the impact of rural-urban linkages on · pdf filethe impact of rural-urban linkages on ......

Indian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Life Sciences ISSN: 2231– 6345 (Online) An Open Access, Online International Journal Available at www.cibtech.org/sp.ed/jls/2014/04/jls.htm 2014 Vol. 4 (S4), pp. 1463-1473/Rezvani et al.

Research Article

© Copyright 2014 | Centre for Info Bio Technology (CIBTech) 1463

THE IMPACT OF RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES ON DIVERSIFICATION

OF THE RURAL ECONOMY WITH EMPHASIS ON WOODCRAFT

(CASE STUDY: JOWKAR DISTRICT, MALAYER COUNTY, AND

HAMEDAN PROVINCE)

*Mohammad Reza Rezvani1, Seyyed Hasan Motiee Langeroudi

1 and Ebrahim Fathi Nia

2

1Center for Rural Planning, Faculty of Geography, University of Tehran

2Department of Geography and Rural Planning (Economics of Space), University of Tehran, Iran

Author for Correspondence٭

ABSTRACT

Today, the livelihood stability and economic security in rural areas is very important because of the need

to increase the efficiency, productivity of capacities and potentialities and the de facto in economic

activity and, on the other hand, to ensure the continuation of the livelihood of the creation of employment,

income and to diversify the economic activities in rural areas. According to the rural - urban disparities

today one of the basic strategies for the development of rural areas, because of different currents,

including the flow of people, goods, information technology and innovation, such as it could lead to

diversify the economy in rural areas. The present study, with a view to examine the impact of the Rural-

urban linkages in the diversification of the rural economy is done with an emphasis on woodcraft, aim

Applied research and methodology of the descriptive - analytic. Statistical population workshops wooden

industries in the villages Jowkar District, Malayer Country. That in 9 villages selected, 380 of Employees

workshops wooden and rural as the sample size with were randomly selected. The study included the

index of employment, income, reducing poverty, Stagnation agricultural activities and the diversity of

economic activities, after which designated items for them through the questionnaire. The results of the

study showed that the formation of a Woodcraft workshops in villages in order to build and strengthen

rural-urban linkages in the villages studied major role in employment creation, diversification economic

activities and flourished has.

Keywords: Rural-urban Link, the Diversification of the Rural Economy, Rural Development, Malayer

County

INTRODUCTION

Rural-urban links phenomenon resulting from the interaction of two strains of rural settlement and urban

centers in the region that emerges due to the different currents of the people, goods and information,

technology, and innovation (Saidi, 2006). Theoretically, the study of these flows in the context of changes

in the economic, social and cultural flows, particularly in developing countries, coupled with the diversity

and boost employment in rural areas.

The rural-urban links of development policies aimed at reducing poverty in the regulation and expression

of supporting the positive role of urban centers and surrounding rural areas in developing countries is

emphasized by experts (Rabinovitch, 2001; Veenhuizen, 2002). These links unlike traditional urban-rural

relations that generally indicates a dominance relationship was through mutual interaction and

explanations are complementary set of flows (Saidi, 2011).

Regretfully the rural-urban links or both can be examined from two perspectives:

A) Link in the space (such as the flow of people, goods, capital, information, technology, and waste);

B) Sub-surface interaction (sectional interaction) in urban areas to rural activities that are activities that

are often classified as urban activities (such as industry and services) in rural areas flow (Terre, 2001).

Thus, the national rural and urban association reflects the fact that urban and rural development is

integrated and cross-correlated and is linked somehow. Of course this is a false impression that all of the

links may be associated with mutual benefits for rural and urban areas (Douglas, 1998). Because of the


Research Article


different conditions including the case examined in this study, may lead spatial inequality and

vulnerability of low-interest groups (rural) (Satterth, 2000). On the other hand, it should be noted that the

pattern and extent of rural and urban linkages strongly influenced by macro developments, including

globalization, structural adjustment and economic reforms that is effective for both urban and rural

communities (Tacoli, 1998).

The relations, particularly between urban and rural settlements mainly in the form of a stream of people,

goods, capital, ideas, information, and innovation suggests the spatial phenomena and geographical

location, and understanding, explaining, and discover general rules governing the mutual relations within

human-made environments, and theoretical significance and application of special (Sharyeh, 1994). It is

also essential to consider the relationship in the process of change and development in rural and urban

centers, in addition to examining the types and causes of relationships, knowledge of economic impacts,

socio-cultural, and social fabric of urban and rural spatial consequences and efforts to reduce the negative

effects of this relationship in order to organize them, leading to the development of sustainable rural and

urban areas.

Therefore, in order to achieve the effect of rural-urban linkages in the diversification of the rural

economy, this question arises, rural-urban links What impact of in the development of Woodcraft and

Diversification of the Villages Economy have been The studied?

Theoretical Consideration

* Rural-urban Linkages and Development

Urban and rural link is the connection between urban and rural settlements through all the obvious and

hidden populations, investment, production, goods and communications technology, so that the structure

and function of each urban settlements and completing the structure and function of the rural settlements

of the urban and rural settlements is provided by creating unity rural - urban development area

(Taghizadeh, 2004). Or the link, is the fusion of spatial - temporal structure and functions of urban and

rural settlements.

The concept of rural-urban linkage and exchange ideas in light of the relations between urban and rural

areas were apparent (Table 1). Evolution of the relationship between urban and rural areas can be

followed in a fruitful framework of intellectual thought, contrasting ideas, thoughts, ideas and interact

differentiation. The birth of the surplus rural and beneficial effects in the area of influence, in the form of

intellectual thought is fruitful. In contrast ideas, the rural-urban competition, aggression relations in the

village and parasitic relationships are discussed. The idea of separation of urban and rural differences is

pointed out in the position of each shape. Today, the evolution of the idea of interacting with the

dependence of urban and rural relations, urban-rural interaction and linking urban and rural areas is

similar.

Table 1: Evolution OF RURAL-URBAN relationships

Town birth of rural surplus

Fruitful thought

Positive & beneficial effects of town in spheres of

influence

Town & countryside competence

Authoritarian town relationship of town on village Confrontation

thought

Parasitic relationship

Separation from each town and village Distinction Thought Evolution of rural-

urban relationships

Dependence of town and village

Interaction Thought

Mutual relations of town & countryside

Interaction of town and countryside

Link of town and countryside

Source: Azarbad (2009)


Research Article


Porter and Ann (1989), linking in the economic, social, political and ideological dimensions has been

studied. On the economic dimension, the flow of labor, money, food, transportation, energy, credit and

raw materials is acknowledged through labor relations, finance, marketing, purchasing and transportation.

In the social dimension, the flow of people, communications, telephone and medical relationship have

been noted through reciprocal relationships, social groups, family, friends and social classes. The political

dimension of power, authority, budget allocation and the interrelationships have been acknowledged with

political activism, advertising, justice and the effects. After the current ideological beliefs, books, radio

and television have proposed through the interrelationships of religious activities, educational (Table 2).

Table 2: Dimensions link urban and rural areas due to the flow and interaction

Mutual relationships Flow Dimension of link

Workforce , investment , marketing,

shopping , transportation

labor flow , money , Food , Vehicles ,

Energy , Reputation, raw materials Economic

Family, Friends , classes and social

groups

People, correspondence, phone call,

medical relations, Social

Political Activities , Advertising ,

ensure justice , Complications Power, authority, budget allocation , Law Political

Religious Activities ,Training Ideas, book , Radio , TV Ideological

Potter and Unwin (1989)

* Diversification and Stability of Rural Economy Diversification of the rural economy, increasing economic activity in the village through the introduction

of a new industry or expansion of an existing industry products are, through the creation of new markets

through innovation and human capital, and so on. Economic diversification or diversifying the rural

economy, a long process that is aimed at building a rural community with the broad base of economic and

business types and rural jobs that have long stability and long resistance against the change. In the process

by analyzing the strengths and benefits of the village and funds and funds would create awareness and

facilitate investment decisions and the development of economic diversity in the village, and ultimately

diversifying the rural economy for the development and competition in the region and the world

(community futures peace country, Canada, 2014(. So as I told diversification of the rural economy build

rural society in the region and the world's ability to compete, because the, Rural economy, as a whole,

constitute a part of the national economy, so any changes in the national economy will lead to the

transformation of rural economy and vice versa. Agricultural economy and rural economy must be

distinguished because the rural economy deals with individual issues (whether farmer or non-farmer),

while the agricultural economy and the problems of a country or a society as a whole deals with at least

one agricultural unit (Asayesh, 1995). The main factor for the sustainability of the rural economy,

education, income diversification, is continued access to the funds needed by the people, government and

non-governmental organizations and the empowerment of rural and rural production buck up against the

power of the market, market changes and challenges from environmental hazards. Product diversity, price

stability, steady growth in production, and control of natural resistance to damaging factors and

knowledge of how to produce sustainable economy is essential (Santos and Barrett, 2010) (Lanjouw and

Lanjouw, 2001), (Osborne, 2006), (Yang, 2006).

Research Method

The method of investigation is applied and descriptive-analytical. Where the library and field data

collection, and the related questionnaires (employees and residents) and determine the validity and

amount of 0.890 to 0.935 employees and residents show that the questionnaire of reliability is sufficient.

It has been endeavored in this investigation that by expressing the components and the significance of

urban-rural links and its impact on diversification of rural economy by emphasizing on the wood

industries in the Jokar district of Malayer county, 9 villages out of 42 villages of the district should be

surveyed specifically based on the library and field methods so that to access the role of urban-rural bonds


Research Article


in the persistent development of the region. For this reason, all 150 workshops existing in the 9 villages

have been investigated and selected as the model community using the Kukran formula with an error of

5% out of 17235 persons (individual), 380 persons (individual).190 questionnaires of rural employers and

190 questionnaires of rural residents ,inhabitants were filled to reach the scientific and principle results.

Their items were divided into 5 major indices including: employment, income, poverty reduction,

recession in the agricultural activities as well as the diversity of activities (diversification), and the

collected data were analyzed by the software of Spss, and Excel as well as the T test of single model /

pattern.

Study Area

Jokar is one of four Malayer city's longitude and 41 degrees 48 minutes at latitude 26 degrees and 34

minutes at an altitude of 1,705 meters above sea level. This section is located of road grade asphalt,

Hamedan - malayer and is located 23 kilometers northwest of the city malayer. It reaches to the northern

part of the city of Hamadan, from the East to the Khandab (city of Arak), on the South to Malayer

restricts and to theto the city of Tuyserkan. Jokar (2006), included the four districts namely, Eastern Turk,

Western Turk, Jokar and al- Mahdi, but in the last population and housing census divisions and in 2011

this part of the village is made of three rural districts, called the al-Mahdi, the western Turk, Jokar

(Statistical Center of Iran, 1393), the map (1) Location of the study area (Jokar):

Map 1: Location of study area (Jokar)

Descriptive Research Findings

A: Types of Products and the Expansion of Woodcraft in Rural

As mentioned, we considered nine villages for research and to study and achieve acceptable results in the

9-wood 150 yards of total villages,we have researched and studied how to spend the time and money to

do so,the results obtained can be scientifically robust and closer to reality. Results of Table (3) show that

a total of 150 woody plants in nine villages have been studied; they are all inlaid with wood. That if the

shop is part of a sofa like: it was built by the base or crown the work performed and inlaid wood design

generally not involved in the production of furniture and other belongings. As a result, data in Table (3)

shows that all the workshops as part of the band is inlaid. And even in all the villages in the Ali Abad 21,

Dehno 15, Hussain Abad, 20, Zamanabad 18, Alfavut 18, Mangavi 20, Oshagh 10, Kasab 18, and Nanaj 7


Research Article


workshops are all woodcarving workshops. In these workshops also can be observed that spread in each

of the village 9 different, but the largest number of established workshops and percent in the villages 9 4

Eli 6 years (Table 4).

Table 3: Kind Production of wooden workshops

Percent Number Name of villages Row

14.00 21 Aliabad Damagh 1

12.00 18 Dehno 2

13.33 20 Hossein abad 3

12.00 18 Zamanabad 4

12.00 18 Alfavut 5

13.33 20 Mangavi 6

6.66 10 Oshagh 7

12.00 18 Kasab 8

4.66 7 Nanaj 9

100.0 150 Total

Table 4: Establishment (spread) Workshops (years)

B: Role Woodcraft in Diversification of the Rural Economy

Employed View

Table (5), all items on the questionnaire is employed that is filled in 9 villages of wooden workshop. The

items were classified in the 5 indicators of employment, income, poverty, recession agriculture, and

diversity (variety of activities). Which can be seen below, The main job Level of satisfaction from items

(present), to ensure the continuation and maintenance of their jobs, wooden workshops and its impact on

seasonal reducing unemployment, the impact on employment rural women creating wooden workshops,

wooden workshops in a variety of influences to create rural employment, in terms of your economic

diversity, and its impact on income, employment and productivity, including employment index, and

items of income satisfaction, creating the effect of wooden houses in rural income increases, the impact of

building wooden houses in rural diversification of income sources and class in the village (between low

income and high income), including reduction of poverty, agricultural items reduced activity, reduced

livestock activities, your tendency toward economic diversification and employment in non-agricultural


Research Article


activities, including the stagnation of agriculture, and urban diversity of activities is included. Which you

can see below:

Table 5: Role woodcraft in the diversification of the rural economy from the perspective Employees

woodcraft

View Rural Residents

Table (6), all items are on the questionnaire of rural residents who filled in nine villages. The items were

classified in the 5 indicators of employment, income, poverty, recession agriculture, and diversity (variety

of activities). Which you can see below:

Table 6: Role of woodcraft in the diversification of the rural economy from the perspective of rural

residents


Research Article


Analytical Findings

Employment Index

There are three general methods to analyze the results shown in the single model table T but we used the

analysis method of Sig value, such that the value of Sig statistic or the significance was compared with

the value of first type investigation error i.e. (ɑ) that if sig> ɑ the assumption of Ho is not rejected and if >

ɑ sig is not rejected for Ho assumption. As a result, the results of tables 7 and 8 on the employment index

in the group of personnel and the employment index in the group of (residents) indicates that the

significance level of sig=.000 test is less than the value of ɑ=./.5 It means less than 1000th value. As the

calculated significance level is less than ɑ=0/05 and it indicates that the urban-rural bond has had the

positive effect in the diversification of rural economy. Therefore this can be concluded that as the Ho

equation indicates that, it is rejected that the urban-rural bond has had no effect in the diversification of

rural economy. So we can say with 95% satisfaction that the urban-rural bond has worked successfully in

the development and expansion of wood industries and the diversification of rural economy in the

employment index/indicator sector.

Table 8: Results of one-sample t-test indicators of employment (employees) and (residents)

Statistical

population

Index N Mean Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean

employees indicators of

employment

190 20.2316 1.23402 .08953

residents indicators of

employment

190 20.2421 1.29071 .09364

Table 9: Results of one-sample t-test indicators of employment (employees) and (residents)

Statistical

population

analytical findings =3

T

Df

Sig. (2-

tailed)

Mean

Difference

95% Confidence Interval of the

Difference

Lower Upper

employees 192.477 189 .000 17.23158 17.0550 17.4082

residents 184.135 189 .000 17.24211 17.0574 17.4268

Findings, authors

Income Index

The results of tables 9 and 10 on the income index in the (personnel) group, and the income index in the

(residents) group indicates that the significance level of sig=.000 test is less than the value of ɑ=. /.5It

means less than 1000th value.

As the calculated significance level is less than ɑ=0/05 and it indicates that the urban-rural bond has had

the positive effect in the diversification of rural economy. Therefore this can be concluded that as the Ho

equation indicates that, it is rejected that the urban-rural bond has had no effect in the diversification of

rural economy. So we can say with 95% satisfaction that the urban-rural bond has worked successfully in

the development and expansion of wood industries and the diversification of rural economy in the income

index sector.

Table 10: Results of one-sample t-test indicators of income (employees) and (residents)

Statistical population Index N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

employees Income index 190 11.2158 .89724 .06509

residents Income index 190 10.8737 .93991 .06819


Research Article


Table 11: Results of one-sample t-test indicators of income (employees) and (residents)

Statistical

population


T

Df

Sig. (2-

tailed)

Mean

Difference


Difference

Lower Upper

employees 126.217 189 .000 8.21579 8.0874 8.3442

residents 115.470 189 .000 7.87368 7.7392 8.0082

In index of Poverty Reduction

The results of tables 11 and 12 on the poverty reduction index in the (personnel) group, and the poverty

reduction index in the (residents) group indicates that the significance level of sig=.000 test is less than

the value of ɑ=. /.5 It means less than 1000th value. As the calculated significance level is less than

ɑ=0/05 and it indicates that the urban-rural bond has had the positive effect in the diversification of rural

economy. Therefore this can be concluded that as the Ho equation indicates that, it is rejected that the

urban-rural bond has had no effect in the diversification of rural economy. So we can say with 95%

satisfaction that the urban-rural bond has worked successfully in the development and expansion of wood

industries and the diversification of rural economy in the poverty reduction index sector.

Table 12: Results of one-sample t-test indicators of poverty reduction (employees) and (residents)

Statistical population Index N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

employees poverty reduction index 190 14.8316 1.27369 .09240

esidents poverty reduction index 190 14.5368 1.38633 .10058

Table 13: Results of one-sample t-test indicators of poverty reduction (employees) and (residents)

Statistical

population


T

Df

Sig. (2-

tailed)

Mean

Difference


Difference

Lower Upper

employees 128.043 189 .000 11.83158 11.6493 12.0139

residents 114.709 189 .000 11.53684 11.3384 11.7352

The Index of Agricultural Activities Recession

The results of tables 13 and 14 on the agricultural activities recession index in the (personnel) group, and

the agricultural activities recession index in the (residents) group indicates that the significance level of

sig=.000 test is less than the value of ɑ=. /.5 It means less than 1000th value. As the calculated

significance level is less than ɑ=0/05 and it indicates that the urban-rural bond has had the positive effect

in the diversification of rural economy. Therefore this can be concluded that as the Ho equation indicates

that, it is rejected that the urban-rural bond has had no effect in the diversification of rural economy.

Table 14: Results of one-sample t-test indicators of stagnation of agricultural activities (employees)

and (residents)

Statistical

population

Index N Mean Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean

employees Stagnation of agricultural

activities index

190 11.3895 2.25043 .16326

residents Stagnation of agricultural

activities index

190 11.4105 2.13311 .15475


Research Article


So we can say with 95% satisfaction that the urban-rural bond has worked successfully in the

development and expansion of wood industries and the diversification of rural economy in the agricultural

activities index sector.

Table 15: Results of one-sample t-test indicators of stagnation of agricultural activities (employees)

and (residents)

Statistical

population


T

Df

Sig. (2-

tailed)

Mean

Difference


Difference

Lower Upper

employees 51.386 189 .000 8.38947 8.0674 8.7115

residents 54.348 189 .000 8.41053 8.1053 8.7158

The Index of Activities Diversification-Diversifying

The results of tables 15 and 16 on the activities diversification index-diversifying of economy in the

villages in the (personnel) group, and the activities diversification index-diversifying of economy in the

villages in the (residents) group indicates that the significance level of sig=.000 test is less than the value

of ɑ=. /.5 It means less than 1000th value. As the calculated significance level is less than ɑ=0/05 and it

indicates that the urban-rural bond has had the positive effect in the diversification of rural economy.

Therefore this can be concluded that as the Ho equation indicates that, it is rejected that the urban-rural

bond has had no effect in the diversification of rural economy. So we can say with 95% satisfaction that

the urban-rural bond has worked successfully in the development and expansion of wood industries and

the diversification of rural economy in the activities diversification index-diversifying of economy in the

villages sector.

Table 16: Results of one-sample t-test variation index-diversification of economic activities

(employees) and (residents)

Statistical

population

Index N Mean Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean

employees Diversification of economic

activities index

190 12.8263 1.10618 .08025

residents Diversification of economic

activities index

190 12.8105 1.16196 .08430

Table 17: Results of one-sample t-test variation index-diversification of economic activities

(employees) and (residents)

Statistical

population


T

Df

Sig. (2-

tailed)

Mean

Difference


Difference

Lower Upper

employees 122.445 189 .000 9.82632 9.6680 9.9846

residents 116.380 189 .000 9.81053 9.6442 9.9768

As a result, considering the related indices with study subject and the results obtained from single sample

T and the analysis of significance levels we can conclude that the rural-urban links in diversifying of rural

economy has had a positive effect and has been effective in all indexes of employment, income, poverty

reduction, agricultural activities recession as well as the activities diversification-diversifying of economy

in 9 villages.


Research Article


Conclusion

Rural-urban linkages ties to the flow of space and the interactions part, play an important role in the

economic, social and cultural rural areas (Rezvani and Shahcheragh, 1390), so that these ties to diversify

the rural economy and as a result of employment and income sources for rural; the more expensive to

examine Rural-urban ties in diversifying the rural economy, the results of the researchers shows that ties

between urban and rural - have a positive impact on the lives of villagers and those that have been a

variety of sources of income more favorable to the situation in the indicators of education, the quality of

life, reducing poverty and others have been in Daraa.

Barley sector in the current study to examine the case, including rural areas, which is due to the wooden

industries of the kind of wood carvings Rural-urban ties that clearly, and many people to work in this

profession, and its products and raw materials for the production of these products from nearby cities and

other urban areas.

The study showed that the present Rural-urban ties in this area to the diversity of sources of income and

diversifying the activities and wooden industries in the villages of the cause of employment, income

creation, reducing poverty, agricultural activities (out of a single) and diversity Diversification of

activities economy of the village. and data compiled and analysis of them with different software indicate

that a significant level in all indicators about meaningful review. So if the right planning and scientific

powers with regard to the region in terms of economic, social, and so on and its law can be done with the

spread of the wooden industries of employment and others in villages in the region and the creation of

links between the various positive and in various cities and villages. and migration from villages to cities

unchecked, one of the key elements of economic factors and create optimal situation in the indicators of

rural life.

REFERENCES

Asayesh H (1995). The Rural Economy (Payam Noor University Press).

Azarbad N (2009). Clarified network link with an emphasis on the urban and rural population in the city

Firoozkooh, Supervisor: Mohammed Salman, Advisor: submissive Langeroudi Hassan, A. Rokneddin

Awards, specialized PHD thesis, Geography and rural Planning, School of Geography, Tehran

University.

Douglass Mike (1998). A Regional Network Strategy for Reciprocal Rural- Urban Linkges: An Agenda

for Policy Research with Refrence to Indonesia, Third World Planning Review 20(1).

Lanjouw Jean and Lanjouw Peter (2001). "The rural non-farm sector: issues and evidence from

developing countries. Agricultural Economics 26 1–23.

Osborne Theresa (2006). Credit and risk in rural developing economies. Journal of Economic Dynamics

& Control 30 541–568.

Potter Robrt B and Timunwin (1989). The Geography urban- Rural Interaction in Developing

countries, Routledge, London and New York 413 427.

Rabinovitch J (2001). Placing Rural- urban. Linkages in the Developing Abate, uNop.

Rezvani Mohammad Reza and Shahcheragh Mahboobeh (2011). Rural-urban links, networks of

migration and Rural Development (Case Study: Dhmla district, Semnan province), Journal of Rural

Development 3(1 Spring and Summer).

Saidi A (2011). Relationships and Linkages, rural town of Publication: Tehran, Oct Mino publishing,

printing.

Saidi A and Aziz FA (2006). A network of regional and local development, with emphasis on the

linkages of rural, urban, Journal of Geography, new series, No. 2, Spring 1382 and Summer 2004

(publication date: Winter) 2006).

Santos Paulo and Barrett Christopher B (2010). Identity, Interest and Information Search in a

Dynamic Rural Economy. World Development 38(12) 1788–1796.


Research Article


Satterhwaite D (2000). Seeking an understanding of poverty that Recognizing Rural- urban Differences

and Rural- urban Linkages. The world Banks Forumon urban poverty Reduction in 21st century, April,

2000.

Sharyeh JB (1994). Towns and villages, translated by Cyrus Limited, publishing and Nika, Mashhad.

Statistical Center of Iran (2014). Tacoli Cecilia (1998). Rural-urban Interactions: A Guide to the Literature, Environment and

Urbanization 10(1) 147-166.

Taghizadeh F (2004). The role of bond markets in rural - urban, with emphasis on regional balance,

professors and Muzaffar Abbas Saeedi Exchange, Advisor: Parviz Piran, Bijan Rahmani, PhD thesis,

Geography and Rural Planning Faculty of Geosciences, Geography, University of martyr Beheshti.

Terre AMR (2001). Ural- urban Linkages and poverty Analysis In, choices for the poor, Undp, oslo

(Norway) 89-120.

Van Veenhuizeh (2002). The Rural urban Intertace, Leusden (The Netherlands).

Young Nathan (2006). Distance as a hybrid actor in rural economies. Journal of Rural Studies 22 253–

266.

the impact of rural-urban linkages on · pdf filethe impact of rural-urban linkages on ......

Documents