The Birth of Modern Political

Theory

1651-1789

Some basic questions of political philosophy What is the origin of government? What is the purpose of government? What legitimates the power and authority

of government? What is the best form of government?

Overview & Background: the Experience of England in the 17th Century English political tradition

The Magna Carta (1215) Parliament Common Law

The English Civil War (1642-49) Charles I vs. Parliament Influence on Thomas Hobbes Leviathan (1651)

The Glorious Revolution (1688) James II vs. Parliament Influence on John Locke Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690)

Hobbes vs. Locke: essential concepts Concepts they share:

The State of Nature Natural Rights The Social Contract

Where they differ: What drives human

behavior? Passion (Hobbes) Reason (Locke)

What is the best form of government?

Absolute monarchy (Hobbes)

Constitutionalism (Locke)

Hobbes

Locke

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (1651) Wanted to construct a

“science of politics” based on an indisputable principle

This principle must be based on the strongest element in human nature

The strongest element was passion, not reason

The strongest passion is fear of violent death

This fear gives rise to the natural right of self-preservation

The natural right of self-preservation is the basis of Hobbes’ thought

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (1651) In a state of nature there is a

war of every man against every man

“No arts, no letters, and which is worst of all, continual fear and danger of violent death, and the life of man solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

To secure peace men make contracts establishing a sovereign power who is not subject to civil law since by its will it creates the law

Of the three forms of sovereignty (monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy), monarchy is the most effective in securing peace

Leviathan (1651)

John Locke, Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690) The state of nature is not a

state of perpetual war; All men are free and equal;

no man by nature is sovereign over another man

The law of nature, revealed by reason, governs the state of nature

Natural rights include the right to Life, Liberty, and Estate (property)

John Locke (1632-1704)

John Locke, Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690) No one ought to harm

another in his life, liberty, or property; if anyone does harm another, the one he harms has the right to punish him

Through a social contract, people create a government to protect their natural rights of life, liberty, and property

The best form of government to protect natural rights is a government of limited powers (constitutionalism)

If a government breaks the social contract, the people have the right to dissolve it

Two Treatises of Civil Government (1690)

Overview & Background: the Experience of America and France in the 18th Century The Age of Enlightenment The Experience of America

The American Revolution (1775-1783) Thomas Jefferson, The Declaration of Independence

(1776) James Madison, The Federalist, No. 10 (1787) The U.S. Constitution (1788)

The Experience of France Jean Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract (1762) The French Revolution (1789-1799) The Declaration of the Rights of Man & Citizen (1789)

Thomas Jefferson, The Declaration of Independence (1776) The founding document of

the United States of America

Influenced by Enlightenment political thought, especially that of John Locke

States the principles upon which the new nation would be founded

Jefferson’s argument for independence Natural rights A right to revolution A list of grievances

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)

Thomas Jefferson, The Declaration of Independence (1776) “When in the Course of human

events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”

The Declaration of Independence

James Madison, The Federalist, No. 10 One of many essays published

during the fight for the ratification of the Constitution (1787-88)

During this time, Federalists supported the stronger central government under the proposed Constitution; Anti-Federalists were apprehensive about a stronger central government and opposed the Constitution

Madison’s The Federalist, No. 10 was written to convince Anti-Federalists that liberty could be safeguarded in a large republic

“Among the numerous advantages promised by a well constructed Union, none deserves to be more accurately developed than its tendency to break and control the violence of faction.” James Madison (1751-1836)

The U.S. Constitution Establishes the government of the

United States of America Implements the principles of

Enlightenment political theory Creates a government of limited

powers (constitutionalism) The Preamble explains the

reasons for establishing this government:“We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.”

Jean Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract (1762) Man is best in the state of

nature Since perfect freedom is the

natural condition of human beings, it is the existence of social restrictions that requires explanation

Only the family is truly a natural association

Military conquest and slavery in its usual forms cannot establish any genuine right for one person to rule over another

Society must devolve from a social contract in which individual citizens voluntarily participate

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Jean Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract (1762) But throughout history, the

wealthiest and most powerful members of society made inequality a permanent feature of human society

Rather than have a government which largely protects the wealth and the rights of the powerful few, government should be fundamentally based on the rights and equality of everyone

These ideas were essential for both the French and American revolutions

This social inequality was deeply felt in 18th century France…

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Background to the French Revolution: France in the 18th Century

1st Estate – the clergy• 150,000• .5% of the population• owned 15% of the land• paid no taxes

3rd Estate – everyone else• 22,500,000• 98% of the population• bourgeoisie (middle class) – 8%• sans-culottes (urban workers)• peasants (farmers)The Three Estates (classes)

2nd Estate – the nobility• 350,000• 1.5% of the population• owned 20% of the land• paid very few taxes

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) Product of the first stage of the French Revolution

(1789-99) Property, liberty, security, “resistance to

oppression” declared natural rights Freedom of speech and press, religious toleration All citizens guaranteed equality before the law No arrest or imprisonment without due process Sovereignty affirmed to reside in the people Officers of the government subject to removal if

they abused powers conferred upon them