the association between family structures and depressive ... ritgerd ske… · association between...

The association between family structures and depressive symptoms among children

Sunneva Reynisdóttir

2016 BSc in Psychology

Author: Sunneva Reynisdóttir ID number: 150992-2229 Department of Psychology School of Business

FAMILY STRUCTURE, GENDER AND DEPRESSED MOOD 2

Foreword

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the BSc Psychology degree, Reykjavik

University, this thesis is presented in the style of an article for submission to a peer-reviewed

journal.


Abstract - English

The aim of this study was to examine whether family structures affected children’s depressed

mood when time spent with parents was controlled as a covariate variable. It was also

examined whether different family structures had an effect on depressed mood and whether it

varied by gender. A random sample of 2075 participants was drawn from the population-

wide cross-sectional data from the 2015 “Youth in Iceland” study. The participants were

students in 5th, 6th and 7th grade. The results showed gender difference, with boys having

lower depressed mood than girls, irrespective of family structure. The results indicate that

those who live in a single parent household show a more depressed mood than those who live

in intact families and shared physical household. There were a significant main effects

between family structure and depressed mood when controlling for time spent with parents.

Keywords: Family structure, gender, depressed mood, intact family, shared physical

custody, single parent household

Abstract - Icelandic

Markmið rannsóknarinnar var að kanna hvort að fjölskyldumynstur hefði áhrif á

depurðareinkenni barna á meðan tíma með foreldrum var stjórnað sem stjórnbreytu. Einnig

var skoðað hvort mismunandi fjölskyldumynstur hefði áhrif á depurð og hvort það væri

mismunandi eftir kyni. Í rannsókninni voru notuð fyrirliggjandi gögn frá Rannsóknum og

greiningu úr þýðisrannsókn þeirra “Ungt fólk” frá árinu 2015. Notast var við tilviljunarkennt

úrtak sem samanstóð af 2075 þátttakendum sem voru nemendur í 5., 6. og 7.bekk í

grunnskólum á Íslandi. Niðurstöður leiddu í ljós að munur var á milli kynja þar sem strákar

höfðu færri depurðareinkenni heldur en stelpur í öllum þremur fjölskyldumynstrum.

Niðurstöður sýndu að börn sem búa hjá einstæðu foreldri höfðu fleiri depurðareinkenni

heldur en þau börn sem búa í kjarnafjölskyldu og jafnt til skiptis hjá foreldri. Að lokum sýndu

niðurstöður marktækan mun á milli fjölskyldumynsturs og depurðareinkenna þegar samvera

með foreldrum var stjórnað.

Lykilorð: Fjölskyldumynstur, kyn, depurðareinkenni, kjarnafjölskylda, jöfn búseta,

einstætt foreldri


Association between family structures on depressive symptoms

Depressive symptoms and gender difference

There is indication that one of the most prevalent mental health problems among

adolescents is increased depressive symptoms (Dayananda & Pillai, 2014). In recent years

depression has increased significantly among adolescents and threatens their mental health

and wellbeing (Mahmoud, Staten, Hall, & Lennie, 2012). Children with depression often

show a lack of interest in activities that they previously enjoyed, they criticize themselves,

and are pessimistic or hopeless about the future. Depressed children can feel sad or irritable

and tend to lack energy and have problems with sleep (Hazell, 2002). Research has shown a

gender difference in the frequency of depressive symptoms, with the gender difference first

appearing in the age range eleven to fourteen years old (Kessler, 2003). At that time, the

frequency of depression seems to increase more with girls than boys. It is estimated that from

early adolescence to adulthood women are twice as likely to experience depression as men

(Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).

A study by Genuchi and Mitsunaga (2015) showed no gender difference in depressive

symptoms, but a number of other researchers have shown a difference between genders

(Avison & McAlpine, 1992; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001). It is suggested that women have a

lower threshold when evaluating depressive symptoms (Piccinelli, 2000). Research by

Avison and Mcalpine (1992) found that gender difference in depressive symptoms might be

due to higher levels of self-esteem among men. However, it was also suggested that other

psychosocial resources and the relationship between parent and child contribute to gender

difference in depressive symptoms.

Depressive symptoms, family structure and time spent with parents

The traditional family structure has undergone a period of increased social change

over the last fifty years. The nuclear family with a mother, father and their children is


becoming less common, with a growing number of single-parent families and stepfamilies

(Mangleburg, Grewal, & Bristol, 1999). Following these social changes there has been much

debate about which living arrangements are best for children’s wellbeing (Lee, 2002; Levin

& Currie, 2010). Some advocates focus on children’s need for stability with one dominant

parent, while other advocates focus on children’s need to have a relationship with both

parents (Lee, 2002). Joint custody has increased significantly since the 1970s. Joint custody

is an arrangement that refers to shared physical custody, where children spend equal time

with both parents or shared legal custody, where children have primary residence with one

parent (Bauserman, 2002). Shared physical custody promotes children to maintain a close

and good relationship with both parents (Bauserman, 2002; Carlsund, Eriksson, & Sellström,

2013).

Researchers has suggested that living with both parents is a better environment for

children’s development than living with a single parent (Amato & Keith, 1991; Chiappori &

Weiss, 2007; Manning & Lamb, 2003). Other researchers maintain that children living with

single parents experience less wellbeing than children living with two biological parents

(Brown, 2004; Nævdal & Thuen, 2004). It has also been suggested that living in two different

homes can increase stress and have a detrimental effect on the social network of the children.

It has been assumed that living in two homes requires a lot of flexibility from children,

especially if parents live far away from each other. In spite of these findings, some studies

show no association between wellbeing and custody arrangement (Kline, Tschann, Johnston

& Wallerstein, 1989; Sodermans & Matthijs, 2014).

Children who communicate regularly with their parents seem to experience greater

wellbeing and closeness to both parents, not depending on where they live (Amato & Keith,

1991; Kelly, 2007). Social support from the family has been shown to predict depressive

symptoms (Romero, Riggs, & Ruggero, 2015). Adolescents with depressive symptoms


experience less support from parents and have more disputes with their parents than children

who do not experience depressive symptoms (Sheeber, Davis, Leve, Hops, & Tildesley,

2007). Frequency of contact with parents does not predict the quality of contact. When

children feel loved and cared for by their parents, their sense of emotional safety increases.

Emotional safety helps children to cope with stress and reduces the risk of developing

depression (Amato & Gilbreth, 1999).

Children in single parent families are considered to spend less time with their parents

than children in two parent families (Sandberg & Hofferth, 2001). A study by Asmussen and

Larson (1991) supported this assumption, showing that adolescents who live with single

mothers spent 20% fewer daily non-school hours with parents than those who live in two

parent families.

This study was designed to investigate whether family structure affected children’s

depressed mood when time spent with parents was controlled as a covariate variable. It also

examined whether different family structure affected depressed mood and whether it varied

by gender. Different forms of family structure were divided into three groups: children living

with both parents, children living in shared physical custody and children living with a single

parent. The hypotheses are that: 1) Girls report higher levels of depressive symptoms than

boys in all family structures. 2) Boys and girls who live in a single parent household

experience higher level of depressive symptoms than those living with both parents. 3) Boys

and girls who live in a single parent households experience a higher level of depressive

symptoms than those who live in shared physical custody. 4) There is a significant effect of

family structure on depressed mood when controlling for time spent with parents.


Method

Participants

The data, which was used to estimate family structure and children´s depressed mood,

came from the Icelandic survey “Youth in Iceland 2015”. In the total sample there were valid

responses from 10917 students, in 5th to 7th grade, with a response rate of 85.5% of potential

participants. There were 5454 girls and 5392 boys, and 71 students did not disclose their

gender. This study used a random sample with a total of 4028 students, 1999 boys and 2029

girls, and 25 students did not disclose their gender. In 5th grade there were 1396 students, in

6th grade were 1341, and 1273 in 7th grade. Responses from 43 students were not

categorized by grades. Because of the varying size of groups of family structure it was

decided to take a random sample of 998 from the intact family group. The total sample

contained 2075 participants, 1066 boys and 1004 girls, and 5 students did not disclose their

gender. In 5th grade were 693 students, in 6th grade were 697, and 673 in 7th grade.

Responses from 12 students were not categorized by grades.

Instrument and Measures

The measuring instrument was a questionnaire that contained 55 questions relating to

life and living conditions. The questionnaire was developed by the Icelandic Center for

Social Research and Analysis (ICSRA) (Margrét Lilja Guðmundsdóttir et al., 2015). The

questions used in the present study focused on family structure, depressed mood and time

spent with parents (see appendix A, p 20-21). Students in 5th, 6th and 7th grade in

elementary schools in Iceland participated in the survey. Four variables were used in this

study. The independent variables were different forms of custody and gender. The dependent

variable was depressed mood. The covariate variable was time spent with parents.

Family structure. Family structure was measured with the question: “Who lives in

your home?”. The responses were split into three groups: children who live with both parents


(intact family), children who live alternately with their parents (shared physical custody), and

children who live with one parent (single parent). The data included 998 children living in an

intact family situation and those were coded 1. There were 466 living in a shared physical

custody and were coded 2. The data also contained information about 611 children living

with either a mother or a father and those were coded 3.

Time spent with parents. To measure time spent with parents, the participants were

asked how well the following statements applied to them: “How often do you spend time

with your parents outside school time on a weekday” and “how often do you spend time with

your parents during weekends”. The response scales were: 0 (Never), 1 (almost never), 2

(seldom), 3 (sometimes) and 4 (often). The scale for each response was reduced from the

original data from 1-5 down to 0-4. Answers were combined into a scale from 0-8, with

Cronbach’s 𝛼 = .46.

Gender. To measure gender the participants were asked whether they were a boy or a

girl. The response scales were 1 (boy) and 2 (girl).

Depressed mood. To measure depressed mood, participants were asked how often

they experienced the following statements in the last seven days: “You were sad or showed

little interest in doing things”, “you had low appetite”, “you felt lonely”, “you cried easily or

you wanted to cry”, “you had difficulties falling to sleep or staying asleep”. The response

scales were: 0 (never), 1 (almost never), 2 (seldom), 3 (sometimes), 4 (often). Higher scores

represent a higher level of depressive symptoms. The scale for each response was reduced

from the original data from 1-5 down to 0-4. Answers were combined into a scale from 0-20,

with Cronbach’s 𝛼 = .80.

Procedure

The questionnaires were sent to all elementary schools in Iceland, where teachers

submitted them to the students. All students who attended class the day of the survey


participated in the research. With each questionnaire there was an unmarked envelope where

students were to place their questionnaire when they had finished. Participants were not to

write their name or identification number on questionnaires or the envelopes so it would be

impossible to trace the answers to individual students. Participants were asked to answer all

the questions the best they could, and ask for help if they needed it. A letter was sent home to

the parents notifying them of the conduct of the survey. The parents let the school know if

their child was not to participate in the survey. The ICSRA was authorized by Data

Protection Authorities to conduct the research because the participants were under age.

Statistical analysis

The software SPSS was used to analyze the data in this study. The two-way factorial

ANOVA was used to examine whether the effects of various family structures on depressed

mood were varied by gender. The two-way factorial ANOVA was also used to examine

whether family structure and gender had an effect on the depressed mood. The ANCOVA

(analysis of covariance) was used to examine whether family structure affected depressed

mood while time spent with parents was set as a covariate variable.

Results

Table 1 shows the descriptive statistic for the categorical variables in this study. The

table includes the number of participants and the percentage for groups in family structure

and gender.


Table 1 Descriptive statistic for variables used Variables N Percent (%)

Gender 2070 100 %

Boys 1066 51.5 %

Girls 1004 48.5 %

Family structure 2075 100 %

Who live in your home 2075

I live with both parents 998 48.1 %

I live alternately with both parents 466 22.5 %

I live mostly with my mom, not dad 395 19 %

I live mostly with my dad, not mom 51 2.5 %

I live with my mom and her partner 149 7.2 %

I live with my dad and his partner 16 0.8 %

Table 2 includes the mean, standard deviation and number of participants for the

dependent variable and the covariate variable.

Table 2

Descriptive statistic for variables used

Variables Range N M SD

Depressed mood 0-20 1964 4.34 4.50

Time spent with parents 0-8 2060 6.83 1.30

Table 3 shows the descriptive statistics for family structure by gender. Girls who live

in single parent households had the highest mean levels of depressed mood. Boys who live in

an intact family had the lowest mean level of depressed mood. Girls showed higher mean

levels compares to boys in all family structures.


Table 3

Descriptive statistics showing mean levels of depressed mood, standard deviation and

number in each group, by family structure and gender

Family structure N Mean Std. deviation

Boys Intact family 478 3.41 3.78

Shared physical custody 233 3.67 3.99

Single parent 295 4.85 4.61

Total 1006 3.89 4.13

Girls Intact family 473 4.35 4.67

Shared physical custody 200 5.02 4.92

Single parent 282 5.46 4.94

Total 955 4.82 4.83

To test the effects of the independent variables on the dependent variable a two-way

ANOVA was used. Gender showed significant main effects on depressed mood, F(1, 1955) =

20.818, p < .001, η2 = .011. Family structure showed significant main effects on depressed

mood, F(2, 1955) = 14.808, p < .001, η2 = .015. There was no interaction effect between

gender and family structure on depressed mood, F(2, 1955) = .862, p = .422, η2 = .001. The

Bonferroni post hoc test was used to see if there were any differences between groups of

family structure on depression. The Bonferroni post hoc test indicates there is a significant

difference between two groups of family structure on depressed mood. Those who live in an

intact family showed less depressed mood than those who live in single parent household (p

< .001). Those who live in shared physical custody showed less depressed mood than those

who live in single parent household (p = .013).

Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to examine the effects of family

structure and gender on depressed mood when controlling for time spent with parents as a


covariate variable. The covariate, time spent with parents, was significantly related to

depressed mood, F(1, 1942) = 29.095, p < .001, η2 = 015. There was a significant effect of

gender on depressed mood after controlling for the effect of time spent with parents, F(1,

1942) = 22.463, p < .001, η2 = .011. There was also a significant effect of family structure on

depressed mood after controlling for the effect of time spent with parents, F(2, 1942) =

12.124, p < .001, η2 = .012. The b-value for the covariate variable was negative so the

covariate and the outcome variable have a negative relationship. That means that more time

with parents decreases the depressive symptoms.

Table 4 shows the mean levels for the independent variables, family structure and

gender, on depressed mood after controlling for time spent with parents. Those who live in

single parents households had higher mean levels on depressed mood than those who live in

intact families and in shared physical custody. Girls had higher mean levels on depressed

mood compared to boys.

Table 4

Mean levels and 95% Confidence Interval for the independent variables

95% CI_____ Lower Upper Mean Bound Bound

Family structure Intact family 3.91 3.63 4.19

Shared physical custody 4.37 3.96 4.79

Single parent 5.07 4.71 5.43

Gender Boys 3.95 3.67 4.24

Girls 4.95 4.65 5.25


Figure 1. Estimated marginal means for depressed mood by family structure and gender.

Figure 1 shows the mean levels on depressed mood by gender and family structure

when time spent with parents is controlled as a covariate variable. There was no interaction

effect between gender and family structure on depressed mood after controlling for time

spent with parents, F(2, 1942) = .827, p = .437, η2 = .001. Boys who live in an intact family

had the lowest mean level of depressed mood and girls in a single parent household had the

highest mean level of depressed mood. The boys have lower depressed mood than girls in all

the three family structure. The gender difference was greatest for the group in shared physical

custody.

Testing the assumption of homogeneity of regression slopes revealed that the

interaction between gender and time spent with parents was significant and therefore the

assumption has been broken, F(1, 1941) = 8.864, p = .003, η2 = .005.

Discussion

The main focus of this study was to examine whether family structure affected

children’s depressed mood when time spent with parents was controlled as a covariate

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Intact family Shared physical custody

Single parent household

Dep

ress

ed m

ood

Family structure

Boys

Girls

Gender


variable. It was also examined whether different family structures had an effect on depressed

mood and whether it was varied by gender.

The first hypothesis was that girls would report higher levels of depressive symptoms

in all family structures. The results showed that girls reported higher mean levels on

depressed mood in all family structures. These findings are supported from further research

that women are twice as likely to experience depression as men (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).

The second hypothesis was that those who live in single parent household experience a

depressed mood more often than those who live in an intact family. The results showed a

significant difference between these two groups. The finding indicates that those who live in

a single parent household experience more depressed mood than those who live in an intact

family. The third hypothesis stated that those who live in single parent household experience

depressed mood more often than those who live in shared physical custody. The result for the

second hypothesis was also supported. It indicates that children who live in a single parent

household experience more depressive symptoms rather than children in an intact family and

in shared physical custody. These findings are in line with previous research, which

suggested that living in an intact family is a better environment for children’s development

(Amato & Keith, 1991; Chiappori & Weiss, 2007; Manning & Lamb, 2003).

The fourth hypothesis stated that there would be significant effect of family structure

on depressed mood controlling for time spent with parents. The results showed that there was

a significant effect of family structure on depressed mood when controlling for time spent

with parents. It supports the hypothesis that the effect between family structure and depressed

mood is controlled by time spent with parents. The results also revealed that as you spend

more time with parents the depressive symptoms decreases. Previous research had found that

children who communicate regularly with their parents seem to experience greater wellbeing


and closeness to both parents, not depending on where they live (Amato & Keith, 1991;

Kelly, 2007).

There are a few limitations in this study. In the questionnaire it is assumed that the

students who answered that they live in single parent household understand that the parent is

single and does not live with a partner. However, it is not possible to assume that there is no

one else who lives in the home. It is expected that the students understand that the parent is

single. The participants are young adolescents, at the age range ten to thirteen, and may

misunderstand some questions and answer options. The questionnaire is also self-reported,

and therefore there is the possibility of misunderstanding of questions. The scale for the

depressive symptoms question was 7 items in total, but this study only used 5 items of the

scale. It was considered that the two items that were taken out should not occur in this study.

The main strength of this study regards the collection of the data. The collection of

the data was conducted efficiently and took place at all elementary schools at the same time.

The conditions were similar, where all participants took the survey in classrooms in their

schools where there should be silence. Therefore there is reason to be confident about the

reliability of the data. The questionnaire was anonymous and therefore it would be

impossible to trace the answers to individual students.

In future research, it would be possible to look further at the relationship between

family structure and depressed mood after controlling for time with parents among young

adolescents. There are not many science articles that cover young adolescents and the

relationship between family structure and depressed mood after controlling for time spent

with parents.


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Appendix A

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