The dual challenge of academic writing: Effective argumentation − in effective EnglishPhD Colloquium, FIBE 2018

Trine Dahl

NHH

Some key notions

• The academic ‘conversation’

• Strategic thinking

• Persuasive argumentation

- Anglo communication style

- structure

- language

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Three stages of a PhD

• Listening to the academic conversation

• Joining the academic conversation

• Being listened to in the academic conversation

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FIBE 2018, Doctoral colloquium, invitation

• “Doctoral students who wish to present and discuss their research proposal at the

Colloquium are required to submit a short proposal of 4 – 5 pages addressing:

- their research problem

- how the research problem relates to present insights

- the intended research contribution

- how the research problem is planned to be studied”

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In other words: strategic thinking

- What am I doing?

- Why do I do it?

- How do I do it?

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Sample text for illustrative purposes

• DiVito, L & Bohnsack R. 2017. Entrepreneurial orientation and its effect on

sustainability decision tradeoffs: The case of sustainable fashion firms. Journal of

Business Venturing 32, 569-587.

- Abstract, Introduction and first sections of Findings

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Sample Abstract, first part:

«What, why and how?»

• [WHAT:] We examined the entrepreneurial orientation and sustainability orientation,

[WHY:] a persistent and conflicting duality of sustainable entrepreneurs and their

evaluation of competing priorities in sustainability decision making. [HOW:] We

conducted an exploratory, mixed-method study of 24 sustainable fashion firms and

collected data through structured surveys and rich in-depth interviews.

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Sample Abstract, second part:

«The research contribution and how it relates to present insights»

• Through our inductive and deductive analysis, we derive three sustainability decision

making profiles (singular, flexible and holistic) with distinct prioritization logic (nested,

ordered and aligned, respectively). We find different configurations of

entrepreneurial orientation correspond to the sustainability decision making profiles.

• We extend the literature by showing how the reflexivity of entrepreneurial

orientation interacts with sustainability orientation.

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Jeffrey J. McDonnell

• I now see each of the standard paper sections as its own Russian

nesting doll. Writing papers is easiest when you spend considerable

thought and time stacking all these pieces first. I call it the top-down

writing approach.

• Each of my group's papers now starts with a storyboard session at a

whiteboard. I pretend to be a big-time Hollywood producer and ask the

Ph.D. student or postdoc to play the role of would-be movie director

pitching a new movie to me.

• Their pitch must answer three questions: What is the status quo?

What is wrong with the status quo? How does this new paper go beyond

the status quo?

- Sciencemag.org, January 2017, vol 355, issue 6320, p. 102 http://science.sciencemag.org/content/355/6320/102

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How to create your research contribution

• Existing knowledge must be re-presented and organised in order to set up a context

for your own contribution

• Show relevance and importance of previous works, while also showing what is

lacking to ‘make room for’ your work

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«Where do I belong in the research field?»

- Draw a map of the network of contributing actors (researchers within your area)

- What is the relationship between you and the most important actors?

- What do you share?

- How are you different?

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Research articles

• Sections and functions

- Abstract: bait, decision tool, mini summary

- Introduction: sales pitch

- Method: makes it possible to assess quality of research design and findings

- Discussion: implications of results/findings considered

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The CARS [‘Create A Research Space’] model of introductions

(John Swales 1990)

• Move 1: Establish a territory

- Many studies have been undertaken on…

• Move 2: Establish a niche

- Indicate a gap: However, little is known about…

OR:

- Continue a tradition: While prior work elaborates what these institutions do (Dutt et al., 2016; Mair et al., 2012; McDermott et al., 2009), we focus on which entrepreneurs are helped.

• Move 3: Occupy the niche:

- The present paper analyses...

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Argumentation patterns in different cultures

• Linear vs non-linear argumentation (Clyne 1987)

• English (‘Anglo’) academic writing prefers a direct line of argumentation with connections made

between immediately relevant meanings, new topics not introduced until previous one completed

• Kaplan (1966):

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‘Anglo’ communication style

• ” The careful and explicit guidance practised by Anglo-American writers, together with

frequent signalling of the personal presence of the author […] conveys the

impression that the reader is invited to take a tour of the text, together with the

author, who acts as a guide”. (Mauranen 1993: 16)

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Argumentation (from Sample Text, Introduction, p. 2)

• We argue that even though EO and SO may have conflicting orientations, there is interdependency in that EO

influences the recognition, interpretation and evaluation of sustainability decision alternatives (Hahn et al., 2014).

• First, this is because founders of sustainable enterprises (green, social or both) have values that imprint and

shape formally and informally the decision making processes and policies of the firm (Mathias et al., 2015) and their

entrepreneurial orientation (Suddaby et al., 2015).

• Second, decision making tradeoffs in sustainability dimensions are unavoidable and sustainable entrepreneurs

make decisions on multi-faceted entrepreneurial opportunities and risks (Hahn et al., 2010).

• We posit that entrepreneurial orientation, as an indication of the firm's processes, structures and behavior to

exploit opportunities, can help us understand in more depth how sustainable entrepreneurs manage this

paradox of entrepreneurial enterprising within the boundaries of economic, ecological and social responsibility.

• It is important to gain more insight into how they manage this persistent dual orientation to understand the

scope, limitations and promise of the systematic, transformative sustainability change they can initiate,

accomplish and sustain.

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English academic writing

• Is explicit about structure and purpose (This paper examines…, our aim is to…)

• Uses many sentence connectors to indicate logical connections (therefore, however)

• Is typically tentative and cautious in making claims (may, possibly, mainly)

• Is formal (e.g., no contractions: ‘We haven’t…/ didn’t…’), but not VERY formal

- Example:

• check out (informal; avoid)

• discover / establish (common)

• ascertain (very formal; less common)

Vocabulary from Anglo-Saxon and French

Germanic/Anglo-Saxon Latin/French

begin / start commence

go on continue

answer (verb / noun) respond (v) /response (n)

forgive pardon

freedom liberty

wild savage

deathly lethal, mortal

friendly amicable

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‘Anglo’ communication style: examples

Author visibility:

• We [personal pronoun] discuss [discourse verb] whether these findings may

[hedging] be seen as reflections of…

Promotion (of, e.g., research question, method, findings):

• It is important to study…

• This is the first time such an approach has been tried

• This is an interesting finding because…

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Language: variation or consistency?

• Word (term) repetition very common in English academic language

- Either identical in form (the strategy….the strategy) or grammatical variant (the strategy….strategic)

• Pronouns (e.g., it, this, they) must be used carefully to avoid confusion or ambiguity in

what they refer to

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Sample Introduction, repetition (1)

• There is increasing agreement that continuous economic growth of established economic

systems is unsustainable (Balakrishnan et al., 2003; Pacheco et al., 2010). An emerging

branch of literature on sustainable entrepreneurship argues that the Schumpeterian

entrepreneurial process can contribute to solving complex social and ecological issues and

act as a catalyst for industrial transformation (Cohen and Winn, 2007; Hall et al., 2010;

Hockerts and Wüstenhagen, 2010; Muñoz and Dimov, 2015; Parrish, 2010; Schaltegger and

Hansen, 2013). This breed of entrepreneur, the sustainable entrepreneur, is dually

oriented – on one side towards entrepreneurial growth and on the other towards sustainable

development.

• The notion that entrepreneurship can contribute to solving complex social and ecological

issues is very promising but debated in the literature (Hall et al., 2010).

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Sample Introduction, repetition (2)

• There is an assumption from an economics perspective that entrepreneurs are

driven by self-interest, profit-seeking motives (Parrish, 2010). Sustainable

entrepreneurship contrasts with this economics perspective and places shared,

societal interest on par with private self-interest (Freeman et al., 2004; Porter and

Kramer, 2011).

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Verb choice

• Research verbs

- explore, examine, observe, analyse, discover, find, show

• Discourse verbs

- discuss, report, hypothesise, suggest

• Cognition verbs

- Believe, assume, consider, view, argue

How to use sources

• Make sure you acknowledge sources; otherwise, you may be accused of plagiarism

• Most common to summarise or paraphrase what others have said (and provide source)

- According to Smith (2010), it is common to…

- Previous research has shown that it is common to… (Smith, 2010; Jones, 2015)

• If you quote (i.e., copy words from a source), you MUST use quotation marks (or indent if a

long quote) + provide the source (some journals accept just year of publication, others also

want page number)

- According to Smith (2010), «it is often the case that…» (p. 25)

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• Do not quote too much; you need to show that you have understood the source and

can paraphrase

• Check out e.g., http://sokogskriv.no/en/ for references

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English spelling and grammar

• Always remember to set proofing language to English (UK or US) in Word (see

‘Review’ in toolbar menu)

• Then check the words/expressions that appear in red (disregard proper names)

• Do not worry about all the blue underlinings of passive expressions (e.g., has been

studied, may be considered as, is linked to etc.). Passives are common and

acceptable in academic writing

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Example

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Common mistakes

• Singular or plural verb?

- The case of sustainable fashion firms is / are interesting.

- a multi-dimensional measure of sustainability tradeoffs is / are worth studying because…

- …each with a set of organizational and societal priorities that creates / create a tension in decision making.

• Adjective or adverb?

- the literature on sustainable / sustainably entrepreneurship

- we choose a less environmental / environmentally sustainable factory

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Common mistakes: key

• Singular or plural verb?

- The case of sustainable fashion firms is interesting.

- a multi-dimensional measure of sustainability tradeoffs is worth studying because…

- …each with a set of organizational and societal priorities that creates a tension in decision making.

• Adjective or adverb?

- the literature on sustainable entrepreneurship

- we choose a less environmentally sustainable factory

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• WHICH or THAT, or are both possible?

- Flexible decision making, which / that accepts greater compromising among the three sustainability

dimensions,…

- this is because founders of sustainable enterprises (green, social or both) have values which / that

imprint and shape formally and informally the decision making processes

- …each with a set of organizational and societal priorities which / that creates a tension in decision

making.

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Make sure you know how to pronounce these words

• Colleague: /KÅLLi:g/

• Idea: /aiDIA/

• Salmon: /SÆmøn/

• Debt: /DET/

• Hypothesis: /haiPÅthesis/

When in doubt, check, e.g.: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/pronunciation

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What is the difference?

• economic and economical:

• percent and per cent:

• 3,14 and 3.14:

• 28% and 28 %:

• 23.000 and 23,000:

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What is the difference? Key

• economic and economical: - economic: related to economics- economical: using minimum amount of time, effort etc. (It is economical to wash a full load of clothes)

• percent (American English) and per cent (British English)

• 3,14 (Norwegian, to mark decimals) and 3.14 (English)

• 28% (English) and 28 % (Norwegian)

• 23.000 (Norwegian, to mark thousands) and 23,000 (English)

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Some references

• Johanson, L. M. 2007. Sitting in your reader’s chair: Attending to your academic

sensemakers. Journal of Management Inquiry 16, 290-294.

• Kaplan, R. B. 1966. Cultural thought patterns in inter-cultural education. Language

Learning 16, 1-20.

• Locke, K. & Golden-Biddle, K. 1997. Constructing opportunities for contribution:

structuring intertextual coherence and "problematizing" in organizational studies.

Academy of Management Journal 40 (5), 1023-1062.

• Nygaard, L. P. 2015. Writing for Scholars. Oslo, Universitetsforlaget.

• Swales, J. 1990. Genre Analysis. Cambridge, CUP.

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