the driving force behind collegiate football_ middle managers
TRANSCRIPT
Running Head: COLLEGE FOOTBALL 1
The Driving Force Behind Collegiate Football: Middle Managers
Luis Nevarez Jr.
Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism
University of Southern California
Paper submitted fulfillment of requirements for
CMGT 597: Uses of Communication Research
Spring 2015
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Abstract
The purpose of this study was to identify leadership styles, motivational approaches, and
adaptation to culture change amongst middle management in a collegiate football
program. Transitioning through 4 head coaches in the span of 7 months, the University of
Southern California (USC) Football Program experienced a drastic culture adjustment.
To obtain insight into the program and retrieve rich data, ten face-to-face interviews
were conducted with middle managers in the football program (strength coaches, athletic
medicine, and academic advisors). Upon obtaining a 66% participation rate amongst
middle managers, data was collected and transcribed. Several common themes were
prominent within the findings: (a) The ability to recognize and evaluate the strength of
their current culture and the necessary procedure to improve their culture, (b) participants
adapting to a new leadership presented by the head coach, and (c) the importance of
applying the necessary leadership and motivational style for the success of the student
athlete. These themes are further discussed, and recommendations for middle
managers are presented.
The Landscape of Collegiate Football
The competitive nature of this country is contagious, American universities are in an
arms race to hire prominent college coaches, increase financial contributions, and expand athletic
facilities. According to journalist Laura Pappano’s (2012) examination of college football,
“Between 1985 and 2010, average salaries at public universities in the U.S. rose 32 percent for
professors, 90 percent for presidents and 650 percent for football coaches”(p.1). College football
is the lucrative workhorse behind a limitless multibillion-dollar industry. Brian Goff, economics
professor at Western Kentucky University, believes America has yet to witness the forthcoming
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of collegiate football. “We thought college football was big time 30 years ago, in some ways it
was just getting going” (Lavigne, 2014).
The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) states that 128 universities
compete in the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), the highest competitive level of collegiate
football. The schools are divided into 12 conferences according to geographical location,
academic prestige, and competitive ranking. Capturing the conference championship allows a
program to compete for a post-season game or national championship. The result increases
university revenue. Football is the most sought after program in the athletic department regarding
revenue. At most schools, the success of the football team is an avenue to reach out to alumni,
donors, and fans. (Humphreys & Mondello, 2007)
Universities in the southern region of the United States are notorious for enhancing the
game day experience into a social event. Tailgate parties of alumni, students, and fans fill the
parking lots before and after games. The University of Texas, Alabama, Oklahoma, and
Louisiana State fill their stadiums to a capacity of 100,000 fans for seven Saturdays in the fall,
embracing the college football culture. Tim Brando, who broadcasted games in the Southeastern
Conference (SEC) for decades, still possesses vivid images of the loyalty to the university, “I
think they identify themselves as human beings by where they're from or what the state school
represents” (Kersey, 2013, p.1).
The person at the head of the athletic department is the athletic director. This position
oversees all sports within the department. It is a dynamic position that supervises athletic staff,
appoints and terminates head coaches, and maintains compliance. Every head coach within the
department reports team evaluations, violations, and whatever they believe is essential to
comprise a winning team to the athletic director. From 2000-2013, the University of Texas (UT)
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attended two national championship games and several Bowl Championship Series (BCS)
games. Before the introduction of the college football playoff system, BCS games were awarded
to the top six schools with the best record at the end of the football season. In 2011, the
universities faced financial issues regarding academia and were forced to cut jobs of professors,
eliminate courses, and increase class size. Meanwhile, $600 million dollars were allotted into
stadium renovations to increase stadium capacity, newly constructed indoor practice facilities
including a 20,000 square foot extension to the previous weight room, and a player’s lounge
featuring tablets, video boards, and a nutrition station. Concluding the 2013 fiscal year, USA
Today released the total revenue numbers of 230 universities. Texas remained alone at the top,
producing $165,691,486 in revenue (Berkowitz, 2014). Former Head coach Mack Brown, who
held the reigns to the program during the university’s revenue downpour, believes the money
was allocated correctly, “I think, when we make it, we have a right to spend it, that's the way
America said it is” (Wieberg, 2012, p.1).
A consistent winning record and revenue stream requires the athletic director to appoint a
head coach they believe emulates the university and department’s culture. It is a result-oriented
business, and unfortunately many coaches struggle to remain above water. Failing to produce a
winning product leads to termination, decreased donations, and ticket sales. Disregarding the
academic standards or increase in classroom sizes, football reigns supreme on FBS college
campuses. Amidst a statewide budget crisis in 2012, the University of California, Berkeley
remained one of the last athletic programs in the conference to upgrade athletic facilities. Former
head coach, Jeff Tedford was the state of California’s highest paid employee, but had only
captured one conference championship and failed to reach a BCS game. The state supported the
university by obtaining a $321 million dollar price tag to upgrade their athletic facilities. Well
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short of the intended $474 million dollar project, the university searched for alternative sources
and thus began tapping into student funds, increasing tuition and ticket fees. Former national
champion college football coach Phillip Fulmer has witnessed the commitments universities are
taking to football programs and has been quoted saying,” The stadiums have gotten bigger, and
you've got more really, really quality coaches in this league right now maybe more than ever”
(Kersey, 2013, p.1).
Perfection is a priority for Nick Saban, head coach at the University of Alabama. He has
captured four national championships and produced countless professional players. At the
beginning of the 2014 season, Saban renegotiated his contract. USA Today reported Saban will
earn “$6.9 million for the next 9 seasons” (Berkowitz, 2014). Dr. Robert Witt, Alabama's
chancellor believes the hire of a Nobel Prize winning professor and Coach Saban are
incomparable, “Nick Saban's the best financial investment this university has ever made. We
have made an investment that's been returned many-fold” (Berkowitz, 2014). Saban’s success
brought the athletic department $143 million dollars of revenue during the 2013 fiscal year.
Saban and Tedford are not alone when it comes to being recognized as the state’s highest paid
public employees. Deadspin Sports 2013 study regarding football coaches’ salaries, found “the
highest paid public employee in 27 of the 50 U.S. states belongs to the football coach” (Fischer-
Baum, 2013).
Television networks fight over the opportunity to gain viewing rights of multibillion-
dollar athletic departments. In 2012, Larry Scott, commissioner of the PAC 12 conference struck
a 12 year, $3 billion dollar contract with Fox, ESPN, and the creation of a conference television
network. (NY Times) The 12 universities that comprise the conference will be allocated 3 to 4
million dollars annually over the next 12 years. Scott viewed this opportunity to not only bring
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exposure to the conference, but allow fans behind-the-scenes access "A very, very high priority
throughout this process was improving the exposure, if anything, from a competitive standpoint,"
Scott said. "That was always paramount. We're committed to utilizing the platforms that would
get us that full national distribution" (Henderson, p.1). College football programs are the central
supporters of non-revenue sports (i.e. swimming, lacrosse, golf). Team budgets, new athletic
facilities, and tickets sales are controlled by the success of the football program. According to
Michigan athletic director, Dave Brandon, “Of the $133 million dollars that support all 29 sports,
about 75 percent or roughly 90 million is comprised through football” (Keteyian, 2012, p.1).
Head coaches multibillion dollar contracts and athletic directors are responsible for producing a
lucrative athletic department.
While head coaches and athletic directors acquire the publicity and attention of the
athletic department, a critical component is still being overlooked. Middle management positions
are imperative to team success. Assistant coaches, strength and conditioning coaches, graduate
assistants, academic advisors, and medical staff are the true heartbeat behind this multibillion-
dollar corporation of college football. They dedicate more hours to the program yet receive
minimum recognition. While they may not hold a position of power, they still possess influence,
leadership, and motivation to student athletes. It is imperative to understand what leadership and
motivational styles middle management position practice to exhaust effort and talent from their
student athletes.
The subsequent literature review will begin with understanding organizational culture and
the importance of establishing a set of norms that are adhere from all middle management
positions. After discussing culture, the literature review will concentrate on extrinsic and
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intrinsic motivation, followed by leadership theories and applying the appropriate style regarding
situations and followers. Finally, a review and questions will be proposed.
Literature Review
Culture
Organizational culture. A revolving door of new administrators and coaches is recurrent
throughout collegiate athletics. Failure to produce a winning program results in turnover,
followed by a new regime with the anticipated winning formula. However, successful coaches
are not the only ones being replaced. Athletic departments that breed success derive promotion,
vacancies, and expansion. Thus, new personnel bring altered attitudes, beliefs, and expectations.
Culture change within organizations leaves associates perplexed of the vision and expectations of
the company’s objective. Organizational culture crafts expectations and the progression of
company associates. Doctor Bruce Tharp (2009) has studied the importance and impact cultures
have among organizations and has emphasized how, “Organizational culture is commonly
increasingly understood as a company asset to increase business performance. Evaluating and
understanding organizational culture holds the best promise for corporate leadership” (p.2).
Before proceeding, it is imperative to define culture and the significance it holds within an
organization.
Culture as a concept. The term culture encompasses an array of definitions. Within an
organization, culture not only dictates attitudes and beliefs of the company but also demonstrates
how the organization handles adversity. Tharp states that culture is, “The “glue” that holds an
organization together and for others, the “compass” that provides directions” (2009, p.2).
Wallace and Weese (1995, p.183) believe culture is, “deep rooted beliefs, values, and
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assumptions widely shared by organizational members that powerfully shape the identity and
behavioral norms for the group”. Culture is the driving force to uniting associates towards a
common goal and identity.
Establishing culture in the workplace. Leadership and hierarchy of any organization is
a mere reflection of their culture. The CEO, president, or individual leading the department
establishes expectations, standards, and behaviors that demonstrate the objective of the
organization. “An organization norms and values aren’t formed through speeches but through
actions and team learning” (Jain, 2012, p.43). Collegiate football programs are a reflection of the
philosophies and leadership styles of the athletic director and head coach. For example, a new
athletic director may acquire an athletic department deficient in discipline or production issues.
Recognizing the personnel within the organization and what motivates them to perform to their
best ability is imperative before making decisions regarding changes. “Effective organizations
empower and engage their people, build their organization around teams, and develop human
capabilities at all levels” (Jain, 2012, p.51). They establish a clear vision and goals that everyone
understands.
Dealing with change in the culture. A great leader knows how to unite other cultures
and personalities. They strive to improve the atmosphere. Unfortunately, not all associates
embrace the culture change. They resist change due to personal attachment to the previous staff.
Those who do not feel embraced or attached depart or speak negatively regarding the
organization. Changing a culture requires team contribution to receive the purposed outcome.
Jain (2012) recommends applying the TQM (total quality management) approach in effort of
culture change, “This approach allows company leaders to meet with middle managers regarding
their personal efforts and try to establish a sense of excitement about approach work in a new
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way” (p.48). Team building activities, expressing empathy, and open communication to solve
issues, displays appreciation for contribution to the organization. Displaying a sense of
appreciation increases culture strength, goals are common and everyone feels a part of the same
objective. “Culture appreciation, in which employees are recognized for their efforts, helps
employees understand how their contribution helps the company. Revisiting the core of the
company and what we believe in” (Jain, 2013, p.45). Dealing with culture change also brings
forth the opportunity to identify the culture type that is appropriate for success.
Culture types. Understanding the importance of culture is imperative to the success of
any organization. Tharp believes, "The key to using culture to improve performance lies in
matching culture or attributes to organizational goals" (Tharp, 2009, p.3) before an organization
can set a goal or vision for their organization. They must recognize the strength and weaknesses
of their culture, and opportunities to succeed. Kim Cameron and Robert Quinn (1999)
formulated culture into 4 types: control, compete, collaborate, and create. The ability to apply the
ideal type to compliment personalities and work ethic will help the culture function at a high
level.
Control (Hierarchy). Held together through rankings, protocols, and policies. This style
is prominent among militaries. Similar to a pyramid scheme in which, “Effective leaders are
those that can organize, coordinate, and monitor people" (Tharp, 2009, p.3) Effective managers
within this style impose an autocratic leadership style and suffer from understanding
personalities of their colleagues. While organization and following protocols is imperative to
middle managers success. Excessive control of a situation or student athletes life can create
animosity and a sense of unattached from the organizations vision.
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Compete (Market). This style would be parallel to a collegiate football program. The
compete culture is characterized by organization’s that place emphasis on a competitive nature
seeking positive results. Employees within this style have resilient work ethic and demand
perfection. "Competitiveness through emphasis on partnerships and positioning" (Tharp,
2009,p.3). Competing and representing an organization breeds unity and comradery. They
compare their product to others and strategize to become unique. Success breads opportunity for
expansion. The ability for middle managers to shift this competitive nature breeds within their
roles, demonstrates the significance of actions they take forth. For example, academic advisors
demanding and rewarding student athletes to compete amongst their peers or themselves for
progression of grades every semester, challenging students to partake in spring and summer
internships. Competition is natural with student athletes. However, the ability to apply it in
different aspects of life depends on middle managers ability to promote its value off the field.
Although too much competition can divide an organization through individualism.
Collaborate (Clan). Contrasting the competitive nature of the competitive style.
Collaboration emphasizes a positive, family atmosphere in which employees show empathy for
one another. "The organization places a premium on teamwork, participation, and consensus"
(Tharp, 2009, p.5). Associates seek to avoid conflict and place a premium on growing as a group.
This style would most likely be incorporated by a new administrator in an effort to win over the
players and avoid hostility.
Create (adhocracy). Innovation, technology, and entrepreneurs fall underneath the
creative type. Organization thrive upon "Their ability to quickly develop new services and
capture market share" (Tharp, 2009, p.4) Companies value success in producing cutting edge
projects that lead in innovation.
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Frequent administration and coaching transitions have the ability to create culture
disorder. Every individual has a role that impacts the organization, not recognizing the
importance of culture within an organization or what style fits the organization forbids the
opportunity to create a vision or progress. Middle managers must remain intact to what has
brought success in their role. Collectively, middle managers can motivate and lead student
athletes to personal and organizational success.
Motivation
Discovering the spark that initiates motivation in a student athlete to perform an
assignment at an optimal level. Former United States President Eisenhower (1954) believed
motivation is, “The art of getting people to do what you want them to do because they want to do
it”(p.1). For coaches this task is rather simple when collegiate football players are participating
in an activity they are passionate about. However, middle managements positions can struggle
when the assignment is not intriguing for the athlete. Athletes began to question the purpose or
benefit of the assigned task. Altering this disbelief and instilling confidence begins with
motivation from middle managers. The ability to find a correlation with the athlete is and why
they strive to excel in their sport is instrumental. For example, does an individual participate
because they have passion for the craft, or are they seeking a reward as a result of success? This
section of motivation will discuss Self-Determination Theory, as well as intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation.
Self-determination theory. According to the theory of Self-determination developed by
Psychologists Richard Ryan and Edward Deci, the human spirit at optimal level is “striving to
learn, master new skills, and apply their talents responsibly.” (Deci & Ryan, 2002, p.68) But
reaching this state of mind can become an issue for individuals seeking alternative rewards.
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Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are factors that derive from the individual to perform an
objective. Extrinsic motivation, relates to motivations outside the desired passion. Motivation to
receive an external award or avoid punishment are the motives for participation. The motivation
lacks authenticity and the individual is seeking attention for his or herself. For example, the
professional athlete that participates in a multitude of community service events, and continually
shares it on social media. The athlete is seeking self-promotion and searching for recognition and
rewards of others. This individual lacks authenticity of the contribution and would rather receive
recognition and acknowledgments. Intrinsic motivation, is inherent satisfaction or the desire to
succeed. “Engaging in an activity for the pleasure and satisfaction derived from the activity
itself” (Deci & Ryan,1985, p.20) . For example, a student that is in a relentless pursuit to gain a
competitive edge. Finds endless ways to improve, and cannot envision themselves away from
what they enjoy. According to Verlland & Losier, “Intrinsically motivated individuals are more
likely to choose to participate and work when extrinsic rewards and reinforcements are not
available” (1999, p.21). They participate in what they are passionate about, regardless of the
outcome.
Self Determination Theory and intrinsic motivation affect one another, Ryan and Decci
believe the three methods that motivate human participation are: “competence, relatedness or
connection, and autonomy”. The need for competence represents the ability to practice and
master a skill. The need for autonomy demonstrates the freedom of choice and ability to control
their destiny. The need for relatedness or connection is having a sense of belonging and
contribution. An individual that leaves one of the three absent yet still participates, lacks self-
determination.
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Behavior of middle management. The behavior and interaction of middle management
positions among athletes is instrumental to motivation. How well a student feels connected to the
strength coach, academic advisor, or graduate assistant will determine their ability to motivate
the individual. According Amrose and Horn’s study intrinsic motivation theory, “High levels of
intrinsic motivation were associated with athletes who perceived their coaches to exhibit a
leadership style that emphasized training and instruction, high in democratic behavior and low in
autocratic behavior, and also provided frequent positive and informational-based feedbacks.”
(2000, p.21) Collegiate athletes do not view middle management positions as figures of
authority. Therefore, the approach one must take differs from a head coach or athletic director.
The ability to incorporate the 3 methods of the SDT theory are imperative from a middle
management perspective. “The athlete’s perceptions of their coach’s leadership style will
indirectly associate with the athletes intrinsic motivation” (Ryan & Deci, 2002, p.21).
Relatedness, the ability to share similar experiences can motivate an individual to compete and
contribute. For example, if a counselor can elaborate on their experiences as a student athlete and
the adversity they overcame can become a motivating factor. Expressing Competence, remaining
positive with all situations. Inserting confidence in the student athlete, that they are willing and
have the potential to complete the task. Once the student athlete is confident and can connect
with the teacher, autonomy, giving the individual a selection on what they believe will increase
their ability and potential.
Middle Management positions allocate more time to collegiate football players than a
head coach or administrator. Therefore, their ability to find a connection and motivate students
plays dividends. The majority of collegiate football players want to play football and shy away
from academics or nutrition. The ability to instill motivation breads discipline, commitment, and
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strong habits. It is imperative for athletic administrators and coaches to recognize the middle
managers that surround their athletes and if their vision aligns with theirs.
Leadership Theories
Contingency theory. Contingency Theory is a leader match theory, with the objective of
matching leaders to appropriate situations (Fielder & Chemes, 1974). Leaders are evaluated on
how effective they can become within their environment. The term contingency, proposes how
effective the leader can connect with followers and fit the context. Administrator’s ability to
communicate with middle management is imperative to reaching success as an organization.
Understanding the personnel of middle management and applying their strengths where they are
needed assured that these individuals fit the context of the organizations vision. Although
Fiedler never applied his theory with athletic administrators or middle management positions, his
primary targets were military organizations. After analyzing what leaders fit best in the different
contexts, Fielder had the ability to apply leaders in position to be successful.
Leadership styles are designated as task motivated or relationship motivated (Fielder &
Chemes, 1974). One who is Task-motivated strives to achieve a goal, whereas relationship
motivated leader’s priority is to develop an interpersonal relationship with their followers.
Unlike a head coach or athletic director that may be task motivated to win a championship and
retain their position. Middle managers are relationship motivated, finding endless opportunities
to assist athletes and build a rapport. They are not extrinsically motivated, in search of a reward.
To measure style of leaders, Fielder created the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale.
Leaders with high scores were defined as relationship motivated while those with low scores
were described as task motivated. Contingency theory categorizes the situation of leaders into
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three factors: leader-member relations, task structure, and position power. “Leader-member
relations comprises of the group atmosphere, confidence, responsive attitudes of followers, and
attraction that is drawn to the leader” (Fielder & Chemes, 1974, p.124). This is determined by
the comfort level of players approaching middle managers for support and guidance. The ability
to sense the demand and perfection, or do they despise meeting with middle managers and feel
disconnected? The second situational variable, task structure, elaborates on effective
communication regarding the assigned task. Middle managers ability to exert confidence with
concise instructions demonstrate control of the situation. For example, a strength coach that
explains the training structure for the team before winter workouts instructs attire to be worn,
lifting schedule, and expectations. It demonstrates discipline, attention to detail, and control of
the assignment.
The third factor, position power, is the amount of authority a leader has to reward or
punish followers (Fiedler & Chemers, 1974). According to Fielder, “Position power is strong if a
person has the authority to hire or fire; power is weak if a person does not have authority to do
these things” (125). Disciplinary actions may not be their priority, but they are still a position of
authority for student athletes. Middle managers must also remain intact to their leadership
philosophy and role. They may not have the ability to select what players throw, catch or run the
ball on game days. But they can dictate who is eligible to participate due to academic eligibility,
physical rehabilitation, strength and conditioning on the field. Middle managers involvement of
the student athlete is vital to the contribution of an organization.
In measuring the LPC score through the three variables, one is able to predict how
effective the leader is in a particular setting. Contingency Theory places a strong emphasis on
matching leaders that fit a specific situation. All middle managers exhibit different leadership
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styles, hence this theory can assist middle managers to pair student athletes with the ideal leaders
to build a connection. Contingency theory can also be applied to expose a middle manager that is
ineffective in a selected position. Middle managers may display string work habits, but
misplaced within the organization that does not exhibit their leadership strengths. Applying and
understanding middle management strengths can determine where they can be repositioned to
impact an organization.
Situational approach. Widely used in the realms of leadership due to its effectiveness,
Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard developed the Situational Approach (1969). According to
Blanchard, effective leaders are those who can recognize what employees need and then adapt
their own style to meet those needs. When evaluating the situation, one must consider the
competence, skill set, and confidence of those the leader will be interacting with. This then
allows the leader to select an approach that is appropriate for the situation. The Situational
approach is split into four leadership styles: Delegating, Supportive, Coaching, and Directing.
Every style consists of the behavior pattern used in an attempt to influence another. It includes
Directive (task) behaviors and supportive (relationship) behaviors (Blanchard, 1985). Directive
(task) behavior, often one way communication, has the ability to establish goals and time lines.
Supportive (relationship) behaviors engage in two-way communication that seeks to address
issues and find a resolution together.
Directing style. This style is high directive and low in support. In this style, the leader
focuses on goal achievement by giving precise instructions and refraining from support during
the process, but maintains close supervision. Middle managers that have gained trust with their
student athletes apply this theory due to previous established trust or assignments. Applying this
type can assist with identification of student athletes who demand support to overcome adversity,
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or others that lack trust in accomplishing an assignment. Structure demands more attention than
support with this style.
Coaching style. The second style, coaching, is high directive and high behavior support.
This style requires middle managers to focus on achieving personal goals as well as the goals of
their followers. Middle managers provide encouragement by involving him or herself as part of
the common vision. However, this style still requires the leader to make the final decision. For
example, graduate assistant coaches may have a loose coaching style with the players and allow
them to give input periodically, but if his team needs to convert on a fourth down to win the
game, his confidence in making the decision to make the call lies within his power.
Supporting style. The supporting style requires the leader to take a high supportive and
low directive behavior. This approach allows the leader to use supportive tactics such as praise,
request for input, or feedback to accomplish a task. This style is often seen with a head coach
that has confidence in his coaching staff. The head coach still has day-to-day control, but he does
not micromanage everything they do or sit in every meeting seeking to disrupt the coach. The
supporting style allows coaches to feel confident to perform to their best ability, but when an
executive decision is needed the head coach will not hesitate to handle the situation.
Delegating style. The last style is the low supportive-low directive style, or delegating
approach. This style positions middle managers to meet with student athletes to find a common
goal, thus allowing the athlete to complete the task and take full responsibility for their actions.
By this stage a middle manager has formed an influential relationship. He or she has enough
confidence for the student athlete to take full responsibility of their players make mistakes.
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The situational approach can be applied at different levels in an organization. It can
apply to an athletic director meeting with administrators. A head coach discussing goals with
assistants of the staff, or perhaps middle managers overseeing a student athlete’s assignment.
Situational leadership allows middle managers to identify how well a student athlete can adapt
and develop to a specific style. The common correlations of leadership theories discussed in this
section deal with the ability to apply the appropriate leadership style regarding the situation.
Recognition of what motivates student athletes establishes a common connection, and increases
credibility for middle managers.
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Reflection
The literature review revealed the importance and contribution middle management
positions within a collegiate football program. Almost always unseen from external sources (i.e.
media, public, fans) middle managers spend the more time throughout the year with college
football players then coaches or administrators. However, understanding the approach every
middle manager selects dictates the success or failure to connect with their athletes. This study
seeks to address middle managers leadership styles and contribution to the culture of an
organization. With limited research and literature in regards to middle managers in collegiate
football programs. My study will explore unanswered questions within this field. In particular,
the following questions will be addressed:
RQ1: What is the importance of establishing a culture that aligns with the vision of the
organization?
RQ2: Do leadership styles differ with middle managers positions? If, so how do they adapt to
different situations and personnel?
RQ3: Do middle managers adapt their leadership style off the philosophy of the head coach, or
do they incorporate their personal style?
By answering these questions, I aspire to inform and understand middle management leadership
styles that are most effective regarding the situation.
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Purpose
The purpose of this study is to identify leadership and motivational styles of middle
management positions in Division 1 BCS (Bowl Championship Series) football programs.
Athletic directors and head coaches receive accolades for success and criticism for failure, but
infrequently appreciated are middle management positions within a football program. Strength
coaches, athletic trainers, equipment managers, academic advisors, graduate assistants, and
assistant coaches are several positions that contribute to the overall success of a football
program. But seldom taken into account when establishing a program is hanging the culture with
new administration. The ability to communicate and exert leadership is imperative for student
athlete’s feedback and contribution. This study will examine leadership styles and approaches of
middle management roles that position themselves for success.
Participants
Participants include 10 full time staff members of the University of Southern California
athletic department that contribute to the football program (1 female 9 male). Each participant is
required to have 3 or more years of experience in their current position or in the realm of
collegiate athletics.
Participant #1 Head Athletic Trainer (Russ Rumano) . 46 years old. Male. White. 23 years of
experience providing health care to USC student athletes.
Participant #2 Academic Learning Specialist. 53 years old. Female. White. 18 years of
experience assisting student athletes with learning disabilities.
Participant #3. Assistant Head coach. 40 years old. Male. Samoan. 15 years coaching at multiple
division one universities.
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Participant #4 Football Equipment Coordinator. 49 years old. Male. Latino. 15 years of
experience.
Participant #5 Football Equipment Coordinator. 52 years old. Male. Black. 12 years of
experiences within football equipment.
Participant #6 Assistant Athletic Trainer. 38 years old. Male. Latino. 11 years of experience
providing health care to USC student athletes.
Participant #7 Head Strength and Conditioning coach. 38 years old. Male. White. 11 years of
experience in collegiate strength and conditioning working in collegiate athletics.
Participant #8 Assistant Strength and conditioning coach. 33 years old. Male. Samoan. 7 years of
experience in collegiate athletics, former division one athlete.
Participant #9 Academic Advisor. 35 years old. Male. Latino. 5 years of experience assisting
student athlete’s academic progress, time management, class schedule.
Participant #10 Graduate Assistant Coach. 29 years old. Black. Male. 5 years of experience
coaching at the collegiate level.
Procedure
All interviews will be conducted in the participants working space (John Mckay athletic
facility). A setting that the participant is comfortable in is imperative to comfort level and the
opportunity to disclose personal information. Participants will be interviewed in order of their
work experience with student athletes in collegiate athletics (most to least).
Measurements
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Every interview will be conducted for 40-45 minutes based on the questions I have
created. Interviews have been pre-arranged in the office or work setting of the participant. The
interview will be audio recorded with the consent of the participant to remain confidential. A
manual transcript will precede the interview to further investigate similarities and differences of
leadership approaches, styles, and modifications to their approach regarding administration
changes. Sample question, Organizational culture is imperative to the success of middle
managers. Do you ever evaluate the strength of your culture in regards to communication and
holding a common vision with your colleagues? Measurements of similarities and differences
within leadership styles and positions will also be recorded to perceive what has been most
effective.
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Discussion
The initial purpose of this study was to evaluate middle management positions
encountering executive (head coach) of strategies or theories they exercised or failed to exert to
improve the culture of the program. Upon concluding and transcribing the data, the findings were
evident. Every participant evaluated the culture of their organization on a daily or weekly basis,
and recognized that the executive of the program dictates the culture and objectives. 80% of the
participants were involved with the coaching transition within the past two years and recognized
the importance of maintaining a strong culture throughout the change. Participants with vast
middle management experience shared examples of colleagues that resisted change to new
executives due to ambiguity with the previous staff. These individuals were accustomed to their
personal beliefs and refrained from adapting to the new culture. Current middle managers
supported Jain’s theory that, “Effective organizations empower and engage their people, and
develop human capabilities at all levels” (Jain, 2012, p.51). Participants confirmed that the
current executive seeks to incorporate all levels of the organization in functions and activities.
The second purpose of this study was to discern middle manager’s approach in building
rapport and trust with student athletes. Initially the notion before the interview was that middle
managers lead with one style, demanding the student athlete follow suit. Resistance to follow
would present disciplinary action or removal from the program. After all, American football is an
alpha male sport and demonstrating empathy could present a glimpse of weakness. This notion
was debunked by every participant interviewed. Middle managers consistently explained that
every student athlete possesses a unique learning style and to remain effective, it is the duty of
the middle manager to find it and work steadily to assist the student athlete and build rapport.
Approaching every student athlete with a unique style further supports Blanchard and Hersey’s
24
(1969) situational approach. In this study, the directing and coaching styles were most effective
with middle managers and student athletes. However, participants did agree that if an executive
enforced policies such as missing athletic rehabilitation, arriving late to tutoring or weight lifting,
they intern would enforce the policy without hesitation.
Throughout this research project the findings became transparent after transcribing five
interviews. Experienced middle managers that have encountered multiple executive changes
learned to evaluate and adapt to the culture, and present a unique leadership style with student
athletes. Middle managers with limited experience consistently referenced their mentors or
colleagues as references that preached the exact message as advice to survive in the profession.
The three common finding are elaborated upon in the following section.
Findings and Conclusions
Recognizing Culture Strength
The first major finding among upon transcribing the data was astonishing. All
interviewees cited the importance of establishing and maintaining a strong culture in the
workplace for the program to achieve success. A recently hired academic advisor with the
football department, and a decade of experience in collegiate athletics, recognized how and
where to investigate the strength of the culture.
“I think it starts with the interview process, if you are going to take a new job you have to
ask questions about the culture.”
Three head football coaches in one season can bring destruction to middle managers.
Demands and different leadership styles can present confusion. However, even when presented
with change, 75% of interviewees stated that they evaluate their culture daily.
25
“I evaluate the culture every day. I am in a good position to see the executive level, while
also working with the lower echelon (graduate assistants, student assistants). In a middle
management position you are viewed from both perspectives”.
Interviewees are competent of culture strength and recognize they are in a strong culture.
One academic counselor with over twenty years of experience within the department stated,
“I wouldn’t be here if I didn’t feel that the communication was open I wouldn’t be
successful in my job. You can’t work in isolation in this job.”
Another academic counselor with more than five years in the department agrees to the
culture strength in the department.
“The culture here is strong. Everyone knows why they are here and what they are trying to
accomplish. You don’t always have to like each other, but you have to be able to
communicate and work together from eight to five.”
Displaying a sense of appreciation increases culture strength, goals are common and
everyone feels a part of the same objective. “Culture appreciation, in which employees are
recognized for their efforts, helps employees understand how their contribution helps the
company. Revisiting the core of the company and what we believe in” (Jain, 2013, p.45).
Dealing with culture change also brings forth the opportunity to identify the culture type that is
appropriate for success. For one interviewee that has been a part of four head coaching changes
recognizing the leadership style of the head coach is critical.
“When I first started working in academic services, Coach Carroll was here, and I just
remember him coming down and speaking with the counselors, learning specialists, and
trying to help the students. As a tutor, I was amused that the guy upstairs making all this
money, on tv, yet he is coming downstairs with us”.
26
Accepting and Adapting to new Executives
Within the second theme, every participant agreed that refraining to adapt to a newly
appointed executive would lead to destruction.
“You will lose in this business if you are not on the same page with the head coach.”
Responses supporting the head coach through a transition became redundant regardless of
experience.
“The football coach is going to reflect the identity of the head coach. It goes all the way to
how you treat people in athletic medicine, what the strength and conditioning focus will be,
what the expectations are for the video department. It is definitely a head coach centric
type of culture.”
An academic counselor with more than a decade of experience in the profession has been
a part of a demanding leadership style in the past and could see the difference with the current
head coach.
“Two coaches I worked for, it was a dictatorship. Whatever they said needed to get done.
From n the president all the way down they listened to the coach. As a middle manager you
can’t go against that or you are going to get your head cut off. You better have an answer
ready for that individual or you will be in trouble.”
Interviewees consistently stated that they recognize who the leader is and how their role
as a middle manager is to follow the direction of that individual.
“If you are not following the role of the leader. You are going to cause disruption within
your organization. Regardless if you agree or disagree.”
27
Middle managers within the academic department build a strong rapport with student’s
athletes, but when a new head coach presents a different discipline policy. Academic advisors are
hasty to inform the players,
“I explain to the players, there is a new sheriff in town and these are the rules. If I don’t
follow what the coach wants, I am sabotaging him, and if I sabotage him how can I expect
for him to support me?”
Interviewees were persistent to address that within the profession of college football,
remaining ambiguity to the previous staff will become exposed if you are unable to adapt to the
vision of the new head coach,
“You have to adjust. The head coach is always going to rule!”
One individual with over 20 years of athletic medicine experience and seven head
football coaching changes stated,
“The head coach drives the operation, so you need to have an understanding of his needs
and demands. There needs to be transparency with everything that you do because if not,
everyone has their own agenda”
Every athlete requires a unique approach
Discovering the spark that initiates motivation in a student athlete to perform an
assignment at an optimal level can present issues. For coaches this task is rather simple when
collegiate football players are participating in an activity they are passionate about. However,
middle managements positions can struggle when the assignment is not intriguing for the athlete.
Athletes began to question the purpose or benefit of the assigned task.
The last theme was the most intriguing of the interview process. Football is an alpha male
sport, yet all participants believe consistency with the student athlete and applying the correct
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leadership with regards to the athlete is instrumental in building rapport and a relationship of
trust. Interviewees repeatedly stated that you have to take a different approach with every single
student athlete,
“You have to play the hat with whoever you are with, you have to play the hat. I put on the
hat of the ethnicity group I am with.”
As a minority strength and conditioning coach, the ability to relate to the different cultures
of the team was crucial to his leadership success. The assumption of strength coaches
maintaining a rugged, tough nose style was trumped when one strength coach stated,
“I try to be consistent. Some might see it as dull or rigid. It does take time to figure out
players coach ability and what they respond to. You can’t just be hard on every kid because
you will turn kids away but you can’t be too soft because then they take advantage of it and
they don’t get better. Some of it is trial and error or just asking guys like “What do you
respond to?” I can vividly remember asking one of our players, “What do you respond to?”
Do you like to be coached hard? This player said, “I like positive reinforcement. I had to
explain that at times you may be wrong and you just have to understand that it’s not a
personal attack but whatever it is and whoever is trying to get you better, it can’t just be,
good job buddy. So I will come back and say, “That was bad, you can do it better and this
is how you can do it better” If you just give players, “that sucked, that’s terrible, don’t do it
like that” They don’t know how t o fix it. If explain then they will get it.
The same philosophy transferred along the academic department as well, one counselor
stated,
“You can’t use the same template on everybody because everyone has a different learning
style and different mode of being.”
29
Widely used in the realms of leadership due to its effectiveness, Blanchard and Hersey
(1969) developed the Situational Approach. They state that effective leaders are those who can
recognize what employees need and then adapt their own style to meet those needs. When
evaluating the situation, one must consider the competence, skill set, and confidence of those the
leader will be interacting with. This then allows the leader to select an approach that is
appropriate for the situation.
Several of Blanchard and Hersey’ styles that were demonstrated for this situation are the
coaching, directing, and supporting style. The coaching style requires middle managers to focus
on achieving personal goals as well as the goals of their followers. Middle managers provide
encouragement by involving him or herself as part of the common vision. One strength coach
stated,
“You can’t scream and cuss at every kid all the time because then you are going to lose the
relationship, and relationships are huge for us.”
The directing style is high directive and low in support. In this style, the leader focuses on
goal achievement by giving precise instructions and refraining from support during the process,
but maintains close supervision. Middle managers that have gained trust with their student
athletes apply this theory due to previous established trust or assignments. Applying this type can
assist with identification of student athletes who demand support to overcome adversity, or
others that lack trust in accomplishing an assignment. Structure demands more attention than
support with this style.
“I’m supportive and empathetic. I recognize both sides. The physical and mental, but
sometimes people need to be pushed. Talk is cheap and you have to show them what they
are able to do because it builds confidence”
30
The supporting style requires the leader to take a high supportive and low directive
behavior. This approach allows the leader to use supportive tactics such as praise, request for
input, or feedback to accomplish a task.
“You can’t just read someone the playbook or the training card because to some guys it's a
foreign language. I have asked players, ‘How do you learn?’ People are visual learners,
athletes should be able to mimic you.”
Limitations
Although more than half of middle managers at this site (66%) contributed to the study,
the inability to interview all middle managers within the department presents the initial and
apparent limitation of the study. A larger sample, perhaps one that included 100% participation
may have yielded more diverse results. Interviewing all middle managers in the organization
could have skewed or further supported the study. With scarce academic research related to
middle managers in collegiate athletics, it is difficult to compare and contrast this research with
other organizations. Also, not testing individuals outside of collegiate athletics in other
professions presents a visible limitation.
Recommendations
The purpose of this study was for personal research with the opportunity to analyze a
position of immense influence within a collegiate athletic football department. The USC football
department demonstrated a strong culture in which middle managers applied leadership styles
that were applicable to gaining success. The first recommendation provides the opportunity for
middle managers to interact and discuss leadership styles they find successful with common
student athletes. By incorporating all middle managers through a monthly meeting. They can
31
discuss leadership and motivational issues or success examples with their student athletes. This
allows an academic advisor to compare their style with another middle manager to achieve
overall success with amongst all middle managers. The second recommendation involves middle
managers and senior leadership. Conducting a bi-weekly meeting with middle managers to
inform them of discussions involving senior and executive management. At times, middle
managers experience disengagement when an event occurs or when presented with a question
that was addressed in an executive meeting in which an invitation was not extended. For
example, the head strength coach could address issues the athletic director spoke upon in a
senior/executive meeting, therefore benefiting middle managers awareness if they are exposed or
encounter questions within the subject. The ability to flow communication down to middle
managers will keep them in the loop and remove a sense of disengagement.
Areas of Future Research
Looking forward, further research of middle managers not only in collegiate football, but
other collegiate sports could elevate this topic as importance for other athletic departments. For
example, within a prominent collegiate basketball or football team could examine culture and
leadership styles of middle managers and how effective they are to the organization.
Experiencing executive changes and how the new leadership style is spread presents a further
opportunity for research. Shying away from collegiate athletics. Corporate companies and
organizations that include a middle management workforce that is detrimental to their success
presents would also present an area for further research. Appling a similar study in a corporate
setting would examine the roles of middle managers, communication flow from executives, and
a basis to compare middle managers in a result oriented business.
32
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Appendix A
Intro:
Thank you for taking the time to contribute to my research on middle managers in college
football. The data I collect from all 10 participants will allow me to discuss differences in
leadership styles among middle managers. The questions I have created will discuss
organizational culture, leadership, and middle management. At any time if you do not feel
comfortable with a question please inform me and we can proceed in the interview. I would like
to ask for your consent to record the following interview with the assurance that your study data
will remain confidential.
Short Bio and introduction on the study and myself. I will then allow the participant to speak on
their background, childhood, and participation in sports. (5 minutes)
- Introduction of your undergraduate background, what you studied, and best career advice
that was advised to you? (2 minutes)
- Did you ever envision yourself working in collegiate athletics? Do you enjoy this sector?
(1 minutes; 3minutes total)
- Who has been the most inspiring person or mentor in your profession and can you share
some of the advice they have shared with you to help you excel? Do you emulate this or
these individual(s) in any ways? (2 minutes; 5 minutes total)
- How familiar are you with middle management positions? - Define hierarchy of an Org
(2 minutes; 7 minutes total)
37
- Organizational culture is imperative to the success of middle managers. Culture is “The
“glue” that holds an organization together and for others, the “compass” that provides
directions” How often do you evaluate the strength of your culture – in regards to
common goals with colleagues, open communication with administrators, understanding
what the department is trying to accomplish. (3 minutes; 10 minutes total)
- Can you give me an example of a weak or strong culture you have been apart of in your
profession? (3 minutes; 13 minutes total)
Weak: Did these issues derive from not having a common vision from the top?
Strong: Was there a strong influence that started from the top that influenced the culture?
- Have you ever been a part of an administration change (New Job, New Head Coach, New
AD) Does an administration change alter your leadership style to emulate the culture
change?
FU – How do you deal with Ambiguity or Loyalties to the previous staff? Ambiguity?
(3 minutes; 16 minutes total)
- On a scale of 1-10 with 10 being very important. What would you rate your current
middle management position as a contribution to the football program and why?
(2 minutes: 18 minutes)
- Do you believe your work goes undervalued at times? After all, your position holds value
to player’s performance on the field. For example, when everything is well nobody seeks
the issue (2 minutes; 20 minutes)
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- Every athlete is raised in a different household regarding morals and ethics. There are
countless leadership theories that apply leadership styles to the appropriate situation. Do
you take a different approach with every athlete or do you believe that there is only one
way to lead? (2 minutes; 25 minutes)
- How do you motivate the student athletes to give the same effort in the classroom,
training room, etc. that they apply on the football field? (2 minutes; 23 minutes)
- What progression in regards to leadership, organization, or structure would you want to
witness with middle managers in college football? Improvement in Communication,
Open communication? (3 minutes; 37 minutes)
- As a middle manager, what motivates you to succeed and how much does the culture you
are immersed assist your motivation?
- As a middle manager, what are your aspirations within your profession?
Conclude Interview
Participant name, this concludes my interview section of my research. Are there any questions
you have for me or the regarding the research? If not, I will thank the participant again and
conclude the interview.