the influence of salinity on the toxicity of various classes of chemicals to aquatic biota
TRANSCRIPT
Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 25(4):281-346 (1995)
The Influence of Salinity on the Toxicity of Various Classes of Chemicals to Aquatic Biota
Lenwood W. Hall, Jr. and Ronald D. Anderson
The University of Maryland System, Agricultural Experiment Station, Wye Research and Education Center, P.O. Box 169, Queenstown, Maryland 21 658
ABSTRACT: The objective of this study was to review all available aquatic toxicity literature regarding the effects of salinity on the toxicity of various classes of inorganic and organic chemicals. Toxicity data for studies in which toxicity was assessed at various salinities were organized by chemical classes and trophic groups. Seventy percent of the studies were conducted with either crustaceans or fish. The other 30% were with mollusks, annelids, zooplankton, bacteria, phytoplankton, or fungi. Results from 173 data entries showed that negative correlations (toxicity increasing with decreasing salinity) were reported most frequently (55%), followed by no correlations (27%) and positive correlations (18%). The toxicity of most metals such as cadmium, chromium, copper, mercury, nickel, and zinc was reported to increase with decreasing salinity. This finding is likely related to the greater bioavailability of the free metal ion (toxic form) at lower salinity conditions. There was generally no consistent trend for the toxicity of most organic chemicals with salinity. The one exception to this was reported with organophosphate insecticides, the toxicity of which appeared to increase with increasing salinity. Physiological characteristics of the various test species were important in determining the toxicity of the various classes of chemicals at a range of salinities. Results from various studies showed that euryhaline species were more resistant to toxic conditions at isosmotic salinities due to minimization of osmotic stress. Specific examples showed that fish were more resistant to toxic chemicals at middle salinities when compared with either lower or higher extremes. Life history and ecology of test species were important factors to consider when interpreting salinitykontaminant interac- tion data.
KEY WORDS: salinity, inorganic chemicals, organic chemicals, trophic groups.
1. INTRODUCTION few species, with species richness increasing along the salinity gradient.' In the Chesapeake Bay estuary, the majority of the 953 benthic species are found at salinities above 18 ppt, with fewer species (approximately 40 to 50) found in the 1- to 5-ppt range.* The rate and magnitude of seasonal and tidal fluctuations in
Salinity is a critical factor influencing the distribution and maintenance of aquatic life in estuaries. The oligohaline portions of most es- tuaries are characterized by high densities of a
1040-8444/95/$.50 0 1995 by CRC Press, Inc.
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salinity are often more critical to estuarine spe- cies than the annual mean salinity. In the upper Chesapeake Bay. the average change in salin- ity during a 24-h period is approximately 2 to 4 ppt, although extreme changes of 8 ppt have been reported.’ In the Tees Estuary in England, benthic species may be subjected to salinity fluctuations of up to 13 ppt during a winter tidal cycle.J The ability of aquatic organisms to withstand such changes is primarily related to their osmoregulatory adaptations.
The physical, chemical, and biological char- acteristics of an estuary such as Chesapeake Bay creates unique problems for border states when attempting to establish water quality cri- teria for toxic substances. At the federal level, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) develops water quality criteria for both freshwater and marine environments to pro- vide guidance regarding concentrations that are considered protective of aquatic life in those environments. Due to limited resources, the EPA does not establish estuarine water quality criteria for toxic substances. The estuarine en- vironment (salinity of 1 to 26 ppt) is presently covered under the marine criteria. Estuaries are not a simple extension of the marine biotope, but are unique environmental systems struc- tured by surrounding materials and forces. Dis- tributional classes of estuarine organisms were reported by Boesch5 to fit the following classes: ( 1 ) stenohaline marine species, (2) euryhaline marine species, (3) euryhaline opportunists, (4) estuarine endemics, and ( 5 ) freshwater species. The biota that inhabit estuaries such as Chesa- peake Bay therefore merit consideration for their own water quality criteria. Development of estuarine criteria for the Chesapeake Bay is needed to not only evaluate the potential harm to indigenous biota but also to identify the species most susceptible to detrimental effects of toxic chemicals. There are two logical rea- sons for developing estuarine criteria: (1) es- tuarine organisms may differ substantially in their sensitivity to some toxic substances due to their inherent differences from either fresh-
water or marine organisms and (2) the bioavailability of some toxic substances may be different in estuarine water due to its unique chemistry; thus, toxicity would be affected.
Presently, Maryland’s Department of the Environment, the EPA, and the Ciba-Geigy Corporation are supporting research to develop estuarine water quality criteria for “Toxics of Concern” in the Chesapeake Bay. The first chemical that will be considered for estuarine criteria development is atrazine, a commonly used herbicide in the Chesapeake Bay water- shed. Based on a review of the toxicity data- base for atrazine in estuarine water, it was re- ported that a synthesized review of salinity effects on atrazine toxicity was lacking.6 Addi- tional database literature searches also indi- cated that there was no synthesized review of salinity effects on the toxicity of many classes of toxic chemicals to aquatic biota. A synthesis of these data is critical for developing estuarine water quality criteria. The State of Maryland, in its development of water quality criteria, has defined estuarine as salinities ranging from 1 to 26 ppt. Therefore, data are needed for each chemical (considered for criteria development) at a range of specific salinities within this es- tuarine range. Synthesizing “salinity effects” data by chemical classes of compounds would allow for an examination of possible trends within the various classes of chemicals or pos- sible comparisons among trophic groups.
The goal of this study was to review all available aquatic toxicity literature to deter- mine the effects of salinity on the toxicity of various classes of chemicals. Studies were re- viewed where the toxicity of a chemical was evaluated for particular species at a range of salinities within the same study. Factors such as differences in testing procedures, life stage of test species, and maximum salinity differ- ences tested within an experiment were consid- ered when reviewing these data. Toxicity data were reviewed and organized by chemical classes (e.g., biocides, herbicides) and trophic groups (e.g., crustaceans, fish).
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II. METHODS 111. RESULTS
Computer searches were initiated to retrieve A. Arsenic all documents containing information on the influence of salinity on the toxicity of contami- nants. The following computer searches, cov- ering areas of general toxicology and aquatic toxicology, were conducted for this project by the University of Maryland’s library reference personnel: Toxline (part of the National Li- brary of Medicine database network containing 14 individual data sources), Aquatic Sciences Fisheries Abstracts and Aquire (EPA database). Relevant documents were then retrieved by contacting the authors, copying papers from journals at various libraries, or using the University’s interlibrary loan services at Col- lege Park. Reference sections from all useful documents were then scanned to retrieve other useful documents. Authors of selected papers were also contacted to obtain other useful in- formation on the topic area.
Relevant documents were reviewed by us- ing a consistent format and criteria, as pre- sented in Figure 1. These criteria are similar to those used in evaluating data acceptability for use in water quality criteria de~elopment.~ This form is also similar to one used in one of our previous reviews with atrazine.6 Documents describing experiments in which various criti- cal methodologies were either omitted or not reported were placed in a separate file reserved for studies with questionable experimental de- signs.
Data from 19 major categories of contami- nants were summarized into tables. Within each category of contaminant, there was a further subdivision into trophic/taxonomic groups in the order of least advanced to most advanced organism. Other data presented in the tables included the species tested, whether the species was found in Chesapeake Bay, and “salinity effects on the toxicity of the contaminant”. The “effects data” were briefly summarized for each reference to show trends in toxicity as influ- enced by salinity.
Data from one study investigating the in- fluence of salinity on the toxicity of arsenic with three different species are presented in Table 1. Bryant et a1.8 conducted toxicity ex- periments with an annelid worm (Tubifex costatus), a bivalve (Macoma balthica), and an amphipod species (Corophium volutator). No significant salinity effect on arsenic toxicity was reported at a range of salinities from 5 to 35 ppt. However, at lower salinities, arsenite (3’) predominates over arsenate (5+). Arsenite is generally considered to be more toxice9
The limited data with arsenic showed no effects of salinity on three aquatic species. One factor that needs to be considered when evalu- ating the effect of salinity on arsenic toxicity is that arsenic is the only trace or heavy metal considered in this review where the anionic rather than the cationic form was measured. Measurement of the anionic form may affect the bioavailability of this trace metal and also influence physiological interactions such as osmoregulation.
B. Cadmium
The influence of salinity on the toxicity of cadmium was evaluated with 24 aquatic spe- cies (Table 2). Data were available for six an- nelid species. Chapman et a1.I0 exposed four predominantly freshwater species of oligocha- ete worms to cadmium at salinities of 0 and 5 ppt and one estuarine oligochaete at salinities of 10 and 20 ppt. Similar salinity effects were reported for all five species, as significantly greater mortality occurred in the lower salini- ties. The polychaete worm Ophryotrocha Zabronnica was exposed to cadmium by Roed’ at three different salinities; reduced hatch of
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1. Study: 2. Toxicant: 3. Reviever/Date:
5. Common Name: 6. Family or Grouping: 7. Life Stage: embryo larval juvenile adult 8. Test Typ.: acute chronic bioaccumulation 9. Duration: 48-h 96-h other: 10. Endpoint: Acute: LC50 EC50 mort.
Chronic: mort * growth- repro.
11. Concentration: nominal measured 12. Exposure: static static-renewal flow through 13. Dilution water: 14. Control mortality: <lo% <208 not reported 15. # of Concentrations: + control not reported 16. Temperature: not reported 17. D.O.: > 4 0 t saturation not reported 18. pH: not reported 19 . Salinity: not reported 20. Chesapeake Bay species?
4. Specie.:
other :
other:
RESULTS:
EXALUATION :
FIGURE 1. Data summary sheet for assessing salinity effects on the toxicity of various classes of chemicals.
eggs occurred in the lower salinity. Data were available from two studies that investigated salinity/toxicity effects of cadmium on estua- rine mollusks. A general trend of increased toxicity at the lower of two salinities was shown for the Hawaiian bivalve Zsogamon californicurn.'* In contrast, ForbesI3 reported a greater reduction in growth for an estuarine snail. Hydrobia ventrosa, at the higher of two salinities.
Seven out of 14 studies with crustaceans assessed salinity/toxicity effects of cadmium on either the mysid Mysidopsis bahia or the grass shrimp Palaemonetes pugio. In two of the mysid studies, cadmium was measured as the total concentration of the Cd2+ ion in solu- tion rather than total cadmium. In the first of these studies, DeLisle and RobertsI4 reported the highest survival at intermediate salinities, with a salinity range of 6 to 38 ppt. Similar data
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TAB
LE 1
D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Ars
enic
Spe
cies
/ B
ay
Taxo
nom
ic
Con
tam
inan
t co
mm
on n
ame
spec
iesa
gr
oup
Ars
enic
Tu
bife
x co
stat
us
No
Ann
elid
s (a
nnel
id w
orm
)
Ars
enic
M
acom
a ba
lthic
a Y
es
Mol
lusk
s (m
acom
a cl
am)
Ars
enic
C
orop
hium
vol
utat
or
No
Cru
stac
ea
(am
p hi p
od)
Sal
inity
eff
ect o
n to
xici
ty o
f co
ntam
inan
t R
ef.
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity
8 ef
fect
on
adul
t m
orta
lity;
sev
en s
alin
ities
fro
m 5
-35
ppt u
sed
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity
effe
ct o
n ad
ult
mor
talit
y; s
even
sal
initi
es
from
5-3
5 pp
t use
d
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity
effe
ct o
n ad
ult
mor
talit
y; s
even
sal
initi
es
from
5-3
5 pp
t use
d
8 8
a B
ay s
peci
es a
re th
ose
spec
ies
with
one
or
mor
e lif
e st
ages
occ
urrin
g w
ithin
the
Che
sape
ake
Bay
.
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TAB
LE 2
D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Cad
miu
m
Con
tam
inan
t
Cad
miu
m
Cad
miu
m
Cad
miu
m
Cad
miu
m
Cad
miu
m
Cad
miu
m
Spe
cies
/ co
mm
on n
ame
L im
nodr
ilus
ho ffm
eist
eri
(fres
hwat
er
olig
ocha
ete
wor
m)
Qui
stad
rilus
m
ultis
etos
us
(fres
hwat
er
olig
ocha
ete
wor
m)
Sty
lodr
ilus
herin
gian
us
(fres
hwat
er
olig
ocha
ete
wor
m)
Tubi
fex
tubi
fex
(fres
hwat
er
olig
ocha
ete
wor
m)
Mon
opyl
epho
rus
cutic
ulat
us
(est
uarin
e ol
igoc
haet
e w
orm
)
Oph
tyot
roch
a la
bron
nica
(p
olyc
haet
e)
Bay
sp
ecie
sa
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
Taxo
nom
ic
grou
p
Ann
elid
s
Ann
elid
s
Ann
elid
s
Ann
elid
s
Ann
elid
s
Ann
elid
s
Sal
inity
eff
ect o
n to
xici
ty
of c
onta
min
ant
Ref
.
Sig
nific
antly
gre
ater
10
m
orta
lity
for
adul
ts in
fre
sh w
ater
; 0-
and
5-pp
t sa
liniti
es u
sed
Sig
nific
antly
gre
ater
m
orta
lity
for
adul
ts in
fre
sh w
ater
; 0-
and
5-pp
t sa
liniti
es u
sed
Sig
nific
antly
gre
ater
m
orta
lity
for
adul
ts in
fre
sh w
ater
; 0-
and
5-pp
t sa
liniti
es u
sed
10
10
Sig
nific
antly
gre
ater
10
m
orta
lity
for
adul
ts in
fre
sh w
ater
: 0-
and
5-pp
t sa
liniti
es u
sed
Sig
nific
antly
gre
ater
10
m
orta
lity
for
adul
ts in
lo
wer
sal
inity
; 10
- and
20-
ppt
salin
ities
use
d
Red
uced
juve
nile
gro
wth
rat
e 11
an
d %
hat
ch o
f eg
gs
decr
ease
d in
low
er
salin
ities
; 20-
, 25-
, and
30-
ppt
salin
ities
use
d
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nly.
Cad
miu
m
lsog
amon
N
o ca
lifor
nicu
m
(Haw
aiia
n B
ival
ve)
Cad
miu
m
Hyd
robi
a ve
ntro
sa
No
(est
uarin
e sn
ail)
Cad
miu
m
Mys
idop
sis
bahi
a N
o (a
s C
d2+ i
on)
(mys
id s
hrim
p)
Cad
miu
m
M. b
ahia
(a
s C
d2+ i
on)
(mys
id s
hrim
p)
Cad
miu
m
M. b
ahia
(m
ysid
shr
imp)
Cad
miu
m
M. b
ahia
(m
ysid
shr
imp)
No
No
No
Mol
lusk
s G
ener
al tr
end
of i
ncre
ased
12
m
orta
lity
for
all l
ife
stag
es a
t lo
wer
sal
inity
; tre
nd n
ot a
s pr
onou
nced
for
olde
r lif
e st
ages
; 24-
and
33
-ppt
sal
initi
es u
sed
Mol
lusk
s G
reat
er r
educ
tion
in
juve
nile
gro
wth
at 3
3-pp
t sa
linity
rel
ativ
e to
23
ppt
13
Cru
stac
ea
Incr
ease
d to
xici
ty fo
r 14
ad
ults
at
high
est a
nd lo
wes
t sa
liniti
es; 9
6-h
LC5O
s of
2.
75,
3.61
, 4.
06,
2.93
, an
d 2.
32 p
g/I a
t sal
initi
es o
f '6,
14,
22,
30,
and
38
ppt,
resp
ectiv
ely
Cru
stac
ea
Sig
nific
antly
gre
ater
m
orta
lity
for
adul
ts a
t hi
gher
sal
initi
es;
16-,
20-,
and
32-p
pt s
alin
ities
use
d
16
Cru
stac
ea
Max
imum
mor
talit
y fo
r ad
ults
15
at
sal
inity
ext
rem
es, w
ith
low
est m
orta
lity
occu
rrin
g in
inte
rmed
iate
ran
ge;
lo-,
13-,
21 -,
29-
, and
32-
ppt
salin
ities
use
d
Cru
stac
ea
Sig
nific
ant s
alin
ity e
ffect
, 17
w
ith in
crea
sed
toxi
city
for
juve
nile
s at
low
est s
alin
ity;
96h
LC5O
s of
20.
0 an
d 32
.8 p
g/l a
t 25°
C a
nd
salin
ities
of
10 a
nd 3
0 pp
t, re
spec
tivel
y
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TAB
LE 2
(co
ntin
ued)
D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Cad
miu
m
Spe
cies
/ B
ay
Taxo
nom
ic
Con
tam
inan
t co
mm
on n
ame
spec
iesa
gr
oup
Cad
miu
m
Pal
aem
onet
es p
ugio
Y
es
Cru
stac
ea
(gra
ss s
hrim
p)
Cad
miu
m
P. p
ugio
Y
es
Cru
stac
ea
(as
Cd2
+ ion
) (g
rass
shr
imp)
Cad
miu
m
P. p
ugio
(g
rass
shr
imp)
Cad
miu
m
Cad
miu
m
Cad
miu
m
Cal
linec
tes
sapi
dus
(blu
e cr
ab)
C. s
apid
us
(blu
e cr
ab)
Car
cinu
s m
aenu
s (g
reen
cra
b)
Yes
C
rust
acea
Yes
C
rust
acea
Yes
C
rust
acea
No
Cru
stac
ea
Sal
inity
eff
ect
on to
xici
ty
of c
onta
min
ant
Incr
ease
d la
rval
mor
talit
y at
low
er s
alin
ities
; 5-, lo-,
15-, an
d 30
-ppt
sal
initi
es
used
Sur
viva
l sho
ws
stro
ng
corr
elat
ion
with
co
ncen
tratio
n of
fre
e C
d2+
ion
inde
pend
ent o
f sa
linity
; 5
, 8-, 16-, 20-, an
d 30
-ppt
sa
liniti
es u
sed
Incr
ease
d ad
ult m
orta
lity
at
low
er s
alin
ities
; 5-,
lo-, 20-,
and
30-p
pt s
alin
ities
use
d
Incr
ease
d to
xici
ty fo
r ju
veni
les
at lo
wer
sal
initi
es;
96-h LC
5Os
of 0.32, 4.7, an
d 11.6 m
g/l a
t sal
initi
es o
f 1,
15,
and
35 p
pt, r
espe
ctiv
ely
No
clea
r tre
nd o
f sa
linity
ef
fect
s on
sur
viva
l of
larv
ae a
t sal
initi
es o
f 10,
20, 30, an
d 40 p
pt
Incr
ease
d ad
ult m
orta
lity
at
low
er s
alin
ities
; sal
inity
ra
nge
of 17-32 p
pt
Ref
.
18
20
19
21
22
25
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(D cu cu cu m cu a3 b Q, cu cu cu
(d a, 0 (d v) c
2 0
(d a, 0 (d v) +
2 0
c v)
ii c v)
ii c v)
ii
0 z v) P v) P v) P 0 z
v)
P v) P
h
C 0 .-
E E 3
U
E E
.- 3
U
.-
8 8
289
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h)
(0
0
TAB
LE 2
(co
ntin
ued)
D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Cad
miu
m
Spe
cies
/ B
ay
Taxo
nom
ic
Sal
inity
effe
ct o
n to
xici
ty
Con
tam
inan
t co
mm
on n
ame
spec
iesa
gr
oup
of c
onta
min
ant
Ref
.
Cad
miu
m
F. h
eter
oclit
us
Yes
Fi
sh
Max
imum
toxi
city
at
high
est
30
(mum
mic
hog)
sa
linity
; 48-
h LC
5Os
of 3
2 an
d 7.
8 m
g/l a
t sal
initi
es o
f 20
and
30
ppt,
resp
ectiv
ely
for
14-d
-old
larv
ae; 4
8-h
LC5O
s of
60
and
43 m
g/l
at s
alin
ities
of
20 a
nd 3
0 pp
t, re
spec
tivel
y, fo
r ad
ults
Cad
miu
m
F. h
eter
oclit
us
(as
Cd2
+ ion
) (m
umm
icho
g)
Cad
miu
m
Men
idia
men
idia
(s
ilver
side
s)
Cad
miu
m
M. m
enid
ia
(silv
ersi
des)
Cad
miu
m
Mor
one
saxa
tilis
(s
tripe
d ba
ss)
Yes
Fi
sh
Yes
Fi
sh
Yes
Fi
sh
Yes
Fi
sh
Low
est a
dult
toxi
city
in
inte
rmed
iate
sal
initi
es; 9
6-h
LC5O
s of
73,
92
and
31 m
g/l
at s
alin
ities
of
10, 2
0, a
nd
32 p
pt, r
espe
ctiv
ely
31
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity e
ffect
30
on
adu
lt m
orta
lity
at s
alin
ities
of
20
and
30 p
pt
Incr
ease
d la
rval
mor
talit
y 32
at
low
er s
alin
ities
; 10.
4-,
20.3
-, an
d 30
.4-p
pt s
alin
ities
us
ed
Gre
ates
t mor
talit
y fo
r 63
-d-o
ld
33
juve
nile
s in
sof
t fre
sh w
ater
; 96
-h L
C5O
s of
4 a
nd 7
5 pg
/l at
sal
initi
es o
f 0
and
1 pp
t, re
spec
tivel
y
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se o
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Cad
miu
m
Pse
udop
leur
onec
tes
Yes
Fi
sh
amer
ican
us
(win
ter f
loun
der)
Cad
miu
m
P. a
mer
ican
us
(win
ter f
loun
der)
Cad
miu
m
P. f
lesu
s (B
altic
flou
nder
)
Yes
Fi
sh
No
Fish
Via
ble
hatc
h w
as lo
wes
t at
1 0-p
pt s
alin
ity, h
ighe
st a
t 20
ppt
, and
mod
erat
e at
30
PPt
Sig
nific
ant d
ecre
ase
in th
e vi
able
hat
ch o
f eg
gs a
t lo
wer
sa
liniti
es;
lo-,
21-,
and
32-p
pt s
alin
ities
use
d
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity
effe
ct o
n em
bryo
nic
surv
ival
at
sal
initi
es o
f 16
, 25,
32,
an
d 42
ppt
34
35
36
a B
ay s
peci
es a
re th
ose
spec
ies
with
one
or
mor
e lif
e st
ages
occ
urrin
g w
ithin
the
Che
sape
ake
Bay
.
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iew
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se o
nly.
were obtained from another study with mysids by Voyer and M c G ~ v e r n ' ~ in which the lowest cadmium-induced mortality occurred at inter- mediate salinities. Total cadmium (not Cd'+) was measured in this study. Mysid mortality was significantly greater in the higher salinities in a second investigation by DeLisle and Rob- erts.Ih The only other study available to assess the salinity/toxicity effects of cadmium on mysids was by Voyer and Modica." In their investigation, cadmium was significantly more lethal at 10 ppt than at 30 ppt. Similar trends in the salinity/toxicity effects of cadmium on grass shrimp occurred in two of three other studies, as cadmium toxicity was reported to increase at lower salinities.18.19 No salinity/toxicity trend wa\ reported with grass shrimp by Sunda et al."' when measuring Cd2+.
The remaining seven crustacean studies in- vestigating salinity effects on the toxicity of cadmium included two with the blue crab CuIlinectes sapidus. Frank and Robertson" reported increased mortality for the blue crab at lower salinities. In another blue crab study, there was no clear trend in salinity/toxicity ef- fects on larval survival.'* The effects of salinity on the toxicity of cadmium to the fiddler crab Ucu pugilator was assessed in two studies.*'J4 Adverse effects of cadmium were reported to be greater at lower salinities in both studies, using different endpoints. Rate of limb regen- eration was measured in the study by Weis,?j while mortality was measured in the study by 0'Hara.I' Salinity/toxicity effects of cadmium on the green crab, Carcinus maenus, a non indigenous crab species Pa rag raps us gairnarrdii, and the mud crab Rhithropanopeus hnrrisii were evaluated in three other stud- i e~ . ' ? ,~~ . '~ , Cadmium was more toxic to larvae or adults at lower salinities in all three studies.
The effects of salinity on the toxicity of cadmium to estuarine fish species were evalu- ated in 11 studies. Two studies by von Westernhagen et al.*7,28 assessed the salinity/ toxicity effects of cadmium on embryos of the garpike Belone belone and the Atlantic herring
Clupea harengus. Survival for both species was reported to be inhibited at lower salinities. Three studies were available that investigated the sa- linity/toxicity effects of cadmium on the mum- michog Fundulus heteroclitus. reported greater mortality to Fundulus at lower salini- ties when tested at a range of 5 to 30 ppt. Contrary to Ei~ler ' s*~ findings, Middaugh and Dean30 reported that Fundulus mortality was greater when exposed to cadmium at 30-ppt salinity verses 20 ppt. In a related study by Voyer3' where cadmium was measured as Cd2+ rather than total cadmium, the lowest Fundulus mortality occurred at an intermediate salinity (range, 10 to 32 ppt).
Two studies were available that assessed the salinity/toxicity effects of cadmium on the Atlantic silverside Menidia rnenidia. No sig- nificant salinity effect occurred when Menidia were exposed to cadmium at salinities of 20 and 30 ~ p t . ~ O However, when Voyer et al.32 exposed Menidia to various salinity/cadmium combinations (10.4 to 30.4 ppt), greater mor- tality occurred in the lowest salinities. One study by Palawski et al.33 available on the sa- linity/toxicity effects of cadmium on the striped bass Morone saxatilis demonstrated that cad- mium was more toxic to juvenile striped bass at lower salinities.
Two studies were available that investi- gated the salinity/toxicity effects of cadmium on the winter flounder Pseudopleuronectes ~ m e r i c a n u s . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ In both studies, the viable hatch of eggs was reduced in the lowest salinity. Von Westernhagen and D e t h l e f ~ o n ~ ~ assessed salin- ity effects on the toxicity of cadmium to an- other flounder, P. flesus (Baltic flounder). These investigators reported no significant salinity ef- fect at salinities ranging from 16 to 42 ppt.
A strong trend of increased cadmium tox- icity at lower salinities existed among all of the trophic groups where data were available. A summary of the data from 33 studies investi- gating salinity/toxicity effects on cadmium showed that (1) 70% of the time cadmium was shown to be more toxic at lower salinities, (2)
292
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iew
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21% of the time there was no salinity effect on cadmium or there was no clear trend along a salinity gradient, and (3) 9% of the time cad- mium was more toxic at higher salinities. Con- versely, no clear trend existed among the stud- ies that measured cadmium as Cd2+ rather than total cadmium. Out of five studies using cad- mium measured as Cd2+, three reported in- creased survival at intermediate salinities or no salinity effect.14,31,37 One of the five studies where Cd2+ was measured had increased sur- vival at lower salinities, while another study showed increased survival at higher salini- ties.26J6 Whether cadmium is measured as total cadmium or as the Cd2+ ion is important be- cause the concentration of free Cd2+ in the water column is virtually inversely proportional to salinity, thus leading some authors to speculate that free Cd2+ is the primary contributor to cadmium t o ~ i c i t y . ~ ~ , ~ ~ Based on studies con- ducted in our laboratory, the free ion decreased from 20% of the total cadmium at 5 ppt to less than 5% of the total cadmium at 25
C. Chromium
Data from six studies investigating the in- fluence of salinity on the toxicity of hexavalent chromium are presented in Table 3. Frey et al.40 reported reduced growth of the diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana in the lowest salinity when using a very narrow range of test salinities (0.03 to 2.11 ppt). Other investi- gators reported a similar trend with a wide range of test salinities (5 to 40 ppt), as mortal- ity of the nereid polychaete Nereis diversicolor increased with decreasing salinity.41 Similar re- sults of increased toxicity at lower salinities were also reported by the same authors in a chromium toxicity study of the same duration (192 h) using the bivalve species Macoma balthica.
Four crustacean species were exposed to hexavalent chromium at several different sa- lini ties. ,4 43 Adult and/or juvenile amphipods ,
mysids, grass shrimp, and blue crabs all exhib- ited greater mortality at lower salinities. Simi- lar results were reported for juvenile striped bass, as greater mortality was reported in fresh- water when compared with 1-ppt salinity.33
The effects of salinity on the toxicity of hexavalent chromium was evaluated with eight different diverse plant and animal species. The general trend among all of these studies was increased toxicity at lower salinities.
D. Copper
Data from 11 studies investigating the in- fluence of salinity on the toxicity of copper with 10 species are presented in Table 4. Martinez et a1.44 reported no significant corre- lation between salinity and EC50 values when assessing the effects of copper on various as- semblages of freshwater and estuarine bacterio- plankton. Jones et al.45 reported higher mortal- ity at a lower salinity range for the polychaete worm N. diversicolor.
The effects of salinity on the toxicity of copper to estuarine bivalves were reported in three Conclusions from these stud- ies were that normal embryo development was reduced in lower salinities for the Pacific oys- ter and the Eastern oyster, and that the mean time to death for the blue mussel increased in the lower of two salinities.
Four studies assessing copper salinityhox- icity effects with crustaceans were available for four different species. Lange et al.49 demon- strated that larvae of the bay barnacle exhibited greater mortality at 15-ppt salinity than at 30 ppt. Other investigators reported no significant sa- linity effect on copper toxicity with adult American lobsters in salinities from 20 to 30 ~ p t . ~ O Results from one study with the green crab Carcinus maenas demonstrated that re- duced osmoregulatory function occurred in the lower salinity range with copper exposure.25 This investigator also demonstrated that the rock crab Cancer irroratus had reduced osmo-
293
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TAB
LE 3
D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Chr
omiu
m
Spe
cies
/ B
ay
Taxo
nom
ic
Sal
inity
eff
ect o
n to
xici
ty
Con
tam
inan
t co
mm
on n
ame
spec
iesa
gr
oup
of c
onta
min
ant
Ref
.
Chr
omiu
m
Thal
assi
osira
Y
es
Phy
topl
ankt
on
Dec
reas
ed a
lgal
gro
wth
at
40
(VI)
ps
eudo
nana
lo
wer
sal
initi
es; 0.03-, 0.09-,
(dia
tom
) 0.29-, 1 .lo-, an
d 2.1 1
-ppt
sa
liniti
es u
sed
Chr
omiu
m
Ner
eis
(IV)
dive
rsic
olor
(p
olyc
haet
e)
No
Ann
elid
s
Chr
omiu
m
Mac
oma
balth
ica
Yes
M
ollu
sks
(VI)
(m
acom
a cl
am)
Chr
omiu
m
Cor
ophi
um
(VI)
volu
ta to
r (a
mph
ipod
) Y
es
Cru
stac
ea
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
adul
ts a
t lo
wer
sal
initi
es; 1
92-h
LC
5Os
2.9, 3.5, 4, 5.
4, 5.8, 4, 8,
and 12 m
g/l a
t sal
initi
es o
f 5,
10, 15
, 20, 25, 30, 35,
and 40 p
pt, r
espe
ctiv
ely
41
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
adul
ts a
t lo
wer
sal
initi
es; 192-h L
C5O
s of
20, 36, 50, an
d 68 m
g/l a
t sa
liniti
es o
f 15
, 20, 25, a
nd
30 p
pt, r
espe
ctiv
ely
41
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
adul
ts a
t lo
wer
sal
initi
es; 192-h LC
5Os
of 2.3, 5.2, 8
.5,
11, 6.2, 14,
and 15 m
g/l a
t sal
initi
es o
f 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, an
d 40 p
pt,
resp
ectiv
ely
41
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nly.
m *
0 z
n n
E E g r
3 .-
6"
cu *
a a, 0 (II v) 3
+
e v) P
, (v
v)
P
m m
L v)
ii
a, Y a a, Q (II v) a,
6 a, 5
tn c 3 0 0 0
.- L L
v) a, tn a v)
4-
a, !e - a, b E 8 a, C 0
5 .- 3 v) a, 0 a, Q v)
.-
2 a v) a, 0 a, Q v)
.-
% a 9
295
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TAB
LE 4
D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Cop
per
Spe
cies
/ B
ay
Taxo
nom
ic
Con
tam
inan
t co
mm
on n
ame
spec
iesa
gr
oup
Cop
per
Nat
ural
pop
ulat
ions
N
ot
Bac
terio
- of
fre
shw
ater
and
gi
ven
plan
kton
m
arin
e ba
cter
iopl
an kt
on
Ner
eis
dive
rsic
olor
N
o A
nnel
ids
(pol
ycha
ete)
C
oppe
r
Cop
per
Cop
per
Cop
per
Cop
per
Cra
ssos
trea
giga
s N
o (P
acifi
c oy
ster
)
C. v
irgin
ica
Yes
(E
aste
rn o
yste
r)
Myt
ilus
edul
is
Yes
(b
lue
mus
sel)
Bal
anus
impr
ovis
us
Yes
(b
ay b
arna
cle)
Mol
lusk
s
Mol
lusk
s
Mol
lusk
s
Cru
stac
ea
Sal
inity
eff
ect o
n to
xici
ty
of c
onta
min
ant
No
sign
ifica
nt c
orre
latio
n be
twee
n sa
linity
cha
nges
an
d E
C50
val
ues
Max
imum
toxi
city
at
low
er
salin
ities
; 96-
h LC
5Os
for
adul
ts o
f 0.
2, 0
.44,
0.4
8,
and
0.37
mg/
l at s
alin
ities
of
5,
10, 1
7.5,
and
34
ppt,
resp
ectiv
ely
Abn
orm
al e
mbr
yo
deve
lopm
ent i
ncre
ased
at
low
er s
alin
ities
; 16.
5-, 2
2.7-
, an
d 33
.0-p
pt s
alin
ities
use
d
Em
bryo
abn
orm
aliti
es
incr
ease
d at
low
er
salin
ities
; 1
75
, 22
.5,
and
27.5
-ppt
sal
initi
es u
sed
Tim
e of
dea
th fo
r ad
ults
is
shor
ter
at 3
2-pp
t tha
n at
16
-ppt
sal
inity
Max
imum
toxi
city
at
low
er
salin
ity; 2
4-h
LC5O
s fo
r la
rvae
of
88 p
g/I a
t 15
-ppt
sa
linity
and
>200
pg/I
at
30 P
Pt
Ref
.
44
45
47
46
48
49
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se o
nly.
s G a m m Lo Lo a 0 m a
m L a,
0 z 0 z
5 Q Q s
a, 5
b
2. a m
5
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regulatory function with exposure to copper at lower salinities.
Results from two studies assessing salinity/ toxicity effects with two different fish species were conflicting. Palawski et al.33 reported in- creased mortality for juvenile striped bass in lower salinities. Peppard5I demonstrated no clear salinity/toxicity trend for the red drum when exposed to copper. The salinity range used in each study may have influenced the result. The qalinity range in the Palawski et al.3i study was only 0 to 1 ppt vs. 0.5 to 30 ppt in the Peppard'' study .
A strong trend of greater copper toxicity at lower salinities was exhibited among most of the studies available. A summary of all of the available copper data showed that (1) 64% of the time the toxicity of copper was greater in lower salinities, (2) 27% of the time the toxic- ity of copper showed no clear salinity/toxicity trend, and (3) 9% of the time copper toxicity increased at higher salinities. Most of the data were available for crustacean species (42%), and four out of five of these studies resulted in greater copper toxicity at lower salinities. A similar trend was encountered among two of the bivalves and one polychaete species tested. Results from these experiments supported a conclusion of greater copper toxicity at lower salinities. Salinity/copper toxicity interaction studies with fish were limited, as only two studies were available. Results were conflict- ing, as no salinity effect was reported in one study and greater toxicity at lower salinities was reported in the other. Vastly different sa- linity ranges were used in each study, thus making simple comparisons difficult. Natural populations of mixed bacterioplankton exposed to a wide range of field-collected salinities showed no consistent salinity/copper toxicity relationship.
E. Lead
Only one investigation assessing the ef- fects of salinity on the toxicity of lead was
available (Table 5). Hrs-Brenko et a1.s2 con- ducted salinity/lead toxicity studies with the marine bivalve Mytilus galloprovincialis using a high salinity range of 25 to 37.5 ppt. Larval development was reduced at both the upper and lower extremes of the salinity range. De- velopment of control larvae was also reduced in the same salinity ranges, and the data did not appear to support a conclusion of greater than additive lead toxicity. Because of these find- ings, the investigators did not attribute reduced larval development to the influence of salinity on lead toxicity. Salinity shifts outside the op- timal range for this species likely affected lar- val development.
The trends of salinity influence on the tox- icity of lead cannot be determined due to lack of data.
F. Mercury
Data from nine studies designed to deter- mine the influence of salinity on the toxicity of total mercury with 11 species are presented in Table 6. Data were available for five different species of annelid worms, including four oli- gochaete and one polychaete species. Chapman et al. lo exposed three freshwater oligochaetes (Limnodrilus hofSmeisteri, Stylodrilus hering- ianus, and Tubifex tubifex) to mercury at salini- ties of 0 and 5 ppt. One estuarine oligochaete, Monopylephorus cuticulatus, was exposed to mercury at salinities of 10 and 20 ppt. Signifi- cantly greater mortality in lower salinities was reported for each species except S. heringianus, where similar mortalities were reported for both test salinities. The salinity/toxicity effects of mercury were assessed for the polychaete worm Surpula vermiculari~.~~ An additive increase in mortality with the addition of mercury was reported among the four salinities used.
Four different species of estuarine crabs and the Bay scallop were used to assess salinity effects on the toxicity of mercury in six stud- i e ~ ) . ~ " j ~ The following three crab species ex- hibited increased mortality in lower salinities:
298
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TAB
LE 5
D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Lead
Spe
cies
/ B
ay
Taxo
nom
ic
Sal
inity
eff
ect o
n to
xici
ty
Con
tam
inan
t co
mm
on n
ame
spec
iesa
gr
oup
of c
onta
min
ant
Ref
.
Lead
M
ytilu
s N
o M
ollu
sks
Red
uced
larv
al d
evel
opm
ent
52
gallo
prov
inci
alis
at
hig
hest
and
low
est
(mus
sel)
salin
ities
; 25- to
37.
5-pp
t sa
liniti
es u
sed
a B
ay s
peci
es a
re th
ose
spec
ies
with
one
or
mor
e lif
e st
ages
occ
urrin
g w
ithin
the
Che
sape
ake
Bay
.
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r 0
c 0
0 r
0 7
0 7
0 7
r 0
0 4-
0 z
Y
v) a, > 0 0 0 z z z
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b Lo
Lo Lo
a3 Lo
* Lo
a a la
a v)
a v)
3 3
8 8 - a v)
8 8 a a, 0 a v) 3
4- 4- 3 c v)
c
is 6 6 $ 6
0 v)
2 z
P e 3 2
0 a
JZ v) LL .-
0 z
a, 5
a, 'c - a,
L
b a, C 0
m
301
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the blue crab, the porcelain crab, and the fid- dler crab. A similar result was reported for the Bay scallop.59 The mud crab experienced the highest survival in intermediate salinities. Similarly. the fish species Oreochromis mossambic~us exhibited the highest survival in intermediate salinities in a study by Prakasam.60
There is some evidence of a trend of in- crea\ed mercury toxicity at lower salinities. A summary of the mercury data showed that ( 1 ) 67% of the time mercury toxicity increased in lower salinity water and (2) 33% of the time no clear effect of salinity on the toxicity of mer- cury was apparent along a salinity gradient. Data on salinity/toxicity effects with mercury were most abundant for the annelid and crusta- cean groups, accounting for 83% of the studies available. In the annelid and crustacean stud- ies, mercury was more toxic in lower salinities 60 and 80% of the time, respectively. In the only fish study available, no salinity/mercury toxicity interaction was reported.
G. Nickel
Data from six studies investigating salinity effects on the toxicity of nickel with ten differ- ent species are presented in Table 7. Only one studj assessed salinity/toxicity effects with a fish ipecies. Palawski et al.33 exposed striped bas\ to nickel at two different salinities (0 and 5 ppt) and reported that mortality to juveniles was greater in fresh water. As was the case with the fish, only one study was available that assessed salinity/toxicity effects with a bivalve. Bryant et al.hl demonstrated that the Baltic clam Mu( orria balthica was more susceptible to the toxic effects of nickel in lower salinities when tested at a range of 15 to 35 ppt.
Two studies were available that assessed salini tyhickel toxicity effects with crustacean species. Bryant et a1.61 exposed the amphipod Coroplziunz Idurntor to nickel at five salinities ranging from 5 to 25 ppt; increased mortalities were reported in lower salinities. Similarly, McKlusky and Hagerman"? demonstrated that
the mysid shrimp Prunus jlexosus exhibited greater mortality when exposed to nickel in lower salinities when tested at a range of 4.5 to 27 ppt.
One study was available where salinity/ nickel toxicity effects were assessed with fungi.62 Three species (Dendrophiella sulina, Asteromyces cruciatus, and Dreschlera halodes) all exhibited decreased growth in lower salini- ties when exposed to nickel. In a related study, Babich and S t ~ t z k y ~ ~ reported the effects of salinity on the toxicity of nickel to three spe- cies of bacterioplankton. The bacterioplankton species Acinetobactor, Caulobactor maris, and Pseudomonds all experienced decreased growth in lower salinities. One additional study as- sessed salinityhickel toxicity effects on natu- ral assemblages of bacterioplankton. Martinez et a1.@ reported maximum toxicity at lower salinities.
The toxicity of nickel was reported to in- crease in lower salinities for all species tested.
H. Selenium
Only one study was available that investi- gated the influence of salinity on the toxicity of selenium (Table 8). Palawski et al.33 demon- strated that juvenile striped bass were slightly more susceptible to selenium in soft fresh wa- ter than at 1 -ppt salinity. Statistical differences were not reported due to overlapping 95% con- fidence limits for 96-h LC50 values for each test salinity.
The salinity/selenium toxicity data were too limited to produce any conclusions.
1. Silver
The influence of salinity on the toxicity of silver was evaluated for two species (Table 9). Coglianese4' reported a significant reduction in normal embryonic development for the Pacific oyster at lower salinities when exposed to sil- ver at a range of 16.5 to 33 ppt. In contrast,
302
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TAB
LE 7
D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Nic
kel
Spe
cies
/ B
ay
Con
tam
inan
t co
mm
on n
ame
spec
iesa
Nic
kel
Nic
kel
Nic
kel
Nic
kel
Aci
neto
bact
or s
p.
Yes
C
aulo
bact
or m
aris
P
seud
omon
ds s
p.
(thre
e m
arin
e ba
cter
ia)
Var
ious
nat
ural
N
ot
popu
latio
ns o
f fre
shw
ater
gi
ven
and
mar
ine
bact
erio
plan
kton
Den
dryp
hiel
la s
alin
a N
o A
ster
omyc
es c
ruci
atus
D
resc
hler
a ha
lode
s (t
hree
est
uarin
e/m
arin
e fu
ngi)
Mac
oma
balth
ica
Yes
(B
altic
cla
m)
Nic
kel
Cor
ophi
um v
olut
ator
(a
m ph
i pod
) Y
es
Taxo
nom
ic
grou
p
Bac
teria
Bac
teria
Fung
i
Mol
lusk
s
Cru
stac
ea
Sal
inity
eff
ect o
n to
xici
ty
of c
onta
min
ant
Sig
nific
ant d
ecre
ase
in
grow
th r
ate
at lo
wes
t sa
linity
; 2.
7-,
13.5
, an
d 27
-ppt
sal
initi
es u
sed
Max
imum
toxi
city
in lo
wer
sa
liniti
es, a
s de
mon
stra
ted
by a
sig
nific
ant c
orre
latio
n be
twee
n LC
50 v
alue
s an
d sa
linity
Gre
ates
t red
uctio
n in
gro
wth
ra
te in
low
er s
alin
ities
; ei
ght s
alin
ities
bet
wee
n 0-
35
ppt u
sed
Sig
nific
antly
red
uced
med
ian
surv
ival
tim
es fo
r ad
ults
in
low
er s
alin
ities
; 96-
h LC
5Os
of 1
10, 1
80, a
nd 5
40 m
g/l a
t 15
°C a
nd s
alin
ities
of
15, 2
5,
and
35 p
pt,
resp
ectiv
ely
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
adul
ts in
lo
wer
sal
initi
es; 9
6-h
LC5O
s of
5.6
, 16
, 18
, 22,
and
34
mg/
l at
15°C
and
sal
initi
es
of 5
, 10
, 15,
25,
and
35
ppt,
resp
ectiv
ely
Ref
.
63
44
62
61
61
0
0
0
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TAB
LE 7
(co
ntin
ued)
D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Nic
kel
Spe
cies
/ B
ay
Taxo
nom
ic
Sal
inity
eff
ect o
n to
xici
ty
Con
tam
inan
t co
mm
on n
ame
spec
iesa
gr
oup
of c
onta
min
ant
Ref
.
Nic
kel
Pra
unus
flex
uosu
s N
o C
rust
acea
M
axim
um to
xici
ty fo
r ad
ults
in
43
(mys
id s
hrim
p)
low
er s
alin
ities
; 96-
h LC
5Os
of
16,
16,
16, 2
5, 3
2, a
nd
32 m
g/l a
t sal
initi
es o
f 4.
5, 9
, 13
.5,
18, 2
2.5,
and
27
ppt,
resp
ectiv
ely
Nic
kel
Mor
one
saxa
tilis
Y
es
Fish
(s
tripe
d ba
ss)
Max
imum
toxi
city
to 6
3-d-
old
33
juve
nile
s in
fres
h w
ater
; 96-
h LC
5Os
of 3
.9 a
nd 2
1 m
g/l i
n sa
liniti
es o
f 0
and
1 pp
t, re
spec
tivel
y
a B
ay s
peci
es a
re th
ose
spec
ies
with
one
or
mor
e lif
e st
ages
occ
urrin
g w
ithin
the
Che
sape
ake
Bay
.
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TAB
LE 8
D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Sel
eniu
m
Spe
cies
/ B
ay
Taxo
nom
ic
Sal
inity
eff
ect o
n to
xici
ty
Con
tam
inan
t co
mm
on n
ame
spec
iesa
gr
oup
of c
onta
min
ant
Ref
.
Sel
eniu
m
Mor
one
saxa
tilis
Y
es
Fish
M
argi
nal i
ncre
ase
in to
xici
ty
33
(stri
ped
bass
) to
63-
d-ol
d ju
veni
les
in lo
wes
t sa
linity
; 96
-h L
C5O
s of
1,3
25,
and
1550
pg/
I at s
alin
ities
of
0 an
d 1
ppt,
resp
ectiv
ely
a B
ay s
peci
es a
re th
ose
spec
ies
with
one
or
mor
e lif
e st
ages
occ
urrin
g w
ithin
the
Che
sape
ake
Bay
.
w
0
ul
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w
TAB
LE 9
D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Silv
er
Spe
cies
/ B
ay
Taxo
nom
ic
Sal
inity
eff
ect o
n to
xici
ty
Con
tam
inan
t co
mm
on n
ame
spec
iesa
gr
oup
of c
onta
min
ant
Ref
.
Silv
er
Cra
ssos
trea
giga
s N
o M
ollu
sks
Sig
nific
ant
redu
ctio
n in
47
(P
acifi
c oy
ster
) no
rmal
em
bryo
nic
deve
lopm
ent
at l
ower
sal
initi
es;
16.5
-, 2
2.7-
, an
d 33
-ppt
sal
initi
es u
sed
Silv
er
Pse
udop
leur
onec
tes
Yes
F
ish
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity e
ffect
on
35
amer
ican
us
(win
ter f
loun
der)
vi
able
hat
ch a
t sal
initi
es o
f 10
, 21,
and
32
ppt
a B
ay s
peci
es a
re th
ose
spec
ies
with
one
or
mor
e lif
e st
ages
occ
urrin
g w
ithin
the
Che
sape
ake
Bay
.
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Voyer et reported no significant salinity effect on the viable hatch of winter flounder eggs during exposure to silver.
Results from the limited data (two studies) showed the following: (1) silver toxicity in- creased at lower salinities with the early life stages of the Pacific oyster and (2) salinity had no influence over silver’s effect on the viable hatch of winter flounder eggs.
J. Zinc
Data from seven studies investigating sa- linity effects on the toxicity of zinc with nine different species are presented in Table 10. Only one study was available that assessed salinity/zinc toxicity effects with annelids. Fernandez and Jones64 reported that the maxi- mum toxicity of zinc to the polychaete worm N. diversicolor occurred in lower salinities. These investigators reported that the highest survival occurred in an intermediate salinity of 17.5 ppt when tested at a range of 5 to 30 ppt.
Two species of estuarine bivalves were exposed to zinc in various salinities. Cotter et al.65 exposed blue mussels to zinc at 22 and 35 ppt and reported that it took less time to kill 50% of the adults in higher salinities. Bryant et al.(jl reported a significant reduction in survival times for the Baltic clam at lower salinities. Bryant et a1.61 used a lower minimum salinity in their study (range, 15 to 35 ppt) compared with that of Cotter et al.,65 who used 22 to
Data were available for three crustacean species from three different studies. McKenney and Neff66 exposed larval grass shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio, to zinc in a wide range of salinities and reported no significant salinity effect. In contrast, Bryant et aL61 demonstrated a significant reduction in median survival time for the amphipod C. volutator in lower salini- ties after exposure to zinc. In a third study
35 ppt.
assessing salinity/toxicity effects of zinc with the mysid shrimp Pruunusflexosus, maximum mortality occurred in lower ~a l in i t i e s .~~ These investigators reported maximum survival in a high intermediate salinity (22 ppt). Salinity/ zinc toxicity effects data were available for three different species of fish. Herbert and W a k e f ~ r d ~ ~ reported that maximum mortality occurred in lower salinities for rainbow trout and Atlantic salmon juveniles. The highest sur- vival occurred at an intermediate salinity (=12 ppt) when testing was conducted at a range of 0 to 24 ppt. Palawski et al.33 reported greater mortality in fresh water than in 5-ppt salinity for juvenile striped bass exposed to zinc.
The toxicity of zinc appeared to increase as salinity decreased. A summary of the zinc data showed that (1) 78% of the time toxicity in- creased with decreasing salinity, (2) 1 1 % of the time the toxicity of zinc was greater in higher salinities, and (3) 11% of the time the toxicity of zinc showed no consistent relationship with salinity. Results from two zinc toxicity studies with fish demonstrated maximum survival at intermediate salinities.
K. Biocides
Data from six studies designed to deter- mine the influence of salinity on the toxicity of six different biocides with ten species are pre- sented in Table 1 1. Data were available for two different species of fish. Birdsong and A v a u P reported no significant effects of salinity (10 to 30 ppt) on the toxicity of the bactericide Acriflavin to juvenile pompano. However, these investigators reported greater toxicity for po- tassium permanganate with this species at higher salinities.
Two studies were conducted addressing the salinity/toxicity effects of copper sulfate on two different fish specie^.^^,^^ Results from each study indicated that the toxicity of copper sul-
307
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TAB
LE 1
0 D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Zinc
Spe
cies
/ B
ay
Con
tam
inan
t co
mm
on n
ame
spec
iesa
Zinc
N
erei
s di
vers
icol
or
No
(pol
ycha
ete
wor
m)
Zinc
M
acom
a ba
lthic
a (B
altic
cla
m)
Yes
Zinc
M
ytilu
s ed
ulis
Y
es
(blu
e m
usse
l)
Zinc
C
orop
hium
vol
utat
or
Yes
(a
mph
ipod
)
Taxo
nom
ic
grou
p
Ann
elid
s
Mol
lusk
s
Mol
lusk
s
Cru
stac
ea
Sal
inity
eff
ect on
toxi
city
of
con
tam
inan
t R
ef.
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
juve
nile
64
w
orm
s in
low
er s
alin
ities
; 96
-h L
C5O
s of
6,
16, 4
2, a
nd
35 m
g/l a
t sal
initi
es o
f 5,
10
, 17.
5, a
nd 3
0 pp
t, re
spec
tivel
y
Sig
nific
antly
red
uced
med
ian
61
surv
ival
tim
e fo
r ad
ults
in
low
er s
alin
ities
; 96
-h L
C5O
s of
60,
180
, and
250
mg/
l at
15°
C a
nd s
alin
ities
of
15, 2
5, a
nd 3
5 pp
t, re
spec
tivel
y
Red
uced
tim
e to
50%
m
orta
lity
for
adul
ts in
hi
ghes
t sal
inity
; 22-
and
35
-ppt
sal
initi
es u
sed
65
Sig
nific
antly
red
uced
med
ian
61
surv
ival
tim
e fo
r ad
ults
in
low
er s
alin
ities
; 96-
h LC
5Os
of 1
.1, 3
.2,
3.4,
4.4
, an
d 3.
6 m
g/l a
t 15
°C a
nd
salin
ities
of
5, 1
0, 1
5, 2
5,
and
35 p
pt,
resp
ectiv
ely
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m e b b
(D (D m to
(D m
r
0 z
0 c iil
V I= Ki
JZ u) ii
u)
?
u c iij
JZ u) ii
u) a, t
0 c iil
JZ u) ii
0 z
CJ, c 3 0
.- L L
8
a, c - !?? E 0
b a, c 0
0 c iij m
309
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TAB
LE 1
1 D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Bio
cide
s
Spe
cies
/ B
ay
Con
tam
inan
t co
mm
on n
ame
spec
iesa
Acr
iflav
in
Chl
orin
e
Cu
Sul
fate
Cu
Sul
fate
Form
alin
Trac
hinn
otus
co
rolin
us
(pom
pano
)
Cra
ssos
trea
virg
inic
a (E
aste
rn o
yste
r)
Mor
one
saxa
tilis
(s
tripe
d ba
ss)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Taxo
nom
ic
grou
p
Fish
Mol
lusk
s
Fish
Fish
Fish
Sal
inity
eff
ect
on t
oxic
ity
of c
onta
min
ant
Ref
.
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity e
ffect
68
on
juve
nile
s at
sal
initi
es
of 1
0, 2
0, a
nd 3
0 pp
t
Gre
ater
mor
talit
y fo
r ad
ults
in th
e hi
gher
sa
linity
ran
ge; 8
- to
10-
an
d 21
- to
25-
ppt s
alin
ity
rang
es u
sed
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
juve
nile
s at
low
er
salin
ities
; 96-
h LC
5Os
of
1.4,
1.5
, and
2.0
mg/
l at
sal
initi
es o
f 10
, 20,
an
d 30
ppt
, re
spec
tivel
y
72
68
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
69
finge
rling
s at
low
est
salin
ities
; 96-
h LC
5Os
of
2.68
, 8.
08,
and
7.88
mg/
l at
sal
initi
es o
f 5,
10,
and
15
ppt
, re
spec
tivel
y
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity
68
effe
ct o
n ju
veni
les
at
salin
ities
of
10, 2
0,
and
30 p
pt
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rson
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nly.
Form
alin
Pen
tach
loro
phen
ol
(PC
P)
Pen
tach
loro
phen
ol
(PC
P)
Pen
tach
loro
phen
ol
(PC
P)
Pen
tach
loro
phen
ol
(PC
P)
Pen
tach
loro
phen
ol
(PC
P)
M. s
axat
ilis
Yes
(s
tripe
d ba
ss)
Bra
chio
nus
Yes
ca
lyci
floru
s (r
otife
r)
Lim
nodr
ilus
Yes
ho
ffmei
ster
i (fr
eshw
ater
ol
igoc
haet
e w
orm
)
Tubi
fex
tubi
fex
Yes
(fr
eshw
ater
ol
igoc
haet
e w
orm
)
Styl
odril
us
No
herin
gian
us
(fres
hwat
er
olig
ocha
ete
wor
m)
Qui
stad
rilus
Y
es
mul
tiset
osus
(fr
eshw
ater
ol
igoc
haet
e w
orm
)
Fish
Lo
wes
t tox
icity
for
69
finge
rling
s at
inte
rmed
iate
sa
liniti
es; 9
6-h
LC5O
s of
4.9
6,
13.5
2, 1
5.48
, and
10.
84 m
g/l
at s
alin
ities
of
0, 5
, 10
, and
15
ppt
res
pect
ivel
y
Zoop
lank
ton
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
70
juve
nile
s at
hig
her
salin
ities
; 24-
h LC
5Os
of 1
.2, 0
.4,
and
0.5
mg/
l at
sal
initi
es o
f 0,
1,
and
5 pp
t, re
spec
tivel
y
Ann
elid
s S
igni
fican
tly g
reat
er
10
mor
talit
y fo
r ad
ults
in
fresh
wat
er;
0- a
nd 5
-ppt
sa
liniti
es u
sed
Ann
elid
s S
igni
fican
tly g
reat
er
10
mor
talit
y fo
r ad
ults
in
fresh
wat
er;
0- a
nd 5
-ppt
sa
liniti
es u
sed
Ann
elid
s S
igni
fican
tly g
reat
er
10
mor
talit
y fo
r ad
ults
in
fresh
wat
er;
0- a
nd 5
-ppt
sa
liniti
es u
sed
Ann
elid
s G
reat
er m
orta
lity
for
10
adul
ts a
t the
hig
her
salin
ity; 0
- an
d 5-
ppt
salin
ities
use
d
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0 z h
E
0 z
L v) ii
5 m a, Y (d a, Q (a v) a,
6 a
t s s .- .-
3 w c 3 0 0 0 v) a, rn ([I v)
a, ’c
.- L L
c
- 2
b
5 .-
E a, c 0
3 v) a, 0 a, Q v)
a, v) 0
.-
5 2 (d v) a, 0 a, Q 0 2. (d
.-
m
m
31 2
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fate was greater at lower salinities for both pompano and striped bass. The same two groups of investigators also assessed the effect of sa- linity on the toxicity of formalin to the same two fish species. In contrast to the results of the copper sulfate study, salinity was reported to have no significant effect on the toxicity of formalin to pompano, and this biocide was least toxic to striped bass at intermediate salinities.
Studies designed to determine the salinity/ biocide toxicity interactions were available with eight invertebrate species. Snell et al.70 reported that pentachlorophenol (PCP) was more toxic to the rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus at a higher salinity when tested at salinities of 0 to 5 ppt. This biocide was more toxic to grass shrimp at higher salinities when tested at a range of 10 to 35 ~ p t . ~ l Chlorine was also reported as more toxic to the eastern oyster when tested at the highest of two salinity ranges.72 Significant salinity/parasite (Perkinsas marinas) interac- tion contributed to greater chlorine toxicity at the higher salinity.
Chapman et al.1° conducted studies to de- termine the influence of salinity on the toxicity of PCP to four freshwater and one estuarine species of oligochaete worms. Three of the four freshwater species experienced higher mortality in fresh water (0 ppt) when compared with 5-ppt salinity. The one exception was higher mortality for Quistadrilus multisetosus at 5 ppt when compared with fresh water. These investigators also reported that PCP was more toxic to the estuarine oligochaete Mono- pylephorus cuticulatus at 10 ppt when com- pared with 20-ppt salinity.
There were no consistent significant trends for the effects of salinity on the toxicity of biocides. A summary of the entire biocide da- tabase showed that (1) 36% of the time the toxicity of the biocide was greater at higher salinity, (2) 43% of the time the toxicity in- creased at lower salinities, and (3) 21% of the time the toxicity was not significantly affected by salinity. Analysis of biocide data with at least one trophic group did show some possible
trends. The strongest correlation existed for the oligochaete worms, where four out of five spe- cies experienced higher mortalities at lower salinities with the same chemical (PCP). The biocide data with two fish species showed no clear trend, as no significant salinity effects were reported in three tests and opposing ef- fects of salinity were reported in the other three experiments. The copper sulfate data for both pompano and striped bass demonstrated that greater toxicity occurred at lower salinities.
L. Petroleum Hydrocarbons
Data from four studies addressing salinity effects on the toxicity of petroleum hydrocar- bons (other than polycylic aromatic hydrocar- bons) are summarized in Table 12. Data were available for one bivalve species and two spe- cies of fish. Tedengren and K a u t ~ k y ~ ~ investi- gated the salinityhoxicity effects of diesel oil on blue mussel (Mytilis edulis) respiration in salinities of 4.5 to 8.7 ppt. They reported that the greatest reductions in respiration occurred at lower salinities. In another study using crude oil as the contaminant, Engelhardt et al.74 as- sessed abnormalities in the gill morphology of salinity-acclimated rainbow trout in salinities of 0 and 20 ppt. These investigators reported fewer abnormalities with this freshwater fish species when exposed to crude oil in fresh water.
Two studies were designed to assess salin- ity effects on the toxicity of the water-soluble fraction of #2 fuel oil to the mummichog F. heteroclitus. Linden et al.75 exposed mummi- chog embryos to #2 crude oil at salinities of 10 to 30 ppt. No significant salinity/toxicity ef- fects on mummichog mortality were reported. In a later study, Linden et al.76 investigated the effect of #2 fuel oil on the growth of mummi- chog embryos at the same salinities (10 to 30 ppt) described above. No significant salin- ity effects were reported.
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TAB
LE 1
2 D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Pet
role
um H
ydro
carb
ons
Spe
cies
/ B
ay
Taxo
nom
ic
Sal
inity
eff
ect o
n to
xici
ty
Con
tam
inan
t co
mm
on n
ame
spec
iesa
gr
oup
of c
onta
min
ant
Die
sel o
il M
ytili
s ed
ulis
Y
es
Mol
lusk
s M
axim
um re
duct
ion
in a
dult
(blu
e m
usse
l) re
spira
tion
at lo
wer
sa
liniti
es; 4
5,
6.3-
, and
8.
7-pp
t sal
initi
es u
sed
with
m
usse
ls fr
om B
altic
Sea
Cru
de o
il O
ncor
hync
hus
Yes
m
ykis
s (r
ainb
ow tr
out)
#2 fu
el o
il Fu
ndul
us
Yes
he
tero
clitu
s (m
umm
icho
g)
#2 f
uel o
il F.
het
eroc
litus
Y
es
(mum
mic
hog)
Fish
Fish
Fish
Juve
nile
s te
sted
in fr
esh
wat
er h
ad le
ss a
bnor
mal
gi
ll m
orph
olog
y th
an th
ose
expo
sed
to a
hig
her
salin
ity (
20 p
pt)
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity
effe
ct o
n em
bryo
sur
viva
l at
salin
ities
of
10, 2
0, a
nd 3
0 pp
t
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity
effe
ct o
n em
bryo
gro
wth
at
salin
ities
of
10, 2
0, a
nd 3
0 pp
t
Ref
.
73
74
75
76
a
Bay
spe
cies
are
thos
e sp
ecie
s w
ith o
ne o
r m
ore
life
stag
es o
ccur
ring
with
in th
e C
hesa
peak
e B
ay.
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No strong trends were apparent for the ef- fects of salinity on the toxicity of petroleum hydrocarbons. A summary of these limited data showed that (1) 25% of the time the toxicity of the petroleum hydrocarbon was greater at higher salinities, (2) 25% of the time the toxicity was greater at lower salinities, and (3) 50% of the time no salinity effect on the toxicity of petro- leum hydrocarbons was reported. A wider range of salinities was used in the rainbow trout study compared with the mussel study (0 to 20 ppt vs. 4.5 to 8.7 ppt), which may have influenced the contrasting results. Another factor to be con- sidered when reviewing these types of data is the life stage of the species involved. In the two studies with Fundulus embryos and #2 fuel oil, no significant salinity/toxicity effect was re- ported. The chorion surrounding these embryos during the experiment may have influenced the salinity/toxicity effects.
M. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of organic compounds containing one or more aromatic ring structures. Data from three studies that addressed salinity effects on the toxicity of PAHs to one crab species and two species of fish are summarized in Table 13. One study addressed the salinity/toxicity ef- fects of two different PAHs on the mud crab
Taylor79 reported the greatest mortality at sa- linities below 8 ppt and above 15 ppt for adult mummichog exposed to naphthalene at salini- ties of 2 to 33 ppt.
Consistent trends were not reported from the limited data addressing salinity effects on the toxicity of PAHs. A summary of the entire PAH data set showed that (1) toxicity increased at higher salinities with 40% of the organisms tested, (2) toxicity increased at lower salinities with 20% of the test species, and (3) in 40% of the tests reviewed there was no significant sa- linity effect. When the effects of salinity on the toxicity of naphthalene and phenanthrene were assessed for the mud crab, the highest test sa- linity was 25 ppt, and the larval life stage was used. Conversely, when the salinity/toxicity effects of naphthalene and toluene were as- sessed with Tilapia, the maximum salinity was 35 ppt, and adults were used. Differences in testing procedures for these studies make exact comparisons difficult. Factors such as life stage and maximum salinity differences are impor- tant when assessing an organism’s response in salinity/toxicity effects interaction experiments.
A wide salinity range was used (2 to 33 ppt) when assessing the salinity/toxicity effects of naphthalene on the mummichog. The greatest toxicity was reported at the upper and lower bounds of the salinity range. These data sug- gest that this euryhaline species is more resis- tant to PAH exposure at isosmotic salinities (about one third seawater), possibly due to the minimization of osmotic stress.
Rhithropanopeus harrisii. No significant salin- ity/toxicity effects occurred when Laughlin and Neff 77 exposed mud crab larvae to naphthalene at salinities ranging from 5 to 25 PPt. However, when mud crab larvae were exposed to phenan- threne using an identical experimental design, toxicity increased in lower salinities.
The mortality of adult Tilapia increased at higher salinities (0 to 35 ppt) after exposure to naphthalene or toluene.78 A different result was reported with another fish species. Levitan and
N. Industrial and Agricultural Organic Chemicals
The influence of salinity on the toxicity of seven different industrial and agricultural or- ganic chemicals to ten aquatic species is pre- sented in Table 14. Medlinso reported that the slowest growth (adverse effect) for the diatom
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TAB
LE 1
3 D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Pol
ycyc
lic A
rom
atic
Hyd
roca
rbon
s
Con
tam
inan
t
Nap
htha
lene
Phe
nant
hren
e
Nap
htha
lene
Tolu
ene
Nap
htha
lene
Spe
cies
/ co
mm
on n
ame
Rhi
thro
pano
peus
ha
rris
ii (m
ud c
rab)
R. h
arris
ii (m
ud c
rab)
Ore
ochr
omis
m
ossa
mbi
cus
(tila
pia)
0. m
ossa
mbi
cus
(tila
pia)
Fund
ulus
he
tero
clitu
s (m
umm
icho
g)
Bay
sp
ecie
sa
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Taxo
nom
ic
grou
p
C ru
stac
ea
Cru
stac
ea
Fish
Fish
Fish
Sal
inity
eff
ect o
n to
xici
ty
of c
onta
min
ant
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity e
ffect
on
larv
al s
urvi
val a
t sa
liniti
es o
f 5, 15
, and
25
ppt
Incr
ease
d la
rval
mor
talit
y in
lo
wer
sal
initi
es; 5-, 1
5, a
nd
25-p
pt s
alin
ities
use
d
Adu
lt m
orta
lity
incr
ease
d at
hi
gher
sal
initi
es; 0
-, 20
-, an
d 35
-ppt
sal
initi
es u
sed
Adu
lt m
orta
lity
incr
ease
d at
hi
gher
sal
initi
es; 0
-, 2
0-, a
nd
35-p
pt s
alin
ities
use
d
Max
imum
adu
lt m
orta
lity
at
salin
ities
bel
ow 8
ppt
and
ab
ove
15 p
pt; s
alin
ities
of
2, 8
, 15
, 23,
and
33
ppt u
sed
Ref
.
77
77
78
78
79
a B
ay s
peci
es a
re th
ose
spec
ies
with
one
or
mor
e lif
e st
ages
occ
urrin
g w
ithin
the
Che
sape
ake
Bay
.
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8 8 m a3
d 03
C 0
a a, 0 a v) 3 c
G c g I:
u) ii
u) s v) s
n Q E .-
- 0
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TAB
LE 1
4 (c
ontin
ued)
D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
indu
stri
al
and
Agr
icul
tura
l Org
anic
Che
mic
als
Spe
cies
/ B
ay
Taxo
nom
ic
Sal
inity
eff
ect o
n to
xici
ty
Con
tam
inan
t co
mm
on n
ame
spec
iesa
gr
oup
of c
onta
min
ant
Ref
.
4-N
itrop
heno
l C.
var
iega
tus
Yes
Fi
sh
Sig
nific
antly
gre
ater
84
(s
heep
shea
d ju
veni
le to
xici
ty in
low
er
min
now
) sa
liniti
es; 9
6-h
LC5O
s of
25
.3, 2
6.7,
30.
7, a
nd 2
8.0
mg/
l at
22°C
and
sa
liniti
es o
f 15
, 20,
25,
an
d 30
ppt
, res
pect
ivel
y
4-N
itrop
heno
l C
. var
iega
tus
Yes
Fi
sh
(she
epsh
ead
min
now
)
AB
S d
eter
gent
Fu
ndul
us
Yes
Fi
sh
hete
rocl
itus
(mum
mic
hog)
AB
S d
eter
gent
A
ngui
lla r
ostra
ta
Yes
Fi
sh
(Am
eric
an e
el)
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity
83
effe
ct o
n em
bryo
and
la
rval
NO
EC
val
ues;
15-
, 20
-, an
d 25
-ppt
sal
initi
es
used
Am
ong
salin
ity tr
eatm
ents
82
of
5-4
5 pp
t with
juve
nile
s,
the
low
est m
orta
lity
occu
rred
in a
sal
inity
ra
nge
of 1
3-21
ppt
, with
th
e gr
eate
st m
orta
lity
occu
rrin
g ab
ove
that
ran
ge
Am
ong
salin
ity tr
eatm
ents
82
of
4-3
6 pp
t with
juve
nile
s,
the
low
est m
orta
lity
occu
rred
at a
sal
inity
of
abou
t 12
ppt
, with
the
grea
test
mor
talit
y oc
curr
ing
at a
ny s
alin
ity
abov
e 12
ppt
and
a le
sser
m
orta
lity
occu
rrin
g be
low
12
PPt
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Bla
ck li
quor
Li
mno
drilu
s (to
xic
pulp
ho
ffmei
ster
i m
ill e
fflue
nt
(fres
hwat
er
prod
uced
from
ol
igoc
haet
e w
orm
) pi
ne s
ourc
es)
Bla
ck li
quor
T
ubife
x tu
bife
x (fr
eshw
ater
ol
igoc
haet
e w
orm
)
Bla
ck li
quor
Bla
ck li
quor
LAS
(s
urfa
ctan
t)
Sty
lodr
ilus
herin
gian
us
(fres
hwat
er
olig
ocha
ete
wor
m)
Mon
opyl
epho
rus
cutic
ulat
us
(est
uarin
e ol
igoc
haet
e w
orm
)
Var
ious
nat
ural
po
pula
tions
of
fresh
wat
er a
nd
mar
ine
bact
erio
plan
kton
Pha
thal
ate
Ske
leto
nem
a co
sta t
um
(dia
tom
)
PC
B
P. p
ugio
(g
rass
shr
imp)
Yes
Yes
No
No
Not
gi
ven
Yes
Yes
Ann
elid
s S
igni
fican
tly g
reat
er
10
mor
talit
y fo
r ad
ults
in
fresh
wat
er;
0- a
nd 5
-ppt
sa
liniti
es u
sed
Ann
elid
s S
igni
fican
tly g
reat
er
mor
talit
y fo
r ad
ults
in
fresh
wat
er;
0- a
nd 5
-ppt
sa
liniti
es u
sed
Ann
elid
s S
igni
fican
tly g
reat
er
mor
talit
y fo
r ad
ults
in
fresh
wat
er; 0
- an
d 5-
ppt
salin
ities
use
d
Ann
elid
s S
imila
r mor
talit
ies
for
adul
ts;
10- a
nd 2
0-pp
t sa
liniti
es u
sed
10
10
10
Bac
teria
M
axim
um to
xici
ty in
hig
her
44
salin
ities
, as
dem
onst
rate
d by
a s
igni
fican
t neg
ativ
e co
rrel
atio
n be
twee
n LC
50
valu
es a
nd s
alin
ity
Phy
topl
ankt
on
Slo
wes
t gro
wth
at
low
er
80
salin
ities
; 14
-, 22
-, 27
-, an
d 36
-ppt
sal
initi
es u
sed
Cru
stac
ea
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity e
ffect
81
at
sal
initi
es o
f 1,
7,
14, 2
1,
28,
and
35 p
pt
a B
ay s
peci
es a
re th
ose
spec
ies
with
one
or
mor
e lif
e st
ages
occ
urrin
g w
ithin
the
Che
sape
ake
Bay
.
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iew
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Skeletuneina costaturn occurred at the lowest salinity (14- to 36-ppt range) when exposed to phthalate. Pulp mill effluent was also reported
the herbicide atrazine (Table 15). Maximum atrazine toxicity occurred in an acute study with the estuarine zooplankter Eurytemora
more toxic to three freshwater oligochaete spe- cies in fresh water when compared with 5-ppt saline water.'O However, the toxicity of this effluent was reported to increase with salinity for an estuarine oligochaete species. Other in- vestigators have reported that the maximum toxicity of LAS (linear alkylbenzene sulfonate) to bacteria occurred at the highest salinity.j4 In contrast to the above studies, salinity did not affect the toxicity of PCBs to grass shrimp tested at a range of 1 to 35 ppt.81
The influence of salinity on the toxicity of ABS detergent to two fish speTMTMcies was determined by Using a test salinity range of 5 to 45 ppt, this investigator reported that ABS detergent was less toxic to mummi- chogs at a salinity range of 13 to 2 1 ppt. Higher mortality occurred above 21 ppt. ABS deter- gent was less toxic to the American eel at 12 ppt, with the highest mortality occurring above this salinity. Linton et reported higher sur- vival for sheepshead minnow embryos at inter- mediate salinities when exposed to 2,4-dinitro- phenol or 4-nitrophenol. Other investigators reported significantly greater toxicity at lower salinities for grass shrimp and sheepshead min- no\ s exposed to 4-nitrophenol and sheepshead minnows exposed to 2,4-dinitrophen01.~ In con- trast, these investigators reported significantly greater toxicity for 2,4-dinitrophenol exposed to grass shrimp at higher salinities.
The salinitykontaminant interaction data with industrial and agricultural organics showed no clear trend. The three possible effects (great- est effects at lower salinities, greatest effects at higher salinities, or no effect of salinity on toxicity) were equally distributed among the various organic chemicals.
0. Herbicides
Salinityhoxicity data were available from two acute and one chronic toxicity study with
afinis at the lowest salinity when tested at 5 , 15, and 25 ~ p t . ~ ~ In contrast, atrazine was most toxic to sheepshead minnow larvae in acute tests at the highest salinity when tested at the same salinity range.85 Results from three 8-d chronic life cycle tests with E. afinis suggested that this species was more resistant to atrazine exposure at the middle salinity (15 ppt) when compared with either 5 or 25 ppt.86
Salinity influenced the acute toxicity of atra- zine to both zooplankton and fish; opposite trends occurred for each species. The chronic data for atrazine with E. afJinis suggested that this species was more physiologically effective at metabolizing and/or mitigating the toxic ef- fects of this herbicide at the middle salinity.
P. Organophosphate Insecticides
The influence of salinity on the toxicity of 12 different organophosphate insecticides tested with seven species is presented in Table 16. Data were available for four different species of fish, but several studies were conducted with three of these species. Various investigators reported that the toxicity of Terbufos, Dichlor- vos, and Methyl Parathion increased with in- creasing salinities (12 to 36 ppt) with the mum- michog and sheepshead m i n n o ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Results from three other studies showed there was no significant effect of salinity on the toxicity of Acephate, Trichlorfon (15 to 30 ppt) and Azinphosmethyl (5 to 20 ppt) to either fish s p e ~ i e s . ~ ~ , ~ ~ , ~ ~ Katzgo reported consistent trends of increasing toxicity with increasing salinity for the three-spined stickleback Gasterusteus aculealus, exposed to Azinphosmethyl, Malathion and Co-Ral in acute experiments. Other investigators have reported increasing toxicity of Malathion exposed to striped bass (Morone saxatilis) juveniles in fresh water (0 ppt) when compared with very low salinity conditions of 1 ~ p t . ~ ~
320
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TAB
LE 1
5 D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Her
bici
des
Spe
cies
/ B
ay
Taxo
nom
ic
Atra
zine
E
uryt
emor
a af
finis
Y
es
Zoop
lank
ton
Con
tam
inan
t co
mm
on n
ame
spec
iesa
gr
oup
(cop
epod
s)
Atra
zine
Atra
zine
E. a
ffini
s Y
es
Zoop
lank
ton
(cop
epod
s)
Cyp
rinod
on
Yes
Fi
sh
varie
gatu
s (s
heep
shea
d m
inno
w)
Sal
inity
eff
ect o
n to
xici
ty
of c
onta
min
ant
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
larv
ae a
t lo
wes
t sal
inity
; 96-
h LC
5Os
of
0.5,
2.6
, an
d 13
.2 m
g/l a
t sa
liniti
es o
f 5,
15,
and
25
ppt,
resp
ectiv
ely
Chr
onic
val
ues
from
8-d
stu
dies
w
ere
14.6
, 20
.9,
and
5.01
mg/
l at
sal
initi
es o
f 5,
15,
and
25
ppt,
resp
ectiv
ely;
Atra
zine
was
leas
t to
xic
at th
e m
iddl
e sa
linity
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
larv
ae
at h
ighe
st s
alin
ity; 9
6-h
LC5O
s of
16.
2, 2
.3,
and
2.0
mg/
l at
salin
ities
of
5, 1
5, a
nd 2
5 pp
t, re
spec
tivel
y
Ref
.
85
86
85
a B
ay s
peci
es a
re th
ose
spec
ies
with
one
or
mor
e lif
e st
ages
occ
urrin
g w
ithin
the
Che
sape
ake
Bay
.
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tical
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iew
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TAB
LE 1
6 D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Org
anop
hosp
hate
Inse
ctic
ides
Con
tam
inan
t
Ace
phat
e
Azi
npho
smet
hyl
(Gut
hion
)
Spe
cies
/ co
mm
on n
ame
Fund
ulus
he
tero
clitu
s (m
umm
icho
g)
Pal
aem
onet
es
pugi
o (g
rass
shr
imp)
Azi
n p ho
smet
h y I
F. h
e ter
oclit
us
(Gut
hion
) (m
umm
icho
g)
Azi
npho
smet
hyl
Gas
tero
steu
s (G
uthi
on)
acul
ealu
s (th
ree-
spin
e st
ickl
ebac
k)
Co-
Ral
G
. acu
leal
us
(thre
e-sp
ine
stic
kleb
ack)
Bay
Ta
xono
mic
S
alin
ity e
ffec
t on
toxi
city
sp
ecie
sa
grou
p of
con
tam
i nan
t R
ef.
Yes
Fi
sh
Low
sal
inity
had
no
effe
ct
88
on m
orta
lity
in a
dults
Yes
C
rust
acea
N
o si
gnifi
cant
sal
inity
89
ef
fect
for
adul
ts; 9
6-h
LC5O
s of
0.9
7 an
d 1.
05 p
g/I
at s
alin
ities
of
5 an
d 20
ppt
, re
spec
tivel
y
Yes
Fi
sh
Yes
Fi
sh
Yes
Fi
sh
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity
89
effe
ct fo
r ad
ults
; 96
-h L
C5O
s of
28.
00 a
nd 3
6.95
pg/
I at
salin
ities
of
5 an
d 20
ppt
, re
spec
tivel
y
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
adul
ts
90
at h
ighe
r sa
liniti
es; 9
6-h
TL,50
s of
12.
1 an
d 4.
8 pg
/I at
sal
initi
es o
f 5
and
25 p
pt,
resp
ectiv
ely
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
adul
ts
90
at h
ighe
r sa
liniti
es; 9
6-h
TL,50
s of
186
2.0
and
1470
.0 p
g/I a
t sal
initi
es o
f 5
and
25 p
pt, r
espe
ctiv
ely
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Dic
hlor
vos
Dic
hlor
vos
Fent
hion
Feni
troth
ion
Mal
athi
on
Mal
athi
on
Met
hyl
Par
athi
on
P.
vulg
aris
Y
es
Cru
stac
ea
Incr
ease
d ad
ult m
orta
lity
at
91
(gra
ss s
hrim
p)
high
er s
alin
ities
; 12-
, 18-
, 24-
, 30
, and
36-
ppt
salin
ities
use
d
F. h
eter
oclit
us
Yes
Fi
sh
Incr
ease
d ad
ult m
orta
lity
at
a7
(mum
mic
hog)
hi
gher
sal
initi
es; 1
2-, 1
8-, 2
4-,
30-,
and
36-p
pt s
alin
ities
use
d
Mys
idop
sis
bahi
a N
o C
rust
acea
M
axim
um to
xici
ty fo
r ju
veni
les
94
(opo
ssum
shr
imp)
at
low
est s
alin
ity; 9
6-h
LC5O
s of
0.2
1, 0
.29,
and
0.2
8 pg
/I at
sa
liniti
es o
f 10
, 21,
and
32
ppt,
resp
ectiv
ely
Cal
linec
tes
sapi
dus
(blu
e cr
ab)
Yes
C
rust
acea
M
ean
deat
h tim
e of
juv
enile
s 92
w
as s
igni
fican
tly s
horte
r at
34
-ppt
sal
inity
than
at
17 p
pt
G. a
cule
alus
Y
es
Fish
(th
ree-
spin
e st
ickl
ebac
k)
Mor
one
saxa
tilis
Y
es
Fish
(s
tripe
d ba
ss)
F. h
eter
oclit
us
Yes
Fi
sh
(mum
mic
hog)
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
adul
ts
at h
ighe
r sal
initi
es; 9
6-h
TL,50
s of
94.
0 an
d 76
.9 p
g/l
at s
alin
ities
of 5
and 25 p
pt,
resp
ectiv
ely
Max
imum
toxi
city
to 5
6-d-
old
juve
nile
s in
low
est s
alin
ity;
96-h
LC
5Os
of 2
4.5
and
65.0
pg/
I in
sal
initi
es o
f 0
and
1 pp
t, re
spec
tivel
y
Incr
ease
d ad
ult m
orta
lity
at
high
er s
alin
ities
; 12
-, 18
-, 24
-, 30
-, an
d 36
-ppt
sal
initi
es
used
90
33
87
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0
N
P
TAB
LE 1
6 (c
ontin
ued)
D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Org
anop
hosp
hate
Inse
ctic
ides
Con
tam
inan
t co
mm
on n
ame
spec
iesa
Par
athi
on
Cha
smag
na th
us
No
Spe
cies
/ B
ay
gran
ulat
a (e
stua
rine
crab
)
Mev
inph
os
P.
vulg
aris
(g
rass
shr
imp)
Terb
ufos
Te rb
u f 0s
P. p
ugio
(g
rass
shr
imp)
Cyp
rinod
on
varie
gatu
s (s
heep
shea
d m
inno
w)
Tric
hlor
fon
P. p
ugio
(g
rass
shr
imp)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Taxo
nom
ic
grou
p
Cru
stac
ea
Cru
stac
ea
Cru
stac
ea
Fish
Cru
stac
ea
Sal
inity
eff
ect
on t
oxic
ity
of c
onta
min
ant
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
adul
ts
at h
ighe
r sal
initi
es; 9
6-h
LC5O
s of
0.7
4, 0
.65,
and
0.4
6 m
g/l
at s
alin
ities
of
7.5,
15,
and
30
ppt
, res
pect
ivel
y
Incr
ease
d ad
ult m
orta
lity
at
high
er s
alin
ities
; 12
-, 18
-, 24
-, 30
-, an
d 36
-ppt
sal
initi
es
used
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity e
ffect
fo
r ju
veni
les;
96-
h LC
5Os
of
5.6,
5.7
, 5.
4, a
nd 5
.8 p
g/I a
t 22
°C a
nd s
alin
ities
of
15, 2
0,
25, a
nd 3
0 pp
t, re
spec
tivel
y
Sig
nific
antly
gre
ater
juve
nile
to
xici
ty in
hig
her s
alin
ities
;
and
4.0
pg/l
at 2
2°C
and
sa
liniti
es o
f 15
, 20,
25,
and
30
ppt
, re
spec
tivel
y
96-h
LC5
OS
Of 4.
6, 4
.5, 4
.1,
Sig
nific
antly
gre
ater
toxi
city
to
juve
nile
s at
hig
her s
alin
ities
;
and
7.2
pg/1
at 2
2°C
and
sa
liniti
es o
f 15
, 20,
25,
and
30
ppt
, re
spec
tivel
y
96-h
LC
50s
of 8
.3,
7.0,
6.4
,
Ref
.
93
91
84
84
84
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c v) ii
b Q) c 0
m
325
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Salinity interaction studies were available for four species of invertebrates. The acute toxicity of Trichlorfon, Dichlorvos, and Mevinphos increased with increasing salinity with the grass ~ h r i m p . ~ ~ . ~ ' There were no ef- fects of salinity on the toxicity of Terbufos and Azinphosmethyl to grass shrimp.*j 89 Johnston and CorbetP reported that the mean time to death was significantly shorter for the blue crab Ca1tinecte.s supidus at higher salinities after exposure to Fenitrothion. Other investigators reported a similar trend, as the toxicity of Par- athion increased with increasing salinities for the estuarine crab Chasmagnathus granulata.y3 The only data that appear contradictory to the above invertebrate data were reported by Bc>rthwick.94 This investigator reported that the maximum toxicity of Fenthion occurred at the lowest salinity for the juvenile oppossum shrimp My s idops is ha h ia ,
The most consistent salinity/toxicity trend reported for the organophosphate insecticides was increasing toxicity with increasing salinity (6.5% of the studies). This trend occurred at the same level with both fish (67% of the studies) and invertebrates (63% of the studies). Twelve percent of the studies showed increasing toxic- ity with decreasing salinity, and 23% showed no significant effects of salinity on the toxicity of these insecticides.
Q. Chlorinated Insecticides
Hydrocarbon
Data mere available from salinityhoxicity studies with ten different chlorinated hydrocar- bon insecticides tested with five different es- tuarine species (Table 17). Three different fish species were tested in these studies. One of the more comprehensive efforts was conducted by Kat7,"1 who exposed the three-spine stickle- back to nine different insecticides. The toxicity of Toxaphene, Aldrin, Dieldrin, DDT, and Methoxychlor were reported to increase with
increasing salinity (5 and 25 ppt). In contrast, the toxicity of Lindane, Chlordane, and Endrin increased at lower salinities when tested at both 5 and 25 ppt. Katzgo also reported that salinity did not influence the toxicity of Heptachlor to the three-spine stickleback. Other investigators reported similar findings for the mummichog, as salinity was reported to have no significant effect on the toxicity of DDT, Endrin, Hep- tachlor, and E n d o s ~ l f a n . ~ ~ J ~ Palawski et al.33 reported that Toxaphene was more toxic to juvenile striped bass in fresh water (0 ppt) than 1 -ppt salinity.
Salinity/chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide toxicity data were available for two species of estuarine invertebrates. Eisler9' reported de- creased toxicity at increasing salinities (12 to 30 ppt) for the grass shrimp exposed to DDT, Endrin, and Heptachlor. Other investigators re- ported no significant effects of salinity on the toxicity of pulsed doses of Endosulfan to the grass shrimp.x9 In another toxicity study with Endosulfan, Borthwickg4 reported maximum toxicity at both the low (10 ppt) and high sa- linities (32 ppt) with the opposum shrimp. Endosulfan was less toxic to this crustacean at the middle salinity of 21 ppt.
There were no consistent trends apparent for the influence of salinity on the toxicity of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides: ( 1) 25% of the studies showed that maximum toxicity occurred at the highest salinity, (2) 37% of the studies demonstrated that maximum toxicity occurred at the lowest salinity, (3) 32% of the studies showed that salinity did not affect the toxicity of these insecticides, and (4) 5% of the studies (one study) showed that toxicity was greatest at both the highest and lowest salinity.
R. Pyrethroid Insecticides
Salinity/pyrethoid insecticide toxicity data were available for four species tested with Fenvalerate (Table 18). Results from two dif-
326
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TAB
LE 1
7 D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Chl
orin
ated
Hyd
roca
rbon
s
Con
tam
inan
t
Ald
rin
Chl
orda
ne
DD
T
DD
T
DD
T
Spe
cies
/ B
ay
com
mon
nam
e sp
ecie
sa
Gas
tero
steu
s Y
es
acul
ealu
s (th
ree-
spin
e st
ickl
ebac
k)
G. a
cule
alus
(th
ree-
spin
e st
ickl
ebac
k)
Pal
aem
onet
es
vulg
aris
(g
rass
shr
imp)
Fund
ulus
he
tero
clitu
s (m
umm
icho
g)
G. a
cule
alus
(th
ree-
spin
e st
ickl
ebac
k)
Taxo
nom
ic
Sal
inity
eff
ect
on to
xici
ty
grou
p of
con
tam
inan
t R
ef.
Fis
h M
axim
um to
xici
ty fo
r ad
ults
at
90
high
er s
alin
ities
; 96-
h TL
m50
s of
39.
8 an
d 27
.4 p
g/I a
t sa
liniti
es o
f 5
and
25 p
pt,
resp
ectiv
ely
Yes
F
ish
Yes
Max
imum
toxi
city
for a
dults
at
low
er s
alin
ities
; 96-
h TL
m50
s of
90.
0 an
d 16
0.0
pg/l
at
salin
ities
of
5 an
d 25
ppt
, re
spec
tivel
y
90
Cru
stac
ea
Dec
reas
ed a
dult
mor
talit
y 91
w
ith in
crea
sed
salin
ity;
salin
ities
of
12,
18, 2
4, 3
0,
and
36 p
pt u
sed
Yes
F
ish
Yes
F
ish
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity e
ffect
for
adul
ts a
t 12
-, 18
-, 24
-, 30
-, an
d 36
-ppt
sal
inity
87
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
adul
ts a
t hi
gher
sal
initi
es; 9
6-h
TLm
50s
of 1
8.0
and
11.5
pg/
I at
salin
ities
of
5 an
d 25
ppt
, re
spec
tivel
y
90
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TAB
LE 1
7 (c
ontin
ued)
D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Influ
ence
of
Sal
inity
on
the
Toxi
city
of
Chl
orin
ated
H
ydro
carb
ons
Spe
cies
/ C
onta
min
ant
com
mon
nam
e
Die
ldrin
G
. ac
ulea
lus
(thre
e-sp
ine
stic
kleb
ack)
End
osul
fan
Mys
idop
sis
bahi
a (m
ysid
shr
imp)
End
osul
fan
P. p
ugio
(g
rass
shr
imp)
End
osul
fan
F. h
eter
oclit
us
(mum
mic
hog)
End
rin
P. v
ulga
ris
(gra
ss s
hrim
p)
End
rin
F. h
eter
oclit
us
(mum
mic
hog)
Bay
Ta
xono
mic
Yes
Fi
sh
spec
iesa
gr
oup
No
Cru
stac
ea
Yes
C
rust
acea
Yes
Fi
sh
Yes
C
rust
acea
Yes
Fi
sh
Sal
inity
eff
ect o
n to
xici
ty
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
adul
ts a
t
of c
onta
min
ant
Ref
.
90
high
er s
alin
ities
; 96-
h TL
,50s
of 1
5.3
and
13.1
pg/
I at
salin
ities
of
5 an
d 25
ppt
, re
spec
tivel
y
at h
ighe
st a
nd lo
wes
t sa
liniti
es; 9
6-h
LC5O
s of
0.3
2,
1.1 9
, and
0.9
7 pg
/I at
sal
initi
es
of 1
0, 2
1, a
nd 3
2 pp
t, re
spec
tivel
y
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity e
ffect
for
adul
ts; 6
-h (
puls
ed d
ose)
LC
5Os
of 3
.81
and
4.35
pg/
l at
sal
initi
es o
f 5
and
20 p
pt,
resp
ectiv
ely
for
adul
ts; 9
6-h
LC5O
s of
1.
29 a
nd 1
.45
ugh
at s
alin
ities
of
5 a
nd 2
0 pp
t, re
spec
tivel
y
incr
ease
d sa
linity
; sal
initi
es
of 1
2, 1
8, 2
4, 3
0, a
nd 3
6 pp
t us
ed
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity e
ffect
fo
r ad
ults
at
12-,
18-,
24-,
30-,
and
36-p
pt s
alin
ity
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
juve
nile
s 94
89
No
sign
ifica
nt s
alin
ity e
ffect
89
Dec
reas
ed a
du I t
mor
talit
y w
ith
91
87
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End
rin
G. a
cule
alus
(th
ree-
spin
e st
ickl
ebac
k)
Yes
Fi
sh
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
adul
ts a
t lo
wer
sal
initi
es: 9
6-h
TLm
50s
of 4
4.0
and
50.0
pg/
l at
salin
ities
of
5 an
d 25
ppt
, re
spec
tivel
y
90
Hep
tach
lor
Hep
tach
lor
Hep
tach
lor
Lind
ane
P.
vulg
aris
(g
rass
shr
imp)
Y
es
Cru
stac
ea
Dec
reas
ed a
dult
mor
talit
y w
ith
incr
ease
d sa
linity
: sal
initi
es o
f 12
, 18
, 24,
30,
and
36
ppt u
sed
91
Yes
Yes
Fish
Fish
87
90
90
90
90
F. h
eter
oclit
us
(mum
mic
hog)
N
o si
gnifi
cant
sal
inity
effe
ct
for
adul
ts a
t 12
-, 1
8-, 2
4-,
30-,
an
d 36
-ppt
sal
inity
No
salin
ity e
ffect
for
adul
ts:
96-h
TLm
50s o
f 11
1.9
and
11 1.
5 pg
/I at
sal
initi
es o
f 5
and
25 p
pt, r
espe
ctiv
ely
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
adul
ts a
t lo
wer
sal
initi
es; 9
6-h
TLm
50s o
f 44
.0 a
nd 5
0.0
pg/I
at s
alin
ities
of
5 a
nd 2
5 pp
t, re
spec
tivel
y
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
adul
ts a
t hi
gher
sal
initi
es; 9
6-h
TLm
50s
of 8
6.4
and
69.1
pg/
I at
salin
ities
of 5
and
25
ppt,
resp
ectiv
ely
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
adul
ts a
t hi
gher
sal
initi
es; 9
6-h
TLm
50s
of 8
.6 a
nd 7
.8 p
g/l a
t sal
initi
es
of 5
and
25
ppt,
resp
ectiv
ely
G. a
cule
alus
(th
ree-
spin
e st
ickl
ebac
k)
G. a
cule
alus
(th
ree-
spin
e st
ickl
ebac
k)
Yes
Fi
sh
Yes
Fi
sh
Met
hoxy
chlo
r G
. acu
leal
us
(thre
e-sp
ine
stic
kleb
ack)
G. a
cule
alus
(th
ree-
spin
e st
ickl
ebac
k)
Yes
Fi
sh
Toxa
phen
e
Toxa
phen
e M
oron
e sa
xatil
is
(stri
ped
bass
) Y
es
Fish
M
axim
um to
xici
ty to
56-
d-ol
d ju
veni
les
in lo
wes
t sal
inity
: 96
-h L
C5O
s of
5.4
and
7.6
pg/
l in
sal
initi
es o
f 0
and
1 pp
t, re
spec
tivel
y
33
a B
ay s
peci
es a
re th
ose
spec
ies
with
one
or
mor
e lif
e st
ages
occ
urrin
g w
ithin
the
Che
sape
ake
Bay
.
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iew
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w
0
0
TAB
LE 1
8 D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Eff
ect o
f S
alin
ity o
n th
e To
xici
ty o
f P
yret
hroi
d In
sect
icid
es
Con
tam
inan
t
Fenv
aler
ate
Fenv
ale r
ate
Fenv
aler
ate
Fenv
aler
ate
Fenv
ale r
ate
Spe
cies
/ co
mm
on n
ame
Mys
idop
sis
bahi
a (m
ysid
shr
imp)
Pal
aem
onet
es p
ugio
(g
rass
shr
imp)
P. p
ugio
(g
rass
shr
imp)
Fund
ulus
het
eroc
litus
(m
umm
icho
g)
Lepo
mis
mac
roch
irus
(blu
egill
)
Bay
sp
ecie
sa
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Taxo
nom
ic
grou
p
Cru
stac
ea
Cru
stac
ea
Cru
stac
ea
Fish
Fish
Sal
inity
eff
ect
on to
xici
ty
of c
onta
min
ant
Ref
.
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
94
juve
nile
s at
hig
hest
and
lo
wes
t sal
initi
es; 9
6-h
LC50
s of
0.0
075,
0.0
26, a
nd
0.00
89 y
g/I a
t sal
initi
es o
f 10
, 21
and
32 p
pt,
resp
ectiv
ely
Hig
her o
xyge
n co
nsum
ptio
n by
95
ju
veni
les
in lo
wes
t sal
inity
; lo
-, 2
0-, a
nd 3
0-pp
t sa
liniti
es u
sed
Gre
ater
toxi
city
at
low
er
salin
ities
for
zoea
; 96
-h
LC50
s of
0.0
07 a
nd 0
.020
pg/
I at
sal
initi
es o
f 10
and
20
ppt,
resp
ectiv
ely
89
Max
imum
toxi
city
for
adul
ts a
t lo
wer
sal
initi
es;
96-h
LC
5Os
of 1
.63
and
2.86
pg/
I at
salin
ities
of
5 an
d 20
ppt
, re
spec
tivel
y
89
Wea
k tre
nd o
f in
crea
sed
toxi
city
for
adul
ts a
t hi
gher
sa
liniti
es; 9
6-h
LC5O
s of
1.5
4,
1.22
, 0.8
9 an
d 1.
19 y
g/I a
t sa
liniti
es o
f 4.
2, 8
.5,
11.2
an
d 13
.6 p
pt,
resp
ectiv
ely
96
a B
ay s
peci
es a
re th
ose
spec
ies
with
one
or
mor
e lif
e st
ages
occ
urrin
g w
ithin
the
Che
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ake
Bay
.
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iew
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ferent studies with grass shrimp demonstrated that both oxygen consumption and mortality were greater at lower ~ a l i n i t i e s . ~ ~ . ~ ~ The maxi- mum toxicity of Fenvalerate to opossum shrimp occurred at the lowest (10 ppt) and highest (32 ppt) test salinity.94 Fenvalerate was least toxic to opposum shrimp at the middle salinity of 21 ppt. Scott et al.89 reported that Fenvalerate was more toxic to the mummichog at 5 ppt than at 20 ppt. A weak trend of increasing toxicity of Fenvalerate with increasing salinity was re- ported for the bluegill Lepomis rn~crochirus.~~ Because the bluegill is a freshwater fish, it is questionable whether the salinity or the insec- ticide was the stressful agent in this study.
The major salinity/pyrethroid insecticide toxicity trend with these data was increased adverse effects at lower salinities (60% of the studies). Approximately 20% of the studies showed either maximum adverse effects at the higher salinities or maximum toxicity at the low- est and highest salinity within a specific study.
S. Carbamate Insecticides
Salinity/carbamate insecticide toxicity data were available for two fish species with Car- baryl (Table 19). Katzgo reported no salinity effects for the three-spine stickleback exposed to Carbaryl at 5 and 25 ppt. A 96-h TL, of 3990 pg/l was reported at both test salinities. Other investigators have reported that Carbaryl was more toxic to striped bass in fresh water than in 1-ppt salinity condition^.^^
A summary of this limited data set showed that salinity either had no effect on the toxicity of Carbamate or was more toxic in fresh water than in low saline water.
JV. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The majority of studies evaluated in this review reported a negative correlation of salin- ity in the toxicity of the chemical tested (Figure 2). Positive correlations were reported in 18%
of the studies, while no correlation between salinity and toxicity was reported in 27% of the studies. The toxicity of metals was generally reported to increase with decreasing salinity, as shown in Figure 3. The metals for which data were most abundant, such as cadmium, chro- mium, copper, mercury, nickel, and zinc, dem- onstrated a particularly strong negative corre- lation between salinity and toxicity (Figure 4). The LC50 values (mg/l) for cadmium in Figure 5 show six examples for various crustaceans and fish where both positive and negative cor- relations of cadmium toxicity and salinity were reported. Most of the trends for cadmium LC50 values in Figure 6 show that toxicity increased with decreasing salinity. The LC50 values for both chromium and nickel also demonstrated negative correlations for salinity with toxicity for the various trophic groups (Figures 7 and 8).
The overall conclusion from the various classes of organic chemicals evaluated was that no consistent trend was reported between salin- ity and toxicity (Figure 9). The influence of salinity on the toxicity of various classes of organic chemicals must therefore be evaluated on a case by case basis. The one notable excep- tion was the organophosphate insecticides, as toxicity appeared to increase with increasing salinity with this class of organic compounds (Figure 10). Salinity and biocide toxicity were reported to be either negatively or positively correlated based on 14 data points (Figure 3). The relationship between LC50 values for bio- cides and salinity also demonstrated no clear trend (Figure 11).
Seventy percent of the studies reviewed were conducted with either crustaceans (32%) or fish (38%) (Figure 12). The frequency of negative correlations between salinity and tox- icity was highest with crustaceans. A high per- centage of negative correlations was also re- ported for mollusks, annelids, and bacteria. The predominant finding with fish was either a nega- tive correlation or no correlation between sa- linity and toxicity. The percent frequency of testing various trophic groups with various
331
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nly.
TAB
LE 1
9 D
ata
from
Stu
dies
Des
igne
d to
Det
erm
ine
the
Eff
ect o
f S
alin
ity o
n th
e To
xici
ty o
f C
arba
mat
e In
sect
icid
es
Spe
cies
/ B
ay
Con
tam
inan
t co
mm
on n
ame
spec
iesa
Car
bary
l M
oron
e sa
xatil
is
Yes
(s
tripe
d ba
ss)
Car
bary
l G
aste
rost
eus
acul
ealu
s Y
es
(thre
e-sp
ine
stic
kleb
ack)
Taxo
nom
ic
Sal
inity
eff
ect o
n to
xici
ty
grou
p of
con
tam
inan
t R
ef.
Fish
M
axim
um to
xici
ty to
56-
d-ol
d 33
ju
veni
les
occu
rred
in fr
esh
wat
er;
96-h
LC
5Os
of 7
60 a
nd 2
300
pg/I
in s
alin
ities
of
0 an
d 1
ppt,
resp
ectiv
ely
Fish
N
o S
alin
ity e
ffect
for
90
adul
ts; 9
6-h
TL,50
s of
399
0.0
pg/l
at s
alin
ities
of
5 an
d 25
ppt
, re
spec
tivel
y
a B
ay s
peci
es a
re th
ose
spec
ies
with
one
or
mor
e lif
e st
ages
occ
urrin
g w
ithin
the
Che
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Bay
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60
50
NEG-CORR 66 6 1 1 7 1 2 7 3 NO-CORR w 17 3 2 2 6 1 4 7 3 POS-CORR 111 5 5 1 2 2 1 1 1 5
6 40 Z
$
1 1
0 0
w
W
u,
30 a s 2o
10
0
....................................
....................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55 I 27
FIGURE 2. The percent frequency of negative, positive, and no correlation between salinity and toxicity of all contaminants
6 Z w 3 U W U u,
(n = 173).
. ........................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0
FIGURE 3. The frequency of negative, positive, and no correlations for various individual classes of contaminants with salinity.
333
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. . . . . . . . . .
As Cd Cr Cu Pb Hg Ni Se Ag Zn NEG-CORR Q 0 23 8 7 0 NO-CORR 3 7 0 3 1 POS-CORR 0 3 0 1 0
. . . . . . . . . .
As Cd Cr Cu Pb Hg Ni Se Ag Zn 8 11 1 1 7 4 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
E W
IJ) 60 w 2
FIGURE 4. The frequency of negative, positive, and no correlations for individual metals with salinity.
. . . . . . . . . . .
100 I 1
- 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
SALINITY (ppt) I I +K- CRUSTACEAN-2
, * CRUSTACEAN-4/Cd2 t
* CRUSTACEAN-3/Cd2 t
FISH-1 /48h/LARVAE I 1 * FISH-I /48h/ADULT -% FISH-1 /Cd2 t I
FIGURE 5. Cadmium LC50 values (mg/l) by salinity by various species.
334
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80
0
40 2 3 20 > 3
J
0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
SALINITY (ppt)
I - CRUSTACEAN-1 + CRUSTACEAN-1 /Cd2+ +I+ FISH-2 1 FIGURE 6. Cadmium LC50 values (pg/I) by salinity for the various trophic groups.
120 n
40 0
tj 20
0
. . . .
. . . .
_ . . .
- 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
SALl N I TX (ppt)
-ANNELID-l/I 92h + MQLLWSK-I/I 92h
* CRUSTACEAN-lE192h -a- CRUSTACEAN-2
O- CRUSTACEAN-3 +- FISH-1
FIGURE 7. Cadmium LC50 values by salinity for various trophic groups.
335
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35
. . _ .
.... ~I 30
NEG-CORR 1 NO-CORR 2 POS-CORR 1
2 F 25 U
1 7 1 2 7 3 1 2 6 1 4 7 3 1 2 2 1 11 5 0 0
15 > g 10 0 -I
5
. .
..
. .
. _
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 SALINITY (ppt)
- CRUSTACEAN-1 + CRUSTACEAN-2 * FISH-1
FIGURE 8. Nickel LC50 values by salinity for various trophic groups.
121 1
$ 6 a z 4 2 0
LL
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
iu a
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
1, v) W Q a z a W I
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M
.....
.....
I v) W I- d
FIGURE 9. The frequency of negative, positive, and no correlations for the various classes of organic chemicals with salinity.
336
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iew
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2.5
Z W 1.5
a 0.5 0
G 2
s 1 w LI
1 0 NEG-CORR 1 0 0 0 0 0 NO-CORR 0 1 1 0 0 2 0 POS-CORR 1 1 1 2 1 0 1 1
I 7
0 0 0 0 0
2 1
, . - - - - . .......
.....
0
. . . . . .
I z n
.... . . . . ......
0 0 - I I- 3 (3
- I + a
i U 0 0
FIGURE 10. The frequency of negative, positive, and no correlation between salinity and the toxicity of various organophosphate insecticides.
16
0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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classes of chemicals showed bias (Figure 13). Salinity/metals interaction studies were avail- able with most trophic groups, while zooplank- ton were not tested with either metals or organo- phosphate insecticides.
The reason that salinity may affect the tox- icity of various classes of chemicals is likely related to either chemical (bioavailability) or biological (physiological) factors. The toxicity and/or bioavailability of a trace metal to aquatic organisms has in most instances been found to correlate mith the activity of the free metal ion rather than the total metal c ~ n c e n t r a t i o n . ~ ~ . ~ ~ 98
For metals such as cadmium, the free ion (Cd2+) is wspected to be the toxic form causing ad- vene effects on aquatic life.2o The Cd” form is more dominant at the lower salinity conditions when compared with higher salinities. There- fore. it is not surprising that results from salin- itykadmium toxicity tests showed greater tox- icity at lower salinities. Similar trends were also reported for other metals such as chro- mium, copper, mercury, nickel, and zinc.
Physiological characteristics of aquatic biota may also account for differences in the toxicity of various chemicals at a range of salinities. Spragueg9 has suggested that euryhaline spe- cies are most resistant to toxic conditions at iso5motic salinities due to minimization of os- motic stres5. For example, other investigators have reported that there is a decreased osmotic stre\s in rainbow trout and Atlantic salmon as salinity increases toward the isosmotic point. Thi\ decreased stress occurs with a decreased inward flow of water, which presumably would be accompanied by a reduced intake of toxic ions O’ Various examples from this review have shown that species are more resistant to toxic chemicals at middle test salinities when compared with the lower or higher extremes (Figures 14 and 15).
The genetic nature, life history, and ecol- ogy of test 5pecies are important factors to comider when determining the influence of salinity on the toxicity of various classes of chemicals. Marine, euryhaline, and freshwater
species respond differently to changes in salin- ity during toxicity testing, and therefore their tolerances to contaminant stress will be affected. The immediate prehistory or acclimation of test species to various test salinities is also a critical factor to consider with salinitykontami- nant interaction studies.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the Maryland Department of Environment for sponsoring this project. Ms. Deirdre Murphy and Mrs. Mary Jo Ganeis are acknowledged for their comments on the study design and review of the manuscript. Special consideration is extended to Mary Hancock for typing. This study was partially supported by Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station (MAES) Project No. MD-X-2 and is MAES Scientific Article Number A6601, MAES Con- tribution Number 8815.
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