the city in space and time the human mosaic chapter 10
TRANSCRIPT
The City in Space and Time
The Human Mosaic
Chapter 10
Introduction
Imagine humankind’s sojourn on Earth as a 24-hour day Settlements of more than a hundred people
are only about a half-hour old Towns and cities emerged only a few minutes
ago Large-scale urbanization began less than 60
seconds ago
Introduction
Urbanization in the last 200 years has strengthened links between culture, society, and the city “Urban explosion” has gone hand in hand with
the industrial revolution Estimates demonstrate the world’s urban
population more than doubled since 1950 Urban population doubled again by 2000 Over 50 percent of Earth’s population live in
cities
Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil
Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil
Sao Paulo epitomizes the dynamics of urbanization, especially capitalism. Starting as a coffee exporting center, it had less than 32000 inhabitants by 1872. Today metropolitan Sao Paulo is a primate city of more than 20 million. Economic development and flat land engendered population increase and sprawl, rising land costs in the center, and a boom in construction.
Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil
Economic success is denoted by the high-rises which are a mix of industrial, commercial and professional office blocks, as well as apartment complexes. City planning is only a recent phenomenon. Rural to urban migration is a serious problem and the city’s rapid growth has outstripped its ability to provide jobs, housing and adequate services.
Culture regions
Urban Culture Region Origin and Diffusion of the City Evolution of Urban Landscapes The Ecology of Urban Location Cultural Integration in Urban Geography
Problem of recognizing urban regions
Urbanized population—percentage of a nation’s population living in towns and cities
Striking urbanization difference between countries Some close to 90 percent Others less than 20 percent
Culture regions can be based on varying rates of urbanization
We have a pattern of “urban” versus “rural” countries
Problem of recognizing urban regions
Within each nation, we can delimit formal and functional culture regions separating urban and rural domains
There is no agreed-upon international definition of what constitutes a city India defines an urban center as 5,000 inhabitants,
with adult males employed primarily in nonagricultural work
The United States Census Bureau defines a city as a densely populated area of 2,500 people or more
South Africa counts as a city any settlement of 500 or more people
Problem of recognizing urban regions
Some countries revise definitions of urban settlements to suit specific purposes
China revised its census definitions with criteria that vary from province to province causing their urban population to swell by 13 percent in 1983
Generalizations
Generalizations made about the differences in the world’s urbanized population
Highly industrialized countries have higher rates of urbanized population than do less-developed countries
Developing countries are rapidly urbanizing Caused by massive migration away from the
country People flock to the cities searching for a better
life
Generalizations
Developing countries are rapidly urbanizing City migration is often driven by desperation,
as rural supply systems collapse For newcomers to the cities, unemployment rates
are often over 50 percent
One of the world’s ongoing crises will be this radical restructuring of population and culture as people move into the cities
Generalizations
Urban growth comes from two sources Migration of people to the cities Higher natural population growth rates for
recent migrants Because employment is unreliable, large families
construct a more extensive family support system Increases the chances of someone getting work Smaller families when a certain dimension of
security is ensured Smaller families often occur when women enter
the work force
World cities
Cities over 5 million in population Over half of the world’s 20 largest cities are in
the developing world Thirty years ago, the list of world cities was
dominated by Western, industrialized cities Now the list is even more dominated by the
developing world
World cities
Mexico City’s growth is linked to Mexico’s oil industry
Some countries are trying to regulate urban growth Problems with transportation, housing, and
employment Failure or success of these policies will
influence city size in the next ten to twenty years
China closely regulates urban growth
World cities
Accurate population projections are evasive because they depend on variables
Primate city — a settlement city that dominates the economic, political, and cultural life of a country The target for much urban migration Rapid growth expands its primacy, or dominance Example of Mexico City — far exceeds Guadalajara,
the second-largest city in Mexico, in size and importance
Many developing countries are dominated by a primate city, which was often a former center of colonial power
Primate cities are also found in developed countries —London and Paris
Culture regions
Urban Culture Region Origin and Diffusion of the City Evolution of Urban Landscapes The Ecology of Urban Location Cultural Integration in Urban Geography
The first cities
In seeking explanation for the origin of cities, we find a relationship between: Areas of early agriculture Permanent village settlement The development of new social forms Urban life
Early people were nomadic hunters and gatherers who constantly moved
The first cities
As they became increasingly efficient in gathering resources, their campsites became semi-permanent
As quantities of domesticated plants and animals increased settlement became more permanent
The first cities appeared in the Middle East Developed about ten thousand years ago Farming villages modest in size, rarely with more than
200 people Probably organized on a kinship basis
The first cities
The first cities appeared in the Middle East Probably organized on a kinship basis Jarmo, one of the earliest villages
Located in present-day Iraq Had 25 permanent dwellings clustered near grain
storage facilities Lacked plows, but cultivated local grains — wheat and
barley Domestic dogs, goats, and sheep may have been
used for meat Food supplies augmented by hunting and gathering
The first cities
In agricultural villages, all inhabitants were involved in some way in food procurement
Cities were more removed, physically and psychologically, from everyday agricultural activities Food was supplied to the city Not all city dwellers were involved in actual
farming Another class of city dwellers supplied
services — such as technical skills, and religious interpretation
The first cities
Two elements were crucial to this social change Generation of agricultural surplus prerequisite for
supporting nonfarmers Stratified social system
Meaning the existence of distinct elite and lower classes
Facilitates the collection, storage, and distribution of resources
Well-defined channels of authority that exercise control over goods and people
These two set the stage for urbanization
Models for the rise of cities
Technical The hydraulic civilization model, developed by
Karl Wittfogel Large-scale irrigation systems as prime mover
behind urbanization Higher crop yields resulted Food surplus supported development of a large
nonfarming population Strong, centralized government, backed by an
urban-based military Farmers who resisted new authority were denied
water
Models for the rise of cities
Technical The hydraulic civilization model, developed by Karl
Wittfogel Power elite needed for organizational coordination to
ensure continued operation of the irrigation system Labor specialization developed
The hydraulic model cannot be applied to all urban hearths
Urban civilization blossomed without irrigation in parts of Mesoamerica
The question of how or why a culture might first develop irrigation
Models for the rise of cities
Religious Paul Wheatley suggests religion was the motivating
factor behind urbanization Knowledge of meteorological and climatic conditions
was considered to be within the domain of religion Religious leaders decided when and how to plant crops Successful harvests led to more support for this
priestly class Priestly class exercised political and social control that
held the city together In this scenario, cities are religious spaces functioning
as ceremonial centers First urban clusters and fortification seen as defenses
against spiritual demons or souls of the dead
Models for the rise of cities
Multiple factors Distinction between economic, religious, and political
functions were not always clear A king may have functioned as priest, healer,
astronomer, and scribe In some ways secular and spiritual power was fused Attempting to isolate one trigger to urbanization is
difficult, if not impossible It would be wiser to accept the role of multiple factors
behind the changes leading to urban life Technical, religious, and political forces were often
interlinked
Urban hearth areas
Where the first cities appeared, for example: Mesopotamia The Nile Valley Pakistan’s Indus River Valley The Yellow River valley (or Huang Ho) in
China Mesoamerica
Next slide gives general dates of urban life emergence for each region
Urban hearth areas
Generally agreed first cities arose in Mesopotamia River valley of the Tigris and Euphrates in what is now
Iraq Cities, small by current standards, covered one-half to
two square miles Populations rarely exceeded 30,000 Densities could reach 10,000 per square mile —
comparable to today’s cities Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities,
exhibited three spatial characteristics
Urban hearth areas
Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities, exhibited three spatial characteristics Great importance accorded the symbolic center of the
city, which was thought to be the center of the known world
Often demarcated by a vertical structure of monumental scale representing the point on Earth closest to the heavens
This symbolic center, or axis mundi, took different forms
The ziggurat in Mesopotamia The palace or temple in China The pyramid in Egypt and Mesoamerica The Stupa in the Indus Valley
Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China
Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China
This is the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the most important ceremonial building in Beijing’s Forbidden City. The hall is set upon an auspicious number of three tiers. From the Gate of Supreme Harmony, the emperor would be carried on his palanquin above the “dragon pavement,” carved with his dragon and other auspicious symbols such as waves, mountains and clouds.
Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China
The Forbidden City marked the inner sanctum of the Imperial city, a model of harmony and moral order expressing the Will of Heaven.
Ritual and cosmic correctness was imbued in city form through divination and orientation; cardinal axiality and concentricity; and, square configuration defined by walls and gates.
Urban hearth areas
Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities, exhibited three spatial characteristics In Mesopotamia, this area was known as the
citadel and housed the elite who lived in relative luxury
Streets were paved, drains and running water were provided
Private sleeping quarters, bathtubs, and water closets were provided
Privileges did not extend to the city as a whole
Urban hearth areas
Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities, exhibited three spatial characteristics The city was oriented toward the four cardinal
directions Geometric form of city would reflect the order of the
universe Walls around the city delimited the known and ordered
world from the outside chaos Attempt to shape the form of the city according to the
form of the universe Thought essential to maintain harmony between
human and spiritual worlds Example of Ankor Thorn in India
Urban hearth areas
Life in Mesopotamia’s early cities from archaeological evidence Dense housing, located just outside the citadel, was
one or two stories tall composed of clay brick, and contained three or four rooms
Narrow unsurfaced streets had no drainage, and served as the community dump
At Ur, excavations show that garbage levels rose so high, new entrances were cut into second stories of the houses
Just inside the city wall, huts of mud and reed housed the lower classes
Urban hearth areas
Early cities of the Nile were not walled, suggesting a regional power structure kept cities from warring with each other
In the Indus Valley, Mohenjo-Daro was laid out in a grid that consisted of 16 large blocks
The most important variations in living conditions occurred in Mesoamerica Cities were less dense and covered large areas Cities arose without benefit of the wheel, plow,
metallurgy, and draft animals Domestication of maize compensated for technological
shortcomings Maize yields several crops a year without irrigation in
tropical climates
The diffusion of the city from hearth areas The two hypotheses of how cities spread in
prehistoric times Cities evolved spontaneously as native peoples
created new technologies and social institutions Preconditions for urban life are too specific for most
cultures to invent without contact with other urban areas
People must have learned these traits through contact with city dwellers
This scenario emphasized the diffusion of ideas and techniques
The diffusion of the city from hearth areas Diffusionists believe ideas and techniques from
Mesopotamia were shared with people in the Nile and the Indus River valley Archaeological evidence documents trade ties between
the three regions Soapstone objects made in Tepe Yahyã, 500 miles
east of Mesopotamia, have been found in ruins of both Mesopotamia and Indus Valley cities
Indus Valley writing and seals have been found in Mesopotamian urban sites
An alternate view is that trading took place only after these cities were well established
The diffusion of the city from hearth areas There is evidence of contacts across the
oceans between early urban dwellers of the New World and those of Asia and Africa Unclear if this means urbanization was
diffused to Mesoamerica Maybe some trade routes existed between
these peoples
The diffusion of the city from hearth areas Little doubt diffusion is responsible for the dispersal
of the city in historical times City used as vehicle for imperial expansion Urban life is carried outward in waves of conquest as
empires expand Initially, military controls newly won lands and sets up
collection points for local resources As collection points lose some military atmosphere
they begin to show the social diversity of a city Native people are slowly assimilated into the
settlement as workers and may eventually control the city
The process repeats itself as the empire pushes outward
The diffusion of the city from hearth areas Imposition of a foreign civilization on native peoples was often
met with resistance Examples of imperial city building dot history
Alexander the Great established at least 70 cities The Roman Empire built literally thousand of cities, changing
the face of Europe, North Africa, and Asia minor The Persians, the Maurya Empire of India, the Han
civilization of China, and the Greeks performed the same city-spreading task
In more recent times, European empires have used city resources to expand and consolidate their power in colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia
Expansion diffusion has been critical in dispersing urban life over the surface of the Earth
Culture regions
Urban Culture Region Origin and Diffusion of the City Evolution of Urban Landscapes The Ecology of Urban Location Cultural Integration in Urban Geography
Introduction
Patterns seen in the city today are a composite of past and present cultures
Two concepts underlie our examination of urban landscapes Urban morphology — physical form of the city,
which consists of street patterns, building sizes and shapes, architecture, and density
Functional zonation — refers to the pattern of land uses within a city, or existence of areas with differing functions
The Greek city
Western civilization and Western cities trace their roots to ancient Greece
By 600 B.C., over five hundred towns and cities existed on the Greek mainland and surrounding islands
With expansion, cities spread throughout the Mediterranean — to the north shore of Africa, to Spain, southern France, and Italy
Cities rarely had more than 5,000 inhabitants Athens may have reached 300,000 in the fifth century
B.C., including perhaps 100,000 slaves
The Greek city
Cities had two distinctive functional zones —the acropolis and the agora
The acropolis was similar in many ways to the citadel of Mesopotamian cities Had the temples of worship, storehouse of
valuables, and seat of power Served as a place of retreat in time of siege
The Greek city
The agora was the province of the citizens A place for public meetings, education, social
interaction, and judicial matters It was the civic center, the hub of democratic
life for Greek men Later, after the classical period, it became the
city’s major marketplace without losing its atmosphere of a social club
The Greek city
Physical separation of religious from secular functions implies the religious domain was no longer the only source of authority Temples were located on sacred sites chosen
to please the gods Temples were also sited and designed to
please the human eye and harmonize with the natural landscape
The Greek city
Tension created between the religious and secular created what many consider to be one of the greatest achievements of Western architecture
Earlier Greek cities probably grew spontaneously without formal guidelines Some think many ceremonial areas were
designed to be seen according to prescribed lines of vision
The human aesthetic was given a degree of authority not given in cosmomagical cities
The Greek city
In later Greek cities a more formalized city design and plan are apparent— example of Miletus in Ioma (present-day Turkey) Laid out in a rigid grid system imposing its geometry on
the physical site conditions Layout indicates an abstracted and highly rational
notion of urban life Seems to fit well with the functional needs of a colonial
city Grid system shows religious and aesthetic needs had
taken a secondary role to pressing demands of controlling an empire
Roman cities
Romans adopted many urban traits from the Greeks and the Etruscans, whom the Romans had conquered and absorbed in northern Italy
As the empire expanded, city life diffused into areas that had not previously experienced urbanization France, Germany, England, interior Spain, the
Alpine countries, and parts of eastern Europe
Roman cities
As the empire expanded, city life diffused into areas that had not previously experienced urbanization Most cities were established as military (castra) and
trading outposts Focal points for collection of local agricultural products Supply centers for the military Service centers for long-distance trading network
In England, the trail of city building can be found by looking for the suffixes -caster and -chester indicating cities founded as Roman camps
Roman cities
Roman city landscapes Gridiron street pattern was used in later Greek
cities — example of Pavia, Italy The forum — a zone combining elements of
the Greek acropolis and agora Placed at the intersection of a city’s two major
thoroughfares Temples of worship, administrative buildings ,
and warehouses Also libraries, schools, and marketplaces serving
the common people
Roman cities
Roman city landscapes Clustered around the forum were the palaces of the
power elite Sanitary, well heated in winter, and spacious Not until the twentieth century did such luxury again
exist Roman masses lived in shoddy apartment houses
Often four or five stories high, called insula System of aqueducts and underground sewers did not
extend to the poor Garbage of perhaps a million Romans was thrown into
open pits Even in its best days, Rome’s population was always
at the mercy of plagues
Roman cities
Rome’s most important legacy was the Roman method for choosing city sites Remains applicable today Consistently chose sites with transportation in mind Empire held together by a complicated system of roads
and highways In choosing a new site for settlement Romans first
considered access while other cultures placed emphasis on defensive locations
Numerous old Roman town sites were refounded centuries later — Paris, London, and Vienna
Roman cities
The Roman Empire was in major decline by A.D. 400 Cities and the highway system that linked
them fell into disrepair The administrative structure collapsed Outposts were either actively destroyed or
simply left to decay Within 200 years, many of the cities had
withered away
Roman cities
Some Roman cities in the Mediterranean area managed to survive Established trade with the Byzantine Empire After the eighth century, cities in Spain were
infused with new vigor by the Moorish Empire Cities in northern regions became small
villages Urban decline occurred only in areas that had
been under Roman rule
The medieval city
Medieval period lasted roughly from A.D. 1000 to 1500 Time of renewed urban expansion in Europe Urban life spread north and east in Europe Germanic and Slavic people expanded their
empires In only four centuries, 2,500 new German
“cities” were founded Most cities of present-day Europe were
founded during this period
The medieval city
Revival of local and long-distance trade resulted from a combination of factors Population increase Political stability and unification Agricultural expansion through new land reclamations New Agricultural technologies
Trading networks required protected markets and supply centers, functions that renewed life in cities
Long-distance trading led to the development of a new class of people — the merchant class
Medieval Town: Hirschhorn am Neckar, Germany
Medieval Town: Hirschhorn am Neckar, Germany This town reveals three
important features of urban morphology: castle, wall, and cathedral. Hirschhorn castle caps the summit of a fortified spur in the bend of the Neckar River, affording a clear view of the river and forested valley.
Medieval Town: Hirschhorn am Neckar, Germany Site factors have also
limited expansion forcing people to build onto the walls.
Half-timbering is evident in a number of buildings.
The medieval city
The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols The fortress
Usually cities were clustered around a fortified place
Reflected in place names — German -burg, French -bourg, English
-burgh all meaning a fortified castle The terms burgher and bourgeoisie, originally
referred to a citizen of the medieval city
The medieval city
The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols The fortress
Usually cities were clustered around a fortified place
Reflected in place names — German -burg, French -bourg, English
-burgh all meaning a fortified castle The terms burgher and bourgeoisie, originally
referred to a citizen of the medieval city
The medieval city
The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols The charter
Governmental decree from a regional power granting political autonomy to the town
Freed the population from feudal restrictions Made the city responsible for its own defense and
government Allowed cities to coin their own money These freedoms contributed to development of
urban social, economic, and intellectual life
The medieval city
The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols The wall
Symbol of the sharp distinction between country and city
Within the wall most inhabitants were free; outside most were serfs
People inside were able to move about with little restriction
Goods entering the gates were inspected and taxed
The medieval city
The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols The wall
Nonresidents were issued permits for entry, but often required to leave by sundown when the gates were shut
Suburbs called faubourgs sprang up, and in time demanded to be included into the city
If the suburbs were allowed to be part of the city, the wall was extended to include them
The medieval city
The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols The marketplace
Symbolized role of economic activities in the city City depended on the countryside for food and
produce was traded in the market Center for long-distance trade linking city to city
The medieval city
The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols The marketplace
At one end stood the fairly tall town hail Meeting space for city’s political leaders Market hail for storage and display of finer goods
Brugge, Belgium, had two distinct complexes of buildings at it center
Town hall and castle formed an enclosed square Next to this was the wasserho.lle, so named because the
building straddled a canal where goods could be directly brought directly in from barges
On adjacent edge of marketplace was the great ball that served as meeting spot for merchant class
The medieval city
The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols The cathedral
Usually the town’s crowning glory Symbol of the important role of the church Often close to the marketplace and town ball,
indicating close ties between religion, commerce, and politics
Church was often prevailing political force
The medieval city
Problems created for contemporary urban life by medieval city morphology and landscape Streets were narrow, wandering lanes, rarely
more than 15 feet wide Today, in 141 German cities, 77 percent of
streets are too narrow for two- way traffic
The medieval city
Functional zonation of medieval cities differed from that of modern cities Divided into small quarters, or districts, each
containing its own cent that served as its focal point
Within each district lived people engaged in similar occupations
The medieval city
Functional zonation of medieval cities differed from that of modern cities Example of coopers — people who made and repaired
wooden barrels Attended the same church, and belonged to the same guild Church and guildhall were in the small center area of their
district Surrounding the center were their houses and workshops Many worked in the first story of their home and lived above the
shop Apprentices lived above the shop owner
More prestigious groups lived in occupational districts near the city center
Those involved in noxious activities lived closer to city walls
The medieval city
Some districts were defined by ethnicity Jews were forced to live in their own district in
most medieval cities In Frankfurt am Main, they lived on the
Judengasse, a street formed from the dried-up moat that had run along the old wall to the city
This area was enclosed by walls with only one guarded gate
The area was not allowed to expand, leading by 1610 to a population of 3,000 people and one of the densest districts in the city
The Renaissance and baroque periods
Form and function of the city changed significantly during the Renaissance (1500 — 1600) and baroque (1600-1800) periods
Absolute monarchs arose to preside over a unified nation-state Rising middle class slowly gave up their freedoms to
join with the king in pursuit of economic gain City size grew rapidly because bureaucracies of
regional power structures came to dominate them Trade patterns expanded with the beginning of
European imperial conquest City planning and military technology acted to remold
and constrain the physical form of the city
The Renaissance and baroque periods
A national capital city rose to prominence in most countries Provincial cities were subjected to its tastes Power was centralized in its precincts First office buildings were built to house a
growing bureaucracy Most important, it was restructured to reflect
the power of the central government and insure control over urban masses
Capitalism in the Renaissance City:Amsterdam, Netherlands
Capitalism in the Renaissance City:Amsterdam, Netherlands
Amsterdam has always been a commercial city. Situated where dike crossed the Amstel, its harbor was easily accessed from the sea. Essentially at sea level, its quays and streets were flanked by canals.
It flourished as a trading center and by the 17th century, had an extensive collection of warehouses and the largest public bank in northern Europe.
Capitalism in the Renaissance City:Amsterdam, Netherlands
As the city prospered, the walls were expanded and new canals dug to line residential streets designated for a prestigious, residential neighborhood with 30 foot (9.1 meter) lots.
These 17th century merchant homes are only 20 feet (6.1 meters) wide because speculators purchased two 30 foot lots and sold them as three 20 foot lots. The upper story was used for storage of goods.
The Renaissance and baroque periods
Height of baroque planning between 1600 and 1800
During the 1800s, Napoleon III carried out a building plan in Paris Cobblestone streets carefully paved to prevent
loose ammunition for rioting Parisians Streets were straightened and widened, and
cul-de-sacs broken down to give army space to maneuver
Baroque Planning: Paris, France
Parisians were always conscious of the beauty of the Seine and exploited it in the 16h and 17th centuries with bridges and promenades along its banks. These highlights aside, in 1840 the city remained a warren of narrow, filthy and crowded streets.
But under the direction of Napoleon III and Baron Haussman, much of the city was transformed.
Baroque Planning: Paris, France Masses of people were
displaced as boulevards and avenues, squares and parks, bazaars and arcades, and luxurious housing blocks were installed.
The 19th century was also an era of exhibitions where nations showed off their art and technology to the world.
In 1889, Paris displayed Gustave Eiffel’s tower, the world’s highest structure, testament to the age of iron and steel.
The photo is taken from Ile de la Cite, Parish’ original island site in the Seine River.
Baroque Planning: Paris, France
The Renaissance and baroque periods
Thousands were displaced as apartment buildings were demolished
Many ended up in congested working-class sections of east and north Paris
The east and north sections are still crowded today In these developments, we see the coming modern
city Washington, D.C., originally designed by a French
planner