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THE EARLIEST ALASKANS AND THEEARLIEST AMERICANS THEME STUDY
-,
byBrian T. Wygal
Final Edition
A THESISPresented to the Department of Anthropology and the
College of Arts and SciencesUniversity of Alaska Anchorage
in partial fulfillmentof the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts in Anthropology
December 2003
EARLIEST AMERICANS THEME STUDY
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ARLISAlaskaReso~rcesLibrary & Information Service
Library Building, Suite 111 "/,.3211 Providence Drive
Anchora@:e, AK 99508-4614"
December 2003
by_
Brian T. Wygal
THESIS
THE EARLIEST ALASKANS AND THE
W~er4Jd~William Workman, PhD
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Acknowledgments
My graduate committee at the University of Alaska, Anchorage has been
of special importance during the past two and a half years. Dr. William
Workman's suggestions, directions to publications, and knowledge of Arctic
archaeology provided indispensable insight to this research. Dr. Owen Mason
also provided me with hard-to-find publications, and the understanding that
geology, ecology, and site formation processes are fundamental when discussing
archaeology. I must also thank Robert Gal with the Western Arctic National
Parklands for providing his expertise on Paleoindian archaeology, lithic
technology, and analysis, as well as laboratory and field methods. His project,
the spatial and lithic analysis of the Last Day site, provided me with essential
introductions to the software and techniques used in archaeological analysis.
Dr. Becky Saleeby's efforts, from the beginning, have been most
supportive. She provided me with the support and motivation to study Early
Alaskans without restriction. Becky was responsible for taking on the Earliest
Americans Theme Study in Alaska and securing funding from the National
Council for Preservation Education and the National Park Service for my
internships under her supervision.
Becky was also responsible for introducing me to Dr. David Yesner, whose
work first inspired my desire to study Paleoindian archaeology during my
undergraduate years. David Yesner has been a true friend and mentor, studying
under his advisement has been an honor, and his example and influence shall
remain with me for my entire c..areer.
Finally, I must extend the utmost appreciation and gratitude to Kathryn
Krasinski, whose unlimited tenacity and work ethic provided much needed
inspiration in the final phases of this stage in the earliest Alaskan project. Her
countless revisions and constructive criticism contributed immensely to the final
drafts of this thesis.
Although many people, including my graduate committee, have provided
suggestions and knowledge, and directed me toward many publications and
ideas, the opinions and thoughts I have written in this thesis are entirely my own.
The positions included mayor may not reflect that of anyone of these
individuals.
ii
Abstract
A Theme Study considers the significance of cultlJral properties under a
common theme deemed nationally significant. The National Park Service has
been working to nominate archaeological properties to the National Register of
Historic Places based on the Earliest Americans Theme Study, as mandated by
the United States Senate in 1995. Alaska plays a vital role in developing this
theme since groups must have migrated throughout the state during the peopling
of the Western Hemisphere. As a contribution to this important Theme Study,
this thesis involves the development of methods used to assess the current body
of literature pertaining to Early Alaskan sites dated to between 8,000 and 12,000
radiocarbon years before present (rcybp). It reviews the current state of Alaskan
Paleoindian Cultural Resource documentation and provides information
necessary for the development of a multiple property nomination capable of
assessing the differing degrees of integrity and significance of these early sites.
iii
Table of Contents
Chapter
I. Introduction
II. The Earliest Americans Theme Study
Ill. The Earliest Alaskans
A. Geographic Focus
B. The State of Early Alaskan Cultural Resources
C. Alaskan Site Categories and Methods of Analyses
IV. Pleistocene/Early Holocene Environments and Archaeology in Alaska
A. Paleo-environment of the Pleistocene and Holocene
B. Early Alaskan Archaeological Classifications
C. Early Alaskan Component Frequencies
D. An Alternate Approach: Primary Mode of Lithic Production
E. Calibrated Radiocarbon Determinations for Early Alaskan Sites
V. Spatial Integrity of Ancient Surface Sites: A Case Study at Last Day
VI. Results and Conclusion
Notations
References Cited
Appendix
Page
1
6
10
16
20
22
29
29
36
47
48
52
56
66
70
71-88
89-216
iv
Tables and Figures Page
Table 3.1 Summary of Early Alaskan Sites 11-12
Table 3.2 Summary of Site Rankings 15
Figure 3.3 Early Alaskan Sites 16
Figure 3.4 Northem Distribution of Early Sites 18
Figure 3.5 Interior Distribution of Early Sites 19
Table 3.6 National Register Designation Codes 20
Figure 3.7 National Register Designations for Early Alaskan Sites 21
Table 3.8 Early Alaska Site Categories 23
Figure 4.1 Alaska Paleoglaciation 32
Figure 4.2 Beringia Digital Elevation Model 33
Table 4.3 Early Alaska Technological Classifications 37
Table 4.4 Mesa Complex Sites 42
Figure 4.5 Early Alaska Component Frequency 48
Figure 4.6 Percentages of Early Alaskan Components 48
Table 4.7 Early Alaskan Technologic Classifications 49
Figure 4.8 Mode of Production in Early Alaskan Components 51
Table 4.9 Radiocarbon Determinations and Calibrated Years 54
Figure 4.10 Calibrated Radiocarbon Determinations 55
Figure 5.1 Spatial Integrity at the Last Day Site 59
Figure 5.2 Artifact Types in Cluster A at Last Day 60
Figure 5.3 Blade Width verses Thickness 63
Figure 5.4 Last Day (XHP-497) Lithic Artifacts 65
Table 6.1 Brooks Range 69
Table 6.2 Seward Peninsula 69
Table 6.3 Interior 69
Table 6.4 Southeast 69
Table 6.5 Southwest and Alaska Peninsula 69
Table 6.6 Aleutians 69
v
Tables and Figures (continued) Page
Table 7.1 Broken Mammoth 101
Table 7.2 Broken Mammoth 102
Table 7.3 Cario Creek 107
Table 7.4 Chuck Lake Horizontal Provenience 110
Table 7.5 Chuck Lake Locality 1 Vertical Stratigraphy 110
Table 7.6 Delta River Overlook 115
Table 7.7 Excavated Areas at Gallagher Flint Station 118
Table 7.8 Gallagher Localities 121
Table 7.9 Stratigraphy at all Three Gallagher Localities 121
Table 7.10 Ground Hog Bay 2 126
Table 7.11 Healy Lake Village Site 131
Table 7.12 Hidden Falls 138
Table 7.13 Mead 156
Table 7.14 Moose Creek 166
Table 7.15 Moose Creek Calibrated 166
Table 7.16 On Your Knees Cave 172
Table 7.17 Owl Ridge 177
Table 7.18 Panguingue Creek 180
Table 7.19 Putu Locality 186
Table 7.20 Swan Point 194
Table 7.21 Swan Point 195
Table 7.22 Trail Creek Caves 199
Table 7.23 Ugashik Narrows 207
Table 7.24 Usibelli Site 210
I would like to extend special thanks to my parents, Robert andKaren Wygal, and my family who have offered infinite supportand enduring patience during my academic pursuits. Theseaccomplishments would certainly not have been possiblewithout their assistance and support and, as a result, I wouldlike to dedicate this thesis to them.
vii
I. Introduction
The nomination of archaeological sites to US National Landmark status
has been a part of federal policy since the 1930's. As a part of that continuing
effort and to re-invigorate the National Historic Landmark program, the United
States Senate mandated the Earliest Americans Theme Study as a national
endeavor in 1995. The "Earliest Americans" was selected as a theme based on
the importance of the peopling of the Americas as a broad theoretical issue for
both professional archaeologists and the American public (Grumet 1995). In the
summer of 2000, the National Park Service Alaska Support Office initiated
research on early Alaskan cultural resources as a contribution to the theme
study. This thesis is a culmination of that research and a review of Alaska's
cultural resource management documentation and policies pertinent to the
cultural preservation of early Alaskan sites. The information provided here
establishes the necessity for future work and the development of a Multiple
Property Nomination document.
Following federal guidelines, early Alaskan archaeological resources are
considered those that date between 8,000 and 12,000 radiocarbon years before
present (rcybp), an arbitrary span of time representing the Terminal Pleistocene
Early Holocene transition in Alaska. A literature search, standardized by several
categories of data based on aspects of scientific significance, integrity, and
control over accurate dating methodology, has identified 47 early Alaskan sites
for consideration. Those sites form the framework and establish the context for
the comparison of individual sites. Thirty-four well-documented early Alaskan
sites were judged to possess "High", "Medium," or "Low" levels of integrity and
scientific significance, respectively, within this context. These ranks determine
the SUitability of cultural properties (archaeological sites) for nomination to the
National Register of Historic Places (NR) and the designation of National Historic
Landmarks (NHL). The remaining 13 sites are discussed further in Chapter III.
Why is the nomination of sites necessary for cultural resource
management in Alaska? The purpose of the NR is to "serve as a planning
document alerting Federal agencies to the existence of historic properties that
may come under their jurisdiction" (Neumann and Sanford 2001). It is a list
referred to by agencies and decision makers regarding compliance with the
National Historic Preservation Act of 1966. This involves not only checking the
NR to determine if a property has already been listed, but also requires
determining potential impacts by agency undertakings or actions associated with
federal money on any cultural properties, documented or not. Sites eligible for
the NR under its criteria for evaluation (NPS 1991 a) are afforded the same
consideration as if they were a NR property (King 2001). Although some
agencies treat all sites on federal land as though they were eligible, when a site
is actually on the NR it increases management awareness. If threatened, a NR
2
or NHL site or National Register eligible site is "mitigated" in order to preserve
site data and integrity as much as possible.
How does the State Historic Preservation Officer and Federal Agencies
currently manage resources in relation to the NR? Alaskan cultural resources
are classified based on a system of codes and "Determinations of Eligibility"
(DOE). The DOE is the standard document that cultural resource offices and
contractors use when evaluating sites for potential nomination. These
evaluations influence mitigation that follows and the determination of eligibility for
the NR in no way immediately halts the development or undertaking of a
particular project (King 1998, 2001).
A NHL is the highest level of designation on the NR. NHLs possess levels
of national significance and integrity as cultural properties, and are afforded the
highest levels of protection1. NR properties, considered significant on a local or
regional scale, are also closely monitored and provided significant protection.
Theme studies generate NHLs and have documented and protected North East
Coast Lighthouses, Covered Bridges, and Underground Railroad properties
under NHL status. The first theme study was a pioneering effort, prepared by
Marie Wormington (1960) on "Prehistoric Hunters and Gatherers", focusing on
Earliest Americans west of the Mississippi River. Her work successfully
1 The term protection is used as in a relative sense, as federal regulators simply require that the effects ofpotentially destructive actions be considered within the NHPA 106 process.
3
nominated the Clovis and Folsom sites as NHLs in New Mexico (Grumet 1995,
NPS 2003a).
Theme Studies serve as a heuristic device and aid in the interpretation of
America's shared cultural heritage through a multidisciplinary approach (NPS
2003b). However, there is a major difference between the Earliest Americans
Theme Study and those of the past: the inclusion of supplemental documentation
separate from the perspective of cultural resource management. The National
Museum of the American Indian plans to record American Indian perspectives on
the Earliest Americans theme and their own perspectives on how their ancestors
came into the Americas (Grumet 1995).
Thematic studies do not replace primary archaeological research or other
scientific inquiry. Instead, they are a methodical way of interpreting
archaeological data for the American public. A major goal of the Early Americans
Theme Study is to facilitate the development of educational programs essential
for providing information to the people through literature, internet addresses, and
outreach programs capable of bridging a widening gap between professional
archeologists and the public at large.
Aside from explanations of the Earliest Americans Theme Study and the
methods of analysis developed for the documentation of early Alaskan sites in
the Appendix section, the discussions that follow focus on Alaska's geographic
regions, paleoecological factors, and radiocarbon determinations in relation to
4
early Alaskan sites. Also addressed are an alternative to traditional technological
classifications used for early Alaskan assemblages, and a case study from XHP
497, in which an assemblage unclassifiable by current typologies was analyzed
and problems regarding the integrity of surface sites in the Brooks Range.
5
II. The Earliest Americans Theme Study
Theme Studies designed by the NPS encompass major segments of
American History. They provide an historic context of properties and evaluate
their significance in determining property eligibility for NHL status (Code of
Federal Regulations 2003).
The NPS monitors NR and NHL properties for the purposes of recognition,
planning, preservation, and public education (Shull 2002:3). Educational
information about listed properties is immediately accessible via the National
Register internet site, accessed by over 50,000 people per week, 2.6 million
"visits" per year (Shull 2002). Such accessibility allows millions of individuals the
ability to research, teach, learn, or travel to our nation's most treasured cultural-
historical properties.
Properties associated with America's earliest inhabitants represent someof the nations most significant and most threatened groups of culturalresources. Responding to this challenge, the National Park Service isworking with its partners in the government, scholarly, avocational, tribal,and historic preservation communities to develop the Earliest AmericansNational Historic Landmark Theme Study. This project is a multi-yeareffort to recognize and protect nationally significant archeologicalproperties associated with America's first inhabitants (Grumet 1995:14).
Nationwide work on the Earliest Americans Theme by State Historic
Preservation Offices (SHPOs) indicates that only 35 states have some degree of
documentation on Paleoindian sites within their boundaries. Furthermore, only
24 of these states have documented their properties on a statewide scale (NPS
6
2002a). Alaska can provide a major contribution by compiling such information
from within its borders.
David Anderson (2003) provides a perspective on the Earliest Americans
Theme Study and the development of NHL and NR properties.
Linked with the evaluation of specific NHL property classes andcategories is an assessment of their integrity. Three levels of integrity areemployed in the present NHL theme study, High, Moderate, and Low.PiOperties whose integrity is High are potential NHLs or have nationallevel NR significance. Sites with High integrity have clearly identifiedPaleoindian component(s) in secure context, and with precise calendricdating. That is, the geologic and sedimentary context of theassemblage(s) are well documented, with sources of intrusion ordisturbance recognized and controlled, and the age of the depositsascertained using one or more absolute dating procedures, such asradiocarbon or OSL dating. Sufficient age determinations must, however,have been obtained from samples in secure context to ensure confidencein the results. Individual dates, accordingly, or even large numbers ofdates from controversial associations, will probably not be consideredsufficient, unless supported by other kinds of evidence, such asunambiguous geological or biotic associations. Where materials forabsolute dating are not available, the assemblage(s) must be of highlyunusual significance. In the Southeast, properties with high integrity andnational level significance include Cactus Hill, Sloan, Dust Cave, andvarious sites in the Allendale, South Carolina, Aucilla River, Florida,Christian County, Kentucky, and Nottoway River, Virginia localities(Anderson, David 2003).
Areas first focused on by the Earliest Americans Theme Study included
those not documented by Wormington's (1960) "Prehistoric Hunters and
Gatherers", the first federal document summarizing Paleoindian sites. Her work
depicted big game hunters on the Western Plains. Today, in light of the time gap
since her earlier and influential research, there is a substantial need for changing
the American public's perception regarding Paleoindian subsistence strategies
away from stereotypes propagated by the big game kill sites found in the western
7
central United States. Archaeological evidence from sites east of the Mississippi,
for example, indicates that Paleoindians possessed a much more diverse
economic strategy (NPS 2003a). David Anderson (2003) has described the
eastern United States regional divisions: the Midwest, the Northeast, and the
Southeast.
During the Pleistocene, the Midwest region (Wisconsin, Minnesota and
Michigan) was a dynamic ecosystem, a difficult periglacial environment with melt
waters and torrential rivers. The earliest inhabitants of the Midwest region likely
arrived approximately 13,500 calendar years ago (NPS 2003a).
The Northeast bordered a shallow sea in present day New England. In
this region, there were low population densities of Early Americans living a
pattern of seasonal migrations. In addition to hunting the plentiful herds of big
game they fished, hunted birds, and collected crustaceans. During the harsh
winters they may have migrated along rivers, following familiar routes and
hunting smail-to-medium sized game like rabbit, deer, caribou, and beaver (NPS
2003a).
Finally, the Southeast region was more bountiful than regions to the north.
Glacial meltwaters ran south supporting marine and marshland ecosystems
downstream. The earliest people who settled here traveled south along the
Appalachian Mountains. They trapped fish and other marine animals along the
coasts of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico (NPS 2003a).
8
JJ
Further to the west, across the Mississippi River, there were different
animals including bear, elk, large herds of giant bison, and various plants that
existed in the woodland areas bordering the Great Plains (NPS 2003a). Future
efforts on behalf of the Earliest Americans Theme Study plan to incorporate the
Great Plains and regions throughout the Western United States.
In Alaska, four early sites have previously been placed on the list of NHLs:
the Onion Portage site (1972), the Dry Creek site (1974), the Gallagher Flint
Station (1978), and the Anangula site (1978). Onion Portage was designated a
NHL because it was favored by early Paleoarctic hunters, defined by Anderson
(1988) as the Akmak complex dated prior to 8,000 rcybp, in addition to eight
other groups each using different technology at Onion Portage throughout the
Holocene. When Dry Creek became a NHL, it was the earliest archaeological
site in Alaska with fragmentary remains of large Pleistocene fauna (bison, wapiti,
and mountain sheep) similar to species from Siberia. The Gallagher Flint
Station, at the time of its nomination, was the oldest documented site in northern
Alaska. Anangula became a NHL because, at the time, it represented the
earliest group of maritime peoples living along the coast of the former Bering land
bridge. Today, Anangula and Onion Portage retain most of their original
significance; Dry Creek and Gallagher Flint Station remain historically significant
despite additional research and the discovery of additional sites (N PS 2003d)1.
1Source :http://www.nr.nps.govIiWisapi/explorer.dll?IWS SCHEMA=NRIS1 &IWS LOGIN=1 &IWS REPORT=100000044
9
m. The Earliest Alaskans
The following chapter considers the geographic focus of Paleoindian
research in Alaska and the distribution of early sites within regional subdivisions
of the state. It also reviews state and federal efforts in preservation for early sites
and information relevant in nominating archaeological sites to the NR. Finally, it
contains a discussion of the research methodology and categories of information
used to rank early Alaskan sites in the Appendix.
Table 3.1 displays 47 sites initially considered for nomination by this
project. Taken together, these sites constitute the basis for early site evaluation
in Alaska. Twelve of these sites were not included in the Appendix because they
did not contain enough information for evaluation, are currently awaiting further
research, or are already listed as NR properties or as NHLs with no significant
changes in their interpretation. One NHL, the Gallagher Flint Station, was
chosen for inclusion in the Appendix because continuing research has provided
additional information since it was first nominated, that site was not provided with
a site ranking as it is already an NHL.
10
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Table 3.1: Summa of Earl Alaskan ~)ites
o I hkNONE
• • A·
UNL 0054I I dA kLand Owner !k9.LQn Basal Date ~ Rank
ma nax san - una as a Aleu lans Yes LowAnangula-Ananiuliak2 SAM-012 NHL FWS Aleutians -8400 NoBatza Tena3 MLZ-2 NHS BLM Brooks Range 11,770+220 Yes MedBroken Mammoth4 XBD-131 NONE State Interior 11,770+220 Yes HighCarlo Creeko HEA-031 DOE State Interior 8400+200 Yes MedChuck Lakeo CRG-00237 NONE USFS, Tongass Southeast -8200-7300 Yes MedChugwaterf FAI-035 NHR COE Interior 9460+130 NoDelta River Overlook8 XMH-297 DOE DOD Interior 8555+380 Yes MedDonnelly Ridge9 XMH-05 DXS DOD Interior Yes MedDry Creek10 HEA-5 NHL State Interior 11,120+85 NoEroadawai 1 Pending NONE State Interior 8640+170 NoGallagher Flint Stat.1:l PSM-0050 NHL State Brooks Range 6960+90# YesGerstle R. Quarry13 XMH-246 DOE DOD Interior NoGround Hog Bay 214 JUN-037 NRXCL USFS, Tongass Southeast 10,180+800 Yes HighHealy Lake15 XBD-00020 NRXCL Native Allotment Interior 11,550+50 Yes MedHidden Falls16 SIT-00119 DOE USFS, Tongass Southeast -9500 Yes LowHill TOp11 not listed NONE BLM Interior Yes LowHog IslandH:l UNL-00115 NONE Ounalashka Aleutians 7960+90 Yes HighHoudini Creek19 HEA-295 NONE State? Interior 7880+60 NoIrwin Sluiceway20 Pending NONE NPSIWEAR Brooks Range 10,060+80 NoKoggiung[ NAK-00018 NONE Native Claim AK Peninsula 7945+90 Yes LowLast DayLL XHP-497 NONE NPSIWEAR Brooks Range 8530+60 NoLime Hills Cavesz; N/A NONE Private? Southwest 9530+60 Yes MedLisburne24 KIR-00096 NONE BLM Brooks Range -8000 Yes MedMead:lO XBD-00071 NONE Private Interior 11,600+80 Yes HighMesa:lO KIR-102 DOE BLM Brooks Range -10,000 Yes HighMoose Creek:l l FAI-206 NONE State Interior 11,190+60 Yes MedNR_5:l8 Pending NONE NPSIWEAR Brooks Range -10,000 No
Table 3.1: Summa of Earl Alaskan Sites (Continued)
LYS thFWSNONE
• • A..
BTH 069Nukluk MountainLand Owner ~ Basal Date ~ Rank
- ou wes es owOiled Blade;jU UNL-318 NONE Ounalashka Aleutians 8400-7900 cal Yes MedOn Your Knees Cave31 PET-00408 NONE USFS, Tongass Southeast -9200 BP Yes HighOnion Portage;jL AMR-1 NHL NPS Brooks Range 9857+155 NoOwl Ridge33 FAI-91 NONE BLM Interior 11,340+150 Yes MedPanguingue Creek;j4 HEA-137 NONE State Interior 9951+56 Yes MedPhipps;jb XMH-00111 NHS State. Interior 10,190 ave. Yes MedPutu-Bedwelfjl5 PSM-27 NONE BLM Brooks Ranoe 10,490+70 Yes MedRBS;j( Pending NONE NPSIWEAR Brooks Ranoe NoSlate Creek38 HEA- 00129 NONE State Interior Yes LowSpein Mountain,j~ BTH 62-65 NONE FWS Southwest 10,050+90 Yes HighSwan Point4U XBD-156 NONE State Interior -12,000 Yes HighTeklanika District41 HEA-85 NXS NPS Interior -10,000 NoTrail Creek Caves4L BEN-00001 NRXCL NPS/BELA Seward Penn 9070+250 Yes MedTuluaq Hi1l4;j DEL-360 NONE NPS/WEAR Brooks Range 11,110+80 Yes HighUgashik Narrows44 UGA-00001 NONE Native Claim AK Peninsula 8995±295 Yes HighUsibelli4b HEA-00128 NONE State Interior 3195+295 Yes MedWalker Road 40 HEA-130 NONE State Interior 11,300+120 Yes HighWhitmore Ridge47 XMH-072 NHS State Interior 10,360+60 Yes Med
References1Veltre et al 1984, McCartney & Veltre 1996, Knecht & Daviis 2001; 2Veltre et al 1984; 3Clark & Clark 1993; 4Yesner 1996; 5Bowers & Mason1992; 6Ackerman 1985; 7Lively 1996 (West editor); 8Holme!; 1979; !West 1967; 10 Hoffecker et a11985, Hoffecker 1988, Goebel et a11991;11Radiocarbon data published in Mason et a12001; 12Dixon 1975, Ferguson 1997; 13Potter 2001; 14Ackerman1992, 1996; 15Cook 1975, 1975,1996; 16Davis 1979, 1980; 17Bever 2001; 18Veltre et aI1984, Dumond & Knecht 2001; 19Mason et a12001; 2°Rasic 2000, 2002; 21Dumond 1981;22Gal 2003; 23Ackerman 1996; 24Bowers 1982, Gal 1980, LOJ( & Dixon 1998; 25Pewe 1983, Yesner 1996; 26Kunz & Reanier 1994,1995,1996;27Hoffecker et a11985, Hoffecker 1996~ Pearson 1999; 28Ra!.ic 2000; 29Ackerman 1996c; 30Knecht & Davis 2001; 31Dixon 1999; 32Anderson 1988;33Hoffecker et a11985, Phippen 1988; 4Hoffecker 1988, Powers & Hoffecker 1989; 3SWest et a11996; 36Ga11980, Reanier 1994,1996; 37Gal 2003;38Hoffecker et a11985; 39Ackerman 1996c, 2001, Bever 200'1; 4°Holmes 1998, 2003; 41West 1967; 42Larsen 1968; 43Rasic 2000, 2002; 44Dumond1975, Henn 1978; 45& 48 Hoffecker 1980, Hoffecker et aI19B:5, Powers & Hoffecker 1989; 47West 1996d
The remaining 34 sites appear in the Appendix, and are ranked as
possessing differing levels of integrity and significance from information
documented through interviews, newspapers, textbooks, professional papers, the
Alaska Heritage Resources Survey (AHRS), and professional journal articles. Of
these, eleven sites are recommended for NHL designation and seventeen for NR
nomination. Six sites, ranked "Low" within the context of the others, did not
provide sufficient information for recommendation. Their inclusion in the
Appendix provides additional historic contextual comparison.
A summary of the information documented in the Appendix used to
determine site ranks is outlined in Table 3.2. The information listed corresponds
to the information documented under specific categories. The category scientific
significance documents how each site has contributed to the Alaskan
archaeological record. Historical significance, similarly, contains information
about how the site has contributed to the history of archaeological theory in
Alaska. The categories spatial integrity, disturbance, and intact deposits help
establish the integrity of cultural deposits. Spatial integrity documents the nature
of deposition based on stratified or surface sites; sites listed as "buried" were not
surface sites but occurred in buried contexts that were not clearly stratified.
Disturbance estimates the degree to which deposits have been disturbed from
their original in situ deposition by accounting for site formation processes. The
category intact deposits estimates which of the sites may still contain cultural
13
material, although definitive conclusions were not possible. Early Alaskan
diagnostic artifacts document only the earliest components, without considering
later deposits (documented elsewhere). Secure dating is the degree in which
cultural deposits have been securely dated through multiple radiocarbon
determinations. The final category "Rank" are my recommendations for NHL and
NR nominations.
14
Table 3.2: Summa of Site Rankin s
MI I dA k
ati!!! Disturbance Intact ~ Secure .Ranklt~i!Y ~ Di~ DatillQ
ma nax san ed Low Stratified Med Possible Anangula Low LowBatza Tena High Med Surface Low Yes Paleoindian, Paleoarctic Low MedBroken Mammoth High High Stratified Low Yes Paleoindian, Paleoarctic High HighCarlo Creek High Med Stratified Low Possible Unknown High MedChuck Lake High Low Stratified Med Possible NW Coast Microblade High MedDelta River Overlook Med Low Stratified Med Yes Paleoarctic High MedDonnelly Ridge High High Surface N/A No Denali Low MedGround Hog Bav 2 High Med Stratified Med Possible Denali (variant) Yes HighHealy Lake Med High Buried High ? Nenana Med MedHidden Falls Med Low Stratified High Yes NW Coast Microblade Med LowHillTop Med Low Surface Unknown N/A Mesa Med LowHog Island High High Stratified Low Yes Anangula High HighKoggiung Low Low N/A High No Paleoarctic Med LowLime Hills Caves Med Med Stratified Low Yes Paleoarctic High MedLisburne Med Med Surface Med Yes Paleoindian, Paleoarctic Med MedMead High Med Stratified Low Yes Paleoindian, Paleoarctic High HighMesa High High Surface Low Yes Paleoindian, Paleoarctic High HighMoose Creek High Med Stratified Med Yes Paleoindian, Paleoarctic High MedNukluk Mountain Low Low Surface High Possible Paleoarctic Low LowOiled Blade High Low Stratified Low Yes Anangula High MedOn Your Knees Cave High High Stratified Low Possible NW Coast Microblade High HighOwl Ridge High Med Stratified Med Possible Paleo indian? Paleoarctic High MedPanguingue Creek High Med Stratified Low Possible Paleo indian? Paleoarctic High MedPhipps Med Med Stratified Low Yes Paleoarctic High MedPutu-Bedwell Med Med Surface High Possible Paleoindian, Unknown Med MedSlate Creek Unknown Low Stratified Low Yes Paleoarctic Low LowSpein Mountain High High Stratified Med Yes Paleoindian High HighSwan Point High High Stratified Low Yes Paleoindian, Paleoarctic High HighTrail Creek Caves High Med Stratified Med Possible Paleoarctic High MedTuluaq Hill High High Buried Low Yes Paleoindian High HighUgashik Narrows High High Stratified Low Yes Paleoarctic/Anangula? High HighUsibelli High Low Stratified Low Yes Paleo indian, Paleoarctic Low MedWalker Road High High Stratified Low Yes Paleoindian, Paleoarctic? High HighWhitmore Ridge Med Med Buried Med Possible Paleoarctic High Med
]
~
JJ
A. Geographic Focus
The geographical focus for the early Alaskan project encompasses the
Alaska state boundaries, a huge region. Because Alaska is varied in its reaches,
I have subdivided the state into nine geographic regions for analytical purposes:
Southeast Alaska, Southwest Alaska, Southcentral Alaska, the Interior, the
Brooks Range, the Arctic Slope, the Aleutians Islands, and the Seward and
Alaska Peninsulas.
Figure 3.3: Distribution of Early Sites
a 500 1000 2000~i~~~~~~~~~iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii~,'Kiiometers
16
Figure 3.3 illustrates 42 of the 47 sites dated within the temporal focus of
the project. "Unknown" sites (sites pending further research) were not included
in the figure. Those depicted are a representative sample of the sites that satisfy
age categories for inclusion in the analysis. It is important to keep in mind that
many points overlap on this map; some sites appear in clusters. In an effort to
conceal specific locations, each triangle covers an area larger than five square
miles. Specific location information is available for these sites only through the
State Historic Preservation Office.
Lime Hills Caves, Spein Mountain, and Nukluk Mountain were the few
sites found in southwestern Alaska. On the Alaska Peninsula were the Ugashik
Narrows and Koggiung sites. In the Aleutian Islands were the Hog Island, Oiled
Blade, and Anangula core-and-blade sites. Southeast Alaska revealed several
sites, including Ground Hog Bay 2, Hidden Falls, and On Your Knees Cave.
17
J
Figure 3.4: Northern Distribution of Early Sites
"
o •
Figure 3.4 depicts the Arctic Slope region with its major drainage, the
Colville River, the Brooks Range, with the Noatak and Kobuk Rivers draining that
region to the west and the Seward Peninsula (located in the southwest corner of
the map). The Brooks Range contains ten early Alaskan sites, including the
Mesa, lisburne, and Putu-Bedwell sites located in the northern foothills bordering
the Arctic Slope region. On the Seward Peninsula, Trail Creek Caves is the only
early Alaskan site identified to date.
18
]
j
Figure 3.5: Interior Distribution of Early Sites
Interior Alaska contains the majority of early sites, in part due to the
development of the Alaska Highway system and the opportunity it has provided
for archaeological discovery. The Shaw Creek Flats sites, the Gerstle River
Quarry site, sites in the Nenana Valley, and the Tangle Lakes and Teklanika
Archaeological Districts appear in Figure 3.5. Also depicted is one of the major
interior drainages, the Tanana River draining northwest into the Yukon River.
The Alaska Range formed a formidable mountainous glacial barrier during the
19
Pleistocene and, as it did then, it continues to provide great relief feeding the
Tanana River from the south with snow and glacier runoff.
B. The State of Early Alaskan Cultural Resources
There are 31 National Register Designation Codes (NATREG) designed to
rank cultural properties based on National Register criteria. The codes assist in
planning the mitigation of impacts to cultural properties that may come under
threat. Table 3.6 lists (in a simplified version) the codes that pertain to
Paleoindian sites in Alaska.
Table 3.6: National Register Designation Codes (AHRS 2003)Designation Code Translation_.Q_Q_~ p.t_~P~.r:1:Y.__9_~.!~r..t1Ji.Q_~_~I. __~!_t9.i~!~ __f9.E_!b_~ .. ~_~!i.9_Q?.L.B~g!§!~E .... _. ._.Q~_§' §J_!~_gE~_!t~~!~E~IJY.i.!~!_Q ~_Q ~!!9_i.~_~~ gQ.~ __~~_§. §J_!~ __9.E~_~E~_~!~E~~_i.!~ __~_Q ~~~_~_~_~9.!_9.gig_~'___g_!§!tig! .. ___~_t1_h N_~!!9.IJ~LtlJ.~!9Ei~~__~_Q_9_t1J_?E~ __~.. QLN_§.!ig_Q§_'__$_!.g_Qifi.~_§_Qg_~ __NHR Nominated to the National .... of Historic Places
:EE$:::::::::::::::~:::::: __ :::_:~:::_:~_: __ National Historic Site ...'"C.
NRXCL DOE file inactive~~~~~~~~~,.~_._~_nM_"~"_ __••__.. .._ ",.._ _.,.."................ .. n _ _ .. '., •., , __ _ , .-__ __ ..M•.•_ , __ _ ...' _................. ..,., •. '_ n _ .
NON E The property has not been reviewed
The reason that cultural resource management archaeology exists in the
US today is to ensure surveys are completed so that nonrenewable cultural
resources will be protected and properly documented before any potentially
destructive action is undertaken, also to find and record previously unknown
sites. A site that may be eligible for the NR or documented through a
Determination of Eligibility (DOE) is treated as if it has already been nominated
(King 1998, Neumann and Sanford 2001).
20
JJ
The NATREG information for Alaskan archaeological sites and districts
dated between 8,000 and 12,000 rcybp was collected in an effort to establish the
state of early site preservation efforts in Alaska. For those sites lacking such
documentation, the category NONE was employed. The results depicted in
Figure 3.7 document the total number of known early sites. It indicates that the
system designed to track and preserve early Alaskan sites has not been
providing the necessary documentation.
Figure 3.7: National Register Designations for Early Alaskan Sites
30
25
20
15
10
5
oNONE NHL NHR NHS NRXCL NXS DOE DXS
21
One major reason for nominating sites to the NR or as NHLs is to facilitate
research; it is the only nationwide database of cultural properties and
archaeological sites. Another reason for nomination is to provide additional
visibility to nominated sites, allowing researchers access to basic information
regarding the quality and significance of data from different regions of the
country. Planning and stewardship makes agencies and developers aware of
important sites before a project begins, ensuring the property's protection for
future generations (Sprinkle 1994).
C. Alaskan Site Categories and Methods of Analysis
The arbitrarily set timeframe for this study (8,000-12,000 rcybp) reflects
the period from when early Alaskans lived and was the initial factor for
determining sites to include in the analysis. Keeping in mind some of the
difficulties inherent in 14C data, I have included most dates in the text as
uncalibrated. A comprehensive section on radiocarbon calibration into calendar
years appears in Chapter IV, Section E.
Several categories of information helped establish a framework within
which archaeological properties were compared. These categories include site
significance, integrity, environment, history, description, artifacts and features.
They document aspects of site location, design, setting, material, workmanship
and association used for considering a property's eligibility to the NR (Little et al
2000). With this information, it was possible to rank most of the properties as
22
having "High", "Moderate" or "Low" levels of integrity and significance based on
the Earliest Americans Theme Study guidelines (Anderson 2003). Ranking sites
based on integrity and significance was a sUbjective process completed through
a systematic search of the literature. Suggested ranks for each site are included
in the Appendix next to the site name. Sites considered for NHL status ranked
"High" and sites considered for nomination to the NR ranked "Moderate" (Med).
Sites ranking "Low" did not possess sufficient integrity or significance for
nomination consideration.
Table 3.8: Earl Alaska Site Cate ories..§.!!E? ~'§'!!.1.~ _ _ g.<?.!!.1p..!~~ _ _ ...§!!~.~..~.~~.E?!.J~.!j.B.§.L._ _......... '!.ir.~~!!.l_<?n.L _ _...!3.~g.I.<?.Q _ _1- - _ j
..!3~P.9.~J.!9.!:Y.................................. _.. _....................... ..§!gn!.f!~.§.!}~.<?......................... ..
..h§i.!29.<?~~.<?.~ .!..r.!.!<?g.t!.~y. ..Basal Dates Artifacts and Features'..·T..ra..Ciiti..on ·· · ··.. ···..··..·· · ·..·..··· , Oescripti..on ·..· ·· ·· ···..·..··· ··..·..···..··· _ ,
The category site name documents the common name by which sites are
referred, often used in place of the more formal site number provided by the
Alaska Heritage Resource Survey (AHRS). The category region documents
where in Alaska each of the sites occur. The category repository documents the
institution where artifacts are formally housed. Landowner records the agency
where each site is located, and who is responsible for site preservation; it also
documents sites located on private land. Basal date is a category containing the
oldest single radiocarbon date or an approximate radiocarbon age accepted by
23
consensus in literature. Its purpose is to provide a general estimate of site age.
Site integrity played a role in selecting the basal date; basal date is not
necessarily the absolutely earliest date of cultural material from any given site.
Many of the basal dates were used in the discussion of radiocarbon calibration.
The term tradition is widely used in North American archaeology to
describe wide-spread and lasting technological attributes. Traditions suggest a
larger temporal cultural continuity than do complexes. Technological complexes
occur in similar context and within a relatively constrained period of time and
geographic location. Typically, several complexes comprise a single tradition.
Tradition and complex could be thought of as similar to a genus and species
system, not in an evolutionary sense, but rather as a taxonomic system that
becomes more specific in the classification of assemblage attributes, in this case
artifact attributes.
William Andrefsky (1998) has described various approaches for attribute
analysis. Assemblage attributes are snapshots of always-changing lithic tool kits.
Artifacts recovered at any stage of their use-life can represent a number of
shapes or functions, and archaeologists may find them at any given point during
a reduction sequence (Andrefsky 1998).
In an attempt to standardize the classifications used, two classifications
were not employed: West's (1981 :163) "Beringian Tradition" and Davis'
"Paleomarine Tradition" (Davis 1989). This is because, in my opinion,
24
"Paleomarine" is better subdivided into the Anangula and Northwest Coast
Microblade traditions, and the Beringian tradition is simply too broad in scope,
covering both NE Asia and Alaska, and was documented here as either Denali or
Paleoarctic.
Complex is an analytical classification based on artifacts that occur
together in association. To define the category complex, I used generally
accepted terminology in current archaeological literature. Flaws in that
terminology exist with "the notion of tracing the evidence of the oldest human
occupation from lower North America back to Alaska, and ultimately to Asia,
produced expectations about the archaeological characteristics of late
Pleistocene Alaska" (Bever 2001 b). In some ways, a uniform classification
system is still needed in Alaskan archaeology (Bever 2001a: 98). Despite these
difficulties, a description of technological temporal persistence, presented by Gal
and Hall (1982), has been a useful conceptual device for organizing various
archaeological components left by the earliest Alaskans. However, this system is
similar to the way in which archaeologists have attempted artifact classification
for years, with one exception. Gal and Hall (1982) recognized that mUltiple
assemblages likely co-existed in time and space. With this important addition,
"tradition" and "complex" are defined in a manner consistent with the definitions
set fourth by original investigators. For occasions where there has been
25
disagreement, I have sided with the researcher who put forth the most complete
documentation.
To what degree can the tool kits of Paleoindians tell us about their cultural
identities? Such questions demonstrate the difficulty in relying solely on
technological determinations in tracing "cultures" through time, yet such evidence
remains essential to tie people to the ground. Tool kits and subsistence patterns
can provide information related to economic levels of societies and establish a
geographic home. Although genetics and linguistics can establish connections
between groups geographically and in time, they analyze evidence that is mobile,
or not physically tied to the ground. Genetics or linguistic markers in Native
Alaskans could have developed anywhere in Asia or North America but material
technology is left in situ and is therefore, immobile.
It is interesting to note that Paleoindian archaeologists in the contiguous
United States are grappling with similar problems of technological classification.
Using the concept of "co-traditions", investigators find multiple technological
"cultures" co-existing during the Terminal Pleistocene.
In several places, some archaeologists believe that Clovis is one ofseveral contemporary traditions existing in North America at 11000rcybp... in post-Clovis times the simultaneous existence of differenttraditions - such as Folsom, Midland, Agate Basin and Plainview ataround 10200 rcybp ...Some archaeologists are not convinced thatseveral types coexisted (Haynes 2002:257).
In Alaska, several site components are labeled "unknown" because they
contain non-diagnostic artifacts. Many of the unknown assemblages are
26
assumed to be small collections from Denali or possibly Nenana complex
occupations, based on stratigraphy and radiocarbon determinations. Others
sites have been labeled "unknown" because they are currently under
investigation. Occupations of unknown affinity may be determined eligible for
nomination due to their potential to contain important cultural resources if
deposits remain intact. In terms of the NR criteria, the potential to reveal
significant information is enough for nomination (NPS 1991 a).
Environment documents the immediate surroundings and geological
characteristics associated with the site location, ie, nearby seashores, rivers, and
lakes; the local vegetation; and topography. Many site locations on record are
inaccurate, recorded before the development of Global Positioning System
(GPS) technology. At some point, it will be necessary to verify many of the
coordinates with state-of-the-art GPS readings.
The category history describes the research history of each site intended
to document how much material 'v'v'as excavated at each site, as well as who
worked there and when. To some degree, previous interpretations of site
significance have been discussed under History, including instances when re
excavation or re-analysis has uncovered nevv evidence, e.g. at the vvell-known
Campus site (Mobley 1991), at the Putu-Bedwell site (Reanier 1994, Hamilton
and Goebel 1999), at the Mesa sites (Kunz and Reanier 1994, Hamilton and
Goebel 1999) and at the Gallagher Flint Station (Ferguson 1997a, 1997b).
27
Significance and integrity playa major role in the ranking of each site
within this historic context. Significance is a statement of scientific relevance to
the theme "Peopling of the New World". Sites can be significant in a number of
ways and archaeologists often disagree about what makes a site or artifact
collection significant; regardless, a concise statement of scientific significance
has been provided for each site. Artifacts and features is an inventory of artifacts
recovered from each component. The information recorded within this category
establishes the technological complex or tradition present at each site.
Integrity plays a crucial role in assessing site significance, because
artifacts and radiocarbon determinations require strong association for proof of
provenience. The category description documents the precise spatial
provenience of artifacts and associated radiocarbon samples as a priority for
determining integrity. It also documents the geological sediments in relation to
one another. Concerning the categories integrity and description, stratified sites
with obvious separation bet\i'Jeen occupations were ideal, for example, the NHLs
Onion Portage (Anderson 1988) and Dry Creek (Powers and Hoffecker 1989).
However, it was necessary to consider the integrity of horizontally separate
components, similar to those at the Lisburne (Bowers 1982, 1999) and Putu
Bedwell sites (Reanier 1994, 1996). As an example, a case study of the Last
Day site (Chapter V) includes a brief lithic analysis and demonstrates the spatial
characteristics of surface components with a high degree of horizontal integrity.
28
IV. Pleistocene/Early Holocene Environment and Archaeology
Over the last 15,000 rcybp, Alaska has undergone significant
environmental and climatic changes. These changes are an essential factor in
the interpretation of archaeological evidence. The first people to arrive in
Beringia, between 12,000 and 15,000 rcybp, lived in a different environmental
context than those who lived between 9,000 and 7,000 rcybp. Understanding
these changes in different regions of the state allows consideration of major
environmental barriers and specific adaptations made by early Alaskans.
A. Paleo-environment of the Pleistocene and Early Holocene
Dale Guthrie (1996:172) described the "Mammoth Steppe", as a late
Pleistocene grassland reaching from northeastern Europe across Siberia, China,
and Mongolia, spreading out of Central Asia (Guthrie 1990, 1996, Bonnichsen
and Turnmire 1999:6). The mammoth steppe is often characterized as both
tundra and steppe, with similar megafaunal species existing in across two difficult
but similar periglacial environments.
During Pleistocene cycles of low solar input, this grassy biome spreadwestward across Europe to the Atlantic, northward to the Arctic Oceanonto the huge exposed continental shelf of North Asia, and eastward toNorth America via the exposed Beringian land bridge. This combinationof cold and aridity led to the elimination of wood plants, and favoredcertain arid-adapted grasses and forbs (Bonnichsen and Turnmire1999:6).
According to Gary Haynes (2002:160),Tundra greatly expanded, and there was a [common zone] betweentundra and steppe, perhaps possessing characteristics of both biomes.Beringia was unambiguous tundra, but the huge region of central Asiaand southern and south-eastern Europe [was steppe].
29
In the Great Plains of the United States and southern Canada, there was a
similar ecology as described in Europe, Asia and Beringia during the Pleistocene.
How did this Pleistocene world affect modern humans as they populated the
northern hemishperes?
Western Beringia was the last part of the Old World populated during the
Pleistocene. In central Russia, the availability of large game played a major role
in providing abundant resources for a growing population of modern humans.
Biotic productivity peaked in central Russia between 25,000 and 20,000 years
ago; by 18,000 -12,000 years ago productivity was decreasing and megafauna
were becoming extinct (Soffer 1985:206). Ancestors of the early Alaskans
emerged from the north Eurasian environment moving eastward through Beringia
on the continuous "Mammoth Steppe".
Geologists have discovered that large regions of interior Alaska and the
Arctic Slope, in Eastern Beringia, remained ice-free during the Last Glacial
Maximum (LGM) and only the Brooks and Alaska Ranges had local glaciation. In
the Brooks Range, the most recent glacial episodes of Northwest Alaska are
apparent in the Noatak River drainage. There, the most recent Anisak glacial
advance dated from 13,600 years ago, marking the end of the LGM for the
western Brooks Range. Anisak was contemporaneous with the less extensive
Douglas Creek and Itkillik Creek advances from the central Brooks Range. The
30
massive ice dammed Lake Noatak formed in the Delong Mountains from the
runoff of these two glaciers (Hamilton 2001).
Sedge, poplar (Populus sp.), and birch (Betula sp.) were present in the
southern Brooks Range during the LGM (Anderson and Brubaker 1996). It is
certain that megafaunal species like horse, antelope, steppe bison, and
mammoth roamed the Beringian landscape until present tundra environments
emerged (Guthrie 1990, Walker et al 2001).
A modern analog for the Beringian landscape does not occur on earth
today (Elias 2001). Similar vegetation patterns may have been similar to
present-day dry tundra environments characterized as less acidic and with less
cotton grass or tussocks. Studies indicate that Moist Non-acidic Tundra (MNT)
dominated Pleistocene Beringia with more stable footing than the tussocks
common in the Moist Acidic Tundra (MAT) found in most of Northern Alaska
today. In addition to higher nutrients, MNT also contains more sedge and dwarf
birch. The shifting of Beringia from a landscape dominated by large patches of
MNT to MAT likely had a role in the extinction of Pleistocene megafaunal species
(Walker et al 2001).
As vegetation began to reclaim the now fertile periglacial regions, so did
species of fauna and human habitation was not far behind (Hamilton 1982).
Figure 4.1 shows the extent of ice in Alaska during the LGM and the Late
31
J
J
J
Pleistocene, allowing a reconstruction of regions where initial peopling most
probably occurred.
The oldest dates of colonization occurred between 11,500 and 12,000rcybp. Earliest sites found in the interior of Alaska contained evidencethat they were a colonizing population. In Northern and Interior Alaska,there was a push-pull effect from the changing climatic conditions of thedisappearing Bering Land Bridge because of rising sea levels. The rise ofbirch-poplar may have killed mega-fauna, "obligate grazers" mammothand horse. The increased birch and poplar supported large elk... ratherthan traditional mega fauna. There were also varieties of bird, smallgame and fish. The "Younger Dryas reversal" was dwarfed by the MidHolocene period of dry windy conditions, during a period when the interiorwas likely largely abandoned (Yesner 2001 :315).
Fi ure 4.1: Alaska Late Pleistocene Glaciation 1
Alaska Paleo-Glaciation_ Terminal Pleistocene
Last Glacial Maxim um
1 Adapted from Coulter et al 1965 and from National Park Service AlaskaPak GIS Meta Data (NPS 2002b)
32
uuj
The Bering Land Bridge became the Bering Sea approximately
11,000 rcybp (Elias 2000, 2001), closing the Asia-Alaska connection.
Stabilization of the American coast occurred in the Aleutians at
approximately the same time as in Chile, during the Early Holocene
(Yesner 1996:250). Portions of central Beringia inundated by water are
easily visible in maps of today's coastline, depicted in Figure and 4.2.
The Late glacial period (14,000-10,000 yr BP) was an interval of rapidenvironmental change throughout Beringia. Climatic fluctuations broughtabout wholesale changes in the distribution of Beringian plants andanimals, and may have played the most important role in the regionalextinction of many mega faunal mammal species... The pollen evidenceindicates that herbaceous tundra vegetation dominated much of Beringiaat the end of the last glaciation, giving way to shrub tundra in mostregions between 14,000 and 12,000 yr BP (Elias 2001:10).
Figure 4.2: Beringia Digital Elevation Modef
2 Source: AlaskaPak GIS package (NPS 2002b)33
Elias (2001) explains that in Northwest Alaska the transition from lush
moss and lichen vegetation during the Late Pleistocene began approximately
14,000 rcybp. This occurred in Siberia between 13,000 and 12,500 rcybp (Elias
2001: 10). After the Bering Sea expanded into lowland Beringia (11,000 yr BP),
the Younger Dryas cooling trend emerged in the Early Holocene between 10,800
and 10,000 rcybp causing the shrub tundra vegetation to decline and herbaceous
tundra expanded once again in interior regions (Elias 2001). The Milankovitch
Thermal Maximum (10,000-9,000 cal BP or 9,000-8,000 rcybp) followed the
cooling trend with increases in average temperature (Mason et al 2001 :525).
Later, the remnant Beringian landmasses (the Lena Basin, Alaska and the
Mackenzie territory) developed coniferous spruce forests between 8,500 and
8,000 rcybp (Elias 2001:10-11).
The exact route(s) from Beringia southward across Canada into the lower
contiguous states remain unknown. For decades, the picture of an "ice-free
corridor" from Alaska through Canada has dominated our perception of big game
hunters with fluted projectiles leading the southern migration. Today, offshore
submarine evidence from the Northwest Coast indicates the former existence of
ice-free refugia with the capacity for human habitation between 14,000 and
10,000 rcybp. This environment may have supported marine mammals (walrus
and ringed seal) throughout the Pleistocene, providing the possibility for coastal
subsistence and possibly early migrations (Mandryk et al 2001).
34
Evidence from Cold Bay, near the start of the Aleutians chain, indicates
that the glacial ice centered over the Pacific shelf was in rapid retreat between
14,000 and 12,000 rcybp (Mann and Peteet 1994). A radiocarbon determination
from a willow leaf from a deeply stratified profile suggests vegetation was present
11,520.::t100 rcybp (Jordan 2001 :512). The sample was recovered at the bottom
of a well-documented series of peat sediments deposited throughout the
Holocene and provides an indication to when the region became inhabitable.
Shortly after the ice retreated, regional landmasses began
rebounding upward as the immense weight of glacial ice was lifted. In
Glacier Bay, Southeastern Alaska, despite geologic uplift, rising water has
submerged any sites along the coast older than 13,000 rcybp (Mann and
Streveler 1997), making it difficult to understand the extent of maritime
economies during the Terminal Pleistocene.
Some archaeologists (Le., Yesner 2001) suggest that Alaskan
maritime economies emerged as environmental conditions in the interior
deteriorated, Le., changing paleoenvironments had a "push-pull" effect on
early peoples living in Beringia (Yesner 2001). Others believe (Dumond
2001, \/Vorkman and McCartney 1998) site preservation biases in
southeastern Alaska and the Aleutians make the discovery of sites dated
between 7500 and 9600 rcybp very difficult, and as a result very few are
known today. This disparity is the result of complex coastal interactions of
35
eustatic, isostatic, and tectonic processes that eroded or obscured sites
from that period (Jordan 2001 :520).
B. Earlv Alaskan Archaeoloaical Classifications. ~
Some archaeologists resist using traditional technological classification
systems because of the cultural connotations they generate. Despite this,
without making statements regarding ideology, material cultures are theoretically
classifiable by assemblage attributes (Andrefsky 1998). The following
discussions of late Pleistocene/early Holocene archaeological complexes in
Alaska based is on artifact assemblages from a broad sample of sites exhibiting
similar shared attributes. It attempts to subsume the range of variation of early
Alaskan technological complexes, while realizing that alternative constructs might
be developed to accomplish the same goal. Note that, at times, archaeologists
have lumped both the Akmak and Denali complexes into the Paleoarctic tradition
(Mason et al 2001), and have lumped both Nenana and Denali complexes with
Dyuktai into the Beringian tradition ('Nest 1981).
Dixon (2001 :283-287) has synthesized the archaeological technologic
traditions in eastern Beringia based on the Alaskan archaeological literature.
Table 4.3 presents a summary of his synthesis and the range of radiocarbon
dates within which he believes each technology occurred (Dixon 2001 :295).
36
Table 4.3: Earlv Alaska Technoloaical Classifications (Dixon 2001)Tradition· Complex Radiocarbon Range (rcybp)
Most archaeologists would agree with Dixon's (2001) summary of early
Alaskan technological classifications, despite the controversy surrounding his
proposal for the coastal migration into the New World around 13,500 rcybp
(Dixon 1999). Dixon (2001), however, did not compile a compete list of ail early
Alaskan assemblages, and many traditions contain several technological
complexes. For these reasons, a comprehensive discussion of each complex
and tradition utilized in this study is necessary.
... _-1.1...._ ....._ ... I~~L ..... -I "_!..... Jl.. ,.. ...... _~M ..,...1-_ -I:_J.: ..........L:~ ...... L __ l- I __ .w: .....l'IUfLlltnn rluu~u r-UIIIL vUIlIPI~A; 1II~ UI:::>llll\jlIV~ l~\j"IIUIU~Y I::>
associated with the Northern Paleoindian tradition often considered to have
originated from the Nenana complex (Goebel et al 1991). Many examples of
fluted point technology occur in the Batza Tena area where 18 fluted points have
been recovered, four times the number found in the rest of Alaska (Clark and
Clark 1993, Hamilton and Goebel 1999:181). Despite similarities with the classic
Paleoindian Tradition, recent work suggests a "strong association" (Kunz et al
2003) between the fluted projectile points in the Brooks range and microblade
technology (Bowers 1982, Reanier 1995).
37
The Batza Tena fluted point sites represent the basis for the Northern
Fluted Point complex, appearing most commonly in, or near, the Brooks Range.
in the Batza Tena region, additional tools associated with the points include
endscrapers, graver spurs, blade-like flakes, utilized or waste flakes, bifacial
tools, bifacial cores and flaked unifacial tool fragments (Clark and Clark 1993).
A single point described as "fluted" was found in Anaktuvuk Pass in
association with the Kayuk complex (Campbell 1959:6). The Kayuk complex
contained large, finely crafted bifacial projectile points and a unifacial core-and
blade technology, including spalls and reworked spalls left over from blade
production. The Kayuk lanceolate projectile points measured between 5.5 and
12.5 cm with "thick ovate to diamond cross sections, convex base, and finely
executed parallel oblique flaking which extends downward from left to right
across both sides of the blade" (Campbell 1959:98).
Kayuk's relationship to Northern fluted points remains unclear (Campbell
1959, Alexander 1969). The relationship of the technology with Sluiceway
projectiles at the Tuluaq Hill site (Rasic 2000) is also unclear. Most of all,
Sluiceway's relationship to the Mesa complex at the Putu (Reanier 1994, 1996)
and Lisburne sites (Bowers 1979, 1982, Loy and Dixon 1998) is just as unclear.
In fact, fluted projectiles tend to appear almost randomly in a variety of Alaskan
Paleoindian assemblages.
38
Initially, there was an attempt by Clark to suggest that the Northern Fluted
Point complex was ancestral to Paleoindians in the Western United States (Clark
1991). Unequivocal proof of this has not been forthcoming. As Clark and Clark
(1993:80-82) have more recently noted, the technology in Alaska has long been
the subject of confusion.
The points described here [Batza Tena] differ from classic Clovis points inthat the shallow medial flute of the classic point usually is larger than thelateral flutes or 'guide flakes' as they are called in that case. Detachmentof the medial flute in the case of the Alaskan and Yukon points leaves thelateral flutes intact to a substantial degree, so that many of these pointscan properly be described as triply fluted or channeled. Many southernPaleo-Indian sites, however, are characterized by points which in terms oftheir multiple fluting are not particularly different from the Alaskanspecimens... and this especially is the case for points from westernCanada...There is considerable variation in the size of specimens fromvarious assemblages, but those from the north tend to be smaller thanclassic Clovis points.... Critical to interpreting the significance of northernfluted points is the question of their age. This is not completely settled.For the southern approaches there is an unreliable radiocarbon date ofapproximately 9,500 years from a fluted point component at SibbaldCreek, Alberta and three closely clustered dates, averaging 10,500 years,from the fluted point component of Charlie Lake Cave... Regarding theearlier Nenana sites... This negative evidence suggests that the Alaskanpoints either date to yet an earlier or later period, or that whatever theirage they are so uncommon that they are not present in many siteassemblages (Clark and Clark 1993:80-82).
Clark and Clark (1993) did not associate fluted points from Batza Tena
with the Nenana complex, nor did they assume they represent temporal
ancestors to classic Clovis technology further south. In Alaska, fluted point
technology appears to be an early Holocene technological phenomenon
appearing between 10,000 and 10,500 rcybp (Dixon 2001: 289). Fluted points in
Alaska may have derived from Northern Paleoindian traditions, but many
39
Alaskan archaeologists believe that the technology originated in the south and
migrated north, an idea Dixon (1999:188) originally attributed to Wormington and
Forbis (1965:183-188) based solely on typological distributions. When
radiocarbon dates from sites with Clovis-style fluted projectile points from the
contiguous United States are compared with dates associated with similar tools
in Canada and Alaska, the oldest dates occur furthest south and consistently
become younger through the western Canadian corridor. The trend possibly
continues northward into Alaska, suggesting that interior continental migrations
occurred in a direction opposite the classic "Clovis-First" model. Admittedly,
there are few securely dated examples of Paleoindian sites in western Canada
and Alaska, but the presence of lanceolate points found in Mesa complex sites
have also been suggested to have resulted from a reverse migration from the
northern Plains to Alaska during the early Holocene (Roper and Wygal 2002).
The similarities between Mesa complex Paleoindian artifacts with those from
Agate Basin, Wyoming (Frison 1978) were first purposed by Kunz and Reanier
(1994, 1995). Such evidence leaves the technological origins of Alaskan fluted
points, as well as their relationship to early lanceolate point industries, enigmatic
and unresolved at best.
Mesa Complex: The sites listed below (Table 4.4) represent the Mesa
complex, including two geographic outliers: Spein Mountain, located in
southwestern Alaska, dating to 10,050.:t90 rcybp (Ackerman 2001:91), and the
40
multicomponent Engigstciak site along the Beaufort Sea coast in NW Canada,
dating between 9,400 and 9,900 rcybp (Mann et al 2001).
Typically, Mesa technology occurs in the Brooks Range (Kunz and
Reanier 1995) in relative close proximity to "Sluiceway" sites. Sluiceway is
currently an unclearly defined technology featuring sites such as Irwin Sluiceway,
Tuluaq Hill (Rasic 2000,2002), and NR-5 (Anderson, Douglas 1979, Rasic
2000). Bever (2001a: 101) has written that the Tulauq and Mesa sites share
many attributes, including >11,000 rcybp determinations (Rasic 2000, 2002) from
both sites. Despite the earlier 14C date at the Tuluaq site, Rasic (2000:64)
tentatively suggests that the oblanceolate projectiles points found there date to
approximately 10,000 rcybp. So far, the secure dating of the Paleoindian
technology at Tuluaq Hill, and its relationship to the Mesa complex, remain
uncertain (Dumond 2001: 201).
Although it lacks Mesa-style projectile points, the Tuluaq assemblage isdominated by broken bifaces and bifacial waste flakes. It appears to bevery similar to the Hill Top assemblage, though whether it is apart of theMesa complex is unclear (Bever 2001a: 101).
The Mesa, Lisburne, Putu-Bedwell, Hilltop (Bever 2001a), and Spein
Mountain sites (Ackerman 2001) comprise the majority of Mesa complex sites.
Bever (2001a) also included TES-012 and MIS-131 in the Mesa complex;
however, additional analysis is necessary to clearly establish these as Mesa
sites.
41
]
Mesa technology is an important component of the Paleoindian tradition in
Alaska (Ackerman 2001, Bever 2000, Bever 2001a, Kunz and Reanier 1995,
1996). It is securely dated between 9,900-10,200 rcybp, based on averages
from Mesa, though not including two outlying >11,000 rcybp dates (Hamilton and
Goebel 1999). Evidence from other Mesa complex sites supports this age range
(Bever 2001a).
Table 4.4: Mesa Complex SitesSite Citations
Nenana Complex: The Nenana Complex is "more closely related to the
Clovis tiadition than to the Denali compiex" and commoniy found in the interior
region of the state (Goebel et al 1991). Nenana and Clovis technology were
roughly contemporaneous and possessed similar attributes, especially when
ignoring their respective distinctive Chindadn and fluted lanceolate projectile
points. Without these, the rest of the assemblages are comparable (Goebel et al
1991 :73).
The Nenana complex includes characteristic triangular and teardrop
shaped projectile points and an absence of core-and-blade technology. The
Nenana complex was originally discovered and defined as "Chindadn" in the
lowest levels of the Healy Lake site (Cook 1969), and later identified in early sites
42
in the Nenana River Valley including Dry Creek, Walker Road, and Moose Creek
dated at approximately 11,300 rcybp (Hoffecker 1996). The Shaw Creek Flats
sites along the Tanana River, northwest of Healy Lake Village, have more
recently been found to contain the earliest evidence of Nenana technology, dated
to approximately 11,800 rcybp (Yesner 1996, Holmes 2000). Although these
dates are, to some extent, contemporaneous or slightly earlier than Clovis
occupations in lower North America, there is as yet no definitive link between the
two technologies. Despite this, the Nenana complex still represents the
strongest possibility for an ancestral connection between Paleoindian sites in
Alaska and the lower contiguous states (Goebel et al 1991).
Artifact types that define the Nenana complex are: (1) triangular and"teardrop-shaped" projectile points and knives, (2) straight - or concavebased lanceolate projectile points, (3) perforators, (4) end and sidescrapers, (5) burins, (6) hammer and anvil stones, (7) unifacial knives andscrapers. Flakes, small stone wedges (piece esquille'e), and lithicdebitage are also associated with these sites. These diagnostic types ofstone artifacts have been found at Component I at the Dry Creek site, theVVa!ker Read site and the Moose Creek site (Dixon 2001 :283).
Paleoarctic Tradition: The core-and-blade technology associated with
the Paleoarctic tradition is derived from the Dyuktai tradition from Siberia where it
dates approximately between 23,000 and 10,500 rcybp (Slobodin 2001: 38). It
may have appeared in the Alaskan archaeological record as early as 12,000
rcybp (Holmes 2003) but was more fUlly developed in the Paleoarctic traditon.
Paleoarctic sites are characterized by a unifacial core-and-blade technology and
the manufacture of bifacial lenticular projectile points (West 1975). Similar
43
technology existed for at least another 8000 rcybp in Alaska (Clark and Clark
1993) and became one of the most prevalent lithic evidence left by early
Alaskans.
Denali Complex: West (1967,1975, 1996a: 303) described Denali core
styles as generally wedge-shaped with mUltiple microblade facets. The Denali
complex was a core-and-blade technology that included bifacial tools such as
lanceolate projectile points as well as large flakes and blades. Also associated
with the wedge-shaped core and blade artifacts were core tablets created when
a fresh platform surface was generated with the purpose of renewing the striking
surface for blade removal (West 1996a). The distinct core tablet by-products
were produced when the "spall then hinged up about one-fourth to one-third of
the distance back from the face. A stop notch on the top at that point ensured
the termination of the core tablet spall there and prevented the entire core top
from being carried away" (West 1996a: 303). Other artifacts from the Denali
complex include endscrapers, cobble spalls, large blades, and the distinctive
Donnelly burin.
Holmes (1998, 2003), has recently established core-and-blade technology
in situ in the lowest levels of the Swan Point site in the central Tanana Valley,
effectively placing core-and-blade technology contemporaneously with the
earliest Nenana complex artifacts. However, he suggests that the early
44
microblade technology at Swan Point is more similar to the Dyuktai culture of the
Lena River Basin than to the Denali complex.
The Denali complex typology commonly applied to sites in the interior
regions of Alaska (West 1967, 1975) includes a variant technology appearing
south of the Alaska Range early in the Holocene (see Ackerman [1992, 1996a,
1996b] for Southeast Alaska, and Henn [1978], Dumond [1975,1981, 2001] for
the Alaska Peninsula). These sites appear shortly before estimates indicate
Denali population density was highest, between 8500 and 8000 rcybp based on
radiocarbon dates from 71 sites (Mason et al 2001).
Akmak: Originally defined by Douglas Anderson (1968, 1984, 1988), the
classic Paleoarctic tradition type-site, Onion Portage, was discovered by Louis
Giddings (1967) along the Kobuk River. The Akmak complex is often lumped
into the Denali complex (Mason et al 2001). The technology includes bifacial
projectile points and unifacial core and blade technology (Anderson, Douglas
1970, 1984, 1988).
Vitreous chert (Inupiaq akmaq) was used for many tools in the Akmakcomplex. The assemblage is characterized by large cores on whichsteeply angled platforms were created for the purpose of striking off bladepreforms. The preforms were reworked to end scrapers, gouges, severalkinds of knives, and shaft smoothers. Narrow grooved shaft straightenersof basalt suggest that bows and arrows were used. Microblades found inthe complex were produced from narrow wedge shaped cores of a typefound at sites in Siberia, Mongolia, Japan and central Alaska (there calledCampus type microblade cores); and the Akmak specimens undoubtedlyowed their method of manufacture to techniques developed earlier inEurasia (Anderson, Douglas 1984:81-82).
45
Anangula: Anangula technology occurs in the Eastern Aleutian Islands.
Few sites contain the unique Anangula unifacial core-and-blade technology,
distinguished from Denali by a lack of bifacial reduction. The characteristic
attributes include the micro-to-medium-sized conical cores and associated
blades, produced through unifacial reduction techniques. The assemblage
contains no bifacial artifacts (Aigner 1978, Veltre et aI1984). The Anangula
tradition may have ancestors in the Sumnagin technology in Siberia, dated
between 10,500 and 6,000 rcybp (Powers 1996:237-238).
Northwest Coast Core and Blade: The Northwest Coast Microblade
tradition core-and-blade technology, concentrated in coastal regions of southeast
Alaska and British Columbia, shares similarities with the Anangula tradition in
age as well as a focus on unifacial reduction strategies, but the technologies are
clearly derived from different sources. The Ground Hog Bay 2 site in Southeast
Alaska contained "crude bifaces" and obsidian from the Wrangell Mountains,
found in the earliest levels, which provides evidence that the Northwest Coast
Microblade tradition derived from Denali complex technologies (Ackerman
1996b).
The Northwest Coast Microblade Tradition extends from the northernAlexander Archipelago of the Alaskan Panhandle to just north ofVancouver Island and consists of microblades, pebbles tools, and flakes,and contrasts with other early cultures in having very few or no bifaces.The Northwest Coast Microblade Tradition is dated from approximately9000 [rcybp] to 5000 or 4500 [rcybp] and includes clear evidence of theuse of coastal resources... and is clearly related to the Denali Complexbut differs from it... Wedge-shaped cores, which are distinctive of centralAlaska and Late Paleolithic northeast Asian assemblages... are found on
46
the Northwest Coast, but the nodular core form is more common... Inaddition, burins and burinated flakes, are common in many East Asianand Alaskan assemblages, but only burinated flakes are found on theNorthwest Coast, but these are not common (Matson and Coupland1995:82).
C. Early Alaskan Component Frequencies
It is important to note that many early Alaskan sites, especially in the
Interior, contain multiple cultural deposits or components. For example, in the
Interior, Nenana complex deposits occur stratigraphically beneath Denali
complex deposits in nearly every early site found in that region. Although there
are 47 early sites, there are 62 early Alaskan archaeological components
identified in the literature. These sites are depicted by frequency in Figure 4.5.
Those sites not classifiable at the complex level have been included in their
respective tradition. Table 4.6 lumps each complex into its respective tradition,
placing the Akmak and Denali complexes into the Paleoarctic tradition, and the
Nenana, Mesa, and Northern Fluted Point complexes into the Paleoindian
tradition. The charts compare early Alaskan components statewide and provide
a greater sense of technological diversity between 8,000 and 12,000 rcybp.
47
Figure 4.5: Early Alaskan Component Frequency
25.----------------------VJ 20 +------....=~ 15+------Qe10+------Q
U 5+------
o+--JI--....-
Figure 4.6: Percent of Early Alaskan Tradition Components
% l~~ jr--------------------;o;]~- I
f-----.---....------..-.-.-- !---"--r----J'---.-
D. An Alternative Approach: Primary Mode of Lithic Production
Primary modes of lithic production serves as an alternative method for
classifying the material technology of early Alaskans. The model assumes two
fundamental manners of lithic reduction, bifacial and unifacial; some technologies48
use one or the other of these modes, but the Paleoarctic tradition incorporates
both of these. Andrefsky (1998) explains lithic reduction stages as unifacial or
bifacial modes of production. Investigating trends in their use among early
Alaskans could be a viable and testable attribute, an attribute commonly
described in the archaeological literature.
Lithic reduction sequences from the Anangula and Northwest Coast
Microblade core-and-blade traditions appear as strictly unifacial flaking strategies
(Ackerman 1980, Matson and Coupland 1995, Veltre et al 1984). Paleoindian
tradition technology typically begins with the manufacture of bifacial blanks and
preforms. Although Paleoindian technology does contain small percentages of
unifacial tools, these were typically retouched flakes generated through bifacial
reduction (Goebel et al 1991). In contrast, Paleoarctic tradition technology
incorporates both unifacial and bifacial reduction techniques (Anderson, Douglas
1988) employing both modes of production simultaneously.
At this point, I must stress that these reduction strategies have been
assumed based on assemblage descriptions provided by site investigators.
Proving modes of reduction would require analyses of each early Alaskan
assemblage. Table 4.7 depicts how each assemblage would be categorized.
Table 4.7: Earl' Alaskan Technologic ClassificationsTradition Complex Primary Mode of ProductionPaleoarctic Denali, Akmak Both unifacial and bifacial···PaieoTri·d"fa·n·····..····..·.. '''i\Je-nana:-Mesa:-NorthernFTLitecfpoTilC........· ··Sifa·Claj····· ..··..··..···..·.. ··.. ··..··· ......··..·....·· ..·.... ··..};~?6~~~[~=::::::::::::::·::· _§.§!.rlg~.!~.~:=::=.~~===~=-~~=:=~~===~=::=~:::~~~:~: .:II6If~~[§L·::::::::::::~~~:~:::~::~::.:::::::::::::::.::::NW Microblade NW Microblade Unifacial
49
As groups migrated through Beringia and Northwest Alaska, some settled
in the Tanana and Nenana Valleys, gradually penetrating south of the Alaska
Range. Over the millennia, they trickled down to rich coastal regions in
Southeast, Southcentral Alaska and the Aleutian Islands (Yesner 1996).
Differences in lithic production techniques plotted across the state in Figure 4.8,
may represent separate migrations or diffusion of technology.
50
Figure 4.8: Mode of Production in Early Alaskan Components
~~r·,_- Biracial£i
Biracial & Unifacial
51
E. Calibrated Radiocarbon Determinations for Early Sites
Radiocarbon samples detect the decay of isotopic carbon beginning upon
the death of an organism. The older the sample, the greater the radiocarbon
determination diverges from the actual calendar date the organism died (Haynes
2002). There has been extensive analysis regarding radiocarbon calibration, and
calibrated dates appear in a variety of previously published articles and books
(e.g. Bigelow and Powers 2001:Table 3, Hamilton and Goebel 1999: Appendix).
The importance of radiocarbon calibration to the Early Americans Theme Study,
and to this project, is a need to convey site antiquity in the form of calendar years
before present, rather than in rcybp, making the age of sites comprehensible to
non-archaeologists (NPS 2003a).
In addition to problems of association, radiocarbon dates may be affected
by the marine reservoir of fossil carbon, if they are based on shell, fishbone, sea
mammal bone, or sea mammal fats. An additional problem of particular
relevance to the earliest Alaskan sites is the "radiocarbon plateau" around
10,000 rcybp, in which different calendar dates are associated with specimens
showing similar radiocarbon dates.
Radiocarbon dates from the 47 early sites listed in Table 3.1 represent a
range covering the period between 6,000 to 12,000 rcybp. The results appear in
Table 4.9 and Figure 4.10 including both radiocarbon samples obtained from
early Alaskan sites and their calibrated calendar year. Note that there are two
52
apparent slight inconsistencies in the calibration of data at approximately 9,700
and 11,100 rcybp.
53
]
J
1
Table: 4.9 Radiocarbon Determinations and Calibrated YearsSite Name Level RCYBP Deviation Median Low .tf.ighDelta River Overlook CZ2 6675 175 7523 7252 7840Gallagher 6960 90 7771 7612 7958Panouinoue Creek CII 7130 180 7942 7593 8336Broken Mammoth CZ2 7201 205 7991 7615 8394Jay Creek Ridoe 7220 110 7987 7792 8284Swan Point CZ2 7400 80 8182 8015 8378Koggiuna 7475 60 8253 8170 8391Broken Mammoth CZ2 7700 80 8439 8366 8631Koggiung 7765 95 8541 8385 8977Koooiuno 7895 90 8643 8451 9011Owl Ridge CII 8130 140 9028 8602 9471Panguingue Creek CI 8170 120 9088 8720 9471Chuck Lake Locale 1 8180 130 9127 8656 9486Chuck Lake Locale 1 8220 125 9208 8781 9516Carlo Creek CZ 1 8400 200 9448 8818 9890Last Day 8530 60 9596 9434 9596Delta River CZ 1 8555 380 9532 8564 10546Carlo Creek CZ 1 8690 330 9627 9001 10575Trail Creek Cave 9070 250 10220 9536 11064
H82 3 130 30 0239 ~787 0692n Knees Cave harcoal 210 0 0382 10235 0548HB2 3 220 0 0334 ~0218 0665roken Mammoth Z3 310 65 10434 ~0185 1112n Knees Cave uman 730 0 0330 ~0206 1128anguingue Creek I 836 2 11204 ~ 1167 ~1337.... v ............. ,.. r" .... ~ .... luman 00'"' '"' 10624 """"''' ... ... e"lI' r" It:;"C» \Jave OOU u IUo:>""U I I l~hJ
ipein Mountain 0050 0 1492 1229 12261wan Point Z3 0230 0 1790 1444 2715roken Mammoth Z3 0270 10 12021 1365 2791roken Mammoth Z3 0290 0 1997 1699 2753
!lead .jZ 3 0460 10 12492 1780 2911utu-8edwel! Putu .0490 .0 .2477 1961 .2907oose Creek II 0500 0 2472 11971 12908roken Mammoth 3 0790 30 2886 11985 3181roken Mammoth Z4A 1040 60 3779 ~2391 3013lry Creek Z1 1120 5 3376 12682 3137oose Creek I 11190 0 3153 2903 3752uluaq Hill 1200 0 13155 2911 3751roken Mammoth "z 48 1280 90 3174 2889 3807Valker Road 11300 120 3180 2787 3001wi Ridoe I 1340 50 3258 2998 13805roken Mammoth Z48 1420 0 3422 3149 13799roken Mammoth Z48 1510 20 3459 3153 13840ead Z4 1600 :sO 3492 3195 13862wan Point .jZ 4 1660 0 3700 3424 15053roken Mammoth CZ4C 1770 '10 3816 3180 15240
54
J]
9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 140008000
.f+T
f+ .+
"-+.+++ +
#:4"
~-t
*+.po
...:t"T
+
60007000
Figure 4.10: Calibrated Radiocarbon Determinations12000
.....s::::::Q)
m11000...0..G)o10000
'toQ)
CD
~ 9000(0
~
E 8000..c...(0(.)
.2 7000"0(0
0::
Figure 4.10 provides rough calibrations of radiocarbon years before present intocalendar years ago.
55
v. Spatial Integrity of Ancient Surface Sites: A Case Study at Last Day1
Spatial analysis has played, and will continue to play, an important role in
assessing the significance and integrity of Paleoindian sites. Anderson and
Gillam (2000) indicate the usefulness of spatial analysis and encourage the use
of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in Paleoindian studies.
There have been comparatively few studies at the continental orhemispherical scale, directed to resolving specific routes taken bycolonizing peoples-that is, which particular rivers, passes, lake margins,or other landscape features were likely used by colonizing peoples.Where were major barriers to movement located? What landscapefeatures may have predisposed movement? While there have beenprecursor studies, the availability of GIS technology and globalenvironmental data sets offer, for the first time, the opportunity to explorethese questions quantitatively at a high level of resolution and precision(Anderson and Gillam 2000:44).
GIS can depict technology in different regions of the state during the
Terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene. The large-scale maps appearing in
previous chapters show the distribution of these technologies in relation to
topography and Pleistocene glaciers. Alaska's vast geography, visible through
GIS, provided many barriers to it's earliest inhabitants.
One major geographic barrier to the first Alaskans/Americans was the
Alaska Range. The Brooks Range did not have the same inhibiting effect, and
many early sites exist there. However, unique environmental circumstances
characterize the region, posing certain difficulties for archaeologists. Deeply
stratified sites are rare; more common are lithic surface scatters lacking
substantial organic preservation. Cryoturbation is also a factor, although hearth
1 Portions of this chapter are pending pUblication elsewhere under co-authorship with Robert Gal. 56
smears occur and radiocarbon samples are recoverable. These circumstances
have led archaeologists to refocus on the potential value of small sites rather
than dismiss them as unproductive scatters. Hall (1982) recognized the potential
for "small site archaeology" in the region, where isolated lithic scatters can
identify lithic typologies present in more complicated Brooks Range sites.
The Lisburne site (Bowers 1979), repeatedly occupied in prehistory,
exhibits multiple overlapping archaeological components that have proven
difficult to sort apart. In contrast, isolated lithic scatters at the Last Day Site
(XHP-497) contained only 87 total artifacts, recovered from surface and
subsurface proveniences. The small site provides an excellent snapshot of a
prehistoric lithic tool kit without multiple overlapping components.
The Last Day site contained two artifact clusters separated by a slight
ridgeline significant enough to keep artifacts from Cluster B from eroding downhill
into the vicinity of Cluster A. Cluster A, the larger of the two components,
contained 75 artifacts including an wide oval-platformed blade core (Anderson
1970:11), a single blade fragment, a burin spall, and a thin notched projectile
point reminiscent of Nimiuktuk-11 style points first described by Anderson (1972).
The assemblage also included tvVo fragments of a core face rejuvenation flake,
29 microblade fragments, and 38 waste flakes, several showing retouch. A fire
hearth feature in Cluster A produced three conventional radiocarbon dates,
8990.:t60, 8830.:t60 and 8540.:t60 rcybp (R. Gal pers. comm. 2003).
57
Two clusters are visible in Figure 5.1. Seventy-five artifacts in Cluster A,
depicted in more detail in Figure 5.2 are consistent with a single occupation
event. Only 12 artifacts were recovered from Cluster 8; these included
retouched flakes, waste flakes, and utilized flakes. The long axes of the oblong
distributions are roughly perpendicular to the slope, which suggests that less
than ten artifacts in Cluster A have been transported a short distance downslope
by erosion and gravity. The remaining artifacts are deposited in a pattern very
close to their original deposition.
Douglas Anderson (1988) found, at Onion Portage and Cape Krusenstern,
that human activity areas generally fall within clusters approximately two-meters
in diameter. At the Last Day site, prior deflation of the terrace surface and
downslope transport of some artifacts has result in the two clusters becoming
distributed in a more circular pattern. The current distribution is similar to
Anderson's concept of human activity areas, only altered by the downslope
movement of less than 10% of the total artifact collection. The relationship
between the two clusters is uncertain; deposition of artifacts could have occurred
simultaneously, or at intervals separated by millennia.
58
Figure 5.1: Spatial Integrity at the Last Day Site
so- .. 1 _t, I - ~ ~, r - r -, , -I II I I
I, • II t , ,
I, I !Go j ~ ~
I 't) ... ~-
45 I . I, I I ,I '. \ I II .
\ ! () I I I I •I " , II \ .
( \, , t I Ii,
/ , " I I .40 I \
. ': II , ,I I \ \
I, I ,,\! ( (
, \ \. \~ \ \ \ \I \
I \ \35 \ \
, \ ~ \:' \ ''':>
II
30...... __ ofF-2?
QII 25~ •I q;)Cl ! , ..' IC .1:1:: 20), '..0 \C
,I II , .-- ,I, I I~
9 ,
15. I \ II
,., J
l,\
,.... \..... -_. .- - I 'I \ .
10~ ,, I . \...., \ 0:> III I\ I
i I~ "
I5.- 'I'> \ I...I t ,
I I I j'
I I II I,
I ,I , /.
0 ~~ ..----- II II I' ..... \
I--'""'---- _........~
I, I IT • T T' , - I
305 310 315 320 325 330 335 340 345
59
Q)o
L.J
Figure 5.2: Artifact Types in Cluster A at Last DayI - \ I .. '! Map legend
\ \ I + Flake'. \ \ \ f-- X Microblade
\ \... Blade Core
~\,', \\ t \ I ~ ~:~d; 11
Point\ I .... Burin Spall
32 " \ \ \ . \1 Rejuvenation Flake" \ \ >- C) Charcoal
\ \ \\ \ \ I Vegetation Line
\ 'f \ \ \~30 I I I, \ \'
l ~ \ +,/ \ \+ '\ I I
:0- 28 +: ~).v·x ," + 1/ / + )' 'l + I Ic • T ~ / .• / ) 1,1'/1/ + + /1 ~ + I j/+ / I I
/ 1+ / + I /
26 l +t+ + / I II / / .,- + i i / / / /
24- ._ . r _l 1__,. j _,_i;-"t_y-L __ ./_ _.S328 330 332 334 336 338 340 342
eastin (ffiHters)
Core and blade technology only occurred in Cluster A and accounts for
one third of the total artifact collection by count. Proximal blade segments
comprised 58.1 % of the blade collection. Medial segments comprised 29% and
distal segments comprised 12.9% of the blades. Both the projectile point base
and the manufacture of microblades are consistent with activities expected to
occur around a small hunting party's fire hearth where lithic retooling took place.
Blade edge damage analysis did not necessarily indicate human use, but
instead provided a measure of time exposed on the surface. Blades with a high
(12.9%) amount of edge damage demonstrated a significant amount of edge
chipping along the majority of one or the better part of both blade edges.
Medium (6.5%) damage amounted to chipping along approximately half of a
single blade edge. Low (19.3%) levels of edge damage included those with a
minor amount of chipping along a single edge. Blades with no trace of edge
damage (61 %) were the most prevalent, and when combined with blades of low
damage levels, they represented over 80% of the total number of blades. Such
evidence indicated the majority of discarded segments remained close to their
original position of deposition with little or no movement across the gravel
surface.
A minimum number of three cores are represented in Cluster A, although
only the black ovate core was recovered. The first missing core produced the
61
majority of blades from gray chert. The second, a brown chert core, produced
two refitting segments of a core face rejuvenation flake.
Material type was classified by generic stone color. Several shades of
gray chert, including a gray and red variegated type, comprised 61 % of the total
number of chert artifacts. Two red chert waste flakes could have originated from
the red portions of the gray and red variegated core. Black chert was the second
most abundant material type (33.3%). Artifacts comprised of black chert were all
similar in grain and texture, including the ovate blade core and the largest of the
blades.
Based on weight, gray chert, including the red-banded variety, comprised
7.8% of the material type in Cluster A, whereas black chert comprised 86.7 %.
Varieties of dark gray and brown chert were the only other materials in Cluster A,
which consisted of less than 4.6% by weight. In Cluster B, gray chert (46.5%)
outweighed black chert (39%). Red-brown and tan varieties represented less
than 15% of the materia! based on weight.
All of the blades are within the general size classification for microblades,
with the exception of one outlier. All of the microblades were flaked from gray
chert, and the blade thickness v. width data (Figure 5.3) lead one to conclude
that they were derived from a single core. The single "macro blade" was flaked
from black chert, similar in texture and color to the ovate core. Its curvature
nearly matched the largest flake scar on the core face, and the blade length was
62
only slightly larger than the outermost scar. However, it was not a perfect match,
suggesting that the blade originated from an earlier reduction stage.
Figure 5.3: Blade Width vs Thickness
4.5
4
3.5
~ 3CII-CII
~ 2.5gIII
2IIICIIC
..:.:(J
:E 1.5...
0.5
•
•• t·•.... •• •
• •~ ~. ,..
oJI---r----,---+---------------------o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Width (millimeters)
The Last Day Site displays lithic attributes produced from both bifacial and
unifacial modes of lithic reduction, and is a strong candidate for some of the
earliest notched point technology in Alaska. The association of a notched bifacial
projectile point with core-and-blade technology is persuasive, especially if one
accepts the spatial integrity of artifact distributions around activity areas two-
meters in diameter as suggested by Anderson (1988) and the significance of
small site archaeology as proposed by Hall (1982).63
Small surface scatters, or single occupation events, can assist in the
interpretation of more complicated multiple component surface sites (Hall 1982).
Although preservation is limited in surface sites, Iithics and provenience alone
can provide significant information and radiocarbon determinations are often
recoverable from calcined bone or hearth smears still present in the soil. The
recovery of data from the Last Day site suggests the integrity of small early sites,
an essential characteristic for eligibility to the NR, as emphasized by Hall (1982).
Acceptance of the importance of these sites has another ramification. AsTainter (1979) has pointed out, some archaeologists, convinced of theunimportance of small sites or frustrated by the difficulty of dealing withthem, have attempted to define such sites out of existence by labelingthem as "scatters" or "localities" rather than sites. By doing so they donot allow for the possibility that small sites are eligible for the NationalRegister of Historic Places and, further, that excavation and analysis ofcultural material from these sites might be important in our efforts tounderstand the past. The analysis of... small, single component, specificactivity sites may be crucial in that effort.
64
I
J"llllllillllll'IJ1IJIfIIIII'lllllllll'llllliIIUI-
Figure 5.4: Last Day (XHP-497) Lithic Artifacts
I
Special thanks to Richard Martin for his assistance in artifact photography
o
ULJ
J
65
VI. Results and Conclusions
The purpose of this project was to determine properties suitable for
nomination to the National Register of Historic Places, including those worthy of
nomination to the National Historic Landmark status. The Earliest Americans
Theme Study must include Alaska to be truly comprehensive on a national scale.
Once a Multiple Property Nomination is completed, it can be easily updated with
newly discovered sites. The need for such research is clear, to protect these
resources under the fullest extent of Section 106 of the National Historic
Preservation Act of 1966, and to make available to the public information
pertaining to the peopling of the Americas.
Early Alaskan archaeological resources dating between 8000 and 12000
radiocarbon years share a common theme, "Peopling of the New World". The
analysis used to review literature pertaining to early Alaskan sites involved the
compilation of several categories of information. These included aspects of site
history, environment, integrity, artifacts and features, description of stratigraphic
context and scientific significance. Other documentation concerning the current
state of preservation efforts were based on a series of National Register
(NATREG) codes. Of the 47 early sites originally considered, documentation and
status in the NATREG system were considerations in choosing the 35 sites
described in the Appendix where a rank of "Low", "Moderate" or "High" levels of
integrity and scientific significance is provided.
66
In the northern half of the state, the Brooks Range contains eleven early
sites, two of which are already listed as NHLs (Onion Portage and Gallagher Flint
Station). Of these sites, three (Batza Tena, Lisburne, and Putu-Bedwell) are
recommended for NR nomination and two (Mesa and Tuluaq Hill) for NHL status.
The Seward Peninsula contains one site (Trail Creek Caves) recommended for
NR status.
Twenty-two early sites were considered from interior Alaska, of which four
are recommended for NHL status (Broken Mammoth, Mead, Swan Point, and
Walker Road) and ten for NR nomination (Carlo Creek, Delta River Overlook,
Donnelly Ridge, Healy Lake Village, Moose Creek, Owl Ridge, Panguingue
Creek, Phipps, Whitmore Ridge, and Usibelli). The Phipps and Whitmore Ridge
sites, located in the Tangle Lakes Archaeological District, are National Historic
Sites (NHS), recommended for NR nominations. Donnelly Ridge is a contributing
site in the Donnelly Dome Archaeological District and is recommended for NR
nomination. Dry Creek is already a NHL.
Sites recommended for NHL status in Southeast Alaska include Ground
Hog Bay 2 and On Your Knees Cave; Chuck Lake is recommended for the NR.
Southwest Alaska and the Alaska Peninsula contain 't'J'JO sites recommended for
NHL status (Spein Mountain and Ugashik Narrows), and one for NR nomination
(Lime Hills Cave). Anangula, in the Aleutians, is already a NHL site; Hog Island
is recommended for NHL status; and the Oiled Blade site for NR nomination.
67
This research forms the foundation of a future Multiple Properties
Nomination. Once completed, the MPN will be useful in nominating future sites.
The benefits of continuing the nomination process for early sites in Alaska, aside
from preservation, is to make information available and easily accessible to the
general public regarding the Earliest Americans and the Peopling of the New
World.
68
AMR-1PSM-50KIR-102
DEL-360MLZ-2KIR-96PSM-27
Table 6.2: Seward Peninsula
AkmakN. Fluted PointMesa
PaleoindianN. Fluted PointMesaMesa
Anderson, Dou las 1988Dixon 1975, Ferguson 1997Kunz & Reanier 1994-6Rasic 2000Clark & Clark 1993Bowers 1982Bever 2001, Reanier 1994
Table 6.3: InteriorSIte Name Number Complex References RankDry Creek HEA-005 Nenana, Denali Hoffeckeretal1985 NHLBroken Mammoth XBD-131 Nenana, Denali Yesner1996 HiahMead XBD-71 Nenana, Denali Yesner1996, Pewe 1983 HiahSwan Point XBD-156 Pre-Nenana?, Nenana, Denali Holmes 1998, 2003 HighWalker Road HEA-130 Nenana, Denali? Hoffecker 1980, Hiaas 1992 HighDelta River Overlook XMH-297 Denali Holmes 1979 MedCarlo Creek HEA-031 Unknown Bowers & Mason 1992 MedDonnelly Ridge XMH-005 Denali West 1967, 1996 MedHealy Lake Village XBD-020 Nenana Cook 1969 MedMoose Creek FAI-206 Nenana,Denali Hoffecker 1996, Pearson 1999 MedOwl Ridae FAI-91 Nenana, Denali Hoffecker 1985, Phippen 1988 MedPanauinaue Creek HEA-137 Denali, Nenana? Powers & Hoffecker 1989 MedPhipps XMH-111 Denali West et al 1996 MedWnitmore Kidge XMH·o72 Denali West 1996d MedUsibelli HEA-128 Nenana? Hoffeckeretal1985 Med
Table 6.4: SoutheastSite Name Number Complex Reference RankGround Hoa Bav 2 JUN·037 Denali? Ackerman 1992, 1996 HiahOn Your Knees Cave PET-4G8 NWCoast Dixon 1999 HiahChuck Lake CRG-237 NWCoast Ackerman 1985 Med
Table 6.5: Southwest & Alaska PeninsulaSite Name Number Complex Reference RankSpein Mountain BTH 62-65 Mesa Ackerman 2001 HighUgashik Narrows UGA-001 Denali Dumond 1975, Henn 1978 HighLime Hills Cave N/A Denali Ackerman 1996 Med
Table 6.6: AleutiansSite Name Number Complex Reference RankAnanaula·Ananiuliak SAM-012 Ananaula McCartnev & Veltre 1996 NHLHoa Island UNL-115 Ananaula Knecht & Davis 2001 HiahOiled Blade-Hog Isle UNL-318 Anangula Knecht & Davis 2001 Med
69
Notations
AA
L
AMS
SZ
CZ
C
kya
rcybp
yrBP
P
TL
14C
GHB2
*
MPN
NR
NHL
NXS
DOE
Activity Area
Locality
Approximate
Accelerated Mass Spectrometry radiocarbon determination
Stratigraphic Zone
Culture Zone
Component
Thousands of Calendar Years Ago
Radiocarbon years before present
Years before present
Paleosol
Tephra Layer
Carbon 14
Ground Hog Bay 2
Problem Date
Multiple Property Nomination
National Register of Historic Places
National Historic Landmark
Site contributing to an archaeological district
Determination of eligibility
70
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88
APPENDIX I
Name: Amaknax Island (Low)
f'Jumber: UNL-0054
Region: Aleutian Islands
NHR Designation: None
Repository: Museum of the Aleutians
land Ownership: Ounalashka Corporation
Basal Dates: N/A
Tradition: Anangula, Aleut (Knecht and Davis 2001, Veltre et al 1984)
Environment: The site is located along the "western shore of Amaknak
Island, northeast of Cave Rock" (AHRS 1997). Amaknax is in the eastern
Aleutian Islands near Unalaska.
History: According to the AHRS database, the site discussed by
numerous archaeologists including Hrdlicka, Jochelson, McCartney, Banks and
Bruce Ream (AHRS 1997). Each author referred to the site by different names
including Amoknak and as Amaknak site B. In 1984, testing of the site was the
focus of Veltre's field season (Veltre et al 1984).
Significance: Although there were no 14C samples recovered for
Amaknax, its oldest component was technologically associated with Anangula
tradition (Veltre et al 1984). It is believed to date to a similar period as the
nearby Hog Island site UNL-115 dated to between 7960±90 and 8050:t80
89
(Dumond and Knecht 2001, Veltre et al 1984). The site is significant under the
theme "peopling places" because is suspected associated the earliest known
lithic industry Aleutian Islands (Veltre et al 1984).
Integrity: Military activity has heavily disturbed the site. It consisted of
redeposited artifacts in disturbed bulldozed contexts. Several previous
excavations have also scarred the site. One amateur archaeologist, Cahn,
excavated a more recent portion of the site to a depth of 5.8 m of continuous
cultural deposits. Despite the site's lengthy history of disturbance, it contains
undisturbed deposits (Veltre et al 1984:29 and Fig. 10). The deposits could yield
significant information from lower levels of the site; artifacts found in association
with a level of volcanic ash (Veltre et al 1984) could provide accurate dates
without recovering radiocarbon samples.
Artifacts and Features: The earliest assemblage, described as a
unifacial reduction scheme typical of the Anangula tradition, included core and
blade technology and lacked bifacial attributes (Veltre et al 1984:24).
Description: Two loci were identified; the hill top and shell midden
localities. The core and blade technology was limited to the hill top location, a
disturbed portion of the site (Veltre et al 1984). The shell midden locality was
stratified and portions of it remained intact. The nature and relationship between
the midden and the Anangula component from the hill top locality remain
90
unknown although the midden deposits are considerably younger in age (Veltre
et al 1984:25).
91
Name: Batza Tena (Med)
Number: MLZ-00002
Region: Southwest
NATREG: NHS Archaeological District
Repository: Canadian Museum of Civilization, Quebec
land Owner: US Bureau of Land Management
Basal Dates: The site could date in excess of 11,700 rcybp (Hamilton and
Goebel 1999:184)
Traditions: Paleoindian, Late Paleoindian, Paleoarctic
Environment: The Batza Tena obsidian quarries lie approximately 300
kilometers southeast of Onion Portage and nearly 500 kilometers east of the Trail
Creek Caves site, 30 kilometers south of Hughes (Clark and Clark 1993). More
specifically, the location is southeast of Anaktuvuk Pass in the headwaters of the
Koyukuk River where the Kokrines-Hodzana Highlands convene with Koyukuk
Lowlands. The sites of prehistoric obsidian quarrying activities lies east, a few
kilometers, from the main river channel where a major obsidian source is found
on a "flat topped" ridge positioned between the Indian and Little Indian creeks,
"100- 150 kilometers above the Koyukuk flats" (Clark 1995). The local vegetation
consists of tussock, shrubs and mixed spruce-birch forest, to the west (Clark
1995).
92
History: Clark and Clark conducted the original archaeological
exploration of the region in 1968 through 1971, documenting 89 sites indicating
heavy use in prehistoric times. Fifty of these were included in the Batza Tena
Archaeological District created in 1972 (Clark 1995, AHRS 1997).
Significance: "The Batza Tena obsidian locality in northwest Alaska was
utilized at least as early as 11,700 BP, with obsidian distributed at least as far as
the Tanana Valley... " (Hamilton and Goebel 1999:184). Obsidian artifacts,
traced to Batza Tena sources, have been recovered from the Component II at
Dry Creek, Band 7 at Onion Portage, the Mesa site, and from the earliest
occupations at Broken Mammoth (Cook 1995:95). Such evidence makes the
Batza Tena District significant to understanding early Alaskan trade and
economic activities. Cook's (1995) obsidian sourcing project shows the quarry at
Batza Tena was used for at least 10,000 rcybp (11,700 when one considers the
material in the lowest levels of Broken Mammoth).
Paleoindian fluted projectile points in the Batza Tena region (n=18), out
number by four-times those found in any other site in Alaska (Hamilton and
Goebel 1999:181). Unfortunately, the evidence remains undated, there is
however a growing pool of evidence that suggests the spread of Paleoindian
lithic technology occurred from the south to north through Canada and into
Alaska beginning 10,500 rcybp and arriving in Alaska shortly before -10,000
rcybp (Dixon 2001 :289, Roper and Wygal 2002) and persisting there for an
93
undetermined amount of time. Because so much of the fluted point evidence has
been found at Batza Tena, it is significant for the contribution it could make in
understanding connections with similar-earlier Paleoindian technologies in the
lower forty-eight states.
Artifacts and Features: Artifacts from the Batza Tena District include
fluted, side-notched, and lanceolate projectile points, bifaces, end scrapers and
utilized flakes in high quantity. Lithic reduction waste flakes and cores litter the
region, signs that it underwent extensive use as a prehistoric lithic quarry site.
The region also includes obsidian lithic resources from the surface in rivers and
along lakeshores. Ten of the 89 surface scatters discovered by the Clark's
contained fluted projectile points (Hamilton and Goebel 1999).
Integrity: All of the sites were surface scatters making direct dating of the
Batza Tena sites difficult because of general mixing and possible reuse of
artifacts found there (Bever 2001b:155). 14C material was not recovered and the
evidence indicated lithic raw material quarrying and stone tool manufacturing was
taking place. Obsidian hydration analysis has been mostly inconclusive (Clark
and Clark 1993). One group of fluted projectile points produce a cluster
hydration rind thickness suggesting a date of 9000 rcybp; however, due to
extreme environmental conditions, the obsidian hydration results varied widely
from 1800 rcybp to as old as 21,000 rcybp (Hamilton and Goebel 1999). If
obsidian from Batza Tena, conclusively, is from the lower levels of known early
94
sites, then Batza Tena must have been a quarry site from those periods. This
may be the only method useful in determining the exact nature of the area's early
use.
Description: The Batza Tena Archaeological District contained 50 of the
known 89 surface sites in the region, which contain clusters of distinguishable
components with relatively intact horizontal separation (Clark and Clark 1993,
AHRS 1997). Each component, both in and out of the district boundaries, likely
contains significant data from the prehistory of Alaska, but as described above,
these data will be difficult to develop.
95
Name: Broken Mammoth (High)
Number: XBD-131
Region: Interior
NHR Designation: NONE
Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks
Land Owner: State of Alaska
Basal Dates: CZ 4-11 ,770.:t21 0
Complex: Nenana, Denali
Environment: Broken Mammoth is located on a bench overlooking the
juncture of Shaw Creek and the Tanana River. This region, along the
Richardson Highway between Fairbanks and Delta Junction, has been covered
with wind blown aeolian sediment creating excellent stratigraphic integrity at the
site (Holmes 1996, Yesner 1996).
History: C. E. Holmes' discovery and Holmes and D. McAllisters' test
excavation of the Broken Mammoth site in 1989 led to joint excavations in 1990,
1991, 1992 and 1993 by the University of Alaska, Anchorage and the Alaska
Office of History and Archaeology. After a five-year hiatus, the University of
Alaska Anchorage excavations resumed in 1998, 2000 and 2002. The site
received its name from the broken fragments of mammoth ivory originally
discovered there (Holmes 1996).
96
Integrity: Despite eight seasons of excavations, the site continues to add
information to our understanding of early Alaskan prehistory. An estimated 650
square meters remains intact. Approximately 75% of the site was removed by
pre-excavation gravel operations and 25% of the currently existing site remains
to be excavated. Artifacts in significant amounts likely exist in the areas east and
west of the excavated region. A section of unexcavated area remains in the
center of the site although there is evidence of disturbance by gravel operations
in part of that area (Yesner 2003 personal communication).
Early occupations at Broken Mammoth have excellent organic
preservation in stratified contexts, buried beneath wind blown glacial silts, from
the Tanana Valley (Yesner 1996, 2000). Over 10,000 faunal elements have
been recovered from the Broken Mammoth site and strata dated to the early
Holocene and late Pleistocene periods yielded 70% of the total amount of faunal
remains, due to environmental conditions allowing for greater preservation in the
ear!y !evels (Yesner 1996).
Further evidence indicated an increasingly efficient economy and lithic
resource use during the terminal Pleistocene, where there was general increase
in activity and more frequent and "deeper" fire hearths with distinctive "toss
zones" and larger mammal fauna represented. A "tent-like" structure, similar to
structures at Walker Road, suggested "longer term residence" patterns at the site
(Yesner 2001).
97
Most recently, rock-quarrying activities have resumed on the terrace
containing Broken Mammoth, Mead and Veasey sites. Broken Mammoth is
located on state land, and is possibly in great danger of destruction by present
quarrying activities both directly and indirectly via erosion.
Significance: The Broken Mammoth site has provided some of the
earliest known, well-documented evidence of American Indians in Alaska.
Broken Mammoth remains one of the key type-sites for the state's earliest
inhabitants. Important faunal remains recovered from CZ3 and CZ4 included a
variety of birds, including ptarmigan and waterfowl (duck, geese and tundra
swan), small mammals (rodent, marmot, and beaver), carnivores (fox and wolf),
and large game (bison, caribou, and mountain sheep). Evidence of salmon in
early occupations indicates a small amount of fishing activity. The great diversity
in subsistence provides evidence regarding early Alaskan economic activities
and resource use (Yesner 1996, 2000, 2001).
Another major significant discovery at the Broken Mammoth site are the
obsidian artifacts traced to Batza Tena and the Wrangle Mountains found in the
earliest components there. Similar finds supporting a widespread distribution of
obsidian in Interior Alaska are found at VValker Road (Hamilton and Goebel
1999:184 citing personal communication with John Cook). These finds could
indicate important trade networks during this early period.
98
Artifacts and Features: The two earliest components at the site included
artifacts and features from CZ 3: bifacial projectile points, knives, scrapers,
cores, hammer stones, choppers, anvils, bone needles or clothing fasteners,
large hearths, hearthstones, work areas and a possible tent structure (Yesner
1996,2000,2001). Diagnostic artifacts from Cultural Zone 3 included "two
basally thinned, edge-ground "Paleoindian" projectile points"... The bifacial
artifacts, along with unifacial microblade technology, both recovered from CZ 3
are generally associated with Denali Complex assemblages (Yesner 1996).
Further microblade evidence came in a slot carved into a mammoth ivory
fragment. The slot contained a "chert microchip" (Yesner 2000, 2001).
Cultural Zone 3, occupied on a seasonal basis, contained evidence of a
population with more efficient economic use of resources than their
predecessors. Ventifacts and river cobbles made up a smaller amount (30%) of
lithic raw material from that occupation. The majority of raw material from CZ 3
originated from a greater distance than material in CZ 4. Landmark Gap quarries
near Tangle Lakes were the source of the material quarry indicating technology
that is more efficient. It comprised 60% of the total lithics from CZ 3 occupations
(Yesner 2001).
Cultural Zone 4, on the other hand, contained mostly unifacial scraper
technology and a few bifacial tools. General conclusions associate occupations
from Cultural Zone 3 with the Denali Complex and Cultural Zone 4 with the
99
slightly earlier Nenana Complex (Yesner 2000, Yesner 1996). The latest
interpretations reveal a clear distinction between Cultural Zones 3 and 4. The
earlier occupations in Cultural Zone 4 contained artifacts rendered from lithic raw
material immediately available. The majority of which were obtained from "dunal
sands and deposits directly underlying the site" (Yesner 2001). Tools were
readily available from the smashed fragments from quartz ventifacts. This
behavior produced a full 60% of the lithic resources discovered in the CZ-4
occupations. A remaining 30% of the lithics from CZ-4 were artifacts produced
from river cobbles also acquired locally (Yesner 2001). However, a few obsidian
artifacts found in CZ-4 may partly contradict this evidence.
Part of what makes the Broken Mammoth site unique is the wide variety of
faunal remains recovered from the site making this site rare when compared to
the rest of Alaska. The faunal evidence prOVides evidence of seasonal use in the
area, suggesting late fall or winter occupations at the site (Yesner 1996).
Faunal remains from CZ 3 and CZ 4 differ. Moose and caribou were used
more frequently in CZ-3.ln addition there were greater amounts "of snowshoe
hare, arctic fox, marmot and other small mammals" in CZ 3. CZ 4 had more
wapiti than CZ 3. Salmonid fish were utilized more than birds in CZ 3 in
comparison with CZ 4 where birds contributed 60% of the total faunal
assemblage (Yesner 1996).
100
Description: Nine separate Cultural Zones (CZ) were identified in four
geologic sequences A, 8, C and 0 (A is the basal unit & 0 is the upper most
unit). Multiple uncalibrated 14C samples have reliably dated each cultural
occupation. The stratigraphic sequence appears below.
Table 7.1: Broken Mammoth (Holmes 1996:Fig 6-5)level Description
..~J~~~.J2. __ g~ ..j_A, J.I?!.._9.r.!.9?. _ _ __._.._ ___ __ .__._ ___ ___ _ .r-§_tra~~g___ §.t.~rjJ~ ~_~r.!EL~9.Q!§!jr.!J.!Jg_.Q.9. ..g_~_!!~!.~! ..~9..!J~_~ _ _.._... . _. _ _§~at~__ 3, 4A, 48 and 4CStrata A Sterile sand containing no Cultural Zones
Cultural Zones 1A, 18 and 2 contained nine samples ranging between
2040:t.65 and 7700:t.80. Occupations in CZ-3 yielded five 14C dates: 9310:t.165,
9690.:t960, 10,270.:t11 0, 10,790.:t230 and 10,290.:t70AMs. Although throughout the
majority of the site a layer of sterile sand separates Cultural Zones 3 and 4,
apparent mixing between samples from 3 and 4A produced two dates of
11 ,040.:t80AMS and 11 ,060.:t90AMS (Holmes 1996).
There were three separate early occupations. CZ-4A yielded a date of
11,040.:t260. CZ 48 contained four dates: 11 ,280.:t190, 11 ,420.:t70AMS,
11 ,500.:t80AMS and11 ,51 0.:t120 and 4C contained two dates of 11 ,770.:t21°and
11,770.:t220. One final sample from 4C, a fragment of ivory raw material dated to
15,830.:t70AMS, is considered "old ivory" (Holmes 1996).
101
Table 7.2: Broken Mammoth (Hamilton et a11999, Yesner et al1992)CZ -em RCYBP
This date on bone is likely not accurate, CZ-4A was a paleosol with little evidence of human habitation(Yesner 2003 personal communication).
102
Name: Carlo Creek (Med)
Number: HEA-0031
Region: Interior
NHR Designation: DOE-S (Bowers and Mason 1992)
Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks
Land Ownership: State of Alaska
Basal Dates: (-8500 rcybp) (Bowers 1978)
Complex: non-diagnostic
Environment: The site is located at mile 223.5 on the Parks highway in
the Central Alaskan Range on a bluff overlooking Carlo Creek, an eastern
tributary of the Nenana River (Bowers 1978).
History: Hamilton and Thorson discovered Carlo Creek in 1975 along the
road between Cantwell and Healy. Eroding from the cut bank were lithic and
faunal materials. Later that summer Holmes returned to the site for initial
evaluation and registration with the AHRS. Field excavations began the summer
of 1976 and continued the following year (Bowers 1978, Bowers and Mason
1992).
Significance: The site has been determined eligible for the National
Register for more than one of the criteria necessary. It satisfied Criterion D
based on its potential to provide further important data to prehistory as it has
103
already done (Bowers and Mason 1992). This data concerns the economies of
early Alaskan subsistence patterns.
Carlo Creek is a rare early Alaskan site, although the Iithics from its oldest
component were non-diagnostic, they most likely are associated with the Nenana
complex. Component II contained bifacial tools, blades and blade like flakes
(Hamilton and Goebel 1999) and are reminiscent of the Denali tool assemblages;
however, it lacked the diagnostic core and blade artifacts.
Integrity: During the 1976 and 1977 excavations, an estimated 45 cubic
meters of overburden were removed from the site, ranging in depth from 1.5 to 3
meters (Bowers 1978). This significant amount of soil deposition demonstrates a
high degree of integrity that aided in excellent preservation at the site.
Furthermore, after excavations were completed in 1977, the site was back filled
and re-vegetated (Bowers 1978). The site was not completely excavated and
has the potential to contribute further information about the early Holocene,
especially with regard to faunal remains related to subsistence patterns and bone
tool technology (Bowers and Mason 1992). An unknown amount of cultural
deposits remains the lowest components of the site.
Artifacts and Features: Component I, the lowermost occupation,
revealed two fire hearth features. Charcoal samples from these features
returned radiocarbon dates of 8400:t.200, 8690:t.330 and 10,040:t.435 rcybp. Soil
104
humic acid at this level returned a date of 5120±265 rcybp, but this date was
considered to be from contamination (Bowers and Mason 1992).
Lithic artifacts from Component I include: 3 complete bifaces, retouched
flakes (one large), tabular quarried argillite, and over 4000 pressure flakes and
waste flakes. Several of the bifaces displayed use wear. It is significant to note
that core and blade technology was not found in Component I (Bowers 1978).
In addition, Carlo Creek has added significance based on the faunal
remains scattered around two fire hearth areas in Component I including
"Rangifer sp., Ovis dalli and eitel/us sp". Cut marks were found on many of the
larger mammal remains and the long bones were broken in a manner that
suggested marrow was being consumed (Bowers 1978). Bowers (1978:6) has
reported the minimum number of individuals (MNI) at the site consisted of a
single caribou and a single sheep, 8 to 12 ground squirrels and several
unidentified "charred large mammal cranial fragments".
The rNO fire hearth features from Component I are believed to be from the
same occupation event and were spaced -5 meters apart. The artifacts
recovered from both hearths were similar in nature and they were
stratigraphically in the same level. In addition, there was a third feature
described as a "possible heat treatment pit", and the first known case of heat
treating lithics for improved workability in Alaska (Bowers 1978). Component II
was apparently a very brief occupation event, consisting of waste flakes.
105
According to Bowers (1978:4), Component II was completely excavated. This
occupation is believed to date to -6700.:t750 rcybp (Bowers and Mason 1992)
indicating a Late Denali association.
Description: The site stratigraphy was divided into 4 Units, Unit 1 was
basal gravel deposited by glacial outwash and was roughly 8 meters in thickness.
Unit 2 is "floodplain silt and fine sand" and is -3 meters in depth. Unit 3 overlies
Unit 2 comprised of "4 meters of bedded fluvial sands" (Bowers 1978). Unit 4,
the uppermost sedimentary unit, is -30 cm thick and is reworked alluvium, mostly
eolian in nature (Bowers 1978).
Two cultural zones were designated Component I and II. Component I,
the lowest stratigraphically, was 'consistently found to occur within a 5 cm zone
above Unit 2 or at the base of the Unit 3 strata in an area of approximately 12 x 5
meters in size' (Bowers 1978). The deposits in lower reaches of Unit 3 quickly
buried the first occupations under the fluvial deposits. Unit 3 geologic stratum
was described as a complex sequence of "finely laminated silt, fine sand, and
clay" (Bowers 1978). Component I lies on top of a weak paleosol located at the
contact area of Units 2 and 3 (Bowers and Mason 1992).
Table 7.3: Carlo Creek (Bowers 1918)Stratigraphy RCYBP Description Component -cmUnit 4 6700+750 Reworked alluvial eolian C II 30···Unii·3·····..·······..·..·······....···· ···S·4·00±200··············.. ···.. ··· ·..Fic)odpii:iin..siTt"&-·iine..sancj"....·.......... ·-c..r....·..·..·..........··....·..·..·......·300·......··....
8690.:!:33010,040+435·..Unit'2· · ·..· ·..·..·..· = ··Bedde·(j..fl..uviai·..sa·j1·ci's · · ··· _ ·..400 · ..
·..unirr..··· · ·· ·..BasarG·ra·ver ·..· ·..·..· ·..· · ·86'0· · ..
106
Name: Chuck Lake (Med)
Number: CRG-00237
Region: Southeast
NHR Designation: None
Repository: unknown
Land Ownership: USFS, Tongass
Basal Dates: -8200 rcybp
Complex: Northwest Coast Microblade
Environment: The Chuck Lake site is located on Heceta Island south of
Chuck Lake. Heceta Island lies to the south of Sea Otter Sound, to the east of
Iphigenia Bay and to the north of the Gulf of Esquibel. More generally, the island
is northwest of Prince of Wales Island across the Tonowek Bay. The island,
covered with low mountains, as is typical the Northwest Coast, a rain forest
environment. The soil is boggy and poorly drained, typical of the Tongass
National Forest (Ackerman 1985). During the VVisconsin glaciation, the
Cordilleran glaciation capped the island with over 1000 m of ice. Glacial retreat
in southeastern Alaska began approximately 14,000 rcybp with ice dissipating
completely from Heceta Island by 11,500 rcybp (Ackerman 1985).
History: Robert Ackerman discovered the site while conducting survey for
the Tongass National Forest on Heceta Island (Ackerman 1985).
107
Significance: This is the one of the earliest coastal site documenting a
mostly marine subsistence pattern (Ackerman 1996a:132). The core and blade
technoiogy resembled those in Component 2 at the GHB2 site and Component I
at the Hidden Falls site. Namu, in British Columbia, has an associated
technology (Ackerman 1985).
Chuck Lake is significant because the faunal assemblage was primarily
maritime consisting of sea lion, fish and mollusks. Small numbers of caribou,
wolf and beaver were found at Chuck Lake, as were several species of bird. The
earliest component represented a shift in economic patterns during changing
environmental conditions of the Early Holocene. Locality 1 was dated between
8200 and 7300 rcybp, but the maritime subsistence pattern continued at the site
well into the Holocene (Ackerman 1985).
Integrity: Ackerman (1985) designated six localities scattered on either
shore of Chuck Creek, which flows north into Chuck Lake. A Forest Service
access road or trail cut through three of these !ocalities (1,4 and 6). Two of the
localities (1 and 2) are bordered by a Forest Service tree harvest region (Unit
561-3) and the other localities (3-6) are immediately outside the harvest plot
(Ackerman 1985). Those sites within the harvest areas may be at risk from
ground erosion because of the loss of vegetation.
Artifacts and Features: Of the six localities, L2 was the only one not
found to contain evidence of core and blade technology. It was also the only
108
locality not containing lithic debris. Locality 1 yielded 572 artifacts from a shell
midden context. It contained a large deposit of mostly mollusk shell and other
small faunal remains (Ackerman 1985). The entire collection from all three
localities consisted of 610 lithic artifacts recovered with 90.16% directly related to
a split pebble micro core and blade technology. Of those, there were 472 were
waste flakes, 9 microblade cores, 3 cobble flaked macroblade cores, 11
microblade performs, and 58 complete and broken microblades. Other artifacts
included 2 hammerstones, 3 whetstones, a modified spall and 2 anvils. The lithic
raw material for these artifacts consisted of argillite, obsidian, marble, chert and
quartz. A fragment of a bone-barbed harpoon (40.4 mm in length and 13.2 mm
at its greatest width) was the only bone artifact recovered from L1 (Ackerman
1985).
Description: The stratigraphy at the Chuck Lake site contained Level 1
through Level 6 (not Localities). Level 1 was forest litter and was yellow/red in
color (5YR 4/6). !t consisted of mostly wood and root material. Level 2 was a
black silty loam (1 OYR 2/1) and included charcoal flecks and to a lesser extent
wood and root material. Level 3 was the deposit of mollusk shell and other
fauna! remains inclUding sea urchin. It's Munsel color was difficult to pin point
but fell between 10YR 7/1 and 7.5R 5/2. Level 4 was a thin layer of sandy gravel
described as gray/brown (10YR 5/2). L5 was weathered limestone, a dark brown
109
deposit of silty loam (10YR 3/3). Level 6 was limestone bedrock (Ackerman
1985).
Five non-AMS radiocarbon dates were recovered from three of the six
localities included three on shell and two on carbon. Those samples from L1
returned dates of 8220.:t.125 rcybp taken from charcoal, 8180.:t.130 rcybp taken
from shell and a sample of charcoal from the top of the midden dated to
7360.:t.270 rcybp. Locality 3 was also a shell midden dated by a shell fragment to
5240.:t.90 rcybp. Shell dated to 5140.:t.90 rcybp dated Locality 2. Based on
stratigraphy, sample integrity and associated artifacts it was suggested that
Locality 1 was deposited continuously between approximately 8200 - 7300 rcybp
(Ackerman 1985).
Table 7.4: Chuck lake Horizontal Provenience (Ackerman 1985)
....~gg.?!j!y. } .!.~.~.Q..t??Q..,(!9.P')! ~.??g,;!;;.1 ..??.!...~.~..~g.:!;;.~ ..~.Q §.~~!.1 ~.~.9..9~.~ .
....~g.~.?!.!.!y. ? !?.!.?.g.~ ..§.!.!! ~g?...~ ..Locality 3 5140+90 Shell Midden
Table 7.5: Chuck lake locality 1 Vertical Strati~raphy(Ackerman 1985)level RCYBP Description
....~.~.Y..~!.. ..~ F.g.~~.~.! ..!..\!!~r.' y.~.!.!9.~ ..r~.9 ..
....~.~X.~!.. ..? .7..~.§g,;!;;?.7..9. __ !?..!.?.~~ ..~.U.!Y. !g~~ ..Level 3 8220+125, 8180+130 Mollusk shell, sea urchin, other fauna
............................,........... ••••••••••••••••••••• t'l'r'W....................................•1'I'ft'f ..
....~.~.Y..~L.4 ~.?n.9.Y. ..£lE?Y.~! 9.E?.y.!~r9..~D .
....~.~y.~! ? ~~.~.~.~.!9.~~! 9.?E.~..~!.g~.Q ~!.!.!y. t9.?.~ ..Level 6 Limestone bedrock
110
Name: Delta River Overlook (Med)
Number: XMH-00297
Region: interior
NHR Designation: DOE-K
Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks
Land Owner: DOD
Basal Dates: 8555.:t380 rcybp
Complex: Denali (Holmes 2000)
Environment: The Delta River flows north out of the Alaska Range
northern foothills and into the Tanana River. The region is filled with outwash
fans, moraines, lowlands, foothills and to the south "rugged mountains with valley
glaciers" (Holmes 1979). Bottomland spruce-poplar forest characterized the
immediate vegetation (1979:6). The site occupies a steep bluff, now US Army
Observation Point 10 at Fort Greely, along the east edge of the Delta River at an
elevation of -1650 feet (Holmes 1979). Lifted from the Delta River, eolian loess
is continuously deposited on the site and surrounding uplands.
History: The first written reports were published by Holmes (1979) and
Leehan (1980) in hard to locate militarj reports. The original evaluation in 1978
found a handful artifacts with insufficient time to conduct test excavations.
Despite this, a few artifacts and charcoal from 10 cm above the lowest of two
components were recovered (Holmes 1979).
111
Significance: The site likely has potential evidence of Denali occupations
from the Early Holocene from -8.5 kya and is in a region where deeply stratified
sites are hard to find and in danger of being destroyed. XMH-297, heavily used
by US forces conducting artillery training, lies at the edge of a military bombing
field. Because of its deeply stratified nature (Holmes 1979) it was one of the
most significant sites found during Holmes' initial survey at Fort Greely.
The Delta River Overlook site and other small Denali work areas in the
region represent a larger economic system in the Tanana River region (Holmes
2000). They were likely subsistence staging areas, like a "spike" radiating out
from more substantial home base sites like Broken Mammoth and Swan Point on
the North side of the Tanana River (Holmes 2000).
Artifacts and Features: Initial discovery of the site revealed, "five small
translucent gray chert flakes, one basalt flake, a unifacially retouched translucent
gray chert flake, and a small basalt biface fragment" from the lower occupations
-4 meters below the original surface. Also recovered was the charcoal sample
that returned the date of 85552:380 rcybp from a stratigraphic layer 10 em above
the lowest Cultural Component I containing artifacts (Holmes 1979:68).
Unfortunately, little information could be located with the actual artifact
assemblage described and pictured in the 1979 report. None appear to be
diagnostic (Holmes 1979:106) however they are suspected to be Denali complex
112
artifacts (Holmes 2000). Further evidence related to the tool assemblage is
necessary to firmly establish this site as a Denali Complex site.
Integrity: This is a stratified site in aeolian loess and sand/silt deposition
with excellent separation between culture zones. Holmes et al (Holmes and
Bacon 1982) describes the stratigraphy as being originally 5 meters thick, but
eroded down to approximately half that in some areas of the site. The lower half
is silt and sand deposits overlying glacial outwash gravel, the upper sand is more
uniformly parallel beds. Although military use of the area as an observation point
and bluff erosion have placed the site in danger of destruction, portions of it have
likely remained intact at lower levels. US Army Research Alaska (USARAK)
showed no interest in mitigating the damage.
Description: The stratigraphy consisted of six distinct cultural zones,
nine original paleosols and two layers of tephra. Loess 1, deposited directly on
top glacial outwash, was the lowest recorded stratum. The top of Loess 1, at the
transition to Paleosol 1, dated to 8555±38C rcybp. Samples from the top of
Paleosol 1 and the bottom of Loess 2 returned a date 7190±200 rcybp. Cultural
Zone 1 lies at the top half of Loess 1 situated well below Paleosol 1.
Cultural Zone 2 is located just above Tephra Layer 1, which separates L2
and L3, precisely between Paleosol 2 and Paleosol 3. Dates from the top of P1
(7190±200 rcybp) and from the bottom of P3 (6675.:t175 rcybp) provide a window
of time for dating the occupation (Holmes and Bacon 1982). Later occupations
113
occurred as follows: CZ 3 was located in L4 at the base of P4. Samples from
CZ4 returned a date of 3980:t150 rcybp. CZ4 occurred in L5, just below Tephra
2. Tephra Layer 2 separates L5 and L6 and occurs a total depth below the
original surface of nearly 3 meters or approximately 50 em below the present
surface. Paleosol 7 lies just above the Tephra 2 deposit. The final radiocarbon
date, from near the bison bone in L6, returned a radiocarbon date of 2280:t145
rcybp. Bison remains were recovered from the site and this is significant
because, in Alaska, few sites have yielded such data (Holmes and Bacon 1982),
especially dating to the mid-late Holocene period.
Table 7.6: Delta River Overlook (Holmes 1979, Holmes & Bacon 1982)Stratigraphy Cultural Zone .... em RCYBP
....~g.~~~ §. ".9..::?? " ?.?..~.9.;!;.1,.~.?. ...r~y..I?..P.".(~.PP§:r2 .
...T.§:.P.~.f.~ ?" ??. " .
....~.9..~~~ ? " g?. ~ ".??.~.Q " ~.~.~.9.;!;.1"?9. ..r.~y..1?..P. ,, ..
::I;~~~~4:::::=:::~:~:~:~:~~:::::::::::::::: ::::¢.?::~:::b.§.~~::2.fp.+~::~::::::::' 4~:~:$.j:::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::Paleosol 3 81-97 6675,±175 rcybp
........................................".." " " " "..................................... .. " (I?.9.~9..~J.. " ..Loess 3 CZ 2 81-119
••••_ _ _ , n ,
....E.~J.§:g.~.9.! ?.!.T..~.P..~.r?.!"J " !1..~=.1 ..3~4.; "~ ""." "." ,, .Loess 2 134-140...................................................................................................................." - ..
....P..9..I.§:g.~g.'...J __ 1.~.9.=.~..~? ?.1.~.9.;!;?..9..9. ...r~y..I?..P. ..(!.9.p) ..Loess 1 top 1/2 150-175 8555.±380 rcybp (top)
CZ 1
114
Name: Donnelly Ridge (Med)
Number: XMH-00005
Region: Interior
NHR Designation: DXS
Repository: N/A
Land Ownership: Department of Defense
Basal Dates: N/A
Complex: Denali (West 1967)
Environment: The Donnelly Ridge site is located in the Northern Foothills
of the Alaska Range on a north-south trending ridge at 788 meters above sea
level near Donnelly Dome, a prominent geological feature along the eastern edge
of the Delta River -40 km south of its confluence with the Tanana River near
Delta Junction in the Interior region of Alaska. Most of the vegetation cover near
the site and in the surrounding region is low laying tundra shrub (West 1996a).
History: Michael Brady initially discovered Sites along the Donnelly Ridge
in 1963 as artifacts had been exposed in wind blowouts. The Donnelly Ridge site
was completely (100%) excavated in 1964 (West 1996a: 303).
Significance: The Donnel!y Ridge site was included in the Donnelly
Archaeological District and was a key type site in the development of the Denali
complex (West 1967). West (1996:305) described the lithic technology of the
Denali complex as "one of the most complex and efficient devices to have
115
developed in the realm of lithic technology" and a product of a rugged Ice Age
environment. Today, the site's significance centers on its impact in the history
and development of our knowledge of Alaska prehistory, especially the concept
of the Denali complex and Donnelly burins. However, the site lacks definitive
proof of its age, because it is a near - surface site with little soil deposition or
stratigraphy and no datable organic material had been preserved.
Integrity: Archaeological excavation completely removed all cultural
material present; therefore, it retains little in the way of site structural integrity
(West 1967).
Artifacts and Features: The site produced 1513 artifacts, over 1/3 were
utilized, mostly comprised of core and blade artifacts typical of Denali complex
sites. West described the core styles as wedge-shaped with single facets (1996:
303). Characteristic burin spalls are associated byproducts of the wedge-shaped
core and blade technology generated when a fresh platform-striking surface
made for blade removal. These distinct by-products ';,'Jere made ,,",hen the "spall
then hinged up about one-fourth to one-third of the distance back from the face.
A stop notch on the top at that point ensured the termination of the core tablet
spall there and prevented the entire core top from being carried away" (\Nest
1996a: 303). A "side-blow" notch created another distinctive by product of the
technology called a termination flake. Other artifacts from the site included
burins, end scrapers, bifaces, and large blades (West 1996a).
116
Name: Gallagher Flint Station (No Rank)
Number: PSM-00050
Region: interior
NHR Designation: NHL (Bowers 1983)
Repository: N/A
Land Ownership: "State per B.King 5/12/93 memo" (AHRS 1997)
Basal Dates: 6960:t.90AMS, 10,540±150
Complexes: Paleoarctic, Northern Fluted Point (Ferguson 1997b)
Environment: Gallagher Flint Station (already an NHL) is nearby a
cluster of early sites including Putu-Bedwell and Hill Top near the North Ridge of
the Brooks Range (Bever 2001 b, Gal 1980). More specifically Gallagher Flint
Station is located west of the upper Sagavanirktok River "situated on a large ice
contact kame formed during the Antler Valley stage of the Itkillik glaciation, a
[LGM] event" (Dixon 1975:68).
HistC)l"'j: The site was discovered by BLM archaeologists (Gal 1980) and
excavated by E. James Dixon, Jr. in 1970,1971 and again in 1974 (Hamilton and
Goebel 1999:175), when an early microblade component was identified as
possibly dating beyond 10,000 rcybp (Dixon 1975). The NHL was nominated on
June 2nd, 1978 (AHRS 1997).
Bowers (1983) undertook an extensive restoration project at the site
where he of backfilled previously excavated units and transplanted vegetation to
117
minimize the erosion of in situ artifacts. Blades, microblades, core fragments and
flakes were discovered in the backfill and were reburied near the datum for
Locality I, in plastic bags with a US penny dated to 1983. Specific site
boundaries were enlarged to accurately encompassed the artifact distributions
Bowers (1983:11) made recommendations for procedures to properly complete
final analyzes of the materials previously recovered.
Significance: A lengthy series of occupations have deposited cultural
material spanning 10,500 to 970 rcybp and although preservation is generally
poor, evidence of pottery, wood and bone occur in addition to a large quantity of
Iithics (Dixon 1975, Bowers 1983). The site was primarily used as a quarry site
and it represents evidence pertaining to the topic "expanding the American
3 Source: Bowers 1983 Table 1 page 5.118
economy" (NPS 2003b) because of its association with the production of lithic
tools.
Integrity: "[Three] localities were originally distinguished on the basis of
vertical stratigraphy, spatial relationships, typological comparison and
radiocarbon chronology" (Dixon 1975:68). Additional research revealed between
10 to 13 separate localities (Bowers 1983).
Ferguson (1997b) has questioned the relationship of the sample dated to
10,540±150 rcybp. He suggests it originated from "shallow and poorly defined
deposits" at a reported depth of 25cm. That depth is at odds with the field notes
which reported that only two carbon samples were taken, neither from more than
10-15 em below the surface. The core and blade material from Locality 1,
collected relatively close to the surface, was not from the same level as the 14C
sample. The few artifacts from "low in the stratigraphy" were likely the result of
secondary deposition (Ferguson 1997b).
Artifacts and Features: "Locality I contains percussion-flaked cores,
blades, platform flakes, unifacially retouched artifacts and waste flakes. Burins
and bifacially chipped stone artifacts are lacking.... these artifacts were [from]
calcareous mudstone" (Dixon 1975:68). Locality IA was a small cluster that
contained "bifacial projectiles a drill and waste flakes" made from a fine-grained
chert (Dixon 1975:68). Locality IA was a component superimposed in the
southeastern region of Locality I dated to 2620±175 rcybp. The artifacts included
119
"two bifacial point fragments and a drill, all of green-gray chert" (Dixon 1975:69).
Locality I contained core and blade technology but it did not contain bifaces or
burins. It did produce "120 core and core fragments" which included tabular,
conical and wedge shaped styles (Dixon 1975:69).
Artifacts from Locality II included "burins and bifacially chipped artifacts
distributed around two hearths. Fine grade cherts are common and pressure
flaking is characteristic of most of the specimens" (Dixon 1975:68).
Tentative conclusions (Bowers 1983) regarding technologic classification
of the artifacts from each locality suggests only a single Paleoarctic occupation
(Locality I) occurred at the site, one Northern Archaic occupation (Locality III) and
five definitive Arctic Small Tool tradition localities (lA, II, IV, VII, VIII). Locality V
contained a mixture of all the technologies and VI, IX-XIII where unidentifiable
(Bowers 1983).
Description: "Localities I and IA are located in the northwest quadrant of
the site and Locality II in the southeast quadrant. Locality I! is approximately 100
feet (30.5m) from I and IA and is on the opposite side of the kame" (Dixon
1975:68). There were as many as 13 clusters of artifacts on the southern
surface of the kame (Hamilton and Goebel 1999). Twelve radiocarbon samples
were taken from 6 of these localities and all date between 3200 and 1000 rcybp
(Hamilton and Goebel 1999:175). Eleven of the thirteen main clusters have
revealed non-diagnostic artifacts. Only two localities had dates beyond 8000 yrs
120
rcybp. One with six samples that ranged between 11,000-2500 rcybp (Hamilton
and Goebel 1999:175). Hamilton & Goebel (1999:176) cited D. E. Ferguson
(1997b) who claimed the 1O,540±.150 year old sample was from stratigraphically
lower than the main occupation layer. They claim the 6960±.90AMS date was more
accurate for the site (Ferguson 1997b, Hamilton and Goebel 1999:175 Ferguson
1997a) but the >10,000 rcybp date from Locality I cannot be completely ruled out.
Table 7.8: Gallagher Localities (Ferguson 1997a, Hamilton & Goebel 1999)Horizontal Stratigraphy RCYBP Vertical Level
....~g.9..?E!y. !................................................................ ...§.§'?.Q';;;.~.9.~~~1....1 ..9..1..?..4..9..*..1..?..Q................................................ ...~~y.~.!...? ..
....~g.9..?!..i.!y. !.A ???.Q,;;;J..?.§ ~.~y.~.!..J ..Locality II 1660+140,2920+155,3280+155 Levell
Table 7.9: Stratigraphy at all Three Gallagher Localities4
Stratigraphy Characteristics Locale RCYBP -inchesLevell Surface organic L lA, L 2 2620±.175, ~3 inches
.....................................................................................................................................................................~?..?..9.,;;;.~..9..?. ..(~P..9.E?.9..!.9.L .., , ..,·..t:~:: ..·~·· ..··..··..··········..·,·..~i~~·~· ..~9.·~·~·~··· ..........·..I..,·h···]········..····..·..···....··I·..~·B:~4~;1~·~6·· ..···..····'1··t~;af~={~if~j)···· .. I
4 Source: Dixon 1975, Ferguson 1997a, Hamilton and Goebel 1999121
Name: Ground Hog Bay 2 (High)
Number: JUN-00037
Region: Southeast
NHR Designation: NRXCL
Repository: Washington State University
land Owner: US Fish and Wildlife
Basal Dates: 9, 130.:t130 rcybp
Complex: Denali (variant) (Ackerman 1974, Matson and Coupland 1995)
Environment: The site is on a terrace along the shore of Ground Hog
Bay, located in the northern reaches of Icy Strait (Ackerman 1974:3). Icy Strait is
located south of Skagway and west of Juneau (Ackerman 1971: Fig. 1). It is an
area of deep fiord-like waterways bounded by rapidly shelving beaches and
steep cliffs. The mainland to the north, dominated by an extension of the Chilkat
Range, rises up to 1500 meters. In front of the terrace are several small islands
surrounded by shallow seas (Ackerman 1971).
During the Pleistocene, glaciers covered the Chilkat Mountains. Today,
remnant mountain valley glaciers remain (Ackerman 1971). The region was
initially deglaciated approximately 11,000 rcybp when a rise in sea level
submerged the site under -15 meters of seawater. Isostatic rebound was
measured in 1971 when the site was -14 meters above sea level. This process
left beach ridge markers where the sea made contact with land during different
122
intervals of the rebounding process. Erosion during the terminal Pleistocene left
signatures on Soil Zone IV (Ackerman 1980).
History: The site was the second discovered by R. Ackerman in his 1965
survey for the National Park Service in Glacier Bay National Monument and the
surrounding regions (Ackerman 1974:1). During the evaluation, 179 stone
artifacts and 45 organic artifacts were recovered, including a microblade core
and a single microblade (Ackerman 1971). After the site's initial discovery and
evaluation, Ackerman (1974) conducted excavations in 1971 and 1973,
establishing the great antiquity of early Alaskans on the Southeast Alaskan coast
(Matson and Coupland 1995).
Significance: Ackerman (1996a) described GHB2, Hidden Falls and the
Namu (BC) sites as the first to establish maritime subsistence lifeways on the
Northern Northwest coast of North America. The GHB2 site contained mUltiple
components representing three cultural phases demonstrating Denali migrations
into the region (Ackerman 1996a).
Artifacts and Features: At Ground Hog Bay, two of three phases dated
beyond 8000 rcybp. The middle component contained microblade core and
blade technology with occupations between 4180±65 and 8880±125 rcybp.
Radiocarbon dates from the earliest component, containing bifacial projectile
points, were dated between 9130.:t130 and 10,180.:t800 rcybp (AHRS 1997).
Ackerman suggested that the microblade technology likely dated between 5000
123
and 9000 rcybp. The unique microblade technology, with some use of obsidian,
could be associated with the end of the "Denali complex continuum" based solely
on artifact typology. The core and blades were similar, but not identical, to
Denali core and blade technology in the interior (Ackerman 1974, Matson and
Coupland 1995).
The earliest Component 1/1 dated to the Terminal Pleistocene/Early
Holocene and contained scattered artifact clusters and fire hearths. The early
occupations on the beach ridges produced two dates; 10,180±800 and a second
more reliable date of 9, 130±130 rcybp associated with obsidian bifacial
fragments (Ackerman 1974:3). Artifacts from Component /II occupations
consisted of two percussion flaked obsidian bifacial fragments, a water rolled
chert scraper, and five argillite flakes (Ackerman 1980).
Component /I was separated from Component III by a thin layer of sterile
yellowish clay (Ackerman 1980). Component /I was the middle and most
extensive occupation, showing little stratigraphic separation into distinct cultural
zones. Recovered from it were fire-cracked rock and hearth features including
charcoal, burned bone, cobbles, and a lithic assemblage found in the sandy loam
with microbiade and macroblade core and blades, flakes, choppers, scrapers,
utilized flakes, bifacial fragments and detritus, a technology believed to be a
Denali complex variant (Ackerman 1974, Matson and Coupland 1995).
124
Charcoal, sampled from the top and bottom of the excavation, yielded dates of
3750±100 rcybp and 8230±130 rcybp. (Ackerman 1974:3-4).
Component I from Soil Zone II represented a break in the long continuum
of occupations represented by the microblade using peoples in Component II and
it had no association with the Denali groups. It contained a plank shelter with
decorative beads and toggling harpoon heads. This component was dated
between 2500 and 400 rcybp (Ackerman 1980).
Integrity: In 1965, a six-meter trench was excavated in the region down
slope from the terrace (Ackerman 1971). Although parts of the earliest
occupations were disturbed during the construction activities of later inhabitants,
there were areas left unaffected by later postholes. In addition, a thin layer of
sterile gravel separated Component III from Component II (Ackerman 1974:2).
Description: Six geologic levels (Soil Zones I-VI) contained three cultural
components. Average excavation depths measured to 75 em to a basal gravel
designated Zone VI. Cultural Component i, in Soii Zone ii, was enciosed in
gravels and forest loam. Cultural Component II was assigned to Soil Zone IV
described as course pebbles and small cobbles, a lag concentrate, with finer
sediments (Ackerman 1996b). Ackerman (1971) described the lowest levels as
yellowish clay with small pebbles and large boulders, likely glacial till. Artifacts
from the lowest Zones V and VI were "rolled", a common disturbance found in
water worn artifacts (Ackerman 1971). Soil Zone V contained Cultural
125
Component III and was described as "beach sands and gravels" in a layer of clay
(Ackerman 1980). A detailed stratigraphic profile, including 27 radiocarbon
dates, accurately dated the three cultural components and site abandonment
(Ackerman 1996c).
Table 7.10: Ground Hog Bay 2 (Ackerman 199Gb: Fig 9-5 and text).Stratigraphy Component RCYBP SedimentSoil Zone I Duff···SoW·Zo·ne..·jj·..· ··..· -c..i···..··_··..··..·..··..··.. ···1··35±50:···1·55:t85·;,·····,··..··,··· ·..G'rav·eis..&..Forest"Co·am · · · ·
235±60,345±85455±85, 570±90,
............................................... ..._.._ _.............. ...~9.!?;t~.?.1 ..~}9;!;,?g .SZ Ilia 1525±85,1960!65, Dark brown humusSZ IIlb 2240±450, 2300±445, Charcoal lensSZ IIlc 2575±75,2970!90, Gravel
...§??..!.1.1.9 _._._ _._._._..}?.?.9~.?.9..L~.?.!?.9~.1g.O' !?.r.9..~~..~!.I~ .Soil Zone IV C II 4155±95, 4180!65, Dark brown loam with cobbles
5360±90, 5770!95,6755±110,7545±185,8230+130 8880+125
:::§£!L~9.:~i:V.::::::::::: ~~:=::=:~::=:=:=:=:::::. . ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::Y~!E?~!:~6.::¢.:!~y.::~Ii~~!:i~;:j)f.C:::::::::::::::::::: :~::::::::::::::Soil Zone VI C III 9130±130,9220±80,
10,180+800 Basal Gravel
126
Name: Healy Lake Village (Med)
Number: XBD-20
Region: Interior
Land Ownership: Native Allotment
NHR Designation: NRXCL
Repository: University of Alaska Fairbanks
Dates: L10-10,500.:t280, L9-9401.:t528, L8-11,090.:t170, L7-11,550.:t50AMS, L6-
11 410+60AMS L5-5000+60AMS L4-8960+150 L3-3350+50AMS L2-4460+60AMS
'-' -' -' -' -'
900.:t90 to modern (Hamilton and Goebel 1999).
Complex: Nenana, Denali, Athapaskan
Environment: The site is located on a bench protruding into Healy Lake
from its eastern edge, approximately 55 kilometers east of Delta Junction or'" 70
kilometers east of the Broken Mammoth site in the Tanana River Valley (Cook
1996).
History: Test excavations at the site began in 1966 by Robert McKennan,
John Cook, William Workman, and AD. Shinkwin. The tests revealed great
potential for recovery of early archaeological materials, and seasonal
excavations began the following summer, continuing through 1972. The site
became the subject of Cook's PhD dissertation at the University of Wisconsin
(Cook 1969).
127
The site has significance in the history of Alaskan archaeological theory
because of the discovery of the diagnostic Chindadn projectile point and the
development of the Chindadn complex (Cook 1969, 1996: 327). The Chindadn
complex was later incorporated into the Nenana complex following the discovery
of Dry Creek, Moose Creek, Panguingue Creek and Walker Road (Goebel et al
1991, Hoffecker 2001) containing the technology in the Nenana River Valley.
Significance: The earliest occupations at the site lie beneath a later
Athapaskan village (Hamilton and Goebel 1999). The tool assemblage
suggested a home base occupation and subsistence strategies similar to other
early sites in the region. The artifact assemblage suggested possible
connections between the early Chindadn complex and modern Athapaskans
(Cook 1975:128-129). However, there was a gap in the stratigraphic sequence
spanning -4000 rcybp, rendering a direct connection between the lower and
upper assemblages difficult. The lack of artifacts from the middle Holocene has
been suggested to be due to the "lateral migration of the Tanana River" (Ager
1975:63), causing Healy Lake to run dry and the occupants to leave the area.
This suggestion is supported by core samples which indicate that a 4000 year
dry period took place beginning approximately 8000 rcybp and ending
approximately 4000 rcybp (Ager 1975, Hamilton 1973).
Artifacts and Features: Simple flakes, microblades, wedge-shaped
microblade cores and bipolar cores were recovered. The diagnostic artifacts
128
recovered were the "Chindadn" tear-shaped projectile points; other projectile
points were lanceolate in style. Included in the Chindadn assemblage were
unifacial and bifacial side-scrapers; and end-scrapers; angle, dihedral, and
transverse burins; a "notched tool"; gravers; and oval, triangular, and lanceolate
bifacial preforms. The large assemblage of scrapers and preforms were in
strong association with burnt earth, burnt bone, and waterfowl fauna in a hearth
or hearth smear consistent with typical Chindadn occupations (Hamilton and
Goebel 1999).
Integrity: The soil column was approximately 75 em thick, but ranged
from 50 to 100cm tick, and was generally unstratified. Cryoturbation and rodent
burrows decreased the site's structural integrity. Despite these disturbances,
below the organic layer (10 em thick) four soil horizons (A2, B2, A2b, B2b) were
distinguished (Cook 1969, 1996). The C-horizon had been divided into 2 non
distinct layers characterized by a gradual transition from C1 into C2 (Cook 1969).
PiOblems with stratigraphic disturbance lead to the excavation of the site
in 5cm arbitrary levels; however, because the site was positioned on a sloping
lakeshore, and each unit was excavated arbitrarily, the excavated levels did not
correlate between units (Cook 1996), adding to a confusing sequence of artifacts
and radiocarbon samples depicted below in Table 7.11.
Description: Three "cultural stages" were identified through artifact
assemblages and radiocarbon dating taken from the surface downward,
129
identified cultural stages included Cl-1 (attributed to the so-called Athapaskan
tradition), Cl-2 described as "transitional" and Cl-3 associated with the
Chindadn complex. Due to the lack of stratigraphic integrity, the site was
excavated in 5 em arbitrary levels to a maximum depth of 50cm. The
Athapaskan tradition occupations, confined to L1I were stratigraphically above
the transition zone in L4 and the Chindadn occupations dispersed from L6
through L10. FOrty-two radiocarbon dates were recovered from the site,
including 16 AMS samples (Cook 1996, Hamilton and Goebel 1999). The three
radiocarbon samples from the Athapaskan L1 occupation ranged in date from
modern to 900:t.90 rcybp. Four samples submitted from L-4 returned dates of
2150:t.180 , 3020:t.50, 401 0:t.11 0 and 8960:t.150. Two samples from L5, one
modern and one 5000:t.60AMS, indicate the confusing nature of the stratigraphy and
excavation techniques (Hamilton and Goebel 1999). Levels 6 through 10
contained the diagnostic Chindadn artifacts in disturbed context. Radiocarbon
samples ranged in age from approximately 5000 to over 11000 rcybp however
these were not in stratigraphic sequence indicating disturbance (Cook 1996).
130
Table 7.11: Heal lake Villa e Site (Cook 1996, Hamilton at aI1999:188)level RCYBP - em Com onentL 1 Modern, 455:t130, 900:t90 0-5 Athapaskan
••·•···•·•····•·····•···•·······•···..· ·· ·A\\)\s ··..·..··· ..• ·· ·;r./;/fS· ·· · ··..···· · ..L 2 4460:t60 - 380:t50 6 samples 5-10
· · ··..· ·· · A\\)\s · ·..· · · · ·..·.. fi\\)\5 · ·..· · · · .L 3 3350:t50, 2660:t100, 1790:t50 10-15
.........................................................................................·..· · fi\\)\S· · · · · · ..
....~ 4............ +150, 4010:t110, 3020:t50 ,2150:t180 t?::?q ~.f..?Q.~.!!!.<?.I:) .L 5 _, odern 20-25
..........................................................................................................· · A\\)\s · · ·..AMS · · ..L 6 5110:t90,7920:t90,10,410:t60, 11,100:t60 , 25-30 Chindadn
11 ,41 0+60AMS....................................................mn fi\\)\S AMS ..L 7 8655:t280, 8680:t240, 8990+60 ,9245+213 , 30-35 Chindadn
9895+210AMS, 10,150+210AfVfS, 10,290+6QAMS, 11,550+50AMS..·Cif ··..1··{o90:fTio··..· ·.. ·· ..· =·· ·..· ··..·..· ·· ..· _ ~ ·..3·5~4·0..·· ·..ChTi1·d'ad'·n···..·..· ··..............................· · · · · · fiMS..· • · · ..L 9 6045:t280, 821 0:t155 and 9401:t528 40-45 Chindadn
....[ ..·1..0..·........·8465.f3·60';·..1·0;·040'±2·1·0:···1·6':0'434~2i9: ..·1'0'500£2s·o.... ·· .. ·· ......·· ..·..·....·..·....·..·4·5~5·0 .... ···C·j1·j·nd'a"d·n..·..·..·.... ··
131
Name: Hidden Falls (Low)
Number: SIT-00119
Region: Southeast
NHR Designation: DOE-K (Clark, G. 1978)
Repository: N/A
Land Ownership: US Forest Service, Tongass
Basal Dates: -9500 rcybp (Davis 1990)
Complex: Northwest Coast Microblade tradition (Ackerman 1996a)
Environment: The site is located -200 km south of the Ground Hog Bay 2
site (Davis 1989, Matson and Coupland 1995). Stanley Davis (1980)
characterized the region as steep fjords with high mountains, dense forest and
glaciers reaching the water's edge. The site is located in Southeast Alaska
approximately 25 miles from Sitka along the outer edge of the Northwest coast of
North America. It lies in a "low saddle on a small point jutting into Kasnyku Bay
with a freshwater lagoon to the west and Chatham Strait to the east" (Davis
1980).
History: The recent history of the site began in 1978 when artifacts were
unearthed during the development of a salmon hatchery. It suffered a great
amount of destruction upon its discovery, as a bulldozer plowed it through.
Excavations began shortly after in an attempt to salvage what remained (Davis
1980, Davis (ed) 1989).
132
Significance: This site has already been determined eligible based on
Criteria D of the National Register (Clark 1978) because it yielded information
important to prehistory. It was the second site excavated in Southeastern Alaska
that established Early Americans in the region ~10,000 rcybp (Clark 1978, Davis
1980). Data recovered from between 1,000 and 4,500 rcybp provided
information from a period, which is little understood (Davis (ed) 1989). The site
contained an impressive assemblage of core and blade technology in the lowest
component of the site (Davis (ed) 1989, Matson and Coupland 1995). Ackerman
(1996) included the Hidden Falls site, GHB2 and the Namu site in British
Columbia as the earliest human occupations on the Northwest Coast of North
America (Ackerman 1996). Although both microblades and ground stone
artifacts were found, there was "no evidence of a transition from the microblade
technology to a ground stone-and-bone industry" (Davis 1996).
Integrity: The site was well preserved in stratified sediments. A road cut
associated with the construction of a fish hatchery destroyed the center portion of
the site (Davis 1980, Davis (ed) 1989). Excavations, on either side of the road
cut revealed the deeply stratified occupations at Hidden Falls. The obsidian
artifacts in C-I, although slightly mixed, displayed no evidence of edge-wear or
rounding typically associated with glacial action. The earliest cultural deposits
(C-1) in stratigraphic Zones I, H1 and G were well documented by 14C
133
sequencing with fourteen dates between 7175±155 and 10,345±95 rcybp (Davis
(ed) 1989, Davis 1996).
Artifacts and Features: There were five components documented. The
latest in time was an historic sawmill. Beneath the mill was prehistoric
Component III, located in Zones C and D, where two fire hearth features dated to
1370±70 rcybp. Artifacts found in association with the hearths were not
diagnostic but included a stirrup-handled maul fragment, stone abraders, ground
stone and waste flakes (Davis, S. (ed) 1989).
Component III, found in Zone D, contained additional artifacts and
features, mostly concentrated in a reddish brown lens as thick as 20cm.
Features from this lens included shell midden and rock accumulations. Artifacts
from the lens-included ground slate knives and projectile points, adzes, abraders,
bone points, tooth pendants, shell beads and waste flakes (Davis 1989). Davis
(1989:42) provided a date between 2,300 and 1,300 rcybp and suggested the
occupation events were intermittent, representing periods of abandonment and
re-occupation possibly related to seasonal use.
Other evidence from Component III included numerous faunal remains, in
part due to the number of shellfish and the increased levels of calcium carbonate.
Fish represented the majority (over 67%) of the total bone weight; whale was
also significant subsistence resource (9%). Dog represented roughly half of the
134
land animal remains. In general, the dietary practices appeared to be extremely
diverse, including both large and small animals and birds (Davis (ed) 1989).
Component II had less preservation due to lesser amounts of shell and the
occupation was small, believed to be a short-term event making dietary
conclusions from the data difficult. Davis (1989:44) estimated C-II dated
between 3200 and 4600 rcybp. He described the artifacts as a "saw-and-snap
slate technology" (1989:44). It included used flakes, ground stone projectile
points, stone beads, labrets and ground adzes (1989:44). Faunal remains
included large amounts of whale. Additional sea mammals, other than whale,
nearly equaled the number of land mammals. In contrast, supplementary sea
resources comprised only 3% and included mostly unidentifiable fish. Bird
utilization appeared in smaller numbers (Davis (ed) 1989).
The earliest occupation was Component I discovered first in Zone G due
to mixing with the lower levels of Component II. They could be distinguished
easily based on soil characteristics and artifact types (1989:44). Artifacts from
Component I continued through Zone Hi. Those deposits included ground stone
and bone tools, split cobble, microblade core and blade, blade-like flakes, a
primary spall, an unifacial blade or point, burins, side scrapers, core scrapers,
notched scrapers, abrader, an incised stone, choppers, hammerstones, unifacial
tools, and waste flakes or debitage. Over 600 artifacts were recovered and 414
waste flakes (Davis 1996, Davis (ed) 1989). Of the fourteen-microblade cores,
135
nine were complete. Seven of the cores (3 obsidian, 1 quartzite, 3 other) were
classifiable into two stylistic categories, wedge-shaped on flakes (2) and split
pebble (5) (Davis (ed) 1989).
Description: Stanley Davis (1989:41) described four cultural and ten
geologic stratigraphic layers designated A through J2 beginning with the surface.
Zone A, modern topsoil, was a 01-02 horizon covered with Sitka Spruce and
Western Hemlock saplings. The historic sawmill component of the site was
located in the Zone A horizon. At the base of Zone A was Component III, the
latest of the prehistoric occupations.
Stratigraphic Zone 8, described as a 02 organic horizon, had a Munsel
chart color determination of 5 YR 2.5/1, moist (Davis (ed) 1989). Zone 8 was
water saturated and capped two addition cultural components, C and D. Davis
(1989:42) described his confusion while assessing the strata. Zone C, although
appearing as a distinct cultural zone, formed through hydraulics and root action.
Zone D ranged in thickness between 20 em and a full meter in places dissipating
along site margins. It was comprised of silt and sand matrix with a with a Munsel
color of dark gray, 7.5 YR 2.5/0 moist with flecks of charcoal throughout. Larger
granite fragments or cobbies were aiso present.
Zone E was a paleosol 3 to 20 em thick and contained up to 60 % organic
matter making it a dark brown or black in color with a moist Munsel reading of 2.5
YR 3/3 (Davis (ed) 1989). Three sub zones E1, E2 and E3 divided the layer.
136
Component III, found in layer E2, dated between 3000 and 2,500 rcybp. It
included features of shell lenses and artifacts similar to those described above in
C-1I1 (Davis 1989:43).
Zone F was thicker in deposition ranging up two 150 cm and was dark
reddish brown in color. It was comprised of granite gravels mixed with charcoal
and other organic materials. Zone F contained the cultural horizon designated
Component II. Preservation from Zone F was poor because of lesser levels of
shell (Davis (ed) 1989).
The bottom levels of Zone F were slightly intermixed with the upper levels
of Zone G. Zone G, a transitional horizon, was between Zones F and I. The
cultural material was mixed in Zone F. Component I began to occur in Zone G
described as the "upper level of the glacial deposits" and as a transition into Zone
H1 (Davis (ed) 1989). Zone H1 was course sand and boulders. Zone I was
described as being -75 cm in Area B of the excavation with a Munsel color of 7.5
YR 3/3. The stratum was an organic lens paleosol comprised of twigs, wood
fragments, roots, needles and cones from Mountain Hemlock in a matrix of
course sand. Zone I held the Component I cultural material dated by radiocarbon
as the earliest occupations of beginning -10,400 rcybp and ending -8,000 rcybp
when it was abandoned due to an early Holocene glacial advance. The most
convincing deposits in Component I was a "possible hearth feature" which
returned a date of -9200 rcybp (Davis (ed) 1989).
137
Table 7.12: Hidden Falls (Davis (ed) 1989 pgs. 42-44)Strata RCYBP Description Component Cm thick
...~gD.~ ..~ !Y.1g9.~E.~ !~.P~gJ.!.. !j.!~!~.r.!g ..Zone B Water saturated C III.................................................................ON................... . , .
...?9.D.~ 9 t:!.Y~E.§.~.!.!g.~ §.:..r.9.g~ ~9.~~.9.!.! '" g..!.!.! ..Zone 0 1370+70 Silt-sand matrix/charcoal C III 20-100............................................................."'"' , .
...f9..~.~ ~..1....... ...p..~!..~.9.~.9.! ?.Q.!~ 9.t9§D.i.~ ~.:?.Q ..
...f9.D.~ ~.? .!D.!!!.§.!...Q~g.!:!.p.~!!.~~ f !.!..! ..Zone E3 2500-3000 Paleosol................................................._ ,. .
...f9.D.~ F............ ...R.~9.9..!.~b ~.r.9.!Y.~.! gE.~y.~!.. 9. !.! ?:..1..~g ..
...f9.n.~ ~ ::::.~.9.g.Q Ir.~D.~!.!.~9.D~!.! g!.§g!.§.1....9.~.P.2~!!:? g !.. .
...f9.n.~ !j.1 ::::.~?.9..Q !.:\~!.§!!.9D !!.!!..! ~9..~.r.~~ ~.§.Q.9. g...I. !j.~§E!b ..Zone I -10,400 Organic lens, twigs, sand C I >75
138
Name: Hill Top (Low)
Number: N/A
Region: N/A
NHR Designation: None
Repository: N/A
Land Ownership: N/A
Basal Dates: 10,360 rcybp (Bever 2001a:101)
Complex: Mesa (Ackerman 2001 :94 Bever 2000, 2001a)
Environment: Hill Top is located in a cluster of early sites along the North
Ridge of the Brooks Range including the Gallagher Flint Station (already an NHL)
and Putu-Bedwell (Bever 2001 b, Gal 1980). It is -250 km from Mesa and "a few
miles below the confluence of Atigun River and Sagavanirktok Rivers. Like the
Mesa site, it occupies the top of a prominent geologic feature (Bever 2001a).
History: Initial testing of the site began in 1970 and continued in 1973
(Bever 2001 a).
Significance: The Hill Top site has provided information on the economic
and hunting lifeways of early Alaskan using Mesa technology in the Brooks
Range. Bever (2000, 2001a and 2001b) and Ackerman (2001) have
documented the Mesa sites, including Hill Top, and it remains one of the best
defined Paleoindian complexes in Alaska.
139
integrity: Many of the flakes recovered from the original investigations
were given a single catalog number and more than 1300 artifacts are missing
entirely (Bever 2001 a), Site integrity was difficult to ascertain during this
research.
Artifacts and Features: The site contained Mesa style projectile points
and waste flakes. Artifacts consistent with repairing and rehafting activities
included large amounts of projectile point fragments and "tools manufactured
from the byproducts of a bifacial technology" (Bever 2001a:104).
Description: The area was 150 m2 concentrated in two localities
designated east and west. The majority of artifacts originated in the western
locality where two radiocarbon samples were recovered from the highest
concentration of artifacts (Bever 2001a).
140
Name: Hog Island (High)
Number: UNL-115
Region: Aleutians
NHR Designation: NONE
Repository: Museum of the Aleutians
Land Ownership: Ounalashka Corp
Basal Dates: 80502:80, 7950±90 (Dumond and Knecht 2001 :12)
Tradition: Anangula Core & Blade
Environment: Hog Island is located in Unalaska Bay northwest of Dutch
Harbor and Amaknax Island. The site lie between two radio towers on the
southeastern side of the island (Veltre et al 1984).
History: The traditional name for the island is Ukaadax and at least three
archaeological sites exist there (Veltre et al1984). Richard Knecht conducted
additional archaeological survey and testing in one of the blowouts from which
core and blade material was eroding. He returned to the site, again in 1999, to
conduct follow up investigations (Dumond and Knecht 2001).
Significance: As one of the earliest occupations known from the
Aleutians, Hog Island is significant as evidence related to the initial peopling of
that part of Alaska. It is especially significant because it contains evidence of a
living structure (Dumond and Knecht 2001 :27), a rarity in early Alaskan sites.
141
Integrity: Surveys by Knecht noted further erosion of core and blade
artifacts from blowouts (Dumond and Knecht 2001). The site was located
U[w]ithin the Dutch Harbor Naval Operating Base and Ft. Mears NHL (UNL-120)"
but the UNL-115 site (Hog Island) does not contribute to that NHL designation.
Military activity on Hog Island has affected several of the sites; although wind
eroded blowouts have had a greater impact on UNL-115.
Artifacts and Features:
There seems little doubt that the primary affinity of the people here... is toa population such as that of the... contemporary Anangula Blade...[dated] from some centuries before 8,000 [rcybp]. [The] five consistentdeterminations apparently most clearly from occupation surfaces inshallow depressions interpreted as houses... and calculated on theconventional radiocarbon half-life of 5568 years, yield a weighted meanage of 8002:!:.92 years (Dumond and Knecht 2001 :27).
Blades and flakes observed in a number of large, shallow blowouts(among 3-4 large radio antennas), which extend across much of theisiand's width. in '1997, Knecht, Dumond, and Dickson excavated three2m x 2m test units and found a 10cm thick cultural layer, which yieldedblades, microblades, microblade cores, burins, ocher grinders, anddebitage... This is the second Anangula tradition site so far known"(AHRS 1997).
Dumond and Knecht (2001) published artifact descriptions and that
inventory is paraphrased in the following: There were nine flaked cores and core
preparation flakes including platform, ridged, core side and side-struck flakes.
Numerous blade segments were recovered both without retouch (369) and
retouched (101). There were transverse burins (18), flake burins (10) and burin
spalls (37) as well as miscellaneous scrapers (17) and end scrapers (7). There
142
were also found several pumice abraders (4), and an ochre grinding stone (1). It
is important to note that, as was the case at the Anangula type-site, there were
no biface implements at Hog Island (Dumond and Knecht 2001).
Description: The first stratigraphic level was only 5 to 10 em consisting of
wind-eroded pyroclastic debris originating from Makushin Volcano (Dumond and
Knecht 2001: 10). The second stratigraphic level, described as "silt-like" matrix
four-eight em thick, was red in nature but contained some sand sized pumice
mixed in from the first layer. In this layer Dumond and Knecht (2001) note light
charcoal stains and fragmentary blades. Below this was a sterile layer,
described as blue-gray in color, upon a brown-gray bed of tephra. The cultural
horizon at Hog Island was located in a blowout 10 cm below the surface
(Dumond and Knecht 2001).
143
Name: Koggiung (Low)
Number: NAK-00018
Region: Alaska Peninsula
NHR Designation: NONE
Repository: University of Oregon, Eugene
Land Ownership: US Government, Native Claim
Basal Dates: 7475:!:60, 7765:!:95, 7895:!:90 rcybp (Dumond 1981)
Complex: Koggiung (Dumond 1981)
Environment: The site is located in the Northern Alaska Peninsula
(Yesner 1998). "At Graveyard Point, on the east shore of Kvichak Bay, approx.
16km north of the mouth of Naknek River" (AH RS 1997). The site is located in
the middle of a runway used by the cannery at the mouth of the Kvichak River
(Dumond 1981).
History: "During the winter of 1973-74 I, [Don Dumond], was informed by
Karen Wood VVorkman, then Alaska State Archaeologist, that fisherman had
reported the finding of side-notched projectile points on a runway at a cannery
near the mouth of the Kvichak River, at a place known as Koggiung."
Paraphrasing Dumond continued; the site has had a lengthy history with local
antiquarians who have often taken artifacts from there (Dumond 1981).
144
Significance: The level of significance for Koggiung is low, local
antiquarians heavily impacted the site and no artifacts are reported to remain
(Dumond 1981).
Integrity: "This heavily disturbed site is located at the north end of the
abandoned airstrip, and east of the eroding cannery graveyard. Originally
reported as a site with side-notched projectile points, investigations in 1974 and
1975 also produced evidence of a core and blade component" (AHRS 1997). As
described, the area has often been a favorite for antiquarians and follow-up
reports indicated no other artifacts remained (Dumond 1981).
Artifacts and Features: Dumond (1981) refers to the earliest occupation
the Koggiung Phase, an early core and blade technology. Associated with this
earliest component were 1114 total artifacts, including one hundred blades.
Paraphrasing Dumond (1981), the Koggiung assemblage included utilized
blades, and blades with facets, burinized blades, non-utilized blades and blade
cores (3). There were numerous flakes and a single end scraper, also core
rejuvenation flakes (10). There was a single biface fragment associated with that
early component. The later Graveyard phase represented the second
component at the site, separated horizontally, and positioned in the stratigraphic
level that was just above the Koggiung Phase occupation. It contained bifacial
notched projectile points (Dumond 1981).
145
In addition to stone artifacts, "at least two and possibly as many as four
temporary campfires" were located (Dumond 1981).
146
Name: Lime Hills, Cave 1 (Med)
Basal Dates: 15,690:t140, 13,130:t180, and 9530:t60 rcybp
Complex: Denali (Ackerman, R. 2001 :94)
Landowner: Private?
Environment: The cave is found on the east side of the Lime Hills and is
.... 18 meters long by 2.5 meters high and 6.4 meters wide. The site is located
between the Swift and Stony Rivers, upper tributaries of the Kuskokwim River, a
short distance from Lime Village (Ackerman 1996c).
History: Dr. T. Bundtzen located the site while conducting geologic
studies in the area in 1992. Ackerman began excavations in the summer of 1993
(Ackerman 1996c).
Significance: The site had excellent preservation with bison bones,
displaying no sign of human modification, dated to 27,950:t560 rcybp. Caribou
bones with possible "butchery cut-marks" (Ackerman 1996c) returned a date of
15,690:t140 rcybp and additional caribou remains, also possibly modified by
humans dated to 13,130:t180 rcybp (Ackerman 1996c). The organic artifacts
found at Lime Hills Caves are among the oldest documented in Alaska. Organic
artifacts are rare from this early period and provide valuable evidence regarding
non-lithic technological artifacts that rarely preserve.
147
Integrity: Cave-ins have continuously added sediment to the floor of the
caves which has stratigraphy, in good context, to a depth of over a meter. See
figure 10-6 by Ackerman (1996c) for this stratigraphic profile.
Artifacts and Features: Ackerman (1996c) located a stone adze, worked
antler, and the fragments of caribou in the initial test excavation near the south
entrance of the cave. In the main section of the cave, just inside the entry, the
stratigraphy was deeper. Additional faunal remains were uncovered, including a
Bison astragalus and a possibly utilized caribou metapodial from a depth of 115
em (Ackerman 1996c:470).
A fragment of a "broad bone point or knife" was located 58 em below
surface. Also, higher in the stratigraphy, in the central portion of the cave, were
remains of several species of bird. Below this was an "antler arrow head with a
beveled tang and narrow grooves on opposing faces for the insertion of
microblades" (Ackerman 1996c:470). A single microblade fragment was
discovered while processing charcoal for 14C samples. The sample dated to
9530:t60 (Ackerman 1996c:470).
Description: Two cultural components, an upper and lower, were defined
in the stratigraphy. The upper component included antler, bone and stone
artifacts and the lower was mostly faunal (Ackerman 1996c). A microblade
fragment was recovered from charcoal in the laboratory. The antler projectile
point was also associated with an area directly above the 9530:t60 layer and was
148
similar in style and date to artifacts from Level III at Trail Creek Caves (Ackerman
1996c).
149
Name: Lisburne (Med)
Number: KIR-096
Region: Brooks Range
NHR Designation: NONE
Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks
Land Ownership: Bureau of Land Management
Dates: 8000 rcybp (AHRS 1997) 3470j:50 rcybp
Complex: Paleoarctic, Paleoindian, Arctic Small Tool, Northern Archaic
Environment: The Lisburne site is located 322km (200 miles) south of
Barrow, 80.5km (50 miles) northeast of Howard Pass on a bedrock bluff, with a
360 0 view, in the northern foothills of the Brooks Range at an elevation of 556.8
meters (1826.83 feet). It is situated on the eastern bank of the Iteriak Creek, an
eastern tributary of the Etivluk River and is roughly 10km down stream of the
Mesa site, (Bowers 1982).
local vegetation in the region includes alpine tundra, dwarf birch, narrow
leaf Labrador tea, cloudberry, moss and lichen. In the nearby drainage there is
lush willow groves, while in the meadows there are cotton grass tussocks,
monkshood and marigold (Bowers 1982).
History: The site was discovered and evaluation began in 1978 by USGS
and BLM archeologists (Bowers 1979). Systematic shovel testing was preformed
on a 4-foot interval (1.2m) grid system designed to systematically test 5% of the
150
site and define locale boundaries. Block excavations were centered on areas
containing cultural deposits (Bowers 1982).
Significance: The site was use by prehistoric hunters as a lithic
workshop, hunting overlook and lithic raw material quarry site (Bowers, P. 1979).
Area 22, one of two Paleoindian components, contained fluted and Mesa style
projectile points with blood residue. DNA analysis from the fluted point indicated
sheep and bear, or possibly just bear-if it ate the sheep (Bowers 1999). The
Mesa point also contained DNA residue, possibly mammoth and sheep (Bowers
1999, Loy and Dixon 1998)! If the evidence stands, it is the smoking gun
establishing mammoth procurement in Alaska, and the site's priority should be
raised from Medium to High, despite the lack of extensive radiocarbon data.
Integrity: Four separate cultural zones were identified A through D.
Culture Zone A was "the largest and most important locality within the site" and
consisted of several designated activity areas. Locality A was reported to cover
over 2787.09m2 (30,000 feet2), Locality B, 3251.61 m2 (35,000 feee) (Bowers
1979, 1982). A strong case a Paleoarctic tradition intrusion into Area 22,
suggested that Paleoindian tools found there were contemporaneous with Mesa
(Bm,vers 1982). Based on the sampling methods described (Bowers 1982),
significant portions of the site remain intact, thereby preserving much of the site's
structural integrity_
151
Artifacts and Features: More than 47,000 artifacts were recovered from
the Lisburne site. Approximately 98% were unused waste flakes suggesting
primary reduction activities took place there. Most of the raw materials originated
from a nearby quarry area or from cobbles in Iteriak Creek but non-local Batza
Tena obsidian was found in the form of waste flakes and microblades (Bowers
1982).
The two Paleoindian components contained fluted projectile points similar
to those found at the Putu, Girls Hill, Kugurok River, Utukok, Batza Tena and the
Nakvakruak sites. One of two features associated with Area 22 consisted of fire
cracked and reddened rocks (Bowers 1982:107). A soil sample from the 1970's
contained a fleck of charcoal that was dated to 3470.:!::SOAMS rcybp (Bowers 1999).
The late Holocene date led to conclusions that the microblades found in Area 22
were intrusive into the Paleoindian component. In reality, the date and artifacts
could be accurate and the occupation Late Paleoarctic. Further research is
recommended.
Description: Multiple occupation events represented in twenty-seven
activity areas (Bowers 1979). Two were Paleoindian, Areas 9 & 22, with some
intrusive Paleoarctic artifacts (Bowers 1999).
The generalized stratigraphy at Lisburne reached a depth of 10 inches
(-2S.4cm) beginning with the organic topsoil (-S.1cm) capping the A horizon
(-10.2cm). The A horizon, dark gravelly loam, ranged in depth and was
152
periodically interrupted by the basal C horizon, decomposed chert and limestone
bedrock, through frost heaves. The B horizon appeared as inconsistent patches
of silty clay loam generally 6 to 8 cm in thickness (Bowers 1982:adapted from
Table 1 and Figure 4).
153
Name: Mead (High)
Region: Interior
Number: XBD-00071
Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks
Land Owner: Private
Basal Dates: CZ 4-11 ,6002:80AMS, CZ 3-10,4602:11 OAMS, CZ 2-9220, CZ 1
14302:60
Complex: Nenana, Denali
Environment: The Mead site occupies the same bench as the Broken
Mammoth and Veasey sites, both considered Late Pleistocene sites (Yesner
personal communication, VanderHoek personal communication, Holmes
personal communication). They lie at the western edge above the Shaw Creek
Flats and are within 1.3 kilometers of one another.
History: Its original discovery resulted from construction activities for the
Richardson Highway (Hamilton and Goebel 1999). T. Pewe (1983) mapped the
site in the 1960s when the first mammoth tusk fragment was discovered (Pewe
and Reger 1983). Test excavations were conducted in the 1970s and then again
in 1991 during construction on the Mead family house (Yesner 2000).
Significance: The significance of the Mead site has been determined by
its association with other Terminal Pleistocene occupations in region, described
as the Shaw Creek Flat sites (Mead, Broken Mammoth, Swan Point and the
154
Veasey site) (Yesner 2000). These are the oldest well-dated occupations in
Alaska (with the exception of the Veasey site which remains to be investigated).
The Shaw Creek sites have collectively contributed a variety of faunal and other
data contributing to our understanding of the economic diversity in early Alaskan
diets. Swan Point and Mead, by themselves, have yielded over 1,000 bone
fragments (Yesner 1996).
Integrity: The site preserved at the base of two meters of loess under
similar conditions as the other Shaw Creek Flats sites, where two cultural
horizons in stratigraphic context were located near the basal gravel and dated to
the Holocene Pleistocene boundary. Other occupations occur higher in the
profile (Fig. 3 in (Yesner 1996, Hamilton and Goebel 1999).
Artifacts and Features: The site was at first paleontological containing
the remains of a mammoth, continued to produce mammoth tusk fragments
when discovered by Pewe (Yesner 2000). Artifacts from Culture Zone 4 (CZ-4)
included a projectile point made from proboscidean tusk (mammoth or
mastodon); lithic waste flakes, biface fragments and a scraper. The occupation
was reliably dated to -11,600 rcybp (Hamilton and Goebel 1999:167-168).
Culture Zone 3 (CZ-3) was located above GZ-4 and dated between
-10,400 and 10,700 rcybp (Hamilton and Goebel 1999:166). That occupation
contained Denali complex artifacts. Both CZ 3 and CZ 4 contained well-
155
preserved faunal remains similar to those at Broken Mammoth but those remain
unstudied (Yesner 2003 person communication).
Description: The geologic sequence, beginning with the basal levels, are
described here as geologic Unit A at a depth of approximately 190 to 200cm
below surface. Unit B ranged roughly around 50cm below surface where Unit C,
the uppermost unit, terminated. The organic topsoil, characterized as sod and
peat, ranged in depth from 0 to 10 em.
There are four cultural zones at the site. A total of eleven radiocarbon
dates have been sampled, five were AMS and two were considered problematic
(*) CZ-1 revealed a date of 1430:t.60, CZ-2 4050:t.160, 6070:t.170, and
9220:t.370*. Three samples were submitted from CZ-3 7620:t.100*, 10,410:t.80AMS
and 10,460:t.11 OAMS. A single sample between CZ-3 and CZ-4 returned a date of
10,760:t.170. CZ-4 has been dated by three samples 11 ,560:t.80 AMS, 11 ,600:t.80AMS
and 17,370:t.90 AMS. The final date of >17,000 was taken from a fragment
considered to be "o!d ivory", the likes of which often erode along the Tanana
River banks (Yesner 1996, Hamilton and Goebel 1999).
Table 7.13: Mead. (Hamilton & Goebel 1999, Yesner 1996)Culture Zone RCYBP Complex
....Q:?::J J.4..~.9.!§.9. .CZ-2 4050+160, 6070+170, and 9220+370*
..............................................................................~ _ l'ft'I'l\ ..mn .
CZ-3 7620:t.100*, 10,41 0:t.80 AMS, 10,41 0:t.80 AMS, Denali10,460+110..............................., ~ , , ,..
Transition 10,760+170.....................................................................................'"'"" , .CZ-4 11,560+80 AMS, 11,600+80AMS and 17,370+90AMS Nenana
156
Name: Mesa (High)
Number: KIR-102
Region: Brooks Range
Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks
land Ownership: United States Bureau of Land Management
Dates: -9,700-10,300 rcybp (Kunz et al 2003:19)
Complex: Mesa and some Paleoarctic tradition
Environment: The Mesa site is located on a bedrock knob rising 60
meters above the surrounding tundra along Iteriak Creek, a tributary of the
Colville River (Kunz and Reanier 1995). The Colville is the major drainage for
the western Arctic Slope. The region is characterized as northern tundra with
poplar thickets and shrubs mostly along tributaries; marshy muskeg covers
permafrost in lowlands. Benches and ridges, once used as outlooks, rise above
the tributaries in the Arctic Foothills of the Brooks Range providing ideal hunting
posts for Early Americans (Kunz and Reanier 1995, 1996).
The Iteriak tributary was likely not glaciated at any point during the past
500,000 years with an ecosystem capable of providing plant and animal
resources during prehistory (Kunz and Reanier 1996).
History: Mesa was discovered in 1978 during oil and gas related
exploration. Test excavations took place in 1979 and 1980. Full excavations
began in 1989 and continued between 1991 and 1999 (Kunz and Reanier 1994,
157
1996, Kunz et al 2003). "Most of the surface artifacts found at the site were
collected from [Locality A]" (Kunz et al 2003). Locality A had 100.5 grid squares
in four distinct activity areas equaling 1608 square feet (149.9 m2) excavated.
Locality Saddle had 23.5 grid squares removed from an area of 376 square feet
(34.9 m2) in size. Locality B had 56.5 grid squares removed totaling 904 square
feet (84 m2); and finally, the East Ridge location yielded a single block excavation
numbering 21 grid squares with 336 square feet (31.2) of material removed
(Kunz et al 2003:14).
Significance: Mesa quickly became a sensation among early American
researchers and the American public, appearing on the front page of the New
York Times (Wilford 1993), Chicago Tribune (Katz 1993), Anchorage Daily News
(Loy 1993) and in the Washington Post (Rensberger 1993). There were AMS
14C dates from a single hearth feature, which originally suggested occupations
before 11000 rcybp, although those dates are now disputed (Hamilton and
Goebel 1999). Agate Basin (Frison 1978) technology found in the Great Plains
shared similarities with Mesa and lead to claims that the Mesa complex
represented an ancestral technology to the Paleoindians in the lower United
States (Kunz and Reanier 1995,1996).
Evidence from the site suggested that early hunting outlook and retooling
activities took place there. Broken projectile point bases discarded in favor of
newly fashioned tools were recovered. The production of preforms and bifaces
158
occurred at quarry sites away from the overlook (Kunz and Reanier 1994, 1995,
1996). Lithic raw material was obtained from locally available outcrops and
stream cobbles. Similar activities have been described from interior early
Alaskan sites as an indication of people unfamiliar with local resources (Yesner
2001).
The Mesa complex, defined by Michael Bever (2001 a), includes artifacts
from the Lisburne site, the Hilltop site, and the TES-012, and MIS-131 sites. The
complex also includes the Spein Mountain site in Southwestern Alaska
(Ackerman 1996,2001). Bever (2001a) suspected that Tuluaq Hill could also be
a Mesa complex site.
Integrity: Mesa has soil deposition 5 to 35 em deep (Kunz and Reanier
1994, 1996). Cryoturbation and mixing of strata have played a role in site
formation (Hamilton and Goebel 1999). Despite these disturbances, radiocarbon
samples from the base of excavations atop the bedrock foundation indicate early
occupations from 9,700 and 11,700 rcybp. Based on Kunz's initial strategy for
excavation (see O'harra 1994), it is assumed some cultural material remains in
situ at the Mesa site.
Artifacts and Features: Despite shal!ow stratigraphy and arctic frost
conditions, 40 fire hearths were identified (Kunz et al 2003). Highly diagnostic
artifacts include resharpened Agate Basin-like projectile points, "fluted", basal
notched projectiles, large bifaces, end scrapers and spurred gravers (Kunz and
159
Reanier 1995, 1996). The assemblage and its location suggest hunting overlook
activities. The majority of artifacts discovered were projectile points (154
complete and fragments) (Kunz et al 2003), with preforms or bifacial blanks
numbering 80% of the total artifacts. Other artifacts included hammerstones and
anvils, waste flakes (from tool reworking) and hematite (Kunz and Reanier 1996).
"All but two of the scrapers are associated with the only one [of the] hearths and
that hearth appears to have food preparation activities associated with it" (Kunz
et aI2003).
In addition to Paleoindian technologies at the Mesa site, there is an
unrelated component consisting of microblades, wedge-shaped microblade cores
and four examples of bifacial tool making found with Locality A. A total of 130
microblades were recovered and "at least 707 artifacts and detritus pieces can
be assigned to the microblade component" (Kunz et al 2003:38). Four examples
of bifacial tool making were found with one containing four flutes removed from
each end and meeting in the middle on both faces of the artifact (Kunz et al
2003:35). Also associated with the component, was an apparent disk pendent or
atlatl weight, described as a "skate-board wheel" (Kunz et al 2003:35).
Description: Radiocarbon analysis includes 51 samples submitted from
28 of the fire hearths (Kunz et al 2003). A date of 7620.:t95 has been
disregarded after comparing the suspicious date to an archived sample
(10,060.:t70) taken from the same hearth feature (Kunz et aI2003:19). Hamilton
160
and Goebel (1999) reviewed 27 of the radiocarbon data and agreed thatthe
7600 date was an error. The 26 remaining dates ranged sequentially between
9730.:t80 AMS and 11,660.:t80AMs, although, only three samples returned dates in
excess of 10,300 rcybp, two were >11,000 rcybp and are believed to be from
hearths containing "old wood". The third oldest sample returned a of
10,980.:t280AMS was also rejected. Based on the remaining 14C dates, it is most
likely that the Paleoindian occupations at Mesa occurred between 9,900 and
10,100 rcybp (Hamilton and Goebel 1999:176).
Kunz et al (2003:19) also considered the >11,000 suspicious because
they originated from a single hearth. That heart was associated with a Mesa
style projectile point and numerous waste flakes. Kunz et al (2003: 19)
considered only the 44 AMS dates and estimate the Paleoindian component
dates between 9700 and 10,300 rcybp.
The mesa was divided into four prominent geologic sections labeled
Localities A, B, the Saddle and the East Ridge. The stratigraphy at Locale A was
generally no deeper than 10 cm and vegetated with lichen and moss. Locale B,
approximately -950m2 in size, was found in the northeastern section of the
mesa, -30m northeast of Locale A. In Locale B, the vegetation grew dense and
surface finds were low (Kunz and Reanier 1995:32). The Saddle (-760m2 in
size) is situated between Localities A and B with soil deposition of -30 cm with
161
an artifact cluster measuring -75m2. Finally, the East Ridge was divided from
Locale B by an outcrop with poorly developed soil (Kunz and Reanier 1995).
162
Name: Moose Creek (Med)
Number: FAI-00206
Region: Interior
NHR Designation: NONE
Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks
landowner: State of Alaska
Dates: Component I 11,190 .± 60 AMS (Pearson 1999)
Complex: Nenana, Denali
Environment: Moose Creek is a tributary of the Nenana River near
Walker Road in interior Alaska, generally southwest of Fairbanks. The view from
the site looks out across the Nenana River toward the south and west (Hamilton
and Goebel 1999, Hoffecker et aI1985).
History: J. Hoffecker and Waythomas discovered the site in 1978. Field
operations began the following year and uncovered 15 additional square meters
of the site. Further work continued in the 1980's when four more meters were
excavated (Hoffecker 1996). George Pearson continued excavations in 1996
bringing the total square meters excavated to just over 20 (Hamilton and Goebel
1999).
Significance: The Moose Creek site has been associated with the
Nenana complex based tentatively on the stratigraphy, time of occupation and a
lack of core and blade technology but also because it is located in close proximity
163
to the Walker Road and Dry Creek sites. It is a lithic retooling and outlook
occupation dated slightly older than 11,000 rcybp (Hamilton and Goebel 1999).
Bigelow et al (1990) suggested that the lowest component was technologically
Denali rather than Nenana and recommends further investigation before
attributing it to the Nenana Complex.
Integrity: Moose Creek is similar to other early sites in the Nenana Valley
in that faunal preservation was poor (Hoffecker 1996). Pearson's (1996) return to
Moose Creek recovered a diagnostic Nenana Chindadn projectile point deeply
stratified in aeolian loess atop a glacial outwash rock foundation. He found
cultural occupations sealed beneath several paleosols providing some mixing of
levels (Hamilton and Goebel 1999:162). Stratigraphic deposition from the ground
surface to the gravel base was approximately 1.8 meters (Hoffecker 1996).
Artifacts and Features: The artifacts from the site tended to cluster in
groups of 1 meter or less in diameter. From Component I, -2250 artifacts
(mostly lithic) were recovered during the initial excavation of the site (Hoffecker
1996). Pearson's 1996 excavations contributed a hearth feature and a single
Chindadn, sub-triangular, projectile point and multiple side-scrapers to the
evidence from Component!. Core and blade technology was lacking in the
earliest occupation (Hamilton and Goebel 1999, Hoffecker 1996).
Component 1/ produced a definable Denali Complex occupation. Artifacts
recovered included a cluster of microblades and a transverse burin (Hamilton
164
and Goebel 1999, Hoffecker 1996). These artifacts were associated with an
ovate biface and 12 waste flakes found previously by Hoffecker (1996:365).
Hoffecker also recovered the basal portions of two lanceolate projectile points
from the lower Component I. The slight stratigraphic mixing caused Hoffecker to
reconsider the Nenana classification (Hoffecker 1996).
Description: Two components were located in situ between 55 and 150
em below surface. Component I lies -15cm below Component II (Hamilton and
Goebel 1999). Hoffecker collect four soil organics from the lower paleosol
complex, in stratigraphic order they were 8940.:t270, 8160.:t260, 11 ,730.:t250,
10640.:t28°(Hoffecker 1996). The samples from unidentifiable organics may
date the soil but do not precisely date the occupation. A later date from the
hearth associated with Component I discovered by Pearson was located slightly
below the previous excavations of Hoffecker dated to 11,190.:t60AMS (Hamilton and
Goebel 1999:162).
Pearson (1995) made the case for four identifiable artifact assemblages
associated with the site. He suggested Component I was associated with a fire
hearth and Chindadn technology. Component II was associated with the
microb!ades, lanceolate projectile points and bifacial fragments associated with
Early Holocene Denali Complex occupations. Component Ill, a Northern Archaic
occupation, and Component IV dated to the Middle Holocene. The picture of
165
Moose Creek occupations reproduces the stratigraphic findings at the Dry Creek
site (Hamilton and Goebel 1999:163, Pearson, G. 1999).
Table 7.14: Moose Creek5
Stratiqraphv Component RCYBP -depth em Component
...T9.f.?~g.i.!.. .-..-.................................... . ::::§. ..
...$..!!.~y. ..§.§.Q.9.................................................................. ...::::J.Q ..
....g~f.!.~~ ..9.f..9.§f.!.!~~ Q...!Y............................. . il.:MS ::::.1.?:??. ~§.~~ tlg.l9.9.l?,.f.1~ ..Sand C III 5680+50 -35-60 Late Denali
:::p.~:!~~~:9.C::~::::::::::::::::::: ::f::i:!::::~~::::::::::~::::::~~:: ::I9.:~:Q9.£§9.~~::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::~::::::::: ::::§.~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::Q~r.i?iC:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::Loess 8160::t260, 8940::t270, -55-65
10640+280,11730+250*
::.~~~~~~~I;,:;::::.::::::.:::::::: :.~~!.:~~~::~.:~~~::.:~..:..~ :::!::!:.~::~~~~~:=:.:.:~~~:~~~::~:.:.::::: :.:~¥.~~:.:::: ..:::.:::.:..::::::::>.~~~.~.~:~:.:::.:::::::.::::::.:::::.:::.:.:.Basal gravel >75
Table 7.15: Moose Creek Calibrated (Pearson 1999:Table 2)Component Complex Calibrated RCYBP
....9.9.r.n.p..9.~.'?I!.~ !.'..! ~~.!'? P~.~.?.I.L ?~.~?.:.?~ ..~..1 ..
...gg.r.n.P..9.Q.'?Q.! !.!.. .P.~.n.?.!.L 1..?!.?.1..~.:.1..?..!.~J..§ ..Component I Nenana 13,170-13,097
5Source: Hamilton & Goebel 1999:160 & 186, Hoffecker 1988, Pearson 1999, Powers & Hoffecker 1989
166
Name: Nukluk Mountain (Low)
Number: 8TH-00069 & 8TH-00070
Region: Southwest
NHR Designation: NONE
Repository: Washington State University
Land Ownership: USFW
Basai Dates: N/A
Complex: Denali
Environment: The site is located approximately 8 km west of the Kisaralik River
on a hill approximately 1.2 km northwest of the summit of Nukluk Mountain at an
elevation of 751 feet (AHRS 1997).
History: Robert Ackerman discovered the site in 1979 while conducting survey in
the area. Portions of both localities 8TH-69 and 8TH-70 were surface collected
(Ackerman, R. 1996c).
Significance: Nukluk Mountain is a characteristic Denali complex occupation.
Nukluk Mountain in some ways shares its significant with the nearby Spein Mountain site
because the two represent two contemporaneous technologies in the same territory.
Integrity: The site was deflating on the top of a ridge. Although the occupation
was mostly Denali technology, with a single projectile point that does not typically occur
in Denali assemblages. 8ecause of the lack of stratigraphy and preservation, there was
no datable material recovered (Ackerman 1996c).
Artifacts and Features: The artifacts included wedge-shaped microblade core
technology characteristic of the Denali complex. There was also an asymmetric
167
microblade core, burin, bifacial projectile point bases, biface, scrapers, and a cobble
core (Ackerman 1996c: Fig. 10-3 pg 463).
Description: Presently, lichen, moss and some shrubs dominate the site.
Aeolian silt or sand comprises a shallow matrix cover on shattered regolith (Ackerman
1996c).
168
Name: Oiled Blade (Med) Pending Research
Number: UNL-000318
Region: N/A
NHR Designation: NONE
Repository: Museum of the Aleutians
Land Ownership: Ounalaska
Basal Dates: 8400-7900 calibrated years before present
Tradition: Anangula Core and Blade
Environment: The site is located on Hog Island approximately 100 meters
from the Hog Island site, near Dutch Harbor in the Aleutian chain (Knecht and
Davis 2001).
History: The site, recently excavated by Knecht and Davis (2001), is
currently pending analysis.
Significance: Anangula core and blade sites are rare, with less than five
sites located so far, including the Oiled Blade site (Knecht and Davis 2001). it
contains artifacts left by the earliest known inhabitants of the Aleutian chain.
Artifacts and Features: The artifacts, large unifacial blades, were
consistent with other Anangula core and blade tradition assemblages (Knecht
and Davis 2001).
Description: Unavailable
169
Name: On Your Knees Cave (High)
Number: PET-00408
Region: Southeast
NHR Designation: NONE
land Ownership: USFS Tongass
Repository: N/A
Basal Dates: -9200 rcybp
Complex: Northwest Coast Microblade
Environment: The site is located on Prince of Wales Island where sea
level elevations during the time of occupation (-9,000 and 9,500 rcybp) were 4 to
6 m above modern level, indicating that the island was not connected with the
mainland (Dixon 1999).
History: Timothy Heaton, a paleontologist originally discovered the
remains in 1996 (Dixon 1999, Fifield 1996). Excavations continued in 1997 and
1998 (Dixon 1999).
Significance: The site is significant for the rich archaeological,
paleontological and paleoclimatic data stored in its sediments, and because it
contained H ••• the oldest reliably dated human remains ever found in Alaska"
(Fifield 1996:5 quoting E.J. Dixon). Dentition analysis indicated two periods of
nutritional stress during the individual's >20-year life. The C13 isotope analysis
170
indicated the bones were from the same individual and that his diet consisted
almost entirely of marine animals (Dixon 1999:118).
"This site is significant because this is the first firm association of human
physical remains with distinctive early microblades in Alaska or the Pacific
Northwest" (Dixon 1999:119). In addition, there was evidence from the site
supporting trade routes for exotic lithic material and circumstantial evidence for
the use of watercraft, because the cave was on an island during the time of
occupation (Dixon 1999).
Integrity: The stratigraphic deposits contained "fine, water-saturated silts"
with excellent preservation qualities (Fifield 1996).
Artifacts and Features: The human remains consisted of two lower
mandible fragments with a nearly complete set of teeth, four vertebra, fragments
of the right pelvis and two ribs. The subject was an adult male, estimated to
have been in his early 20s at the time of death. Artifacts recovered included
"obsidian microblades, bifaces and other too!s" found in the same stratigraphic
level. The artifacts are characteristic of the Northwest Coast Microblade tradition
(Dixon 1999).
Description: The bones discovered just inside the entry to the cave were
deposited in a layer "fine, water-saturated silts" (Fifield 1996). Three charcoal
samples returned dates of 9,21 0.:t50AMS, 9, 150.:t50AMS and 8,760.:t50AMS rcybp.
Corrections based on other samples from the region suggest that the marine and
171
atmospheric carbon reservoir contains a difference of -600 rcybp. By subtracting
600 years from the dates on the skeletal material (9,730.:t60AMS and 9,880.:t50 AMS),
Dixon (1999) has estimated the age to -9200 rcybp, consistent with two of the
three charcoal determinations (Dixon 1999).
Table 7.16: On Your Knees Cave (Dixon 1999)AMS RCYBP Description Tradition9,210+50,9,150+50,8,760+50 Charcoal NW Microblade
......................rr:r. ...............................nm...............................mT:................................................. ............................................................".................... .-._....._......_....._....._.._....._.-9,730+60,9,880+50 Human Remains NW Microblade
172
Name: Owl Ridge (Med)
Number: FAI-00091
Region: Interior
NHR Designation: NONE
Land Owner: US Bureau of Land Management
Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks
Dates: C 1- 11,3402:150, C 11- 93252:305 (Hoffecker et al 1996)
Complex: Denali, Nenana (Hamilton and Goebel 1999)
Environment: The site is located on a glacial fluvial plain created during
the Healy Glacial period (Hoffecker et al 1996) located on the east bank of the
Teklanika River one valley to the west of the Nenana River (Hamilton and Goebel
1999, Phippen 1988).
History: D. Plaskett and R. Thorson discovered the site in 1976 and
excavated a single test pit. The following year R. Powers and T. Brink continued
excavations at the site. In 1978 T. Brink, R. Thorston and J. Hoffecker et al
conducted field operations during the North Alaska Range Early Man Project
(Hoffecker 1980). Between 1982 and 1984, continued excavations by P.
Phippen (1988) added 26 square meters to a total of approximately 30 square
meters of excavated units and assigned the lowest component to the Nenana
complex.
173
Significance: Component! and Component II (C-I, C-II) date to the Early
Holocene-Late Pleistocene periods. Although the earliest occupation contained
a small collection of non-diagnostic artifacts, it was tentatively placed in the
Nenana complex based on stratigraphic similarities with other Nenana sites in
the region and radiocarbon determinations (Hoffecker et al 1996:355). The site
also contained a possible tent like structure associated with the Denali
occupation in C-II (Hamilton and Goebel 1999, Hoffecker et a11996, Phippen
1988). Evidence of housing structures is extremely rare in early Alaskan sites
with less than five known possible instances discovered during this research.
Integrity: A series of occupations buried in aeolian loess with eight
stratigraphic units between bedrock and the surface (Hoffecker et a11996: Fig. 7
11). At its deepest, the complete soil formation was 1.2 meters providing
excellent stratigraphic chronology at the site with three archaeological
components: C-I (11,340 - 9060), C-II (9325-7230), and C-III (930-7035)
(Hoffecker et al 1996).
Artifacts and Features: The C-III assemblage included three cobble
tools, three flakes, a single utilized flake, two large bifaces, a "flake knife", a
burin, a hammerstones, and over 700 waste flakes (Hoffecker et al 1996,
Phippen 1988).
Denali complex artifacts were associated with C-II containing a single
utilized flake, three debitage fragments, ovate-biface, a blade fragment, a "sub-
174
triangular" biface and nine "cobbles" were found associated with an apparent
"tent ring" feature (Hoffecker et al 1996, Phippen 1988).
C-I contained two Clusters (A and B). Cluster A contained lithic debitage,
two retouched tools and charcoal samples. Cluster B also contained two tools, a
small amount of utilized flakes, lithic debitage, a single hammerstone, a fragment
of red ocher and samples of charcoal. The collection from C-I was non-
diagnostic tentatively attributed the Nenana Complex based on stratigraphy and
radiocarbon determinations (Hamilton and Goebel 1999, Hoffecker et al1996).
Description: The geologic profile described in Phippen's (1988) MA
thesis documents eight separate units beginning with Strata Level 8, surface
topsoil organics (ca. 12cm below surface), Level 7 silt/sand (12 to 20cm below
datum), Level 6 silt/sand (ca. 20 to 50cm below surface) and Level 5 sand/schist
(ca 50 to 72cm below sUrface). C-II contained silt-sand and paleosols in the
upper regions of Level 4 (72 to 87 em below surface). Level 3 contained sand (-
87 to 95cm below surface). Leve! 2 contained C-l (11,300 rcybp) in a layer of silt
(roughly 90-95 to 110 em below surface). The C-I occupation lay at the transition
between Level 2 and Level 1 (the gravel foundation roughly 120cm below
"'urfa....",\ (~,.,,,,h,,,',,,f a' 1QQ1 Hamil+,.,n anrl ~O",h",1 1QQQ)"'" ., ""''''''}\,,-",''''''''"'''''''''''''''''''''" I '''''''OJ,' .• Itl\"V'J II ...... '-' ""'t",n.... IV...,_.
C-1I1 contained three radiocarbon dates at the transition of Levels 5 and 6
(1480.:t110*, 6900.:t265, and 7035.:t380). C-II in the center of Level 4 produced
five total dates. A date of 2470.:t120* was dismissed by the researchers as
175
problematic three more dates were obtained by submitting organic rich silt
(7230±100, 7660±100, 8130±140) (Hoffecker et aI1996:354). The final
radiocarbon sample (9325±305) from C-II dates the peat associated with the
possible tent ring structure.
Three samples submitted from the lowest component returned two dates
that were considered misleading 9060±41 0 and 2380±90* and likely brought to
lower levels from above. The date of occupation for C-I was based on the date
11 ,340±150 rcybp (Hoffecker et al 1996).
Additional samples taken from upper levels included 930±50 from the
transition of Strata 7 to Strata 6 and a sample taken from the middle of Level 6
dated to 4400±70 (Hoffecker et al 1996, Phippen 1988).
Table i.li: Owl Ridge (Hoffecker et ai 1996:354 Fig. 7-11)Level Component RCYBP Complex Description - cmL 8 Topsoil 12··L··7"········..· ·93·0+50 ·· · ·..· · · · ·s·iiilsan·(j·..· · · · 1·2:::20 _·
..L..i3 · · 44·00+7·0..· ·..·..· · · · ·· · · · ·..· ·..s'iit~sa·ii·(j ..fo·rest"..· ·50 ·..· ·..
:::t.:t:~:::::: .::=::::::::.:::.:":":::.::.:".:.:::. :::~~:~~~~~~:~ ..~~~~=~~.~::::~:~:~~=.~I9·* ..·..· j :::~~a~~J~~:~~:i:~:::::::: ::~~=:::..:: ~.L4 C·II 7230.:t100, 7660.:t100, 8130.:t140, Denali Silt, paleosol 72
2470+120*·..[..3 · · ~ · · ·~·I~~;~;, 90· · ·
:{~?:::::::::::: :::~;:;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::~~:~~~;~:~::~:~~~:~:~~~~~::~~~::~~~~;.~~~::::::~ ::::~~~::~::~::~. Basal ora·vei....·....··...... ···~~·iP.L·~
176
Name: Panguingue Creek (Med)
Number: HEA-000137
Region: Interior
NHR Designation: NONE
Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks
Land Owner: State of Alaska
Basal Dates: C-I 8170+120AMS 9836+62AMS 10 180+130AMS C-II 8 500 - 7 500_ , _ J 1 _ J , ,
Complex: Nenana?, Denali (Goebel et a11988)
Environment: The site is located less than 5 km Northwest of Healy, AK
in the northern foothills of the Alaska Range along Panguingue Creek, a tributary
of the Nenana River (Goebel and Bigelow 1996). The sites above the Nenana
River drainage on a ridgeline uplifted by Pleistocene glacial till and alluvium
deposits an area characterized, today, as a transition zone from spruce forest to
herbaceous tundra (Hoffecker 1988).
History: Discovered in 1976 by T. Smith and j. Hoffecker and was first
tested in 1977 and again 1985. In 1991, large-scale excavations expanded the
excavated area from 25 metes2 to 100 meters2 (Goebel and Bigelow 1996).
Significance: Panguingue Creek is an extensive, weii-stratified site with
two Denali complex occupations vertically separated by -15-20 em. Although the
stratigraphy sequence is similar to other sites containing Nenana and Denali
complex deposits, the lowest component has not yielded diagnostic Nenana
177
tools. Despite this, the Component II deposits contained evidence of economic
and subsistence strategies of early Alaskans using Denali complex technology.
Integrity: The site was preserved on a Pleistocene river terrace overlain
by aeolian sand and silts to a depth over 1.8 meters. The stratigraphic profile
correlates to soil formations documented across the river at the Walker Road and
Moose Creek sites (Powers and Hoffecker 1989:269 Fig. 3). Additional links
correlations link Panguingue Creek Component II with a paleosol at Dry Creek
and with Component II at the Little Panguingue Creek site. The stratigraphic
correlations between the Nenana valley sites enhance the integrity for each of
the properties.
Artifacts and Features: Component II contained two separate activity
areas including a fire hearth with numerous fragments of burnt bone (Goebel and
Bigelow 1996) and lithic evidence including cores (9 total, 7 wedge shaped),
microblades (>150), burin spalls (10), and waste flakes (>5000). The formal
tools (60) were characteristic of the Denali complex and included lanceolate
projectiles (5), lenticular bifacial knives (2), parallel-flaked bifacial knives (2), side
scrapers (7), end scrapers (5), burins (5), reworked flakes (16), chopping tools
(2), hammerstones (2) and anvil stones (2) (Goebel and Bigelow 1996 citing
Powers 1986).
The uppermost Component III contained waste flakes (20), end scrapers
(2) and a side scraper. Component I (lower most), contained a sub-prismatic
178
blade/flake core, waste flakes, transverse scrapers (2) and lanceolate projectiles
(2) (Goebel and Bigelow 1996). C-I and C-1I1 did not contain enough diagnostic
artifacts for determining a classification.
Description: The base of the stratigraphic profile began with glacial
outwash deposited during the Healy glacial retreat (Hoffecker et al 1996,
Wahrhaftig 1958) capped with 10 em of aeolian silt dated to 13,535j:400/-380
rcybp (Goebel and Bigelow 1996) demonstrating the approximate time the region
became glacier free and vegetation began to emerge.
The next stratigraphic deposit was comprised of wind blown sand -1 Oem
thick and horizontal interruptions characteristic of water over-wash episodes
(Goebel and Bigelow 1996). The next layer (-10 em) is silt loam, capped by -30
em of granules and pebbles with Palesol I and Palesol II within the stratum. The
lowermost occupation, C-I contained in Paleosol II, dated to 9951j:56 based on
radiocarbon averages. The next stratigraphic layer (30 em thick) contains
Component II found in Paleosol 3 and dated by five radiocarbon samples
averaged to 7711 j:97. The modern soil horizon contained two samples that
averaged 5250j:54 (Goebel and Bigelow 1996) indicating a stable surface in the
region for the latter half of the Holocene.
Geoarchaeology in the Nenana Valley has provided a climatic view from
17,000 rcybp to present. The first occupations at the site (-9k to 10k rcybp) were
deposited during the Post Carlo Advance and the second occupations during the
179
Thermal Optimum, a period of intense windy conditions (Powers and Hoffecker
1989) also referred to as Milankovitch Thermal Maximum.
Table 7.18: Panguingue Creek 1
Soil Complex Comp RCYBP Paleosol - CMModern 5-10.............................................................................................................. " , .Silt loam Unknown C III 4150.:!:95,5620.:!:65 P IV 10-15·..·H·u·m'i'c· ······..· ···..·.. ··o,ena'i'j' · C..·j..j· ·, ..··..7'1·30:f'1·s6;··7430:t2'76ms· · ,..p..'i'j'j" , 1'5·:·1·7· ·
7595.:!:405, 7850.:!:180,..................., _ , ~.?Q9.;t?.9..9. ..Silt! loam 17-20........~ , ,.. , , , , , , , " .
....~.?.!!.9.Y. §J!!.. , 1\MS 1\M~ ?.9..:.~.Q .Humic 0 Unknown C I 8170.:!:120 AMS9836:!:.62 P II 30-40horizon Nenana? 10,180.:!:130 ,.............................._ ~ , .
...§.?n.9.Y. §.~!L , 4.9..:.?9. .Aeolian 55-75......................................................................................................." .. , " ,.. , , " " ,.," " ..Sand 75·"'Coess=g·ravej· , ·1·3~·535:t4'6'6j~·3·80'· ..· ·..··..·..· ·..··..· 1·0'0..·..· ·..
1 Sources: Goebel et a11996, Hamilton and Goebel 1999, Powers et al1989180
Name: Phipps (Med)
Number: XMH-00111
Region: Interior
NHR Designation: NHS-Tangle Lakes Archaeological District
Repository: N/A
Land Ownership: State of Alaska
Basal Dates: 10,150±265 rcybp
Complex: Denali
History: "West originally located Denali core and blade material in sandy
blowouts on a low ridge about 1500' Southwest of the Denali Highway. In situ
material was excavated, to a depth of as much as 15cm, within a 4m x 4m area"
(AHRS 1997).
Significance: This site contains a single occupation Denali complex tool
assemblage of core and blade technology. It is included as a contributing
property in the Tangle Lakes Archaeological District and is one of a few sites
reported to contain in situ artifacts from that region (AHRS 1997).
Integrity: An undetermined amount of cultural material is reported to
remain in burled contexis (V'''est et al 1996) "but is threatened by the proximity of
a trash dump and by the continued erosion of the unfilled excavations (AHRS
1997).
181
Artifacts and Features: Characteristic Denali complex artifacts recovered
included core and blade technology and lanceolate projectile points (AHRS
1997).
Description: The stratigraphy of the Phipps site has been well
documented through a sequence of radiocarbon determinations (West et al
1996) beginning with the surface topsoil to a maximum depth of -50 cm. Soil
formations beneath the 0 horizon began at a depth of -20 cm with the A1 - A2
transition. The B Horizon was 10 to 30 cm thick. Radiocarbon analysis from soil
organics in the A1b horizon returned a date of 6,268 rcybp at a depth between 29
and 32 cm. Bb was the lowest of three buried soils. The Denali artifacts were
found scattered in all three soil formations, but the main concentration occurred
at a depth of -32-37 cm. Averaged radiocarbon dates from this occupation were
10,190 rcybp. A sample taken from unoccupied strata 50 cm in depth returned a
date of 11,015 rcybp (West et ai, 1996: 382).
182
Name: Putu-Bedwell (Med)
Number: PSM-00027a/PSM-00027b
Region: Brooks Range
NHR Designation: NONE
Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks
Land Ownership: US Bureau of Land Management
Dates: Bedwell: 10,490±70AMS Putu: SZ 2-8810±60AMs, 5700±190 SZ 1-650±100.
Complex: Mesa (Ackerman 2001 :94, Bever 2000)
Environment: Putu and Bedwell, considered two separate loci within a
single site, were discovered a few kilometers below the confluence of Atigun
River. Loci S-13A (Bedwell) is located on the hillcrest generally to the south of
Loci S-13B (Putu) found on a lower terrace (AHRS 1997). Like many early
Alaskan sites, Putu-Bedwell occupies a level bench 215 meters above the valley
providing a strategic view of the region (Reanier 1996). Putu-Bedwell is located
near other early sites found near the North Ridge of the Brooks Range including
the Gallagher Flint Station (already an NHL) and Hill Top (Bever 2001b, Gal
1980).
History: Discovered in 1970 by Herbert ,ll..!exander, the Putu-Bedwe!!
localities were lumped together as one archeological site, PSM-27a and PSM
27b (Reanier 1996). It was the first site to produced radiocarbon dates
presumably associated with fluted projectile point technology (Alexander 1974,
183
Reanier 1995). Excavations began in 1970 and continued through 1973.
Alexander published on the site four years later (Alexander 1974, Reanier 1996).
Significance: Data from Putu-Bedwell may provide further information
regarding Paleoindian occupations in the Brooks Range region and may resolve
major theoretical principals regarding the prehistory of Alaska and the peopling of
the New World.
Fluted Paleoindian technology believed to date in Alaska between 6100
and 8450 rcybp (Hamilton and Goebel 1999) and increasingly considered a Late
Paleoindian phenomenon. The significance of Putu is that it is one of several
sites near the Brooks Range region (Batza Tena, Lisburne and Mesa) with
similar basally thinned projectile points deposited in a hunting outlook situation.
However, the association of artifacts with the early radiocarbon samples continue
to be questioned (Bever 2001 b:155). Because of this, Putu-Bedwell is significant
as an intermediate Paleoindian site between the earlier Mesa technology and
later occupations at Gallagher Flint Station, Girls Hill and the fluted points from
Batza Tena.
Integrity: The stratigraphy at Putu is shallow and disturbed by
cryoturbation and rodent activity. The sediments are roughly 60 em in depth VJith
artifacts generally 2 to 8 cm above the bedrock foundation near the base of loess
deposits (Reanier 1995, Hamilton and Goebel 1999).
184
Artifacts and Features: Two fluted projectile points (one obsidian), three
lanceolate projectile points and one triangular point were found in addition to
large bifacial blanks, spurred gravers, end scrapers and side scrapers. The
lanceolate projectile points, one found in association with a fire hearth, are similar
to those found at the Mesa site. Putu also contained microblades and cores but
they are not typologically similar to any of the microblade technologies known in
Alaska (Reanier 1996).
Description: Alexander submitted organic material associated with the
fluted projectile points for 14e dating. The sample returned a date of 11 ,470±500
rcybp, a date largely discredited (Hamilton and Goebel 1999, Reanier 1994).
Excavations at the site recorded three "stratigraphic zones" (SZ-1, SZ-2, and SZ
3), (measurements converted into metric). SZ-I began at the ground surface and
reached a depth from 7.62 to 15.24 em. A late prehistoric occupation was
located in SZ-I, including a fire hearth. SZ-II ranged from a depth of 22.8 to 50.8
em below the ground surface and contained the Paleoindian fluted point
technology associated the lower fire hearth (Reanier 1996). SZ-1I1 was culturally
sterile gravel and bedrock.
Five radiocarbon samples are purported to define the age of each of the
stratigraphic zone. The fire hearth in SZ-I was near the surface and revealed a
date of 650±1 00. Samples from SZ-II returned dates of 5700±190, 6090±430,
8450±.130 and 8810±.60AMS (Reanier 1996, Hamilton and Goebel 1999:Appendix).
185
A fourth sample dated to 11 ,470.±:500AMS and was originally believed to be
associated the lower hearth, Feature 9. However, laboratory notes maintain it
came from the gravel of 8Z-111 (Reanier 1994, 1996). The inconsistency has
raised controversy with respect to this early date. At the earliest, a date of
approximately 10,500 rcybp is consistent with the 10,490.±:70AMS radiocarbon
determination from the Bedwell locality. Bedwell's association with the Putu
locality remains uncertain.
Table 7.19: Putu Locality (Hamilton et a11999, Reanier 1996)Stratigraphy Description RCYBP -cm
...?;9.D.~ ! §..~..~?g~:~.~.!?.~~.!f~g~! t!.~..~!!.~ ??9..:!:1..9..9. ? .Zone II Hearth, fluted points 5700.±:190, 6090.±:430, 5-40
.........................................................................................................._ .- .- ~4.?.9..:!:.1}.9.! ~.~..1..9;;!;;?..9.~~.~ .Zone III Bedrock & gravel 11,470+500AMS 20-40
186
Name: Slate Creek Site (Low) Potential for future information exists.
Number: HEA-00129
Region: Interior
NHR Designation: NON E
Repository: University of Fairbanks
Land Ownership: State of Alaska
Basal Dates: unknown
Complex: Denali (Powers and Hoffecker 1989)
Environment: "Maxwell locates the site about 750m to the ENE of
Hoffecker's map location... on the northwestern side of Slate Creek, approx.
850m WSW of the Parks Highway crossing, approx. 16.3km NNW of Healy"
(AHRS 1997).
History: The site was discovered in the late 1970's and early 1980's
during the Early Man surveys sponsored by the National Park Service and
National Geographic Society (Hoffecker et al 1985).
Significance: "This site possesses at least two components, one of
which may be mid-Holocene or earlier in age" (AH RS 1997).
(Powers and Hoffecker 1989:272) and likely contains similar Denali and possible
Nenana occupations in good context (AHRS 1997). Scientific potential for the
187
Slate Creek and Usibelli sites remain unknown, although, anticipation is high for
information significant to the Nenana and Denali technological debate.
Artifacts and Features: The collection consisted of an "isolated
microblade find". The stratigraphy is similar to other Nenana and Denali sites
nearby (Powers and Hoffecker 1989).
188
Name: Spein Mountain (High)
Number: BTH-00062, BTH-63, BTH-64, and BTH-65
Region: Southwest
NHR Designation: NONE
Repository: Washington State University
Land Owner: US Fish and Wildlife Service
Dates: 10,050.:t90AMS
Complex: Mesa (Ackerman 2001, Bever 2001a)
Environment: The site is 60 kilometers east of Bethel, surrounded mostly
by marsh and tundra on a ridgeline 1000 to 1250 feet above sea level, along the
Kisaralik River, a southern tributary of the Kuskokwim River. During the time of
occupation, the local environment dominated by Poacea (grass) which comprised
86.8% of pollen sample recovered from a pit feature (Ackerman 1996c:456-60).
History: The site was located in 1979 by Robert Ackerman, James
Gallison, and Lance Rennie. Ackerman returned to the site in 1992 and
excavated forty-one, one meter units (Ackerman 2001).
Significance: Spein Mountain is the only known Mesa complex site
outside of the Brooks Range. In addition to being contemporaneous with the
Mesa type site, Spein Mountain is more or less contemporaneous with many of
the Denali complex sites including the nearby Nukluk Mountain site (Ackerman
1996c:458-60, Ackerman 2001). Therefore, it may provide valuable information
189
about the interactions of two Early Holocene technologies in Southwestern
Alaska, in addition to providing evidence related to the expansion of Mesa
technology out of the Brooks Range.
Artifacts and Features: Of the 4,299 artifacts recovered, 190 were tools,
including lanceolate, pentagonal, and leaf-shaped projectile points. Other lithics
included ovate and preform bifaces, flake gravers, knives, scrapers, abraders, a
single notched flake spall, choppers, hammerstones, and waste flakes
(paraphrasing Ackerman 1996c:457-458).
"Aside from flakes... the most common tool type was a lanceolate to ovate
projectile point with sides tapering slightly to a straight to slightly rounded base.
Complete and nearly complete projectile points... were recovered from six
squares and were fairly dispersed throughout the excavated area. Several had a
small portion of the tip missing ... as a result of use" (Ackerman 2001 :86).
There was also a pit feature lined along its edges and filled in the bottom
with lithic waste flakes, burnt bone and much pollen and organic material
(Ackerman 1996c:457). "The pit was an oval-shaped (85x130 cm) depression
with a floor 43-45 cm below the ground surface" (Ackerman 2001 :91). "Fine
pieces of charcoal and calcine bone" found in a filtered sample indicate its use as
a fire hearth which dated 10,050.:t.90AMS rcybp (Ackerman 2001 :91).
Integrity: The ridge was covered by 15 to 25 cm of loess on top of
shattered basalt deposits. Stratigraphy was present with "two or three" soil
190
horizons. However, there has been a continuous downhill creep of soil and
freeze-thaw disturbance of the stratigraphic integrity (Ackerman 1996c:456-57).
Description: Four localities (BTH- 62, 63, 64 and 65) were documented
in the foothills of Spein Mountain. "Areas 062 and 065... did not have the volume
of lithic debris that we encountered at 063" (Ackerman 2001 :85). Only a few
items were collected from exposed areas on the surface of the four localities.
Excavations were only conducted at area 63, although bifacial fragments from
projectile points from the surface of 64 matched those recovered in Area 63
(Ackerman 2001 :85).
The stratigraphic column begins at the surface with a vegetation mat 3 to
6 em in depth covering a layer of "dark brown sandy, slit loam" 15-20 em thick
(Ackerman 2001 :84). Below this, the basal layer consisted of shattered regolith.
The artifacts were mixed but tended to cluster in the upper regions of the sandy
silt loam with some found in the top vegetation mat (Ackerman 2001 :84, See also
Ackerman 1996c:456-57).
Ackerman (2001 :85 Fig 3) subdivided Area 63 in three zones, and
considered all three contemporaneous. Zone A was the most extensive
excavation area with 73 meters2 in the southeastern portion of the site. This was
the same area surface collected in 1979. Zone B was randomly sampled, with
seven meters2 excavated. In Zone C, the western portion, five units were
excavated in both the vegetated and deflated areas (Ackerman 2001).
191
Name: Swan Point (High)
Number: XBD-00156
Region: Interior
NHR Designation: NONE
Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks
land Ownership: State of Alaska
Basal Dates: CZ 4-11,660 .:t 70, CZ 3-10,230.:t80, CZ 2 7400.:t80, CZ 1B
1750.:t80
Complex: Denali, Nenana, Pre-Nenana?
Environment: The paleo-environment described by Holmes (2000) was
open woodland containing dwarf-birch, willow shrub and tundra, between 11,800
and 10,300 rcybp, becoming forested with spruce and alder between 9000 and
9500 rcybp.
History: Richard VanderHoek and Tom Dilley discovered Swan Point in
1991 on top a bench above Shaw Creek several kilometers northeast of Broken
Mammoth. The site earned its name from the Trumpeter Swans heard from the
overlook (VanderHoek 2002 personal communication).
Significance: S\A/an Point is an important interior site because it
establishes the earliest use of wedge-shaped core and blade technology typically
associated with the Denali complex in Alaska (Hamilton and Goebel 1999,
Holmes 2000, 2003) although the tools at Swan Point are more similar to Dyuktai
192
than Denali. Swan Point is also one of few sites in Alaska suggesting that
humans and mammoth may have coexisted (Holmes 2000) and the two earliest
occupations may have been contemporaneous with the earliest deposits at the
Broken Mammoth site (Hamilton and Goebel 1999, Holmes et aI1996).
Integrity: Swan Point was stratified beneath aeolian loess deposition
approximately one meter deep, half that found at Broken Mammoth. The loess
covered a foundation of irregular solid bedrock and provided some degree of
preservation (Holmes et al 1996, VanderHoek 2002 personal communication).
However, the overall preservation of fauna was not as great as that at Broken
Mammoth due to the lesser amount of loess accumulation (Holmes et al 1996,
Hamilton and Goebel 1999).
Artifacts and Features: Artifacts from the historic period included tin
cans, cartridges and a knife fragment. Prehistoric artifacts from Middle to Late
Holocene occupations included ground stone fragments, scrapers, microblades
and microb!ade cores (tabu!ar and subconica!), lanceolate projectile points, and a
flake spur graver. The lanceolate projectile points were characterized as having
converging bases with heavy grinding along some of the edges. Faunal
evidence from the Middle Holocene included ~J1oose remains (Holmes et a!
1996).
Artifacts from Cultural Zone 3 (Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene), included
lanceolate projectile points (convex and straight bases), triangular projectile
193
points, points reworked into spur gravers, choppers and hammer stones. The
"most distinct hearth features observed" (Holmes et al 1996) occurred in these
occupations described as "discontinuous hearth like charcoal smears at a depth
of 55 cm" (Hamilton and Goebel 1999).
Cultural Zone 4 (Terminal Pleistocene) contained; ivory tools worked from
mammoth tusk fragments, microblades, microblade cores, microblade core
preparation flakes (ski spalls), blades, dihedral burins, red ochre, choppers, and
hammerstones. Faunal evidence included goose and large cervid faunal
remains in association with burnt Populus (Holmes et ai 1996).
Description: The geologic stratigraphy is one meter thick with
intermittent paleosols. Approximately 90 cm below surface is "pebbly" colluvium
capped by the 83 horizon 30 to 82 cm below surface with wind blown loess. The
82 horizon is approximately 8 to 35 cm below surface. The modern forested soil
at the surface began to develop 5000 rcybp and ranges from approximately 5 to
10 em in depth (Holmes et al 1996 Fig 6-8, Hamilton and Goebel 1999 Fig 4).
Table 7.20: Swan Point (Hamilton and Goebel 1999)Description - depth in cm
....f9.r.~~.!~9 ;s.9!.I...~.~!.: ?.9.Q.Q...r.~Y~E .9.:::.1..9. .82 & 83 Horizons 8-35..................................._ .
...::.p..~.~.~!.Y. ..g9.!.!.~.Y.!.~.~.~:. 3;0;-..8 ;2;.; 1Sand 90-100
The Cultural Zones (CZ) were labeled 1A, 18,2,3 and 4. CZ-1A was an
historic occupation. CZ-18 dated to between 1220.±70 and 1750.±80 and
194
occurred approximately 8 to 15 cm below surface. CZ-2 dates to 7400±.80 by a
single radiocarbon sample recovered from approximately 33 cm below surface.
CZ-3 contained one sample recovered from 50-55 cm below surface and dated
to 10,230±.80AMS rcybp. Three samples from one of the earliest occupations at the
site (CZ-4a), obtained from a depth of 80 cm below surface produced dates of
11,660±.70AMS, 11 ,660±.60AMS and a fragment of mammoth tusk that was
dated to 12,060±.60AMS rcybp (Hamilton and Goebel 1999, Holmes et a11996:Fig
6-8). A horizontally separate cluster (CZ-4b) contained the majority of
microblades and yielded four impressive dates averaged to 12,160±.65, which
broke the long held 12,000 rcybp barrier in Alaska (Holmes and Class 2003).
Table 7.21: Swan Point6
CZ RCYBP Complex - em
..J.A f.j.i.~.!~Ei~ _ ~.~.~gP.~§l.~_ .9..::.~ .is i220+70, i570+70, i670+60, i750+80 Athabascan 8--15.................._ _ .- - .2 7400 +80 Late Denali 33........................................""" " " , " .3 10,230+80 Denali 50-55.............................................- _ _ _ - .
.. ~.~ 1J.!.?§.9.:!:?9..!.JJ..!.§?..9.;t§.9..LJ..?.!.9..§9.;t§.9...(!.l:!.~.~) N.~.~.~.r:t.§l ~9. .4b 12,040+40,12,060+70,12,110+50,12,360+60 Pre-Nenana 80
6 Sources: Holmes & Class 2003, Hamilton & Goebel 1999, Holmes et al1996195
Name: Trail Creek Caves (Med)
Number: BEN-00001
Region: Seward Peninsula
NHR Designation: NRXCL
Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks
Land Ownership: USNPS, BELA
Basal Dates: 9070.±,250 rcybp (Hamilton & Goebel 1999, West 1996b)
Complex: Denali, unknown
Environment: The site was found "near the head of Trail Creek, about
20km north of Imuruk Lake" (AHRS 1997), in a region described as "Trail Creek
Caves" located along the south east side of the ridge in the region of the NE
Seward Peninsula (Hamilton and Goebel 1999). Thirteen of the caves were
sufficient in size for human use (Hamilton and Goebel 1999, Schaaf 1988).
History: The first recorded visit to the cave was in 1928 when T. Moto and
A. Karum sought shelter there and found the first reported artifacts (Larsen 1968,
West 1996b). Later, D. Hopkins conducted investigations of the region in 1948
and H. Larsen continued the effort in 1949 and again in 1950. Eleven of the
thirteen caves determined inhabitable by humans were tested in 1985 by the
National Park Service (Schaaf 1988, Hamilton and Goebel 1999).
Significance: The Trail Creek Caves site is significant because of the
discovery of rare organic artifacts primarily associated with inland caribou
196
hunting. The artifacts are similar to traditional Western Thule and Ipiutak or
Choris people. Also recovered were microblades and longitudinally grooved
organic projectiles resembling those used by the Denbigh Flint complex (AHRS
1997).
Integrity: Cave 2 and Cave 9 were the only two of the inhabitable caves
that contained archeological evidence. The nature of the stratigraphy and the
nature of the excavation techniques led to confusion when faunal remains dated
to 13 and 15 kya. The confusion centered on pre-human fauna remains and the
likely hood that older bone deposits where not associated with human activity.
The evidence for Pleistocene use of the cave by humans continues to be
criticized and Hamilton and Goebel (1999: 179) believe the earliest human
artifacts date to -9100 rcybp.
Artifacts and Features: Faunal remains included a mammoth scapula
(11,360:t.280 rcybp) from the floor of Cave B a fragment of mammoth vertebra
(14,270.:t950 rcybp) from just above the floor of Cave B (Hamilton and Goebel
1999). Unit IV of Cave 9 contained a bison calcaneus and from the same
provenience, a horse scapula dated to 15,750:t.350 rcybp (Hamilton and Goebel
1999).
Description: Cave 2 was 21.4 meters long with stratigraphy 60 to 140 cm
in depth (Larsen 1968, West 1996b). Beginning atthe cave surface, Unit I has
been characterized as "black, loose-texture, sandy humus". Unit II, characterized
197
as "brown, loose-texture, stony soil or silt" beginning at a depth of -30 cm below
surface. Unit II was as thick as 50 cm and contained artifact remains. The Unit
III stratum, between zero and 40cm thick, described as "micaceous sandy silt"
and angular rocks. The Unit IV layer contained paleontological specimens just
inside the entrance and was described as "sticky, silty, clay" (Hamilton and
Goebel 1999).
Historic and Denbigh artifacts were found in Units I and II. Units III and IV
fused together in some areas of the cave. Artifacts from Unit III included
"microblades and slotted antler spearheads" (Hamilton and Goebel 1999).
Faunal remains from Unit IV included mountain sheep, elk, caribou, horse and
bison. Horse and bison found outside the entry of Cave 9 represent Pleistocene
fauna (Hamilton and Goebel 1999). In all seven antler points and four
microblades were recovered. They are the only known occurrence of slotted
bone points and microblades in eastern Beringia with the exception of the Lime
Hills Cave I site (\/Vest 1996b).
Larsen (1968) believed that a section the bison calcaneus dated
13,070.:t.280 had been broken in a manner consistent with human action,
although his claim continues to be heavily criticized (Hamilton and Goebel 1999).
198
Table 7.22: Trail Creek Caves1
Unit Description Artifact RCYBP -em thick...~.~.19g~ r.n.9.~rn9.~b, ..'!..~~~.t.>r.?.~ ~.4.1.??9.,;!;,@.?9. ......~D!.t1 ~!.?g~..§.9D.9..¥..!J.~.~.~§ 9.:::?.9. ......~!:1.!~...I.L.......................... i ~r.9.~f.l ~.~9.n~y...§.!!.t , , , .Q~.?.9. .Unit III cave 2 sandy silt microblade slotted spear
large angular rocks point 0-40caribou bone 9070+150·..Uni'f··iV'·c·ave..g· ·s·ficky..·sl·ity..·Ci'ay ·bl·son..c·ai·can·e·u·s·'· ·· ·..T3';o70:t2·s'O..·· ·..25~T1·5 ·horse scapula 15,750+350
1 Sources: Larsen 1968, Hamilton and Goebel 1999:179 & 191199
Name: Tuluaq Hill (High)
Region: Brooks Range
Number: DEl-00360
NHR Designation: NONE
Repository: National Park Service - WEAR
land Owner: National Park Service - WEAR
Basal Dates: 11200.:!:40, 11180.:!:80, 1111 0.:!:80, 7950.:!:40 rcybp (Rasic 2002)
Tradition: Paleoindian
Environment: Tuluaq Hill is located in Noatak National Park and Preserve
of the Western Brooks Range (Delong Mountains). The site is located on a hill
rising 259 meters above Wrench Creek, a tributary of the Kelly River (Rasic
2000). The surrounding region is difficult terrain including tussock (cotton grass)
and tundra with permafrost below the surface. There is generally very little
sediment deposition on top of the bedrock foundation.
Betll'Jeen 13,500 and 11,800 rcybp vegetation was rapidly reclaiming
areas recently deglaciation in the Brooks Range (Hamilton 1982:700). A soil
sample taken from an organic paleosol in a nearby cut bank at Tuluaq Hill
indicated the environment vias capable of supporting animal and plant species at
approximately 13,000 rcybp (Rasic 2000:22).
History: The site was discovered in 1998 during archaeological survey
along Wrench Creek, Noatak National Park. Upon its discovery, the crew
200
excavated a single test pit and conducted extensive surface collections with
further excavations continuing the following summer. To date, 30% m2 have
been excavated (Rasic 2000). Bob Gal and Jeff Rasic with the National Park
Service are currently defining this group of early Alaskans utilized herds of
caribou that continue to migrate in the region (Rasic 2000, 2002).
Significance: The region has significance to the Early Americans Theme
Study because of its location near the Pleistocene Bering Land Bridge. Tuluaq
Hill, in the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene periods, was as a hunting
overlook and lithic retooling area with repeated visits over a limited amount of
time by two different technological groups separated by at least 3000 rcybp. The
oldest of the identifiable technology includes Paleoindian style projectile points;
however, a more specific classification is pending further research. The site is
significant to prehistory because it represents economic activities and resource
utilization by some of the earliest Alaskans (Rasic 2000, 2002).
Integrity: The stratigraphy atop Tu!uaq Hill was shallow, making
stratigraphic interpretation difficult; however, four stratigraphic units were
described (Rasic 2000:35). The site was used repeatedly during two relatively
constrained periods \A/ith litt!e admixture bet\AJeen different lithic components
making horizontal separation possible and compensating for the lack of easily
definable stratigraphy (Rasic 2000).
201
Artifacts and Features: Projectile points associated with the Paleoindian
tradition and similar to those found at Tuluaq dated between 9,500 and 10,000
rcybp at the Irwin Sluiceway and NR-5 sites (Rasic 2000:59). At Tuluaq fifty-five
of "[t]he large lanceolate-shaped points exhibit thick biconvex cross sections,
rounded bases, edge-ground proximal margins, and robust collateral pressure
finishing" (Rasic and Gal 2000:66). Additional artifacts included a fluted point,
"thick elongate unifacial tools (n=5), unifacial endscrapers (n=3), gravers, and a
variety of retouched or utilized flakes" (Rasic and Gal 2000:66).
Charcoal identified as poplar or willow obtained from discrete oxidized
clusters and found in association with chipped waste flakes produced "AMS
dates of 7950±40, 11,180±80, and 11 ,200±40 yr BP" (Rasic and Gal 2000:76).
An additional date of 11,11 0±80 rcybp was of uncertain association with the
artifacts (Rasic and Gal 2000:76). The radiocarbon dates are described in detail
from five of clusters defined as Features A, B, C, D, and E.
Feature A was as a stone lined pit approximately 110 cm in diameter and
35 cm deep, including the stone lining. It is located along the north side of the hill
and below the hill's crest. Rasic (2000) suggested it was a meat cache, based
on ethnographic data from similar features. Jl\ckerman (2001 :91) described a
similar feature containing burnt bone and evidence of fire at the Spein Mountain
site. Feature B contained the sample of uncertain association. Feature C was a
"bowl shaped oxidized patch of sediment" (Rasic 2000:55) containing fire
202
cracked waste flakes and dated from willow or poplar wood (7950±40 rcybp)
found in the bowl's matrix. Feature 0 (15 cm and was 4cm deep) contained
obvious clumps of charcoal and waste flakes some of which exhibited heat
fractures. The charcoal returned a date of 11 ,200±40AMS (Rasic 2000:57).
Feature 0 was not completely excavated leaving a portion of it intact. Feature E
was characterized as a flake pit 37 cm deep possibly formed at the based of a
natural slope but could be due to human activity (Rasic 2000).
Description: The Tuluaq Hill site is located in close proximity to an
outcrop of quality lithic chert resources DEL-236 (Rasic 2000). The association
of flake artifacts with the three >11,000 rcybp determinations is legitimate
however the association with Paleoindian projectile points is not certain. Based
on typology, Rasic (2001 :62-62) estimates the oblanceolate projectile points date
to approximately 10,000 rcybp.
203
Name: Ugashik Narrows (Med)
Number: UGA-00001
Region: Alaska Peninsula
NHR Designation: NONE
Repository: University of Oregon Museum of Anthropology
Land Ownership: US Gov/Native Claim
Basal Dates: 8995±295
Complex: Denali - Anangula?
Environment: The site was located 1.5 km south of the Pilot Point
cannery on Ugashik Bay near a line of alder and willow shrub approximately 200
meters long on the eastern shore of the narrows where two Ugashik lakes nearly
join. Approximately 150 meters of the site is along a grass-covered bluff,
extending past the bluff to the east (Henn 1978).
History: Winfield Henn (1978) conducted survey in the Ugashik Narrows
region beginning in 1974 and 1975, which led to tW'defining the Narrows phase.
Henn (1978) located 30 prehistoric sites along the Ugashik River drainage and
shoreline of Ugashik Bay.
Significance: Ugashik Narrows was the only site found in the area with
an early Holocene component. The artifacts are similar to the classic Denali
complex, making Ugashik Narrows significant based on the early migration of
peoples into the Alaska Peninsula from the Interior. The earliest technology
204
contains the largest blades known from Denali sites and transverse burins typical
of Anangula in the Aleutians. The assemblage contains large blades, similar to
those from Anangula although including bifaces, possibly representing a
technologic transition as early Alaskans began to migrate into the Aleutian chain.
SUbsequent use of the area left an archaeological record spanning the last 9000
years (Henn 1978, AHRS 1997).
Integrity: This was the most extensive site found in the Ugashik Lake
region with "58 house-like" depressions. Excavations included a single
stratigraphic trench and several test units. Thirty-six meters2 were excavated
(Dumond 1975) leaving much of the large site intact (Henn 1978).
Artifacts and Features: The artifacts from the Ugashik Narrows Phase
were date to the early Holocene. The artifact assemblage from Component F
included the diagnostic transverse burins on flakes and the wedge shaped core
and blade technology typically associated with the Denali complex as described
by Don Dumond (1975:3). !t included 'wedge-shaped microblade cores (8),
microcore rejuvenation flakes (3), microblades (-600), blades (6), core bifaces
(16), blade cores (11), utilized flakes (numerous), end-scraper (1), transverse
fragments (numerous), wedge-shaped blade cores (2), flake unifaces (2), small
point fragments (2), and large "haphazard" cores (2)' (Dumond 1975:3).
205
"The most frequent micro core in the collection is the wedge-shaped
variety... These were most commonly fashioned by bifacially flaking a thick flake
to form a keel. Rejuvenation of the core for further removal of microblades...
This core variety produced microblades which themselves were never modified
beyond edge retouch and snapping" (Henn 1978).
Description: A trench was excavated across the length of the site,
revealing extensive occupations and natural geomorphic processes. Five
components (A-F) were described with two components (0 and C) associated
with the same technological phase (Dumond 1975, Henn 1978).
The stratification began with surface vegetation, then a layer of sod - 10
cm thick, next was Stratum I - a dark brown layer of sand and midden. Stratum I
was variable in its distribution throughout the site, absent in some areas but as
thick as 60 cm in others. Then, there was a level of brown-green sand, originally
misidentified as Ash I. This was followed by Stratum II, a "reddish-brown soil"
from 15 to 35 em in thickness separated at its base by a thin black organic
horizon believed to be the main occupation surface. Below the organic horizon,
the earliest assemblage was found in Stratum III, described as compact light
brown soil, much !ike loess. The upper levels of this contained artifacts from the
Hill Top Phase (lila) and Stratum Illb contained the Narrows Phase artifacts.
Stratum III was deposited on top of glacial outwash (Henn 1978).
206
Table 1.23: Ugashik Narrows (Dumond 1915. Henn 1978),Stratum Camp Phase RCYBP -em thickSurface F Historic 10'..i ·..'"....,"',.."..,,', .. ,,' "..........,'E:""..,"",.. ""R'i'ver..'.."'''''"...... '''3'35+EiC)''''''"........,..·....,....,.."·..""..,,·,,·,',,·..·,, ..,,· .. ,,'',,·......""....""...", ..."".. ·"o~Eio'''''·,,· ..'' .. ''''' '' ..·..·
... 'Ii' ".."......."......".....·..···..6=6"..".... "'Lakes'''''''''''''''''' ·"930~75~· ..1·b'5·5±66;..·1·5·3·5£80·;..1·66·5£86;··..··....·....f5~35 ..·..·.. ··..·· ·.. ··..,..1885+90,2110+95
:::nI§.::::::::::::::::::::::::::: '::::::::::::::$.::::::::::::: ":BHCf.9:P.:::::::::::::: :::~:§~9.~§9.;:::~:$.:t§.~§9.;:::~:~?§.f~Q;:::~:4:$.:QI?§.::::::::: 3Ft9.i:::::::::::::::::::::::::::.!lIb A Narrows 76752:.260,84252:.115,89952:.295 0-1O?
207
Name: Usibelli Site (Med) (Potential to Provide Further Data)
Number: HEA- 00128
Region: Interior
NHR Designation: NONE
Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks
land Ownership: State of Alaska
Basal Dates: N/A
Complex: Nenana, Denali (Hoffecker 1980:16).
Environment: The site is "approximately 2.35km east of [the] Nenana
River, approx. 3km north of the confluence of Lignite Creek, approx. 8.4km north
of Healy. Maxwell locates the site about 750m to the ENE of Hoffecker's map
location ... on the northwestern side of Slate Creek, approx. 850m WSW of the
Parks Highway crossing, approx. 16.3km NNW of Healy" (AHRS 1997
abbreviations original).
History: The site was discovered during the Early Man project (Hoffecker
et al (eds) 1985).
Significance: "This site may contain as many as three components, the
lowest of which seems likely to be of terminal Pleistocene age (AHRS 1997).
Such documentation suggests this site could contain information relevant to the
ongoing theoretical debate regarding Nenana and Denali technological
208
populations (Powers and Hoffecker 1989). As a result, it is eligible for
nomination to the NR based on the potential for future research.
Integrity: The site appeared stratified, much like other confirmed Nenana
Complex sites in the region (Powers and Hoffecker 1989). Three cultural
components found with the basal component produced a characteristic Chindadn
projectile technologically associated with the Nenana Complex (Hoffecker
1980:16).
Artifacts and Features: "The Usibelli site may contain as many as three
components, the lowest of which seems likely to be of terminal Pleistocene age.
A small triangular point recovered from this level bears a strong typological
resemblance to the small bifacial point and point fragments on Component I at
Dry Creek" (Hoffecker 1980:16). However, a 14C sample from 23-32cm deep
produced a date of 31952:295 (GX-13013) (AHRS 1997).
Description: Artifacts recovered from what is believed to be three
components. The upper most region containing artifacts was at the base of the
organic topsoil. Two deeper components were found between 20 and 40 cm in
depth buried in silt. Basal gravel is reported from a depth of approximately 40 cm
(Hoffecker 1980:15 Figure 3). To date, Hoffecker has only tested the site and
excavations have not been undertaken.
209
Table 7.24: Usibeiii Site Hoffecker 1980: ada ted from Fi 3 a e 15Strati ra h Com onents Com lex -de th in em
...Q.r..g.?n..i~ ...1..!.1 ? ? .Silt II ? 20................................., " ..Silt I Nenana? 30r..s·as·ai·..G·rav·ei.. ··················..·..·rsterife···· 1" ·····..·..···· · ······· ··················1 40············· · · ····· ··· ··1
210
Name: Walker Road (High)
Number: HEA-00130
Region: Interior
NHR Designation: NONE
Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks
Land Ownership: State of Alaska
Basal Dates: 11 ,300:t120AMS
Complex: Nenana, Denali? (unknown)
Environment: The Walker Road site is located near Healy, AK in the
foothills north of the Alaska Range along an overlook of the Cindy-James Creek
at it's confluence with the Nenana River in Interior Alaska (Goebel et al 1996).
History: Walker Road, discovered in 1980 by Hoffecker and Wilson, was
first excavated by Powers and Hoffecker in 1984. Further excavations took place
between 1985 and 1990 resulting in nearly 200 excavated square meters
(Goebel et al 1991, Goebel et al 1996).
Significance: Walker Road is one of four sites that have come to define
the Nenana complex characterized by the diagnostic teardrop shaped Chindadn
projectile point. The four sites (\Na!ker Road, Dry Creek, Ow! Ridge and Moose
Creek) are often described as the most likely antecedent to Clovis groups further
to the south which emerged during the terminal Pleistocene (Goebel et al1991).
211
Obsidian artifacts, traced to Batza Tena and Wrangle Mountains, were
found in the earliest occupations at Walker Road and Broken Mammoth and
couid provide further information regarding Pleistocene lithic acquisition and wide
spread economic activities (Hamilton and Goebel 1999:184 citing personal
communication with John Cook).
Integrity: Much of the original integrity of the earliest occupations at
Walker Road remain in place and were subjected to only slight freeze thaw
activity (Goebel et al 1996). Paleocomplex I dated by a single sample to
8720±.250 was described from loess Layer 4 at a depth of approximately 50 cm
below surface. Artifacts from this occupation were non-diagnostic (Powers and
Hoffecker 1989:269 Fig. 4). Paleocomplex II was found at a depth of
approximately 80cm below the surface and contained the Nenana complex
artifacts associated with four 14C dates (11,01 0±.23°,11,170±.180, 11 ,300±120,
11 ,820±200) (Goebel et al 1996).
Artifacts and Features: Activity Area 1 (AA-1), one of the larger event
areas, contained unidentifiable burnt bone, anvil stones, red ocher. The
collection of lithic tools included scrapers (end & side), gravers, cobbles,
rewor!<.ed flakes and blades; also over 1000 fragments of lithic debitage were
recovered. Hearth Feature I was associated with this activity area (Goebel et al
1996).
212
AA-2 contained a "bowl shaped hearth" (Feature II) from which wood,
traces of red ocher and burnt bone were present. Lithics from AA-2 include anvil
stone, cobbles, many end scrapers, side scrapers, wedges, planes and
Chindadn projectile points. The lithic debitage numbered over 2000 items. The
majority of activities in this component involved fine retooling of end scrapers
(Goebel et al 1996). AA-2 levels contained no evidence of microblade use
(Goebel et al 1991).
AA-3 was a single tool-manufacturing event; several of the tools made
here were identified in other Activity Areas. The brown chert raw material was
obtained locally (Goebel et al 1996). AA-4 was also a small occupation
associated with tool maintence/manufacturing. The artifacts recovered included
hammerstones, pressure flakes, cores and fragments of cores, reworked flakes,
a "retoucher", debitage, end and side scrapers (Goebel et al1996). In total, there
were approximately 15 tools and associated debitage believed to be left from the
manufacture of a single Chindadn projectile (Goebel et al 1996).
Description: The geologic stratigraphy included two Paleosols (I and II)
(Goebel et al 1991) and the present topsoil. Six layers of wind blown loess
episodes separated these and sealed the occupations. T\'/O cultural zones 'vvere
identified the lower Component I. Component II has been dated to the early
Holocene at 8720.:!:250 and is associated with Denali technology (Goebel et al
1991, Goebel et al 1996).
213
Component I was associated with the Nenana complex and dated to the
late Pleistocene and early Holocene periods. It included two areas of lithic debris
and unidentifiable burnt bone in association with hearths, areas of lithic
refinement, retooling, repair and discarding (Goebel et al 1996). The earliest
date from hearth Feature 1 in "basalloess" is considered problematic by the
investigator (11 ,820:t200*). Two additional dates from hearth Feature I returned
dates of 11,01 0:t120AMS and 11, 170:t180AMs. Samples from hearth Feature II
resulted in a date of 11 ,300:t120AMS (Goebel et al 1996) placing the earliest
Nenana occupation for Walker Road between 11,000-11,300 rcybp. Component
II was not as straightforward and included the sporadic samples 3816:t70AMs,
4414:t95 and 8720:t250AMS (Goebel et al 1991, Goebel et al 1996).
Lithic raw material from Component I originated from a local source,
cobbles from the nearby Nenana River. Obsidian was present (0.4%), and was
the only non-local lithic resource at the site (Goebel et al 1996). This pattern is
consistent with evidence from Broken Mammoth (Yesner 1996) suggesting that
early occupants used local materials first, before gaining local knowledge of more
efficient lithic resources in the region (Hamilton and Goebel 1999).
214
Name: Whitmore Ridge (Med)
Number: XMH-00072
NHR Designation: NHS -Tangle Lakes Archaeological District
Region: Interior
Land Owner: State of Alaska
Basal Dates: 10,360:!:60, 1o,270:!:70, 9830:!:60, 9600:!:140, 9890:!:70, 5480:!:300,
5080:!:130, 3800:!:180* (West, Robinson and West 1996)
Complex: Denali (West, Robinson and West 1996)
Environment: "This site is located on the crest of a north-south trending
esker ridge" (AHRS 1997) "...truncated just to the south by Rock Creek. It is on
the face of this truncation that the fossil beaver dam is exposed. The site lies
about 600 m west of Butcher's Pond" (West, Robinson and West 1996:386).
Significance: Whitmore Ridge was one of Fred West's (1967,1975)
original type-sites for the Denali complex. It is already a contributing site in the
Tangle Lakes Archaeological District. It is "one of the most important and
productive sites within the Tangle Lakes Archaeological District" (AHRS 1997).
Integrity: The artifacts at Whitmore ridge were found in situ, buried
shallowly in early Holocene deposits. Although wind erosion and deflation was
reported along the ridge, three site locales were defined within an area of
approximately 40 meters (West, Robinson and West 1996).
215
Artifacts and Features: "Excavations conducted by West yielded wedge
shaped cores, conical cores, knives, projectile points, bifaces, scrapers, and
burins" (AHRS 1997). Locus 1 was the least extensive artifact cluster, consisting
of wedge shaped microblade cores and associated byproducts. West et al
(1996:386) describes "fine-grained lustrous chert" as the material type in Locus
1. Locus 2 was located 15 meters south of Locus 1 and 8 meters north of Locus
3. Conoidal blade core, biface fragments and a burin. "The conoidal cores are
predominately of a black marine chert with a few specimens of red sardo The
technology is quite unlike that seen in Denali" (West, Robinson and West
1996:386).
Locus 3 was a dense area of debris and waste flakes, "mostly large flakes
indicative of bifacial thinning". The material type was mostly comprised of
argillite (West, Robinson and West 1996:386).
Description: Three clusters of artifacts were scattered "continuously over
40 meters" (West et aI1996). West et al (1996) describe the artifacts in situ
within the buried soil (Lower Holocene Podzol). "On this high exposed ridge the
soil column is quite shallow and in a few places, the double soil is either absent
or cannot be definitively identified" (West, Robinson and West 1996:386).
216