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ancient history and classical archaeology of the Black Sea. Like a periplus, it offers a journey throughout the Pontus. The introductory chapter provides an overview of developments across the region over the last 20 years

in the study of Greek colonisation, the local population and the relationship between them. The following chapters take the journey to the Cimmerians and Thrace, and how we understand them from written sources. Next to the southern Black Sea and recent surveys and excavations there, local peoples and the early Greek presence; then to the west and an account of archaeological research from the Archaic period to the Roman conquest. To the north, with an essay on recent archaeological research, a chapter on one of the local peoples, the Taurians, and another on the economy of the Greek colonies of the region, presented through an examination of Kerkinitis in the Crimea. The northern and western shores are combined in a consideration, based on epigraphic sources, of religious experience there. The final journey is to the eastern Black Sea, and a survey of recent discoveries and studies in Colchis.

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PEETERS

essays on the Archaeology and Ancient history of

the Black sea Littoral

PEETERS

edited by Manolis Manoledakis, Gocha R. Tsetskhladze and

Ioannis Xydopoulos

99940_Manoledakis_CA18_CV.indd All Pages 8/01/18 14:57

essays on the archaeology and ancient history of the black sea littoral

99940_Manoledakis_CA18_vw.indd 1 8/01/18 14:58

essays on the archaeology and ancient history of

the black sea littoral

edited by

Manolis Manoledakis, gocha r. tsetskhladze and ioannis xydopoulos

colloQuia antiQua————— 18 —————

peetersleuVen – paris – bristol, ct

2017

c o l l o Q u i a a n t i Q u aSupplements to the Journal ANCIENT WEST & EAST

series editor

gocha r. tsetskhladze (uk)

editorial board

a. avram (romania/france), sir John boardman (uk), J. hargrave (uk), M. kazanski (france), a. Mehl (germany), a. podossinov (russia),

n. theodossiev (bulgaria), J. Wiesehöfer (germany)

adVisory board

s. atasoy (turkey), l. ballesteros pastor (spain), J. bouzek (czech rep.), s. burstein (usa), J. carter (usa), b. d’agostino (italy),

f. de angelis (canada), J. de boer (the netherlands), a. domínguez (spain), o. doonan (usa), a. kuhrt (uk), sir fergus Millar (uk),

J.-p. Morel (france), M. pearce (uk), d. potts (usa), a. rathje (denmark), r. rollinger (austria), a. snodgrass (uk),

M. sommer (germany), d. stronach (usa), M. tiverios (greece), c. ulf (austria), J. Vela tejada (spain)

Colloquia Antiqua is a refereed publication

for proposals and editorial and other matters, please contact the series editor:gocha r. tsetskhladze

the gallery spa road

llandrindod Wells powys ld1 5er

uk e-mail: [email protected]


a catalogue record for this book is available from the library of congress.

isbn 978-90-429-3545-7d/2017/0602/xx© 2017, peeters, bondgenotenlaan 153, b-3000 leuven, belgium

no part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage or retrieval devices or systems, without prior written permission from the publisher, except the quotation of brief passages for review purposes.


TABLE OF CONTENTS

series editor’s introduction – Gocha R. Tsetskhladze . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

foreword – Costas Th. Grammenos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

introduction – Manolis Manoledakis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

list of illustrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

list of abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi

Chapter 1 ‘greek penetration of the black sea’: twenty years onGocha R. Tsetskhladze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2 the cimmerians and their perception in ancient greek sourcesIoannis K. Xydopoulos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Chapter 3 the terms ‘thrace’ and ‘thracians’ in greek histori-ography (6th–4th centuries bc)Ioannis K. Xydopoulos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Chapter 4 surveys and excavations on the southern black sea coast Sümer Atasoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Chapter 5 the local peoples of the southern black sea coastManolis Manoledakis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Chapter 6 the early greek presence in the southern black seaManolis Manoledakis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Chapter 7 archaeological research on the Western black sea coast from the archaic period until the roman conquest: an overviewIulian Bîrzescu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243


Vi

chapter 8 an essay on recent archaeological research on the northern black sea coastEwdoksia Papuci-Władyka. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

chapter 9 the tauriansIgor Khrapunov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

chapter 10 the economy of kerkinitis during the ancient greek period Tatiana N. Smekalova and Vadim A. Kutaisov . . . . . . . 369

chapter 11 religion as experience: epigraphic evidence from the West and north shores of the black seaAngelos Chaniotis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

chapter 12 the colchian black sea coast: recent discoveries and studiesGocha R. Tsetskhladze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

list of contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547

index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 000


SEriES EdiTOr’S iNTrOduCTiON

the present volume is dedicated to aspects of the black sea. it demonstrates how much work has been done in this region and the continuing vitality of black sea studies.

We begin at the beginning of the 1st millennium bc, when the enigmatic cimmerians allegedly occupied the northern black sea littoral and the steppes of the hinterland: not much is known about them, but one contribution here examines what ancient authors had to say. the same author also considers the terms thrace and thracians in the greek historiography of the 6th–4th centuries bc. the local population of the southern black sea is examined in one contribution, and the greek presence on the southern black sea littoral extensively, using archaeology and literary evidence, in another. in a further essay, the taurians, one of the local peoples of the northern black sea, are brought out of the shadows. the economy of that region is viewed through the lens of kerkinitis. and broadening the focus, religious experience as recorded in epigraphic sources is not forgotten either. a welcome feature of the collection is the various survey pieces on recent archaeo-logical investigations and publications on all of the sea’s four shores.

the initial plan for this volume was to create a textbook for students, especially for those at the international hellenic university in thessaloniki who were partici-pating in its Ma programme on the black sea and the eastern Mediterranean. not all of the chapters originally commissioned were submitted, some had to be rejected, some were revised, yet it was clear that many were too academic to serve this original purpose. Moreover, they did not cover all aspects of the ancient black sea. hence, the volume was refocussed, and its present title aptly and more accurately describes it: a number of essays offering coverage of various facets and several parts of the black sea, but denying any claim to comprehensiveness or completeness.

the international hellenic university has financed the project. We are grateful to it, particularly its president, prof. costas th. grammenos, for this welcome sup-port. Manolis Manoledakis of the international hellenic university has taken the lead in the project from the beginning and has successfully navigated it to harbour.

as ever, thank go to our publishers peeters, especially bert Verrept, for their help. i am most grateful to James hargrave for his assistance with copy-editing and indexing.

gocha r. tsetskhladzellandrindod WellsMay 2017


FOrEwOrd By ThE PrESidENT OF ThE iNTErNATiONAL hELLENiC uNivErSiTy

the present volume belongs to the research and educational activity of the international hellenic university on the black sea littoral, especially in antiquity.

there is no doubt that the black sea has been an area with continuously increas-ing importance during the last decades. after the end of the cold War, scholars from all over the world have been showing a great interest in the archaeology and the ancient history of the black sea, an interest that has resulted in many joint research programmes, excavations, conferences, as well as publications.

being aware of this situation, and realising that there has never been an educa-tional programme in any university totally dedicated to the black sea, the school of humanities of our university decided to launch in 2010 the ‘Ma in black sea cultural studies’, the first postgraduate programme worldwide examining the black sea littoral exclusively and in an interdisciplinary way. the courses offered include archaeology, history of all periods, ancient, mediaeval and modern art, religion, ethnography, politics, international relations as well as economic issues. after six successful years, we have chosen to broaden the geographic horizon of our programme’s subject matter and offer it from now on as the ‘Ma in black sea and eastern Mediterranean studies’.

Within the frame of this Master’s programme we have until now welcomed students from 14 countries, invited some of the world’s top specialist scholars on the issues examined to give lectures, and organised two international workshops on ‘the black sea in antiquity’, accompanied by the publication of their proceedings, as well as several other conferences and events. it is within the same frame that we decided to create and fund this volume, which includes contributions by members of our academic staff – tenured, visiting and honorary – and of some other highly distinguished scholars of the black sea in antiquity. We aim at creating a valuable book, not only for our students, but also for any scholar of the subject.

it is with great pleasure that i invite you to read this collection of essays on the archaeology and ancient history of the black sea littoral, hoping that you will find them useful for your studies and stimulating for further academic discussion on the issues presented.

prof. costas th. grammenos, cbe, dscpresident, international hellenic universitycass business school, city, university of london


iNTrOduCTiON

the volume Essays on the Archaeology and Ancient History of the Black Sea Littoral may, on the one hand, be considered the product of the efforts of the international hellenic university’s school of humanities to establish black sea studies as a significant subject at the university, something undoubtedly well-deserved. on the other hand, it is the outcome of the long experience of scholars who have dedicated their careers to the study of black sea archaeology and ancient history and who willingly accepted invitations to contribute to this effort. thanks to this, the volume turned out to be something more than a simple text-book for our postgraduate students, which had been its initial purpose.

several aspects of life in the black sea during antiquity, as well as the results of the archaeological investigation in all its four coasts, are examined in the book. in his introductory chapter gocha tsetskhladze gives an overview of the historical and archaeological research that has been carried out during the last 20 years, at an increasing tempo and with many interesting results, while con-tinuing his focus on greek colonisation. two of the most important peoples that inhabited the northern and the western black sea littorals, the cimmerians and the thracians, are examined by ioannis xydopoulos, in terms of their perception by the greeks, as it is reflected in the works of the ancient greek historians. the image of the ‘barbarian other’ is one of the most important issues that the author examines.

We then move to the southern black sea coast, starting with an overview of archaeological research there, which is given by one of the most experienced archaeologists of the region, sümer atasoy. he also examines the relationship between local societies and those in mainland anatolia and other regions sur-rounding the black sea and the resulting patterns of cultural influence and con-nectivity through time. the various peoples that dwelt on this coast are the sub-ject of the next chapter, in which Manolis Manoledakis attempts, in the absence of any archaeological evidence, to collect the information about them available in written sources. the same author deals with the outset of the greek presence in the southern black sea in the next chapter. Questions such as when, why and how the greeks first arrived in the region are asked, while the answers are sought in both the literary and archaeological evidence at our disposal. other issues, such as who were the first greek settlers, why (and how) the local peoples accepted the greeks, the importance of the economic factor in colonisation and the related terminology of colonisation are put under thorough criticism.


xii introduction

the seventh chapter, written by iulian bîrzescu, offers an overview of the ancient history and archaeology of the western black sea littoral. since the infor-mation found in literary sources is scarce, the reconstruction of the historical development, especially the details of the development of the cities, are derived mostly from archaeological excavations. another important area presented in this paper deals with cult practices and local sanctuaries, since it has produced interesting results in the last decade. as we continue clock-wise, we move to the northern black sea coast. ewdoksia papuci-Władyka gives an overview of the main results of archaeological research there over the last 15 years, and outlines the problems posed and the outlook for further investigation. a perusal of the literature and a glance at the results coming from the many sites located on the northern coast of the black sea demonstrate that the scale of development of research is currently massive, although it is naturally not spread equally across all regions and fields of study. in the next chapter, igor khrapunov presents the geography and the customs of the taurians, and adds some brief description of their perception as barbarians in the later graeco-roman authors. We stay in the taurian peninsula and examine the economy of the area, focusing mainly on one of its most important ancient cities, kerkinitis. tatiana smekalova and Vadim kutaisov discuss the main stages of the establishment and evolution of the regional economy and provide an exhaustive study of areas such as agriculture, palaeobotany, cultivation and harvesting, crop rotation, vine production and pal-aeozoology.

the eleventh chapter, written by angelos chaniotis, brings us to the world of religion, which is very familiar to the author. he attempts to contribute to the study of religion in the west and north shores of the black sea by addressing precisely the neglected aspects of experience and emotion. chaniotis seeks to reach his goal by exploiting the epigraphic evidence and by presenting a small selection of case studies. the ‘journey’ of this volume finishes in the east, on the colchian black sea coast. having deep knowledge of the area, tsetskhladze offers a survey of recent discoveries and studies on it.

the editors of this volume are extremely grateful to prof. emerita stella drougou, the first dean of the school of humanities of the international hellenic university, who dedicated a lot of time and effort to set up the school, and encour-aged both the creation of the volume and its funding by the university. finally, we warmly thank the governing board of the university, for their immediate and sincere decision to generously fund this publication.

on behalf of the editors,

Manolis Manoledakisinternational hellenic university


LiST OF iLLuSTrATiONS

Chapter 1 (Tsetskhladze 1)Fig. 1: Map of the black sea showing major greek colonies and local peoples.Fig. 2: Map of the northern black sea littoral and the kuban region showing settlements and tombs which have yielded east greek pottery of the last third of the 7th century bc. not to scale (author’s map).1. nemirov/nemirovskoe; 2. trakhtemirov/trakhtemirovskoe; 3. zhabotin/zhabotinskoe; 4. ivane-puste; 5. zalesya; 6. Motroninskoe; 7. belsk/ belskoe; 8. pozharnaya balka; 9. alekseevka/alekseevskoe; 10. burial ground krasnogorovka iii. kurgan 14, grave 5; 11. kurgan temir-gora; 12. burial boltyshka; 13. kurgan 1 near the village of kolomak; 14. destroyed tomb, kiobruchi village; 15. filatovka; 16. bolshaya; 17. krivorozhie; 18. krasnyi.Fig. 3: Kurgan at the village of krasnyi, large oinochoe.Fig. 4: Kurgan at the village of krasnyi, large oenochoe.Fig. 5: Kurgan at the village of krasnyi, smaller oenochoe.Fig. 6: pottery from nemirov settlement.Fig. 7: east greek pottery from the village of kiobruchi, Moldova.Fig. 8: east greek pottery from the village of kiobruchi, Moldova.Fig. 9: pottery from pit-house, belsk.Fig. 10: early east greek pottery from belsk, found after 2000.Fig. 11: oinochoe from temir-gora.Fig. 12: Map of colchis showing major sites.Fig. 13: distribution map of early greek pottery in the halys bend.Fig. 14: fragments of a bird bowl and rosette bowl from tundzha near yambol.Fig. 15: acropolis of tios.Fig. 16: east greek pottery from tios.Fig. 17: archaic greek pottery from the acropolis of tios.Fig. 18: greek pottery of the early–first half of the 5th century bc from tios.Fig. 19: dedication to kubaba and terracotta figurines of cybele from the suburbs of amisos.Fig. 20: greek pottery from the suburbs of amisos.


xiV list of illustrations

Fig. 21: local pottery from the suburbs of amisos.Fig. 22: tombstones from the suburbs of amisos.Fig. 23: ereğli e shipwreck, kantharos and fragment of wall of amphora.Fig. 24: ereğli e shipwreck, chersonesian amphora.Fig. 25: fragment of pottery from berezan.Fig. 26: anatolian pottery from berezan 1–2. pottery with monochrome painting; 3–4, 6–7. pottery with bichrome painting; 5. pottery with painting; 8. fragment of zoomorphic vessel.

Fig. 27: anatolian pottery from berezan.1–2. pottery in the black-on-red style; 3–4. pottery in red-and-buff style.Fig. 28: hypothetical plan of panticapeum acropolis in the first quarter of the 5th century bc.Fig. 29: archaeological finds from dugouts of the two phases of the first building period, panticapaeum.Fig. 30: painted ceramics from multi-room complex i, panticapaeum.Fig. 31: Monumental building of periods 1–3, panticapaeum.Fig. 32: façade of the temple of apollo, panticapaeum, 500–485 bc.Fig. 33: 31. bruttium, rhegium, silver tetradrachm, 461–445 bc; 32–34. panticapaeum, silver coins of issue i; 35–41. panticapaeum, silver coins of issue ii; 42–43. panticapaeum, silver coins of issue iii; 44–47. panticapaeum, silver coins of issue iV; 48. panticapaeum, silver coins of issue V; 49–50. panticapaeum, silver coins of issue Vi; 51–52. panticapaeum, silver coins of issue Vii; 53–54. panticapaeum, silver coins of issue Viii.Fig. 34: Map of the modern-day taman peninsula showing major greek colonies.Fig. 35: reconstruction of the palaeogeographical situation of the taman peninsula at the time of greek colonisation.Fig. 36: plan of stone building, possibly temple dedicated to apollo, Vestnik 1.Fig. 37: earliest greek pottery from eshera.

Chapter 4 (Atasoy)Fig. 1: black sea region settlements.Fig. 2: general view of karadeniz ereğlisi.Fig. 3: general view of karadeniz ereğlisi.Fig. 4: Museum of karadeniz ereğlisi.Fig. 5: a general view of filyos (tios) from the air.


list of illustrations xV

Fig. 6: acropolis of filyos (tios) from the air.Fig. 7: acropolis of filyos (tios) from the air: remains of the church and temple.Fig. 8: roman theatre of filyos (tios) from the air.Fig. 9: remains of aqueduct and a gymnasium/bath?Fig. 10: gökçebey – Üçburgu riverside warehouse from the air.Fig. 11: gökçebey – Üçburgu riverside warehouse.Fig. 12: lead weight from gökçebey – Üçburgu riverside warehouse.Fig. 13: lead weight from gökçebey – Üçburgu riverside warehouse.Fig. 14: the cide archaeological project team of 2011.Fig. 15: general view of amasra from the east.Fig. 16: general view of amasra. Fig. 17: garden of amasra Museum.Fig. 18: statue of a roman emperor in amasra Museum.Fig. 19: head of a statue of a roman emperor in amasra Museum.Fig. 20: general view of sinop.Fig. 21: general view of sinop.Fig. 22: ceramics found in the gelincik tomb chamber in sinop.Fig. 23: balatlar church in sinop.Fig. 24: a fresco in balatlar church.

Chapter 5 (Manoledakis 1)Fig. 1: Map of the southern black sea coast and hinterland showing rivers and local peoples.

Chapter 6 (Manoledakis 2)Fig. 1: sites of the southern black sea hinterland (anatolia) that have yielded greek finds.Fig. 2: east greek pottery from akalan, ca. 600 bc.Fig. 3: fragment of protogeometric amphora found at kaman-kalehöyük.Fig. 4: fragment of protogeometric amphora found at kaman-kalehöyük.Fig. 5: Mycenaean vase from Maşathöyük.Fig. 6: Mycenaean vase from Maşathöyük.Fig. 7: Mycenaean vase from Maşathöyük.


Fig. 8: clay relief revetment from pazarli, 6th century bc.

Fig. 9: reconstruction of terracotta revetment plaques from akalan.

Fig. 10: Map showing the possible routes of the early finds from greece to anatolia. the area of departure is indicative.

Chapter 7 (Bîrzescu)Fig. 1: Map of greek colonies on the shores of the black sea.

Fig. 2: plan of orgame.

Fig. 3: callatis.

Fig. 4: Mesambria.

Fig. 5: apollonia pontica.

Fig. 6: tariverde, histrian territory. archaic dugouts.

Fig. 7: Milesian Wild goat style lid from histria. late 7th century bc.

Fig. 8: histria. sleeping silen, hellenistic period.

Fig. 9: arrow head with anchor from apollonia.

Fig. 10: north of cape tirizis, to cape shabla (karon limen).

Fig. 11: early hellenistic painted stele from apollonia.

Fig. 12: histria. tumular necropolis.

Fig. 13: histria. tumular necropolis.

Fig. 14: pergamene situla from schitu, callatian territory, 1st century bc.

Fig. 15: histria. sacred area in late archaic period.

Fig. 16: histria. sacred area. View to the north.

Fig. 17: hellenistic relief from histria.

Fig. 18: coin from apollonia.

Chapter 8 (Papuci-Władyka)Fig. 1: olbia. general view of excavations.

Fig. 2: olbia. the older temenos, view from the south.

Fig. 3: koshary settlement. trench iV: part of house 2 with cellar, small street and dugout.

Fig. 4: koshary necropolis. athenian black-glaze kantharos and arrowheads from grave 265.


list of illustrations xVii

Fig. 5: koshary necropolis. niche grave 265.

Fig. 6: tyras. general view of excavation with round tower and fortification wall of hellenistic period.

Fig. 7: nikonion. trench Vii with dwelling rooms 1, 2 and 5, 2009 season.

Fig. 8: chersonesos. south-eastern part of the city with defensive wall close to the main city gate.

Fig. 9: balaklava-kadykovka phase 3. house with a peristyle (Praetorium?), plan after the completion of excavations in 2013. 1 – canal draining water; 2 – remains of the pedestal (statue base?); 3 – stylobate of the portico along the street to the north of the house; 4 – walled-up door leading to the courtyard – trace of overhaul; 5 – room lined with the layer of roofing tiles, covered with plaster painted red; 6 – part of founda-tions of the western wing from phase 2, probably used as the stylobate of the portico; 7 – room with the hypocaust cellar (part of the thermae?).

Fig. 10: panticapaeum. general view of the acropolis on Mt Mithridates.

Fig. 11: panticapaeum. prytaneion, 2nd century bc.

Fig. 12: panticapaeum. acropolis in the first quarter of the 3rd century bc, view from the north. reconstruction by V.p. tolstikov.

Fig. 13: Myrmekion. View of the acropolis.

Fig. 14: tyritake. central trench xxVi.

Fig. 15: tyritake. polish trench with fortification wall of the end of 6th century bc.

Fig. 16: nymphaeum. sanctuary of demeter and walls.

Fig. 17: Chora of akra: settlement zavetnoe 5. general view of southern complex.

Fig. 18: Chora of akra: settlement zavetnoe 5. destruction layer with pottery and a terracotta showing kore in the village sanctuary of demeter and kore(?).

Fig. 19: kytaia. general view of excavations.

Fig. 20: kytaia. necropolis with roman period tombs.

Fig. 21: gorgippia. general view of main street.

Fig. 22: hermonassa. general view.

Fig. 23: kepoi. general view.

Fig. 24: labrys. general view.

Fig. 25: phanagoria. general view.

Fig. 26: tanais. polish trench xxV, aerial view.


xViii list of illustrations

Chapter 9 (Khrapunov)Fig. 1: taurian sites: a – cist cemeteries, b – kizil-koba settlements. 1 – planerskoye, 2 – shchebetovka, 3 – sudak, 4 – Malaba, 5 – chatyr-dag, 6 – gurzuf, 7 – lesnikovo, 8 – nikita, 9 – yalta, 10 – gaspra, 11 – koshka, 12 – skelya, 13 – Mal-Muz, 14 – urkusta, 15 – balaklavskoye, 16 – uch-bash, 17 – inkermanskoye, 18 – cherkes-kermen, 19 – ashlama-dere, 20 – partizanskoye, 21 – simferopol’skoye, 22 – kizil-koba, 23 – shpil’, 24 – karly-kaya, 25 – kapak-tash, 26 – tau-kipchak, 27 – belogorskoye.Fig. 2: koshka Mountain.Fig. 3: cists in the cemetery of urkusta: plans and cross-sections.Fig. 4: cist (photograph: author).Fig. 5: bronze ornaments and arrow-heads from taurian cemeteries (displayed in the central Museum of taurida).Fig. 6: grave-goods from the cemetery of Mal-Muz. 1–2, 16–19, 21–39, 51–52 – bronze ornaments; 3–6, 8–14, 40–50 – glass beads; 15 – bronze arrow-head; 20 – whetstone.Fig. 7: amphora fragments from shpil settlement. 1 – late chios; 2–4, 6 – heraclea pontica; 5 – thasos; 7 – tauric chersonesos.Fig. 8: kizil-koba ceramic vessels (displayed in the central Museum of taurida).Fig. 9: ceramic vessels from shpil settlement. Fig. 10: Vessel from kizil-koba settlement. 1 – fragment; 2 – reconstruction.Fig. 11: finds from shpil settlement. 1–5, 10 – ceramic spindle whorls; 6–9 – bronze arrow-heads; 11–13, 16 – worked flints; 14–15 – bone clasps for bow-and-arrows cases; 17–18 – clay artefacts. Fig. 12: clay artefacts from shpil settlement. Fig. 13: zoomorphic clay figurines from shpil settlement.

Chapter 10 (Smekalova and Kutaisov)Fig. 1: Main greek centres in the black sea area. White arrows show sea currents.Fig. 2: relief map of north-western crimea based on a digital elevation Model. Main ancient greek settlements (red rhomboids) and interior aboriginal settlements (blue squares and rectangles) are shown. greek settlements: 1 – Masliny, 2 – burnel’, 3 – skalistoye, 4 – Mezhvodnoe, 5 – panskoye i, 6 – panskoye iii, 7 – farmstead in Vetrenaya bay, 8 – ak-Mechet’ (kalos limen), 9 – kipchak, 10 – kastel’, 11 – dzhangul’-Mysovoye, 12 – southern ocheretay, 13 – farmstead near karadzhinskoye site, 14 – karadzhinskoye site, 15 – Melovoye, 16 – oyrat, 17 – dzhan-baba, 18 – ak-saray, 19 – tarpanchi, 20 – dzhaga-kulchuk, 21 – kul’chuk, 22 – beljaus, 23 – West donuzlav, 25 – ozerovka, 26 – popovka, 27 – upper chokrak, 28 – kunan, 32 – airchi. the chayan-apan-sarcha scythian noble barrows are no. 30, at the right.


list of illustrations xix

Fig. 3: Map of the crimea with the main ancient greek centres.Fig. 4: chersonesian oath.Fig. 5: a – ploughing. figure on an ancient greek vase. b – wooden ard (plough), c – wooden ard with an iron tip, d – the development of earthen ridges created by ploughing. Fig. 6: a–f – iron points from six ards found in chersonesos; g – iron point from panskoye i.Fig. 7: hoe and pick found in chersonesos.Fig. 8: sickle and scythe from chersonesos.Fig. 9: fragment of a pusher found in chersonesos. Fig. 10: round millstones from chersonesos.Fig. 11: the patterns of agricultural fields on the heraclean peninsula.Fig. 12: Tarapan in one of the chersonesian farmsteads on the heraclean peninsula.Fig. 13: peeling spud and vine knife from chersonesos. Fig. 14: land plot near cape oyrat. drawing based on the results of the magnetic survey. the division of the land plot into units of 52.5 × 52.5 m. the eastern (1) and western (2) parts of the plot are shown, as well as the northern part, which measures 70 × 70 m (3).Fig. 15: a – vine planting, b – fruit planting in the chora of chersonesos. Fig. 16: Medallion showing the grape harvest. this is a central part of a gilded silver bowl from the sadovyj barrow near the town of novocherkassk, south russia.Fig. 17: ceramic weights from chersonesos.Fig. 18: fish hooks from chersonesos.Fig. 19: shells with holes used for fishing.

Chapter 12 (Tsetskhladze 2)Fig. 1: Map showing location of colchis.Fig. 2: colchis in the 7th–3rd centuries bc.1. pitsunda (ancient pityus); 2. bambori valley; 3. adelagara; 4. gudauta; 5. kulanurkhvi; 6. new afon; 7. eshera; 8. gvandri; 9. sukhum(i) (ancient dioscurias); 10. gulripsh; 11. atara; 12. ochamchira (ancient gyenos); 13. karieti; 14. simagre; 15. kvemo chaladidi; 16. pichvnari; 17. kobuleti; 18. gonio; 19. gurianta; 20. batumi; 21. Vashnari; 22. bukistsikhe; 23. didi Vani; 24. nokalakevi (ancient tsikhegodzhi); 25. sagvichio; 26. lekhainurao; 27. nosiri; 28. dapnari; 29. dablagoni; 30. Mtisdziri; 31. partskhanakanevi; 32. Maglaki; 33. Meskheti; 34. kvishiri; 35. kutaisi; 36. gelati; 37. Vani; 38. sakanchia; 39. chkhorotsku; 40. sepieti; 41. ureki; 42. chkhari; 43. terdzhola; 44. sazano; 45. shorapani; 46. dzevri; 47. kldeeti; 48. ileti; 49. bori; 50. dimi; 51. sargveshi; 52. Vartsikhe; 53. kharagauli; 54. chibati; 55. chiatura; 56. sachkhere; 57. sairkhe; 58. goradziri; 59. bandza; 60. grigoleti; 61. tsikhisdziri;


xx list of illustrations

62. zugdidi; 63. anaklia; 64. tagiloni; 65. gudava; 66. lia; 67. tsageri; 68. chuberi; 69. khaishi; 70. brili; 71. shosheti; 72. kvashkhieti; 73. achandara; 74. gagra; 75. tsebelda; 76. gali; 77. kelasuri; 78. lata; 79. gantiadi; 80. otkhara; 81. anukhval; 82. Machara.

Fig. 3: colchis in the greek period.

Fig. 4: colchis in the roman period.

Fig. 5: nokalakevi. samples of pottery, 6th–4th centuries bc.

Fig. 6: nokalakevi. samples of pottery, 6th–4th centuries bc.

Fig. 7: nokalakevi. zoomorphic double-headed protomes, 8th–7th centuries bc.

Fig. 8: nokalakevi. zoomorphic double-headed protome, 8th–7th centuries bc.

Fig. 9: pichvnari. schematic plan.

Fig. 10a–b: pichvnari. krater from the ‘greek’ cemetery of the 5th century bc.

Fig. 11: pichvnari. general view of the ‘greek’ cemetery.

Fig. 12: View of grave in the ‘greek’ cemetery.

Fig. 13: pichvnari. ‘greek’ cemetery, grave 83.

Fig. 14: pichvnari. ‘greek’ cemetery, grave 305.

Fig. 15: pichvnari. golden objects from the ‘greek’ cemetery.

Fig. 16: pichvnari. scythian and scythian-type arrowheads.

Fig. 17: tsikhisdziri. 1–3. amphora burial no. 114: chian amphora, black-glazed bowl and skyphos; 4–7. amphorae burial no. 145: chian amphora, and a skyphos.

Fig. 18: tsikhisdziri. 1–5. chian amphorae; 6–7. burial no. 121: chian amphora, and lekythos.

Fig. 19: tsikhisdziri. 1–4. burial no. 157: Mendean amphora, and a red-figure hydria and a lekythos; 5. burial no. 110: Mendean amphora; 6. lesbian amphora.

Fig. 20: tsikhisdziri. 1–2. burial no. 108: north aegean amphora and fragment of samian(?) amphora; 3. samian amphora; 4. north aegean amphora (burial no. 210); 5. north aegean amphora (burial no. 112).

Fig. 21: tsikhisdziri. 1–3. burial no. 26: colchian amphora, and a black-glazed bowl-kantharos; 4–5. burial no. 66: colchian amphora and coin of sinope.

Fig. 22: tsikhisdziri. amphorae of the 4th–6th centuries ad. 1–3. colchian amphorae; 4–5. late roman 1 amphorae.

Fig. 23: tsikhisdziri. 1–2, 4. chian amphorae; 3. lesbian amphora; 5–6. Mendean amphorae; 7–8. north aegean amphorae; 9: colchian amphora.

Fig. 24: sukhum(i). gravestone from the sea, end of the 5th century bc.


list of illustrations xxi

Fig. 25: inscriptions from colchis. 1–2. Vani; 3. eshera.Fig. 26a–b: eshera. black-figure bell amphora.Fig. 27: Vani. topographical plan.Fig. 28: Vani. plan and reconstruction of 5th–4th-century bc wooden shrine.Fig. 29: Vani. double-headed zoomorphic protomes.Fig. 30: Vani. double- and triple-headed zoomorphic protomes.Fig. 31: Vani. stamps on colchian amphorae.Fig. 32: Vani. hellenistic architectural complexes. i. 1. statue pedestal of goddess-protectress and portcullis; 2. Wicket; 3. altar; 4. cobblestone path; 5. sacrificial bath; 6. semi-circular tower; 7–8. defensive salles; 9. polygonal tower; 10. barracks. ii. temple complex; iii. temple complex; iV. round temple; V. ceremonial altar with 12 steps; Vi. ceremonial altar.Fig. 33: Vani. architectural details and altars.Fig. 34: Vani. Mausoleum-type shrine.Fig. 35: colchian pottery of the end of the 7th–second half of the 4th centuries bc.Fig. 36: Vani. examples of work of colchian goldsmiths.Fig. 37: Vani. general plan of the temple complex on the lower terrace.Fig. 38: Vani. ritual place of the temple complex on the lower terrace. colchian amphorae from greenish layer.Fig. 39: a colchian settlement according to ps.-hippocrates. reconstruction. i. plan of man-made hill; ii. section.Fig. 40: clay model of colchian house of the end of the bronze age–early iron age.Fig. 41: namcheduri. artifical hill in background; marsh in foreground.Fig. 42: namcheduri. 1. stratigraphy (1: sterile level; 2: habitation level; 3: log building; 4: palisade); 2. plan of ‘namcheduri V’.Fig. 43: simagre. View of remains of log houses.Fig. 44: colchian wooden architecture of the 6th–4th centuries bc. 1. colchian dwell-ing house according to Vitruvius; 2. plan of dwelling of the 6th century bc, simagre; 3. plan of shrine of the 5th–4th centuries bc, Vani; 4. plan of fortification construction (tower) of the 5th–4th centuries bc.Fig. 45: scythian and scythian-type bronze and iron arrowheads from various burials in georgia.Fig. 46: Akinakes from various burials in georgia (after pirtskhalava 1995, 54, fig. 1).Fig. 47: different scythian objects from georgia. 1. iron battleaxes with hammer-like backs; 2. iron battleaxes; 3. bronze bits with iron psalia from the kulanurkhva necropolis; 4 bronze bits with bone psalia from the tli necropolis.


xxii list of illustrations

Fig. 48: bronze and bone scabbard chapes from georgia.Fig. 49: Map showing scythian movement southwards through the caucasus.Fig. 50: Map showing scythian movement northwards through the caucasus.Fig. 51: distribution map of scythian objects in georgia.Fig. 52: Vani. silver phiale, beginning of the 3rd century bc.Fig. 53: 1. sairkhe: gold bridle ornaments, second half of the 5th century bc; 2. gold cheek-plate wuth a depiction of ahuramazda; 3. Vani: silver phiale, beginning of the 3rd century bc; 4. akhul-abaa: silver phiale, 3rd century bc; 5. Vani: iron armour scales, 4th century bc.Fig. 54: sairkhe. bronze bridle bits, types 1 and 2, second half of the 5th century bc.Fig. 55: 1. Mtisdziri: silver rhyton, 4th century bc; 2. sairkhe: glass phiale, second half of the 5th century bc.Fig. 56: rhyton from gomi.


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