the forgotten cities of arakan, myanmar

2nd International Conference on Southeast Asia University of Malaya3-4 December 2007 Kuala Lampur

The Forgotten Cities of Arakan, Myanmar Kyaw Minn Htin

University of Yangon, Myanmar [email protected]

Ancient Arakanese cities are situated in the river valley areas. These

capitals can be divided into two groups. Firstly, the cities flourished in the

Kaladan valley and secondly, in the Lemro valley. Four main rivers in Arakan

State, namely, Naaf, Mayu, Kaladan and Lemro have narrow alluvial flood plains.

In the main Kaladan and Lemro valleys, the hills often stand out as low ridges

above the flood plain. It is possible to do taung ya cultivation on the hills close to

the plains where the natural vegetation of the tropical rain forest exists. The flood

plains of the Kaladan and Lemro in fact form a single deltaic plain having much

tillable land (Thin Kyi 1970). Early settlement might have taken place in those

alluvial plains as they were the best place for cultivation. That is why the early

polities of Arakan, namely, Dhanyawadi and Vesali are situated in the Kaladan

valley area and the cities of Sambawak, Parein, Pyinsa, Hkrit, Nareinzara

Toungoo and Launggret are situated in the Lemro valley area.

Kaladan Valley Cities: their urban architecture The cities of Dhanyawadi and Vesali are located just west of the ridge

lying between the Kaladan and Lemro rivers. The sites of Dhaywadi and Vesali

are 16 miles [25.75 km] apart; however, both were built on the well-drained foot

hill area with their backs against the ridge. This is the general characteristic in all

Arakanese capitals. This kind of mixed landscape is, perhaps, to use the

resources of both hills and lowlands (Donovan et al. 1998). Moreover, these

ridges are of early tertiary age and supply sandstone for the building of city walls

and religious structures (Thin Kyi 1970, 3). In another way, the ridges might have

been considered as natural barriers for protection. Behind Dhanyawadi, the ridge

is 1200 ft [365.75 m] high maximum, but decreases in height towards the south

to 400 ft [121.92 m] behind Vesali.

Draft Copy: Not for citation 1

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The general characteristics of the cities of Dhanyawadi and Vesali are

similar. Both are situated in the alluvial plains and at the foot hill area against the

ridge. Inhabitants of the cities lived inside the outer walled areas and elites lived

inside the inner city walls. According to Indian literature, the meaning of a city

(nagara) is a place enclosed in walls (MC, fº kâ, vº). The construction of walls in

Dhanyawadi and Vesali might be based on this Indian cosmological concept

rather than defensive purposes. The two cities also share the common feature of

having a hydraulic systems situated outside the city intended for agricultural

purposes as well as having water tanks near residential sector for the use of

inhabitants. The area where Dhanyawadi and Vesali situated is completely dry

for half of the year. But they obtain substantial quantity of rain water during the

rainy season. The rain water stored in some reservoirs of each city could allow to

do rice cultivation even in the dry season. These urban developments and

hydraulic systems could ensure the food sufficiency of the cities.

Dhanyawadi

The first urbanized site in Arakan as traced according to archaeological

data is Dhanyawadi. The city of Dhanyawadi is backed up against the ridge

which separates the Kaladan valley from the Lemro valley. The Thare Chaung

creek runs on the west of it and a ridge from 50 ft [15.24 m] to 200 ft [60.96 m]

high is located in the eastern side. The old site of Dhanyawadi was excavated

only for a single time by Archaeology Department between 18 August 2003 and

30 March 2004 under the supervision of U Kyaw Oo Lwin. Four mounds were

excavated and the brick structures appeared in excavation are now preserved by

the department.

Location

The old city of Dhanyawadi is situated Lat 20º 52’ 9.88” N and Long 93º 3’

45.76” E (GPS E 93.062712º N 20.869412º)1. Dhanyawadi is located 6 miles [9.6

1 GPS data by Ernelle Berliet 2004. My survey (Dec 2006) in front of the Mahamuni shrine is E 93.062867º N 20.87250º. Lat 20º 52' N Long 93º 3' E (Thin Kyi 1970, 6; San Tha Aung 1979, 9, Kyaw Zan 2004, 1; Tun Shwe 2006, 2). E 93.0576º N 20.8667º (Hudson 2004, 311).



km] east of the Kaladan river, and about 60 miles [96.561 km] up-river from its

mouth at Sittwe. The city site is about 16 miles [25.749 km] north of Vesali, and

some 21 miles [33.789 km] north of MraukU (San Tha Aung 1979, 9; Than Tun

1999, 65). It is about 5 miles [8 km] from Kyauktaw. Inside the ancient city walls,

there exist the villages of Mahamuni, Sabarseik, Nyaungchaung and Thayargone

(Kyaw Zan 2004, 1).

Urban Structure The archaeological remains show that there was an outer and inner city.

Parts of the walls and moats can still be seen on aerial photographs. In the

following, I will present facts regarding the outer city, then the inner city and

finally the archaeological remains of the city.

The outer city The outer city of Dhanyawadi is almost an oval shape according to recent

survey, not an eccentric shape portrayed in early archaeological plans (Hudson

2005, 1). Former archaeological maps did not mention about the existence of the

eastern city wall2. The early theory about eastern wall is that the eastern part of

Dhanyawadi is not completely closed by the wall, but the city stands at the feet of

the hills, using probably the natural relief as an enclosure (Berliet 2006, 2)3.

However, the ground survey of Bob Hudson and U Nyein Lwin (Dept of

Archaeolgoy, MraukU) in 2005 upset the old theory. According to GPS data, the

eastern wall exists in Dhanyawadi (See: Plate. 12). On the western side, only a

small portion of outer wall remains because of the ravages of the Thare Chaung

creek, a tributary to the Kaladan river. Thare Chaung may have once formed the

moat on the west. The remaining part of the moat, 200 ft [60.96 m] wide (Tun

Shwe 2006, 2), has been silted over and has become paddy fields (San Tha

Aung 1979, 9).

2 See: Maps of Daw Thin Kyi 1970. Her maps without eastern walls are reproduced in: Gutman 1976, Plate V; San Tha Aung 1979, Map IV; Than Tun 1999, Map II and Berliet 2004, Fig. 89. 3 In the earlier maps of Dhanyawadi, the eastern wall was never drawn. But I find a single time in Daw Thin Kyi 1970 as “The old city [Dhanyawadi] is of fairly big size, almost circular in shape with the eastern wall at the base of the ridge” (Thin Kyi 1970, 6). U San Tha Aung also reproduced this sentence (See: San Tha Aung 1979, 9).



The majority of the population is thought to have lived within the outer city,

whose walls enclosed the fields in which they worked (Thin Kyi 1970). Normally,

the city would have controlled the valley and the lower ridges, supporting a mixed

wet-rice and taungya economy, with local chiefs allegiance to the king (Gutman

1976, 19).

Looking at the outer city, we find the east-west diameter in the dimension

of 2400 metre4. And the north-south diameter is 2750 metre.5.

It has a perimeter of about 8668 metres6. The enclosed area of the outer

city is 5.569 sq.km [556.9 ha]7.

The inner city On aerial photographs, the layout of an inner enclosure of roughly square

plan with rounded corners can be seen. This double interior fortifications is

traditionally regarded as the old palace site. Apart from the walls themselves, and

a couple of brick structures, there are few brick fortifications evident, suggesting

that if this area enclosed an elite quarter, then the inhabitants must have lived in

wooden structures built directly on the ground.

Inside the area of the inner city, the inward-curving eastern gate (E

93.065867º N 20.86770º) providing a narrow entrance way to the complex; was

excavated and measures of conservation were taken by the Archaeology

Department recently (Kyaw Zan 2004).

The east-west length of the inner city is about 650 metre8 while the north-

south length is about 550 metre9 forming a perimeter of 2158 metre10. The area

4 7000 ft [2133.6 m] or 1.3 miles [2.09 km] (Thin Kyi 1970, 6; Than Tun 1999, 65; Kyaw Zan 2004, 1; Tun Shwe 2006, 2). 2.3 km [1.43 miles] (Berliet 2006, 2). 5 8000 ft [2438.4 m] or 1.55 miles [2.494 km] (Thin Kyi 1970, 6; Than Tun 1999, 65; Kyaw Zan 2004, 1; Tun Shwe 2006, 2). 2.6 km [1.616 miles] (Berliet 2006, 2). 6 6 miles [9.656 km] (Gutman 1976, 18; Than Tun 1999, 65; Tun Shwe 2006, 2).7 Data from Bob Hudson (26-2-07). 1.7 sq. miles [4.403 km2/ 440.3 ha] (Thin Kyi 1970, 6; Than Tun 1999, 65; Tun Shwe 2006, 2). 1.5 sq. miles [3.885km2/ 388.5 ha (Kyaw Zan 2004, 1). 4.42km2 [442 ha] (Gutman 1976, 18; Berliet 2006, 3). 8 2000 ft [609.6 m] (Thin Kyi 1970, 6; Than Tun 1999, 65; Tun Shwe 2006, 2) 9 1700 ft [518.16 m] ] (Thin Kyi 1970, 6; Than Tun 1999, 65; Tun Shwe 2006, 2). 1450 ft [441.96 m] (Kyaw Zan 2004, 1)10 Data from Bob Hudson (26-2-07).



of the inner city is 33.59 ha [0.3359 km2]11. Another single wall, forming the third

series of walls inside the inner city, surrounds the square area of the palace

proper, enclosing about 17.11 hectares12.

This palace site, somewhat south of the centre of the city, was the focal

point of an irrigation system which can be discerned on aerial photographs. The

study of these images revealed also the existence of four water tanks standing

by each side of this walled area. The tanks at the east, west and north are still in

use today. The south tank is silted over now. The larger tank in the east, located

along the inner moat might have been supplied the palace complex (Gutman

1976, 19).

Vesali The city of Vesali was built between a ridge in the east and the Rann

Chaung creek in the west. Presumably, the city controlled all the well drained

flood plain (Than Tun 1999). Vesali creek, a tributary to Rann Chaung flows

inside the city. Parts of the wide moats are still filled with water. To the east of the

city is the rugged terrain of hills, namely Shingyi taung, Bho taung and

Thingyaing taung, whose formations are interbedded sandstones and shales

(Myint Aung 1980; Maung Han 1984). Like Dhanyawadi, Vesali was also

established at the foot of the hills; however, the natural relief does not take the

place of city wall, except, maybe in the northeast corner. Vesali has been

excavated 7 times since 1980. The first season of excavation at Vesali was

carried out between 15 January and 20 February 1980. The second season

lasted from 19 January to 24 February 1981. The Director of excavation for these

two seasons was U Myint Aung. The third season (9 January – 7 March 1982),

the fourth season (15 January – 6 March 1983) and the fifth season (9 January to

26 February 1984) were conducted under the supervision of U Nyunt Han (Nyunt

Han 1984; Ko Ko 1989). Five mounds (VSL 1 to 5) were excavated during these

11 Data from Bob Hudson (26-2-07). 0.1 sq. miles [0.26 km2] (Gutman 1976, 18; San Tha Aung 1979, 10, Tun Shwe 2006, 2.3). 12 Data from Bob Hudson (26-2-07). 0.12 km2 [12 ha] (Gutman 1976, 18)



five successive seasons. In the sixth excavation season which lasted from 27

July 2003 to 16 March 2004, three mounds (VSL 6 to 8) were excavated by U Kyi

Khin (Kyi Khin 2004). Another two small mounds (VSL 9 and 10) were excavated

during the seventh season of excavation for Vesali between 5 and 10 April 2005

by U Nyein Lwin13. The excavated structures are preserved by the Archaeology

Department.

Location The ancient city of Vesali, Lat 20º 39’ 47.86” N and Long 93º 8’ 57.09” E

(GPS E 93.149191º N 20.663294º)14 lies 16 miles [25.75 km] south of

Dhanyawadi and 6 miles [9.65 km] north of MraukU. The Rann Chang creek, a

tributary to the Kaladan river flows in the western side of the city, and on the

eastern side, the ridge separates the Kaladan and Lemro valleys. The villages of

Pauktawpyin aka Thallawadi, Wethali and Peepinyin are situated inside the city

(Kyi Khin 2004, 1).

Urban Structure There is an outer and inner city in Vesali. In the following, I will present

facts regarding the outer city, then the inner city and finally the archaeological

remains of the city.

The outer city

The shape of the outer city is rather unusual, irregular oval in shape, with

straight-line-like walls on the north and east and curved walls on the south and

west (Gutman 1976, 20-21; San Tha Aung 1979, 10; Tun Shwe 2006, 5). The

eastern wall of Vesali is built at the base of the ridge itself. The ridge is 400 ft

[121.92 m] high behind Vesali (San Tha Aung 1979, 9).

13 The author volunteered during this excavation. 14 GPS data by Ernelle Berliet 2004. Lat 20º 40' N and Long 93º 9' E (Thin Kyi 1970, 7; San Tha Aung 1979, 10; Tun Shwe 2006, 5). E 93.1516º N 20.6719º (Hudson 2004, 319). Lat 20º40'05" N Long 93º9" E (Nyunt Han 1984, 1, Nyunt Han 1986, 2). E 93º08.77’ N 20º48.417’ (Kyi Khin 2004, 1).



The eastern city wall 1.5 miles [2.41 km] is shorter than the western one

1.86 miles [2.99 km] forming the perimeter of 9297 m15. Many sections of brick

walls are clearly visible. The northern wall was recently transformed during road

building and was widened by the ground filling distributed on both sides of the

brick wall16. The length of the northern wall is 1.12 miles [1.80 km]. At a place of

this northern wall (E 93.14000º N 20.673783º), a brick structure, probably the

base of a small bastion for soldiers is located. The probable northeast corner of

the city wall is E 93.15210º N 20.676917º. Near this corner, exactly the point at E

93.150433º N 20.676967º, presumably part of the city wall measuring 8 m in

length was discovered recently due to road construction. It is made of sand

stones. The size of each stone is 50*25*7 cm. Fragments of brick walls can also

be seen near this stone structure.

There are two corners at the northwest of the city wall. The northern NW

corner is a city gate17 (E 93.13825º N 20.6719º). The southern NW corner is

situated at E 93.138233º N 20.670383º. The Vesali creek, a tributary to the Rann

Chaung is flowing west to east at the southern part of this corner. From this

corner to the east, an earth bank with the length of 80 m is located, aligned in

east-west direction in parallel to the Vesali creek.

On the aerial photographs, the western wall of the city connects the NW

and SW corners, with the length of 1.86 miles [2.99 km]. On the LandSat satellite

image, there appears a line connecting the NW and SW corners though gaps

exist in some places. This line is curving like “C” outside the western wall,

measuring 3.29 km. The biggest distance between this line and the western wall

is 0.28 miles [0.45 km].

15 Perimeter data from Bob Hudson (26-2-07). 16 This transformation into road was carried out in 1993 when the nation-wide “Student Sports Festival” was held in Arakan State. For the sake of easy access to the Pharagri shrine in Vesali, especially for the guests of the festival, the road was constructed on the city wall. The transformation into road is from E 93.140983º N 20.674283º (from the west) to E 93.149483º N 20.676433º (to the east) with the distance of 1 km.17 This place is spotted as VSL-6 in Bob Hudson 2005, Fig. 3. Indeed, this is VSL-7 (See: Kyi Khin 2004, Fig. 1). Bob Hudson says “It is a cartographic error” (Personal communication with Dr Bob Hudson dated 12 February 2007).



The northwest corner of this line is the traditional stone pier site of Vesali

(E 93.13465º N 20.667683º). When test pits in long trench system were

excavated in 2006, a series of brick remains were discovered. U Nyein Lwin of

the archaeology department, MraukU suggested these bricks to be another

series of walls, situated outside the western city wall. According to his

suggestion, a line seen in the satellite image can be another series of walls due

to this finding of brick series. Further investigations should be carried out to

confirm this discovery.

The southeast and southwest corners are E 93.16325º N 20.65690º and E

93.14985º N 20.648017º respectively. The southern wall forms as foot path for

1.6 km to the east from the MraukU-Kyauktaw road. VSL-4 (E 93.160333º N

20.65260º) is a section of this southern wall. There exists a mound (E

93.156667º N 20.648583º) near the southwest corner of the southern wall. A

headless Buddha statue in bhumiphassa mudra, too much weathered and poor

condition, sits in front of this mound.

The north-south diameter of the outer walls at the widest part is 3300

metres18. The east-west diameter at the widest is 2100 metres19. The perimeter of

the outer city is 9297 metres. The area of the outer city is 6.039 km2 [603.9 ha]20.

Inside the city walls, the palace, residential and religious buildings are situated.

As the eastern sector of the city is higher land, most of the buildings were built in

this part while the western part might be used for cultivation (Maung Han 1984,

180). This is also indicated by the streams in the west sector.

As Rann Chaung creek goes along the western face of Vesali, many water

courses run through the city and supply many large water tanks located in the old

city. Several water tanks are located outside the city wall and were probably

18 10000 ft [3048 m] (Thin Kyi 1970, 7; San Tha Aung 1979, 10; Than Tun 1999, 68; Tun Shwe 2006, 5). 2 miles [3219 m] (Nyunt Han 1984, 2); 3200 m [3.2 km] (Berliet 2006, 3). 19 6500 ft [1981 m] (Thin Kyi 1970, 7; San Tha Aung 1979, 10; Than Tun 1999; 68; Tun Shwe 2006, 5). 1.5 miles [7920 ft/ 2414 m] (Nyunt Han 1984, 2). 2100 m [6890 ft] (Berliet 2006, 3). 20 Data from Bob Hudson (26-2-07). 2.7 sq.miles [6.993 km2/ 699.3 ha] (Thin Kyi 1970, 7; San Tha Aung 1979, 10; Than Tun 1999, 68; Tun Shwe 2006, 5). 3 sq. miles [7.77 km2/ 777 ha] (Nyunt Han 1984, 2). 7.02 km2 [702 ha] (Gutman 1976, 21). 700 ha [7 km2] (Berliet 2006, 3).



dedicated to collect the rain water; among them, the Pan-shin-mraung tanks, the

two largest ones are located in the eastern area (Thin Kyi 1970, 7; Gutman 1976,

21; Berliet 2006, 3).

The inner city At the northeastern part of old Vesali, a walled area of rectangular shape

is visible on the ground. Though four sides are visible on aerial photos, the wall

of northern part is not standing on the surface (Berliet 2006, 3). This walled area

known as the “palace site”, is obscured by the present village of Wethali although

brick remains are widely seen in the village pathways and roads. The palace site

is aligned slightly west of north. It is surrounded by moat. Dimensions are smaller

than that of Dhanyawadi with 406 m* 300 m.

Within the inner walls is the royal lake, which still remains full in dry

season. At the east of the palace site, the colossal Nan Oo Buddha image is

located (Gutman 1976, 21).

In the north-south direction, “the palace site” has the length of 406 metres21. The

east-west width is 205 metres22. The perimeter of the palace site is 1464 metres

and the area is 12.56 hectares23.

Lemro Valley Cities: their archaeological remainsAll Arakanese cities which succeeded Vesali are located on the banks of the

Lemro river. On the east side of the Lemro where the river approaches the hills,

was a land route which leads over the Arakan Yoma to Myanma proper. This

route has been used for many centuries24. Like Dhanyawadi and Vesali, the

Lemro valley cities all might have communication by sea.

21 1500 ft [457.2 m] (Thin Kyi 1970, 7; San Tha Aung 1979, 11; Tun Shwe 2006, 5). 0.45 km [450 m] (Gutman 1976, 21). 500 m [0.5 km] (Berliet 2006, 3). 22 1000 ft [304.8 m] (Thin Kyi 1970, 7; San Tha Aung 1979, 11; Tun Shwe 2006, 5). 300 m [984 ft] (Gutman 1976, 21; Berliet 2006, 3). 23 Data from Bob Hudson (26-2-07). 24 Traditions say that Bagan kings used this land route when they came to pay homage to the Mahamuni Shrine in Arakan.



The first displacement of the capital from the Kaladan valley to the Lemro

valley was carried out in Sambawak and Pyinsa. After that, the capital was

moved to Parein. Then the seat of political power was established further north

on the bank of the Lemro river. The name of the city is Hkrit. The duration of the

occupation of this city, merely a decade, is the shortest in Arakanese history. The

site of Sambawak was reoccupied again and moved to Nareinzara Toungoo.

Finally, the city of Launggret with durable longevity became the capital in the

Lemro valley.

The cities of Sambawak, Pyinsa, Parein, Launggret and Hkrit occupy the

lowlands west of the Lemro river while Nareinzara Toungoo occupys the eastern

bank of the river. In all cases, the ridges form the background against the cities.

All the cities of this valley are small, facing the Lemro river, and in many cases,

their walls and moats have disappeared.

The construction of earth embankments seems to be a common

characteristic of the Lemro valley capitals. Those are more likely to be earth

banks used for hydraulic purposes rather than earth ramparts used for defence.

Situated away from the foot of ridges, these earth embankments were possibly

be raised by the people of that time in order to make the land cultivable, safe

from floods.

Sambawak

The city of Sambawak is situated on the west bank of the Lemro river. The

Htaungmhu creek is in the north while Panzeemraung creek, Panthonechaung

ceek and Mogyo creek are flowing in the southwest of Sambawak. Ganantaung

ridge and Thatkay ridge are situated near the city.



Location

The city is located near the Mogyokan reservoir, Lat 20º 39' 26.46" N Long

93º 13' 43.68" E (GPS E 93.22880º N 20.65735º)25. This is 3.57 miles [5.75 km]

southeast of Hkrit and 5.36 miles [8.63 km] northeast of MraukU. Upper

Laynyintaung village is situated near Sambawak old city.

Urban Structure No brick walls, such as outer city and inner city walls, can be traced in the

present site of Sambawak but different structures of earth banks can be seen.

Earth banks Earth banks can be seen in three places of the supposed site of

Sambawak. These are located in south, northwest and west of Upper

Laynyintaung village. In the west of Laynyintaung village, a plain called Small

Mogyo ground having a perimeter of 1456 m is located.

At the south of Laynyintaung, there exists a small earth bank aligned

northeast to southwest. The length of the earthbank is 550 ft [168 m]. The height

is 5 ft [1.524 m]. The southwest end of the earth bank is the southeast corner of

the Small Mogyo ground.

In the west of this ground and the northwest of Laynyintaung, there is a

ditch directed south to north, having a length of 3280 ft [1000 m]. Double earth

banks are on both side of the ditch which is visible to nearly 1640 ft [500 m]

(Berliet 2004, 235). The width of the ditch is 60 ft [18.288 m] (Min Thein Zan

2005, 135). The ditch is aligned in south to north where it is connected to the

Htaung-mhu creek, a tributary to the Lemro river. The northern end of the earth

bank along the ditch is 0.5 miles [0.9 km] northwest of Upper Laynyintaung.

25 Once Daw Thin Kyi pointed the site in Lat 20º 23’ Long 93º 16’ (Thin Kyi 1970, 8). E 93.2667º N 20.3833º (Hudson 2004, 317), 1.78 miles [2.87 km] northeast of Minbya, 14.82 miles [23.86 km] southeast of MraukU and 18.95 miles [30.49 km] south of the Mogyokan reservoir. The village by the name of Sambalay is situated near the pointed place of Daw Thin Kyi.



About 1.75 miles [2.81 km] west of Laynyintaung and 1.31 miles [2.11 km]

northwest of Mogyokan tank, there is a hill by the name of Nhet-khaung. There is

also an earth bank near this hill (Min Thein Zan, Forthcoming, Fig. 1).

The Mogyokan reservoir The Mogyokan reservoir is situated 0.63 miles [1 km] southwest of Upper

Laynyintaung village. The valley between the hills is used as a water storage

tank. The valley is a “U” shape. The length of the tank is 250 ft [76.2 m] and the

width is 60 ft [18.288 m]. Mogyo Chaung creek is flowing south of the reservoir.

Pyinsa Five Arakanese chronicles state Pyinsa to be different from Sambawak.

They say it is located south of Sambawak. While two manuscripts equate Pyinsa

with Sambawak, other five chronicles are silent to mention this city.

Location The location of the city is difficult to trace exactly.

Urban structure

Earth bank : Can it be part of Pyinsa? There is an earth bank located near two Sin Oe villages (E 93.241917º N

20.621617º: Sin Oe Gyi), south of Sambawak. The earth bank is oriented north-

south. The lengh is 2000 yards or 1.14 miles [1.83 km]. However, according to

One Inch Map 84, Grid H/2, these earth banks can also be part of the water

management system of MraukU city.

Parein The city of Parein faces Lemro river in the east. It has at its back a ridge

that runs parallel to the Mong-swe ridge between the Kaladan and Lemro rivers.



In the south, Paungdoke creek is flowing which separates Parein from the

Launggret city. In the north, there is the Alayzee creek.

Location Parein is situated Lat 20º 34’ 1.59” N Long 93º 14’ 20.24” E (GPS E

93.238955º N 20.567190º)26. It is 3.4 miles [5.46 km] southeast of MraukU and

1.24 miles [2 km] north of Launggret. It is located 1.56 km to the east from

MraukU-Minbya motor-road.

Urban Structure It is difficult to trace the outer and inner cities in Parein. But traces of the

so-called palace site points some clues for the existence of the two enclosures.

Palace Site The so-called palace site (E 93.238833º N 20.564067º) is situated in the

west of the Paree hill (or Parein hill)27. The late 19th century report gives a

summary description about the traces of walls and buildings in Parein

(Forchhammer 1891, 48; Smart 1917, 70).

According to an inhabitant of the current village, the rampart was

dismantled forty years ago to recover materials and to build a pagoda and

enclosure of a monastery (Berlitet 2004, 237). During my survey, very limited

pieces of stones were visible at the palace site. Potsherds were found near the

site. At the north of the palace site, there is a pagoda, perhaps built in the same

time of the capital. The name is Nan Oo (Palace-Head) pagoda. It is now in ruin;

so, pieces of stones marking the site, can only be seen (Min Thein Zan 2004,

67).

Hkrit

Hkrit is situated on the bank of the Lemro river. It is located on the western

side of Hkrit chaung creek, a tributary to the Lemro. The Backker ridge is 26 GPS data by Ernelle Berliet 2004. Lat 20º 34’ N Long 93º 14’ E (E 93.2334º N 20.5667º) (Thin Kyi 1970, 8). E 93.2393º N 20.5661º (Hudson 2004, 316).27 Local people call this place “King Kawliya’s palace site”.



surrounding the city of Hkrit. The Phayagyi creek is flowing in the west and north

of the city.

Location

Hkrit city is located Lat 20º 42’ 24.42” N Long 93º 12’ 44.91” E (GPS E

93.212476º N 20.706782º)28. The city is situated on the north bank of the Lemro

river and Hkrit Chaung creek in the east. It is 8.32 miles [13.38 km] northeast of

MraukU and 3.57 miles [5.75 km] northwest of Sambawak. The villages by the

names of Phayagyi and Hkrit Chaung are situated in the south of the city.

Urban structure There are remainders of earth banks with a single rectilinear wall. One

extends from the Backker ridge in the southwest to the Hkrit Chaung creek in the

northeast (Khine Saw Thein 2004a, 144). The earth embankment is aligned 35º

west of north (Thin Kyi 1970, 8). The start of the wall in the southwest is E

93.210016º N 20.705083º. During my survey, the end point in the northeast is not

accessible because of vegetations. The place where this northeast end can be

visible is E 93.219233º N 20.70821º which is in the same longitude but the

latitude is a little bit south. The length of the earth bank is about 3366 ft [1026 m].

In 1970, Daw Thin Kyi gave a description of the city surveyed from aerial

photographs. Her ground plan of the city was a square city with walls 1200 ft

[365.76 m] on four sides (Thin Kyi 1970, 8). However, it should be noted that she

did not undertake any ground check when she wrote the paper so her description

does not tally with my ground survey in 2006. The Hkrit Chaung ground (E

93.212133º N 20.710767º) and the palace site as pointed out by inhabitants (E

93.21455º N 20.710817º) are situated inside the city but none of the city walls

can be traced.

28 GPS data by Ernelle Berliet 2004. My survey in front of the Paw-taw-mu image at Hkrit is E 93.212683º N 20.7069º. Daw Thin Kyi did not give coordinates in her article 1970. Myanmar archaeological settlement database by Bob Hudson on Hkrit quoting Daw Thin Kyi mentions the position of Hkrit at E 93.2125º N 20.7048º (Hudson 2004, 311). However, according to these coordinates, Hkrit is situated inside the Lemro river.



Approximately 400 m to the northwest from the earth bank, there is an

octagonal sandstone stupa29 (Berliet 2004, 237). Traditions say that this stupa

was built by King Ugga-bala of MraukU period in the 17th century. Due to the

death of this king, the pagoda did not finish yet (Khine Saw Thein 2004 b, 135).

At the north of the city, an earth embankment also exists (See: Min Thein Zan,

forthcoming, Map. 3). Potsherds also have been found around the city of Hkrit.30

Nareinzara Toungoo The city is located in the opposite side of Parein and Launggret cities. The

eastern part of the city is backed with Pyaingtaing ridge. The Lemro river is

flowing in the west of Nareinzara Toungoo. The natural water tanks such as

Gant-gar Inn, Nawadatt Inn and Ohn-kan-paing Inn are situated in the eastern

part of the city.

Location Nareinzara Toungoo is located Lat 20º 33’ 39.72” N Long 93º 15’ 24.6”E

(GPS E 93.256833º N 20.561033º)31. This is some 4.57 miles [7.36 km]

southeast of MraukU, 14.06 miles [22.62 km] north of Minbya and 2.44 miles

[3.93 km] south of Panmyaung.

Urban Structure It is difficult to trace the outer and inner cities in the supposed site of

Nareinzara Toungoo. Chronicles note Nareinzara Toungoo as “the stockade city

29 Berliet’s remark “La tradition, fort vraisemblable, fait remonter l’édification de ce stupa de pierre à l’époque du Hkrit jouissait de son statut de capital [Traditions about the construction of this stone stupa at the time when Hkrit enjoyed its status of capital]” appears to be incorrect as it is late 17th century pagoda. 30 During my survey 2006, potsherds were discovered at SW end of the rampart. A large quantity of potsherds have been reportedly found in the northern part of the Hkrit city (Oral communiction with U Maung Thein Zan on 23 December 2006 at the site). 31 This is the place where brick remains are located. Daw Thin Kyi locates Nareinzara Toungoo at Panmyaung. Quoting Daw Thin Kyi, Bob Hudson gives its location as E 93.2618º N 20.5989º (Hudson 2004, 319). This place is situated 4.54 miles, to the east of MraukU. Jacques Leider says that the location of Nareinzara Toungoo is doubtful (See: Leider 2006, appendix, p. 6). CL states that the king from Nareinzara Toungoo, crossed the Lemro river, and founded the city of Launggret. As CL states, it is clear that Nareinzara Toungoo is situated in the eastern side of the Lemro River. Its location is mentioned in AC as: “Nareinzara Toungoo is located near Taw-tan-kywan, some 2 tui≡ (4 miles), southeast of Parein” (AC fº ke vº, 1-2).



fenced with bamboo” (CL I, 344). Some earth embankments and remains of brick

structures can be seen around the city.

Earthbanks A big earth embankment is located in the north of the city between the

villages of Thayet Oak and Nyaung-pin-waing. The height of the rampart is about

7 ft [2.134 m] and the length is about 1540.47 ft [469.54 m]. It is oriented east-

west. Other earth banks are situated in the northern part of Gant-gar Inn, the

western part of the Ohn-kan-paing Inn and the western side of the Nawadatt Inn.

An earth bank aligned east to west separates the Nawadatt Inn into two tanks,

naming North and South Nawadatt Inns (See: Min Thein Zan, forthcoming, Map.

4).

Brick Structures Remains of brick structures of the city can still be seen along the eastern

bank of the Lemro river. The brick structure found in the southern most part of

the city is located E 93.257433º N 20.55095º, some 6 km south of Panmyaung.

Potsherds are also found there. A few metres north of this location, at E

93.256633º N 20.561035º, some brick remains, potsherds and two pieces of

glazed potsherds were discovered during my survey in 200632. Another brick

remain, in Nareinzara Toungoo, is situated at E 93.256783º N 20.5614º. The

length of this brick structure is 6 m. It is seen 2.5 m from the top of the river bank.

The GPS point is E 93.256833º N 20.561033º, where a heap of bricks can also

be seen.

Brick sizes As the brick structures are susceptible to erosion from the Lemro river, the

bricks of these structures are in very weak condition. In some places, we can

notice parts of the brick structures but taking dimensions of bricks is difficult

32 The person who found the glazed potsherds is U Maung Thein Zan. Date of finding is 22 December 2006. These were donated to the museum of Sayadaw Ashin Zayanta Bhodi, Upper Laynyintaung (Sambawak) village.



because of their conditions. A brick sample among the heap of bricks measures

12(++)*7(+)*4 cm.

Launggret

The city of Launggret faces Lemro river in the east and bounded by

Paungdoke creek in the west. There is the Launggret-taungmaw ridge on the

northeast corner against which the city might have been built.

Location

Launggret is situated Lat 20º 32’ 47.76” Long 93º 14’ 56.46” E (GPS E

93.249017º N 20.5466º)33. It is located 4.15 miles [6.68 km] southeast of MraukU

and 1.24 miles [2 km] south of Parein.

Urban structure

It is difficult to explore the city’s enclosures due to vegetation. There is a

place where local people point as the “palace site” on the bank of the Lemro

river.

Palace Site Forchhammer points the south of the ridge as the palace site, a square

small town having the walls 20 ft [6.096 m] high, constructed of earth mixed with

stones. Its dimensions are 0.5 miles [0.805 km] north to south and 1000 ft [304.8

m] east to west. He wrote “the whole palace is overgrown with dense, shrubby

jungle; nothing was found worthy of note” (Forchhammer 1891, 49; Smart 1917,

72). It is said that two-thirds of the palace site have been eroded away by the

Lemro river (Thin Kyi 1970, 9). The location of the so-called palace site is E

93.248883º N 20.547917º. In the south of it, there is a section of earth bank,

considered to be old rampart having 150 m in length. It is oriented perpendicular

33 GPS data by Ernelle Berliet 2004. My survery of the Launggret village is E 93.242183º N 20.549317º. Daw Thin Kyi locates Launggret at Lat 20º 32’ N Long 93º 14’ E (E 93.2333º N 20.5333º) (Thin Kyi 1970, 9). Pamela Gutman points Launggret at Lat 20º 32’ 1.68” N Long 93º 14’ 48.48” E (E 93.2468º N 20.5338º)(Hudson 2004, 313).



to the river34 (Berliet 2004, 238). Northwest of this place are two stupas,

Laymyetnha and Ratanapon. Launggret-taungmaw inscription, the biggest rock

inscription in Myanmar is situated 600 m from this place.

Analysis of social, economic and cultural aspects of the Arakanese Cities

The appearance of cities in Arakan was generally based on the

demographic development linked to the emergence of rice production in a fertile

environment. The urbanization of this territory, which took place in the heartland

of the country, reflects to some extent an agrarian “revolution”. Around 4th century

AD and onwards, in the cities of Dhanyawadi and Vesali, rice growing was

practised inside the city walls. This condition is similar to the Pyu cities of

Myanmar proper. Hydraulic installations, particularly the water tanks and creeks

flowing inside the cities, are integrated into the urban planning systems of the

cities.

The presence of Buddhism also contributed to the modelling of these cities

as there remain many Buddha statues and stûpas. The flourishing of Buddhism

can be observed in the whole area of Arakan as ye dhammâ inscriptions bearing

the “Buddhist creed” were discovered all over the territory of Arakan during this

period.

One may think today that the political and territorial organization of Arakan

corresponded to the system of a “city-state”. Its territory, which was limited, found

its centre in the city with its strengthened walls insuring a fair level of protection.

It is reasonable to assume that the walls and moats were constructed following

an Indian urban concept. In some cases, walls and moats may have played a

function for agriculture. The urban structure with its citadel translates a clear

sense of social hierarchy. However, as the influence of Vesali spread to the

regions of North and South Arakan as well as to the East Bengal, one may

34 For the earthen city wall at Launggret, it was covered by vegetation, and it is made of clay (or what the inhabitants showed was made of clay). The identification is always an issue with this kind of structure covered by vegetation and on the river bank, perpendicular to the river (Personal communication from Dr Ernelle Berliet dated 24 January 2007).



question if Vesali was merely a city-state or a small kingdom holding sway over

subdued neighbouring areas.

Aerial photographs of the cultivated surfaces testify to the self-sufficiency

on the food level and trade is attested as well on the Arakanese sites which were

excavated. The economic prosperity of Dhanyawadi and Vesali has to be

understood in terms of exploitation of both land and sea resources. The location

of the Arakanese cities tends to highlight indeed the diversity of economic

resources as there were both seaports and river ports. This variety of the

establishments shows that certain cities obtained income from maritime

exchanges, while those established along the rivers could drain the agricultural

resources. These river ports could also play a significant role in the interior

exchanges, the routing and the distribution of food products.

Around the 11th century, smaller cities flourished in the Lemro valley. The

urban structures of these cities were different from Dhanyawadi and Vesali.

While Dhanyawadi and Vesali had connections with the contemporary cities of

the Pyu and with India, the Lemro valley cities had relationships with the kingdom

of Bagan. Trade would have flourished between Bagan and Arakan using land

routes. Arakan in the Lemro period began to use the Mon/Burmese script of

Bagan instead of Gupta/Nâgarî scripts of India used in the Dhanyawadi and

Vesali period. As in Bagan, Lemro kings never produced coins such as were

used in the preceding Vesali period. The Arakanese coinage re-appeared only in

the Mrauk-U period (AD 1430-1784) which succeeded the period of Lemro.

Burmanization is perceptible during the period of Lemro. However, Arakan

maintained its autonomy throughout the Bagan period.

The following characteristics can be observed in the Lemro valley cities.

The extent of the territory with a relatively limited surface can be seen in these

cities. The construction of earth ramparts in those cities can be for the purpose of

irrigation systems rather than for defensive purposes. Situated away from ridges,

the ramparts of the Lemro valley cities show that they were used for agriculture,

to prevent flooding.



Our study was done in a comparative perspective looking at the most

significant cities of the Pyu and the kingdom of Bagan and of the Mon cities of

Myanmar proper. It has enabled us to outline a parallelism between the urban

sites founded in Arakan and those of Myanmar proper. This approach has made

it possible to throw new light on the confrontation of our data. The similarity of the

establishments in their diversity probably underlines a variety of resources: a

certain size of the cities and broad variations can be observed in these two

regions. The choice of a capital in Pyu and Dhanyawadi/Vesali, which encloses a

vast non inhabited surface inside its walls, established away from the river is

similar in the two areas. Situated along the river or with a direct and fast access

to the city is a similar feature of the Lemro cities and of Bagan. The use of similar

materials in the two regions of Pyu and Arakan is remarkable. The ramparts were

made of the same materials. They were exclusively built on the ground. The use

of earth embankments in the Lemro cities is similar to the cities of the Mon

kingdom of Lower Myanmar.

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Collections, MraukU. (palm leaf manuscript fº khi-khau), Bibliothèque Nationale

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the forgotten cities of arakan, myanmar

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