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The Effects of a School-wide Behaviour ManagementProgramme on Teachers' Use of Encouragement in theClassroomAlan Bain a; Stephen Houghton a; Sally Williams aa Department of Education, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Perth,Western Australia 6009, Australia

Online Publication Date: 01 January 1991To cite this Article: Bain, Alan, Houghton, Stephen and Williams, Sally (1991) 'TheEffects of a School-wide Behaviour Management Programme on Teachers' Use ofEncouragement in the Classroom', Educational Studies, 17:3, 249 - 260To link to this article: DOI: 10.1080/0305569910170303URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0305569910170303

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Educational Studies, Vol. 17, No. 3, 1991 249

The Effects of a School-wideBehaviour Management Programmeon Teachers' Use of Encouragementin the ClassroomALAN BAIN, STEPHEN HOUGHTON &SALLY WILLIAMSDepartment of Education, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Perth,Western Australia 6009, Australia

SUMMARY The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a whole schoolbehaviour management programme on teachers' use of encouragement in the classroom. Giventhat the performance of the school has become an important dependent variable in school effectsresearch, it follows that interventions which address behaviour management and the improve-ment of academic performance, have also taken on a school-wide focus or orientation. InAustralia, where this study was conducted, there has been an increased interest in the use ofschool-wide behaviour management and discipline programmes, which are characterized bytheir focus on improving teachers' classroom management skills. In the present study randomlyselected teachers from schools involved in a school-wide behaviour management programmeparticipated in an experimental evaluation of the effects of the programme. Continuous datacollection indicated that the majority of teachers made increases in their use of encouragementover the course of the intervention. However, observations conducted during a follow-up phaserevealed reductions in levels of encouragement following the withdrawal of the intervention.

Introduction

The school-based development of expectations for academic and social behaviourand the clear communication of those expectations to the school community havebeen consistently identified as characteristics of effective schools (Rutter et al.,1979; Lasley & Wayson, 1982; Edmonds, 1982). While the significance of thesecharacteristics has prompted considerable interest in strategies for responding tobehaviour problems in schools (e.g. codes of discipline, suspension and exclusion,timeout procedures), more importantly it has also prompted consideration of thetype of teacher and student behaviour that is predictive of both high levels ofstudent academic achievement and positive social behaviour. Such factors as theconsistent use of reinforcement and feedback (Perrott, 1982), clear communicationof academic expectations (Rutter et al., 1979) and the management and use of

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250 Alan Bain et al.

instructional time (Sanford & Evertson, 1982) have been identified as importantfactors in improving student, teacher and subsequent school performance. Thesystematic use of reinforcement and encouragement, for example, have beenrecognized not only as prerequisites for improving the academic performance ofstudents, but also for their contribution to the development of patterns of behaviourwhich are incompatible with disruption and low levels of academic engagement onthe part of both students and teachers.

Importantly, the school effectiveness movement has encouraged an examinationof the role of variables correlated with positive academic and social behaviour froma school-wide perspective where the effects and implications of efforts to modify orimprove teacher and student behaviour have been considered with regard to theirschool organizational and management implications (e.g. McCormack-Larkin, 1985;Lasley & Wayson, 1982). It is important to emphasize, however, that any general-ized conclusions about change at the school level, must first be based upondemonstrated change in the more basic units of analysis, that is, effects onindividual teacher and/or student behaviour. A major goal of school effects re-search, therefore, should be to clarify the functional relationship between the resultsof school reform interventions and the nature and implementation of those reforms.Such clarification would provide more specific information on the effects associatedwith different school reform innovations and in doing so would serve to guideprogrammes of change in schools.

Given that the performance of the school has become an important dependentvariable in school effects research, it follows that interventions which addressbehaviour management and the improvement of academic performance, have alsotaken on a school-wide focus or orientation. In Australia, for example, there hasbeen an increased interest in the use of school-wide behaviour management anddiscipline programmes, which are characterized by their focus on improving teachers'classroom management skills, reducing the variability in behavioural expectationsacross staff, increasing teacher participation in decision making about behaviouralexpectations, reducing subsequent levels of disruption in school and improvingacademic performance.

While school-wide interventions in this area are not new (e.g. Canter & Canter,1976) it is important to acknowledge that there has been limited research on theireffects. In addition, the available research has often focused on attitudinal variables(e.g. teacher perceptions of levels of disruption and stress, Moffet, Jurenka &Covan, 1982; Webb, 1984) as opposed to examining programme effects on actualstaff and student behaviour. One exception to this being the objective evaluations inthe UK of the Behavioural Approach to Teaching Packages (Wheldall & Merrett,1985; Wheldall et al., 1989). The purpose of the present study was to examine theeffects of a school-wide behaviour change package known as the Managing StudentBehaviour (MSB) programme (Hamilton, 1986) on teachers' use of encouragingresponses in their interactions with students.

The MSB programme consists of a series of workshop sessions on topicsrelated to preventing and responding to behaviour management problems. Topicsinclude: analyzing disruptive incidents, being positive in the classroom, communi-

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Teacher Encouragement 251

cation skills, behavioural limit-setting and conflict resolution strategies. A secondstage includes the development of a school policy for the management of studentbehaviour which is then implemented and monitored on a school-wide basis by abehaviour management committee. A major aim of the programme is to increaseteachers' awareness of the range of skills at their disposal for effective classroommanagement and to faciliate the integration of these skills into teaching practice.The programme reflects the extensive body of research in the areas of classroommanagement in the USA (e.g. Brophy, 1981; Doyle, 1980; Evertson et al., 1983;Rosenshine, 1971) and the effects of reinforcement (Bull & Solity, 1987; Roberts,1983; Weber, 1985) and feedback (Gage & Berliner, 1975; Kulick & Kulick, 1979)on classroom behaviour and learning.

Previous research on the effects of the MSB programme has been limited toevaluation studies which have examined attitudinal change associated with the useof the programme in schools (Hamilton, 1986) and on the integrity with which theelements of the programme had been implemented (Olney, Axworthy & Hamilton,1987). Hamilton (1986) examined the effects of the programme on teacher percep-tions of stress and levels of disruptive behaviour. He reported that teachers usingthe MSB programme felt less stressed and troubled by disruptive student behaviour.Teachers also reported reductions in the levels of disruption when the programmewas in operation. The Olney et al. (1987) study was confined to a description of theextent to which the MSB programme had been implemented across schools and didnot report findings regarding changes in teacher behaviour. Whilst both of thesestudies concluded that the programme was effective in altering teachers' andadministrators' perceptions of the school environment, generalizability of findings islimited due to the use of evaluation research designs and non-randomized samplesof schools and teachers.

The present study addressed the need for experimental research on the effectsof the MSB programme. Specifically, the research sought to establish whetherteachers' participation in the MSB programme would result in increases in the ratesof teachers' encouragement of students. The study was conducted across threeseparate schools in order to identify possible differential effects of the programmewhich may be associated with the school setting in which it was implemented.

Method

Subjects and Setting

The sample was comprised of nine elementary school teachers, seven male and twofemale, randomly selected from three separate schools which had volunteered toparticipate in an MSB programme. Each participant had a minimum of 4 yearsteaching experience. All of the schools were located in lower middle socio-economicareas of a large Australian city. The number and grade levels of the teachers' classeswere as follows: three first-grade classes, one third-grade class, one third- andfourth-grade combined class, one fourth-grade class, one sixth-grade class, onesixth- and seventh-grade combined class and one seventh-grade class. The ages ofthe children in these classes ranged from 5 years to 12 years.

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252 Alan Bain et al.

Target Behaviour and Instrumentation

Direct observational data were collected on the target variable of teachers' use ofencouragement. A frequency recording procedure was used to collect data on a six-item checklist based on a list developed by Perrott (1982). The six items represent-ing the teacher encouragement dimension were: (a) positive gestures or facialexpressions (e.g. nodding of the head, smiling and patting students on the head), (b)positive verbal comments (e.g. teacher statements such as 'good', 'excellent' and'well done'), (c) acceptance of pupils' ideas (e.g. teacher acknowledgement of pupilcontributions using statements such as 'yes' or 'I see', asking a pupil to repeat forthe benefit of the class, or summarizing the pupil's contribution), (d) building on orasking questions on pupil's ideas, (e) rewarding pupils who give partially correctanswers (e.g. the statement—'that's a good attempt but look again carefully'),and (f) feedback (e.g. demonstrating work behaviour or classroom behaviour that isappropriate).

Research Design

A multiple baseline research design across settings (i.e. schools) and subjects wasutilized to evaluate the effects of the MSB programme on teacher behaviour.

Procedure

All observations of teacher behaviour took place over a consecutive 8-week periodduring the third and fourth terms of the school year. Following this the interventionwas introduced in each of the three schools for a period of three consecutive weeks.

Baseline

Baseline data were collected over observation periods of 30 minutes duration duringstructured, large group, classroom teaching periods before the lunchbreak in each ofthe schools. During baseline teachers had no contact with the MSB programme butwere aware that they were going to participate in such a programme.

Intervention

During the intervention phase, data were collected approximately 2 days after eachof the teachers had participated in the 'being encouraging and positive in theclassroom' workshop of the MSB programme. The workshop session was of two anda half hours duration and began with a 15-minute presentation, describing the roleand use of encouragement (by a MSB workshop facilitator). Encouragement wasdescribed as a means of increasing responsibility and developing self-discipline instudents; feedback, compliments and verbal/non-verbal reinforcement were alsopresented as forms of encouragement. After the introductory presentation partici-pants were involved in a 15-30 minute brainstorming session on discouragement

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Teacher Encouragement 253

where they were asked to think of ways in which individuals can be activelydiscouraged. Following this component participants were involved in a second15-30 minute brainstorming session which focused on encouragement. The fourthelement of the workshop involved a 15-minute presentation on the differentialeffects of encouragement and discouragement which included an examination ofobstacles which prevent teachers from providing students with encouragement inthe classroom. Teachers were then requested to engage in a 15-30 minute roleplaysession in order to practise the strategies identified in the brainstorming session onencouragement. In the final component of the workshop participants were requestedto identify a student from their class who was not receiving encouragement and todevelop a plan to provide that student with more encouragement.

Inter Observer Reliability

Prior to the collection of inter observer reliability data a second observer wassystematically trained in the observation procedure using prepared video tapedsequences showing primary school teachers interacting with their children. Trainingtook place over a 2-day period until an 85% level of agreement was reached betweenobservers. The principal observer was then joined by the second trained observer fora minimum of 25% of observations during each phase of the study.

Results

Inter observer agreement was determined using Cohen's Kappa (Frick & Semmel,1978) which is based on observed marginal distributions, and requires no assump-tion that marginals are symmetrical and proportional to known population mar-ginals. Cohen's Kappa yields one agreement coefficient across two or more cate-gories for each pair of observers. The reliability was calculated to be 0.76 for thevariable 'encouragement'. This value represents an estimate of the extent to whichchance agreement has been exceeded and as such indicates that inter observerrecording was reliable.

Figure 1 describes total instances of encouragement across schools in themultiple baseline design, while Table I describes the mean and standard deviationscores for the rates of encouragement across the three phases of the study in each ofthe schools. The rates of encouragement increased in all three schools following theintroduction of the MSB encouragement workshop. A reduction in the mean rates ofencouragement was evident from intervention to follow-up phase although thefollow-up levels exceeded those recorded at baseline in all three schools. It shouldbe noted, however, that the final observation in the follow-up phase for School 1indicated a return to baseline levels.

In order to determine the effecs of the programme on individual teachers acrossthe three schools a multiple baseline design across groups of teachers was employed.Figures 2, 3 and 4 describe total instances of encouragement across the groups ateach of baseline, intervention and follow-up phases.

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254 Alan Bain et al.

f

i

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00

Baseline

school 1

Intervention Follow up

school 2

school 3

10

10 12

10 12

Observations

FIG. 1. Total instances of encouraging and positive responses in each school.

Increases in the rate of encouragement occurred after the introduction of theintervention for seven of the nine teachers involved in the study. Table II describesthe mean scores for each of the teachers at baseline, intervention and follow-upphases of the study.

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Teacher Encouragement 255

TABLE I. Mean rate of encouragement at baseline, intervention and follow-up phasesin each of three schools

Category

Baseline Intervention Follow-up

School Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

123

93.0063.4069.20

3.245.94

13.64

127.20114.40102.00

16.4018.794.95

110.4064.0083.00

19.802.554.63

TABLE II. Mean rates of encouragement at baseline, intervention and follow-up phasesfor individual teachers

Group 1Teacher

123

Group 2Teacher

123

Group 3Teacher

123

Baseline

Mean

21.0017.7524.20

37.0014.0025.80

35.0031.7519.20

SD

2.551.706.45

1.223.166.53

1.412.367.32

Category

Intervention

Mean

44.8019.5035.40

37.8027.0039.10

44.6072.5027.00

SD

1.484.042.19

6.222.163.49

14.2517.083.53

Follow-up

Mean

31.6622.0032.66

38.3213.6630.00

40.6628.3220.33

SD

3.894.086.53

4.701.703.67

16.081.242.94

The Group 1 teacher in school 2 (see Fig. 2) and Group 2 teacher in school 1(see Fig. 3) made minimal increases in their mean rates of encouragement frombaseline (X = 17.75) to intervention (X = 19.5) and through follow up (X = 22.0)phases for the Group 1 teacher and X = 37.00, to X = 37.8, to X = 38.32 for theGroup 2 teacher. A reduction in the mean rates of encouragement from interventionto follow-up phase occurred for 8 of the 9 teachers. In 4 cases this resulted in anapproximate return to baseline levels or lower.

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ai

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school 1

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school 2

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10 12

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10 12Observations

FIG. 2. Total instances of encouragement directed towards students by teachers in Group 1.

Discussion

The results of this study when examined across schools and teachers lend supportto the view that the MSB workshop on encouragement did in fact result in increasesin the rates of encouragement given by the majority of teachers immediately follow-

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school 1

Intervention

Teacher Encouragement 257

Follow up

school 2

school 3

10 12

10 12

6

Observations10 12

FIG. 3. Total instances of encouragement directed towards students by Group 2 teachers.

ing workshop sessions. However, it is also important to acknowledge that there wasa reduction in the levels of encouragement after the intervention phase concludedpossibly indicating a change in the contingencies which were influencing teachersbehaviour. While in most cases this did not mean a return to baseline levels it doesindicate the need for continued monitoring and maintenance training if the effects

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258 Alan Bain et al.

16CH150-140-130-120-110-100-90-80-70-60-50-40-30-20-10-0

g- 160-2 150-o 140-•S 130-0 120-

•§• 1 1 0 -

5 100-01 90-

ra 80-| 70-8 BO-'S 40-« 30-8 20-ra 10-g 0

160n150J

140-130J

120J

110-100-90-80-70-60-50-40-30-20-10-0

Baseline

school 1

Intervention Follow up

school 2

school 3

10 12

10 12

10 12

Observations

FIG. 4. Total instances of encouragement directed towards students by Group 3 teachers.

of the intervention are to be sustained over time. This may indicate the need for anongoing feedback or self-monitoring procedure for teachers participating in theprogramme in order to maintain appropriate levels of encouragement. Where thishas been included as part of the training process there has been a high degree ofbehaviour maintenance (e.g. Wheldall et al, 1989).

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Teacher Encouragement 259

The results of the present study also lend support to the findings of Hamilton(1986) by indicating that the change in teachers' attitude reported in that researchmay also be accompanied by a change in teacher behaviour. It is important to notethat the present study was confined to an examination of the effects of theprogramme on one aspect of teacher behaviour and as such did not examine theeffects associated with the second major aim of the programme, that is reductions inthe levels of disruption in schools. Support for the programme's effects on studentbehaviour can therefore only be inferred on the basis of the existing research on thepositive effects of encouragement on student behaviour and achievement (e.g.Balson, 1982; Kazdin, 1973; Roberts, 1983).

The findings of the study are encouraging with respect to the effects of theMSB programme as a school-wide behaviour management intervention and add tothe existing, predominantly attitudinal research in the area by demonstratingbehavioural effects associated with the programme. Future research should seek toinvestigate the effects of the MSB and similar school-wide interventions on studentoutcome variables such as levels of academic engagement and disruption. It is withrespect to these variables that the ultimate validity of such programmes can be fullydetermined.

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