the glass ceiling in sweden (very preliminary) · the glass ceiling in sweden i sweden has a very...
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The Glass Ceiling in Sweden (very preliminary)
Jim Albrecht (Georgetown) Mary Ann Bronson (Georgetown)Peter Thoursie (Stockholm) Susan Vroman (Georgetown)
ESPE —Berlin June 2016
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The Glass Ceiling in Sweden
I Sweden has a very low gender wage gap, a generous parentalleave system, and a high female labor force participation rate.
I At the same time, despite the small gender gap at the median,there is a very large gender gap at the top of the distribution.
I References: Albrecht, Björklund and Vroman (JOLE 2003)and Albrecht, Thoursie and Vroman (RLE 2015) for anupdate.
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Fig 1. Gender gaps across the distribution for men and women aged 25-‐60; 1990, 1998, and 2008
0.1
.2.3
.4.5
1 25 50 75 100
1990 weighted 1998 weighted2008 weighted
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Data
I The continued existence of a strong glass ceiling effect inSweden motivates our look at labor market outcomes for menand women in high-skill professions.
I We use register data for our analysis, focusing on individuals inhigh-skill occupations who were born between 1965 and 1970.
I By “in high-skill occupations,”we mean individuals with 3+years of university education with occupation defined bychosen field of study.
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Heterogeneity Across Professions
I When looking at life-cycle wage profiles among highly skilledwomen up to age 40, we see that the overall glass ceilingeffect hides considerable heterogeneity across professions.
I In some high-skill professions, there is virtually no gender gap.In other professions, especially law, computing and business,the gender gap is as high as 25% by age 40.
I Similarly, in some high-skill professions, there is virtually nopenalty associated with childbirth. In professions like law,computing and business, however, that penalty is quite high.
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-0.3
-0.25
-0.2
-0.15
-0.1
-0.05
0-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Gender Wage Gap, Yrs After First Birth
TeachingSocial SciencesBusinessLawScienceSocial WorkEngineeringMedicineNursing
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Business and Engineering
I We focus on two high-skill professions —business, whichexhibits a large gender gap and a high childbirth penalty, andengineering, where the gender gap and penalty associatedwith childbirth are much smaller.
I What accounts for the high gender gap in business, especiallyafter the first birth? Why are the effects smaller for engineers?
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0
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0.15
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0.25
0.3
0.35
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24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Share working in Public Sector, Men and Women
Business, MenBusiness, WomenEngineering, MenEngineering, Women
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0.15
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0.25
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0.35
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-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Share working in Public Sector, Men and Women
Business, MenBusiness, WomenEngineering, MenEngineering, Women
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9.39.59.79.9
10.110.310.510.710.911.1
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Wages by Age, Men and Women (Private Sector Only)
Business, MenBusiness, WomenEngineering, MenEngineering, Women
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Some Potential Explanations
I We focus on the gender gap in private-sector employment.
I Do men climb the job ladder faster (via firm-to-firm switches)than women do?
I Do men and women sort into different firms?
I Do the firms where women work differ from those where menwork?
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I Do men climb the job ladder faster (via firm-to-firm switches)than women do?
No: Men and women transition between firms at similar rates.
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0
0.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.8
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Share Switching Firms, Men and Women (Private Sector Only)
Business, MenBusiness, WomenEngineering, MenEngineering, Women
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I Do men and women sort into different firms?
I To a small extent, but this is the case in both business andengineering.
I In general, women tend to work in larger firms.
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0
0.050.1
0.150.2
0.250.3
0.350.4
0.450.5
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Share of workers at firm female (Private Sector Only)
Business, MenBusiness, WomenEngineering, MenEngineering, Women
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1
2
3
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5
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7
8
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Firm Size (Private Sector Only)
Business, MenBusiness, WomenEngineering, MenEngineering, Women
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I Do women work in lower-paying firms than men do?
I If by “lower-paying”we mean wage, the answer is no. If wemean earnings, the answer is yes.
I That is, women are less likely to work in firms where menwork long hours (alternatively, where bonuses, etc. are animportant part of compensation.
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9.89.910
10.110.210.310.410.510.610.7
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Average Log Wage of Male Workers at Firm (Private Sector Only) -- Manl
Business, MenBusiness, WomenEngineering, MenEngineering, Women
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7.47.57.67.77.87.9
88.18.28.3
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Average Log Earnings of Male Workers at Firm (Private Sector Only)
Business, MenBusiness, WomenEngineering, MenEngineering, Women
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0
0.20.40.60.8
11.2
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Standard Deviation, Male Earnings (Private Sector Only)
Business, MenBusiness, WomenEngineering, MenEngineering, Women
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I Do women work in more family-friendly firms than men do?
I Women are somewhat more likely to work at places whereother women take more parental leave, but not where mentake more parental leave
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Preliminary Conclusions
I Why is there a gender gap in business?
I At any point in time, the answer could be either
1. Men work for “better” (higher-paying) employers than womendo. We find some support for this.
2. Men and women work for similar employers, but men arenonetheless better paid. (Why?) We need to explore thisfurther.
I Perhaps men do a better job of climbing the job ladder viaon-the-job-search. At first glance, this doesn’t seem to be thecase, but we also need to examine this further.