53, 55.
Varying, 60.
Archimedes, Principle of, 275.
Areas, Measurement of, 21-23.
Attraction, Law of gravitational, 6.
Attwood's machine, 71.
Average resistance to motion, 171.
Balance, Common, 7, 119-121.
Spring, 7.
Truth and sensitiveness of, 119-121.
Use of, 21.
Ballistic pendulum, 240.
Banking of roads and railways, 218,219.
Barometer, 259.
Beams, 102, 107, 143, 159-164.
Bending moment in, 160.
Bending of, 159.
Deflection of, 163.
Nature of stresses, in, 160.
Reactions of, 102, 107, 143.
Shearing force in, 160.
Belts, Driving by, 57, 179.
Bending moment, 160-163.Bernoulli's theorem, 288.
Blow, Average force of, 72.
Body, 3.
Bow's notation, 80.
Boyle's law, 269.
Bramah press, 262.Bulk modulus, 156.
Buoyancy, 274.
Calipers, 13.
Cantilever, 160.
Capillary elevation, 299-301.Central force, 217.
Centre, Instantaneous, 62.
Centre of gravity, 106-119.
by experiment, 119.
Calculation of, 109-113.
Graphical methods, 115-117.
Centre, of mass, 198.
of parallel forces, 106.
of pressure, 253.
Centrifugal force, 217-219.on vehicles, 218.
Centrifugal, governors, 227-229.
pumps, 295.
Centripetal force, 217.
Circular path, Motion in, 45-47, 217-
219.
Coefficient of friction, 173-177.
Collision, 233-241.Colloidal solutions, 305.
Colloids, 305.
Components of a force, 81, 82.
Compounding of vibrations, 225.
INDEX 329
( 'Ompressivc stress, 153.
Concurrent forces, 7(>-!)o.
Concurrent forces not in same plane,85.
Conservation, of energy, 170.
of momentum, 239.
Couple, Equilibrant of a, 125-127.
Moment of a, 125.
Couples, 99, 125-129.
Couples and forces, Substitution of,
127, 128.
Composition of, 127.
Crab, 184, 186-189.
Critical velocity in liquids, 287.
Crystalloids, 305.
Density, 4.
and specific gravity, Relation of,
277.
Derrick crane, 89.
Dialysis, 305.
Diffusion of gases, 303, 304, 307.
of liquids, 302.
through porous plugs, 307.
Dimensions of a quantity, 5.
Displacement, 28, 29.
from graph. Total, 37.
Polygon of, 28, 29.
Triangle of, 28, 29.
Displacement-time graphs, 30, 32.
Dock gates, 254.
Ductility, 155.
Dynamics, 3.
Dyne, 8, 67.
Efficiency of machines, 185.
Elastic limit, 155.
Elasticity, 154-164.
modulus of, 155, 156, 158, 164.
Energy, 170.
Conservation of, 170.
Hydraulic transmission of, 263-
267.
Kinetic, 170, 171, 206-208, 210-212,287.
Energy, of a liquid, Pressure, 263.
Total, 287-289.
of rotation, Kinetic, 206-208, 210-
212.
Potential, 170, 287.
wasted in impact, 235.
Engines, Hydraulic, 267.
Equilibrant, 79.
Equilibrium, 78.
Positions of, 117.
States of, 113-115.
Falling bodies, 34-36.
Floating bodies, 274-277.
Floating dock, 276.
Flotation, Stability of, 275.
Fluids, 244:
in motion, 286-295.Normal stress in, 244.
Flywheel, Acceleration of, 204.Kinetic energy of, 210-212.
Force, 3.
Centrifugal, 217.
Components of, 81, 82.
Impulse of, 73.
mass and acceleration, Relation of,
67.
Moment of, 94.
Rectangular components of, 81.
Specification of, 76.
Time average of, 72.
Transmission of, 76.
Units of, 7, 67, 68.
Forces, Analysis of uniplanar, 129-136.
and angles, Relation of, 81.
Equilibrium of uniplanar, 131.
Graphical solutions of uniplanar,140.
Impulsive, 72.
in same straight line, 78.
Parallel, 97-103, 106, 141.
Parallelogram of, 77.
Polygon of, 85.
Resultant of parallel, 141.
Resultant of uniplanar, 130.
Systems of uniplanar, 129-136,140-150.
Systems of uniplanar concurrent,76-90.
Triangle of, 78, 79.
Frames, Rigid, 144-148.
Free surface of a liquid, 248.
Frequency, 222.
Friction, 173-180.
angle, 176.
in machines, 184, 185.
of dry surfaces, 173, 174.
of rope coiled round post, 178.
on inclined planes, 175, 177, 178.
Fundamental units, 3.
g, Determination of, 229.
g, Variations in, 35.
Gases, Relation of p, v, in, 269.
Governors, Centrifugal, 227-229.
Gram, The, 4.
Graphs for rectilinear motion, 30-32.
330 INDEX
Gravitation, 6.
Gravitational units of force, 7.
Gyration, Radius of, 204.
Harmonic motion, Simple, 220-224.Head, Pressure stated in, 247.Helical blocks, 192.
Hoisting tackle, 190-193.Hooke's law, 155.
Horse-power, 172.
transmitted by belt, 179.
Hydraulic, accumulator, 266.
engine, 267.
lift, 267.
press, 262.
pump, 266.
Hydrometer, Nicholson's, 280.Variable immersion, 279.
Immersed, body, Force on, 275.
plates, Total force on, 250-252.
Impact, 233.
of a jet, 238.
of imperfectly elastic spheres,237.
of inelastic bodies, Direct, 234.of perfectly elastic bodies, 235.of sphere on plane, 237.
Impulse, 72.
Impulsive forces, 72.
Inclined planes, 82, 83.
Inertia, 66.
Moment of, 200-204.
Rotational, 199.
Instantaneous centre, 62.
Inverse square law, Gravitational, 6.
Kinematics, 3.
Kinetic energy, 170, 171.of rotation, 206-208.
Kinetics, 3.
Levers, Principle of work applied to,
Link polygon, 140.
Liquid, Resultant force exerted bv252.
Liquids, Common surface of, 301.in motion, 286.
Loaded cords, 149.
Loci of moving points, 27.
Longitudinal, strain, 153.
Machines, 184-195.
Effect of friction in, 185.
-Machines, Efficiency of, 185, 186.
Experiments on, 186-189.
Hydraulic, 262, 265-268.Mechanical advantage of, 185.
Velocity ratio of, 185, 190-195.
Mass, Centre of, 198.
Units of, 4.
Mathematical formulae, 8-11.
Matter, 3.
Mechanical advantage, 185.
Mensuration, Rules of, 8-9.
Metacentre, 275.
Metre, The, 3.
Micrometer, 16.
microscope, 20.
Moduli of elasticity, 155-159, 164.
Moment, of a couple, 125.
of a force, 94.
of inertia, 200-204.of momentum, 205.
Representation of, 94.
Moments, of component and resultant95.
of parallel forces, 99.
Principle of, 96.
Momentum, 68.
Angular, 205.
Conservation of, 239.in impact, 233.
Motion, Average resistance duringchange of, 171.
in a jet, 47.
in a circular path, 45.
in fluids, Steady and unsteady,286.
Newton's laws of, 66-73.of a point, 26-34.of a projectile, 48, 49.
of rotation, 53-63, 198-213.of rotation, Transmission of, 57-60.
Rectilinear, 26.
Uniplanar, 26.
Neutral layer, 160.
Newton's laws of motion, 66-73.
Orifices, Discharge of liquid through,289-291.
Osmosis, 304.
Osmotic pressure, 306.
Overturning, Conditions of, 114, 115,176, 177.
Parallel forces, 97-103, 106, 107, 141,142, 143.
Centre of, 106.
INDEX 331
Parallel forces, Moments of, 99.
Resultant of any number of, 101,
141.
Resultant of two, 97.
Parallelogram, of forces, 77, 78, 81,
82.
of velocities, 41, 42.
Pendulum, Ballistic, 240.
Conical, 226-229.
Forces in a, 87.
Simple, 224.
Pelton wheel, 294.
Period of vibration, 221.
Pivot, Reaction of a, 100.
Planimeter, 22.
Plastic state, 155.
Polygon, Link, 140.
of displacements, 29.
of forces, 85, 88-90.
Pontoon, 276.
Porus diaphragms, 306.
Potential energy, 170.
Pound, The, 4.
Poundal, The, 8.
Power, 172.
Units of, 172.
Pressure, Centre of, 253.
diagrams, Fluid, 254.
energy of a liquid, 263-265.in a liquid, 245-248, 249.in atmospheres, 247.
of a fluid, 245.
of a gas, 268.
of the atmosphere, 259.
on free liquid surface, Gaseous, 260.
on stream lines, 287.
Osmotic, 306.
produced by a piston, 261.
Principle, of moments, 96.
of work, 184.
Projectile, Motion of a, 48.
Pulleys, 190, 191.
Pump, Hydraulic, 266.
Pumps, Centrifugal, 295.
Force, 271.
Lift, 269.
Radius of gyration, 204.
Reaction, 69, 76, 77.
of a pivot, 100.
of a loaded beam, 102, 107, 143.
Rectilinear, motion, Equations for,
33-35.
Relative, angular velocity, 61.
velocity, 43.
velocity, Determination of, 43.
Reservoir wall, 255.
Restitution, Coefficient of, 234, 239.
Resultant, displacement, 28.
force, 76.
of concurrent forces, 78, 84, 85.
of parallel forces, 97, 101, 141.
of uniplanar forces, 129, 130.
Rigid frames, 144-148.
Rigidity modulus, 157.
Rolling wheel, 63.
Energy of, 207.
on incline, 208-210, 212.Roof truss, Forces in, 147, 148.
Rotating, body, Velocities of points in,
61.
Rotational inertia, 199.
Routh's rule, 203.
Scalar quantities, 28.
Scales, 13.
Screw, Differential, 194.
Screw-gauge, 16.
Screw-jack, 194.
Screws, 193-195.
Second, The, 4.
Second moment of area, 253.
Shear stress, 153.
Shearing force, 160.
strain, 154.
Simple harmonic motion, 220-224.
Siphon, 289.
Slider-crank mechanism, 27, 62.
Slotted-bar mechanism, 223.
Specific gravity, 277-283.
bottle, 278.
Determination of, 278-283.
of mixtures, 282.
Relative, 281.
Speed, 29.
Spherometer, 18.
Spring balance, 7.
Statics, 3.
Strain, 153.
Stream lines, 286, 287.
Stress, 77, 153.
Coinpressivre, shearing and tensile^
77.
Submarine boat, 276.
Surface tension, 298.
Tables, see p. ix.
Tensile stress, 153.
Toothed wheels, 58.
Torsion, 158.
of a wire, 159.
332 INDEX
Translation, and rotation, Energy of,
207, 208.
Pure, 198.
Transmissibility of force, 76.
Triangle of displacements, 29.
of forces, 78, 79-81, 82, 83, 87, 88.
of velocities, 41.
Trigonometrical formulae, 9-11.
Turbines, Hydraulic, 292-296.
Units of force, 7, 67.
of length, area and volume, 3.
of mass, 4.
Variations in g, 35.
Vector quantities, 28.
Vehicles on curves, 218, 219.
Velocities, Composition and resolution
of, 41.
Parallelogram of. 41.
Triangle of, 41.
Velocity, 29.
Angular, 53.
changed in direction, 44.
Rectangular components of, 42.
Relation of linear and angular,54.
Relative, 43, 61.
Uniform, 29.
Variable, 29.
ratio, 185.
Velocity-time graph, General case, 36.
Vernier calipers, 16.
protractor, 15.
Verniers, 14.
Vibration, Amplitude of, 220.
Frequency of, 222.
of different phase, 225.
Simple harmonic, 220.
Vibrations, compounding of, 225.Volumetric strain, 154.
Volumes, Measurement of, 13, 17,
Water-turbines, 292-294.
Water-wheels, 292.
Waves, Combination of two harmonic225.
Weighing, 20.
Weight, 6.
Variation of, 6.
Weston's blocks, 192.
Wheel and differential axle, 192.
Wires, Elastic stretching of, 157.
Work, 167-170.
in elevating a body, 168.
Principle of, 184.
Representation of, 169.
Units of, 168.
Yard, The, 4.
Young's modulus, 156.
by bending, 164.
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